Water Movement Patan

Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
WATER
Andre Dzikus
Chief, Water and Sanitation Section II
Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure Branch MOVEMENT
IN PATAN
UN-HABITAT
P.O.Box 30030, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel +254-20-7623060, 7625082
Fax +254-20-7623588
Email andre.dzikus@unhabitat.org
Web www.unhabitat.org | www.unwac.org
Roshan Raj Shrestha

WITH REFERENCE TO
Chief Technical Advisor
UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal
UN House, Pulchowk, Lalitpur
TRADITIONAL STONE SPOUTS IN NEPAL
P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel +977-1-5542816
Fax +977-1-5539877
Email roshan.shrestha@unhabitat.org.np
wac.nepal@unhabitat.org.np
WATER
MOVEMENT
IN PATAN
WITH REFERENCE TO
2008
Copyright © United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2008
All rights reserved. The material in this publication may be reproduced in whole or in part
or in any form for education or non-profit uses without special permission from the
copyright holder, provided acknowledgment of the source is made. UN-HABITAT would
appreciate receiving a copy of any publication which uses this publication as a source.
Citation
UN-HABITAT, 2008. Water Movements in Patan with Reference to Traditional Stone
Spouts. UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.
United Nations Human Settlements

Programme (UN-HABITAT)
P.O. Box 30030, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
Tel (254-20) 7621234
Fax (254-20) 7624266
E-mail infohabitat@unhabitat.org
Web www.unhabitat.org
ISBN: 978-9937-2-0391-3
Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its
authorities or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries or regarding its economic
system or degree of development. The analysis, conclusions and recommendations of the
report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Human Settlements
Programme (UN-HABITAT), the Governing Council of UNHABITAT or its Member
States.
April, 2008
ii
Preface
With support from the Water and Sanitation Trust fund, UN-HABITAT is implementing the Water
for Asian Cities Programme (WAC) which is currently operational in India, People’s Republic of China,
Nepal, Lao PDR and Vietnam and is being extended to other Cambodia, Indonesia and Pakistan.
This book is the result of the interesting and important movement taking place in Patan, Lalitpur. The
scarcity of water in Kathmandu Valley has pushed the population back to the traditional water conduits,
the perennial sources which was built with the knowledge, skills and wisdom that started even before
the Christian Era and took a complete shape more than fifteen centuries before in this valley. Later it
was expanded and polished. However, this water civilization was realised very recently after the immense
scarcity of water faced by the valley population.
Scarcity perhaps was the strict teacher and communities were the obedient students. Slowly and
gradually, the communities initiated to discover the forgotten science and explored the buried
technology, the technologies that their forefathers left as an asset to them. The challenge; however is to
conserve these time-proven technologies that did demand simple but sustainable management, the
Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

management that kept the system intact for several centuries, even up to this generation. This book is
the outcome of the knowledge and experiences gained while participating in the process of their
endeavour to preserve the traditional wisdom while quenching their thirst.
The preparation of this book was planned and coordinated by Dr. Roshan Raj Shrestha, Chief Technical
Adviser, WAC Nepal and prepared by Mr. Padma Sunder Joshi, Consultant and Associate Professor,
Institute of Engineering who made this publication possible with his genereous support and dedication.
The WAC programme appreciates the contribution of Mr. Satya Mohan Joshi, Dr. Sudarshan Raj Tiwari,
Professor, IOE (TU); Mr. Prayag Raj Joshi, Hiti Expert and Mr. Prakash Amatya, Executive Director,
NGOFUWS in the preparation of this publication. The WAC programme is also indebted to all the
informants including Mr. Sushil Shrestha and his team of Alkwo Hiti, Mr. Manoj Chipalu and his team
of Sundhara,and all others whose names are listed in the annexure of this report for providing their
valuable time and information and also thankful to Mr. Sunil Shakya, who was involved in the process
as a researcher, untiringly helped in gathering the information and in logistics.
Andre Dzikus
Chief
Water and Sanitation Section II
Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure Branch
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) iii
iv
Contents
iii Preface
vii Abbreviations & glossary
1 Introduction
Background 1
Patan: The example 3
5 The Historical Context

The traditional water system of Newars 5

Gaa hiti: The stone spouts 6
Tun: The dug wells 7
Pukhu (Pokhari) or the ponds 8
Historical background of water system in Patan 9
17 The Modern Mismatch 17

The piped water in Patan 17
The recent encroachments 19
25 Present Water Stress in Patan

The NWSC supply 25
The alternatives 27
29 Movement for Water in Patan

The Alkwo Hiti case 29
v
The Sundhara Case 38
Other cases 43
The national movement of stone spout conservation 50
55 The Challenges
The technical challenges 55
The legal challenges 56
The social challenges 58
The management challenges 61
Roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders 64
65 CONCLUSIONS: THE PATH AHEAD 65
REFERENCES 67
Annexes
Annex A: Important events of Historical Stone spouts and
Source Conservation Association (HSSCA) 69
Annex B: Declaration of National Convention on Stone Spouts 72
Annex C: Status of Pukhus in Patan 73
Annex D: List of persons contributed in the study 74
vi
Abbreviations &
Glossary
CDO Chief District Officer, the administrative head of district.
DDC District Development Committee
HSSCA Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation Committee
LSMC Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City
MLD Million litres per day
NWSC Nepal Water Supply Corporation
PIE Patan Industrial Estate

VDC Village Development Committee, the lowest level of local government
Local words
ā is the phonetic symbol giving elongated ‘a’ sound like in ‘saw’
athah round laundry vessel normally made of burnt clay
dhon rectangular drain pipe in Newari normally made of burnt clay.
gaa hiti hiti at depression. Normally stone spouts are constructed at depression to
meet adequate head for the flow.
gathucha kind of clay which is very impervious
ghā water pot made of brass, cupper or burnt clay, used to fetch water normally
carried by women resting on their waist.
guthi it is a trust established to take care of festivals, puja or infrastructures.
hiti water tap in Newari. In this book it is used for stone spouts.
hitigaa the main depression of hiti where people go to collect water.
hitidun also known as , the channel that brings water to the spout.
hitimangaa the main spout made of stone with beautiful carvings.
jaroon special water tank made of stone installed to serve pedestrians
vii
jatra the carnival participated by all the people.
khas The nationality of Brahmin, Chhetries and others in Nepal, who migrated to
Nepal from West and spread all over Nepal after conquer by King Prithvi
Narayan Shah.
khichamugā community toilet next to the settlement during old time.
Kirat were the indigenous people of the valley who dominated the valley until
early Christian Era.
Lapsi Kind of sour fruit of large tree of one inch length elliptical shape.
lohn hiti stone spout in Newari.
Lichchhavi Successor of Kirat in Kathmandu valley who are believed to have migrated
from India.
malā community toilet next to the settlement during old time.
Malla After Lichchhavi, Malla were the rulers in Kathmandu Valley. They survived
until 1720s before khas rulers conquered the valley.
naga serpent
nayo leader in Newari
nilah pure or sacred water used for puja.
panju the priests offering puja to Matsyndranath.
Podes The so called untouchable caste responsible for sweeping streets and public
places.
pukhu pond, normally used to collect water and recharge the ground
puja the performance of offering to god.
mangaa is the chamber (or manhole) where water is collected and bifurcated among
the hities or hiti mangaa.
deidhā The main channel bringing water from surface sources to irrigate or recharge
Pukhus.
rajkulo The main channel bringing water from surface sources to irrigate or recharge
Pukhus in Nepali.
ratha the vehicle used for carrying idol of god. Chariot.
ropani unit of land used in Nepal which is equal to 5476 sq ft.
tantric One of the Buddhist/Hindu school of thought
tar elevated and normally rainfed land
tole neighbourhood
tun dug well
vaidya doctor practicing oriental medicine
viii
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
Background
Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City is the second largest city in Kathmandu Valley encompassing
15.43 square kilometre area. The main town popularly known as Yala in Newari and Patan
in Nepali; is the main township on the North of the municipal area that dated back more than
two centuries (Tiwari, S. R. 2001). Encompassed in the so called greater Kathmandu, Lalitpur
is facing sever water scarcity. Apart from exploring the possibilities of augmenting the
municipal supply from alternate sources, the shortage has dragged them to re-think, conserve
and revive traditional water supply systems. More interesting in this venture; the government,
local or the national; is taking back seat while people have come up and showed their eagerness
in managing the water resource through concerns, advocacy, and organisation.
1
Nepal the original name of Kathmandu Valley (later extended for the name of the country),
was one of the famous urban centres of Asia in the historic time. Emerged as the main
gateway of Indo-Tibet trade, this valley observed major settlements before Christian Era.
This could be possible with knowledge, skill and management capabilities of then societies.
In the ecological settings, Kirat, the then rulers utilised tar1 lands for their settlements, to
leave fertile river flood plains for agriculture (Tiwari, S. R. 2002) and to protect themselves
from floods and disasters. The knowledge and skills were continued and enhanced in
Lichchhavi Period and further extended during Malla Period.
Thus, Newars, the inhabitants of this valley, were endowed with their superb skills of
managing resources (including water resource) which resembles with natural limits both
in intent and extents. The civilisation of ‘Nepal’ could flourish through three major cities;
viz. Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur (Yen, Yala and Khwopa respectively in Newari), and
few dozens of smaller settlements all over the valley and extended even up to Dolkha in the
east and Palpa in the west. These ancient cities survived and continued to our times.
However, with conquering of the valley by Prithvi Narayan Shah and his successors,
especially Ranas; could not understand these fascinating systems of life and city management.
They betrayed with the traditional knowledge and wisdom in several aspects. After 1950,
the post democracy period perhaps; is the worst period for the destruction of these
indigenous practices where state (and thus the people) was of the idea that the western
culture and education is unquestionably correct and indispensably superior to oriental
knowledge and skills. The obvious result of this irony is the challenges faced by this
generation to conserve their living culture and heritage in lively manner matching the
modernised lifestyle. Reviving stone spouts is one of the outbreaks of these thoughts;
thoughts that are fuelled by the wants and compulsions.
Primarily, there were two water sources used by the Newars: hiti, the water spouts at
manmade depressions and tun, the dug wells. The sources of both these water conduits
were shallow ground water. Lohn hiti, meaning stone spout and gaa hiti, meaning spout at
depression are the two terminologies normally used by the Newars for the stone spouts.
Besides natural charging of the hities through local aquifers, people at that time also mastered
the skill of recharging the local aquifers by conveyance canals popularly known as deidhā2
or rajkulo through ponds. Network of canals, ponds and the water conduits was established
in such a way that the city could serve water both in quality and quantity to its urban
population through-out a year.
Later, Rana rulers introduced piped water system in late 1800. After the country was open
to the world in 1950, the western water management system was expanded to these cities
and rest of the country. While introducing the latter, caution was not taken in conserving
the time proven technology and management system. Now, with the limited resources and
1. Tar is the elevated land which has to rely completely on rainfall if cultivated.
2. Dei meaning desh or the country, or state and dhā meaning the drainage or irrigation canal. It is also known as raj kulo, the royal
canal or the state canal.
2
weak management capabilities of the government, people are looking back to the old systems
which have irrigated the civilisation of the time incessantly and successively. In the particular
case of Patan, large population of the city are still using traditional water sources. In the
absence of proper policies to maintain the system and uncontrolled exploitation of the
natural aquifers, competitions are taking place to meet their requirements. These
contradictions are challenging the status quo and searching new dimension for sustainable
use of water resources.
Patan: The example

Traditional water conveyance and management systems were not limited to Patan, but are
prevailing in almost all of the Newar settlements in the valley and beyond. The Kathmandu
system is almost lost in the course of its intensive urbanisation, Bhaktapur is also in the
verge of collapse, and so are the cases of many smaller settlements. Patan is relatively
different in this context. The second largest city of the valley; the old settlement of Lalitpur
are still partially relying on water from stone spouts and wells. Moreover, the cultural linkage
to traditional water management is still continued, though it is loosing its ground slowly
and gradually. Rato Matsyendranath Festival, the festival of water god is yet another
important character of Patan. The most encouraging part of Patan is the recent development
in Lalitpur for the conservation of traditional stone spouts and ponds. From last two years,
there is a changed mindset at people’s level to conserve the resources which is also dragging
other settlements like Kirtipur, Thimi, Bhaktapur and even Kathmandu.
3
4
CHAPTER
2
The Historical
Context
The traditional water system of Newars
Like in all Newar settlements, water conduits for fetching water for household purposes
were primarily stone spouts and dug wells in Patan. 400 traditional stone spouts were
recorded in Kathmandu Valley in recent study. There were 58 stone spouts in Patan and its
surrounding, of which 4 are dry and 7 are not existing (NGOFUWS, 2006). Most of these

spouts are located in the core of the historic settlement. Few of them are outside the
settlement, serving to the passer-by as well as irrigation purpose in those days. Similarly,
there were approximately 220 traditional dug wells in Patan (Arnstoerm, E. KV 1994), many
of them still exists.
TABLE 1. Stone spouts in Kathmandu Valley

WORKING
SN MUNICIPALITY NATURAL NWSC PIPELINE NOT WORKING NOT EXIST TOTAL
1 Bhaktapur 33 35 18 1 87
2 Madhyapur 49 6 8 3 66
3 Kirtipur 10 0 0 3 13
4 Lalitpur 47 0 4 7 58
5 Kathmandu 106 3 34 33 176
Total 400
Source: NGOFUWS, 2006
5
Dhwon: the outlet drain
Hitimangaa
Jaroon Hitigaa
Typical gaa hiti
Photo courtesy NGO Forum

PLATE 1
Gaa hiti: The stone spouts

Prof. Tiwari explains the word hiti has the origin with Kirats. Hi stands for moving and ti
is the degeneration of tila or conduit (Tiwari, S. R. 2002). Gaa hiti are the hities at depression.
They are constructed in a large pit on ground so that the sub-surface flow of water can be
spouted out for convenient collection. Their sources can be local aquifer or transmitted to
the spot through natural sub surface flow or in manmade channels. These engineered hities
may also have filtration systems placed before the stone spout. One gaa hiti can have one
or more spouts based on water discharge and the number of users. Several stone spouts
may be installed either by bifurcating the main source into several outlet spouts or use
different aquifer sources so that the risks of drying is minimised.
Gaa hiti will have centrally located stone spout on one (or more) side wall hanging about
a meter so that water can be directly fetched in water vessel, ghā and take bath with
convenience. The base platform is normally paved with stone with side drain. The outlet
drain is normally taken out of the settlement and used for irrigation. In some cases the waste
water is again allowed for sub-surface flow to charge next downstream, a unique example
of water management. The side walls are normally stepped with more than about a meter
of trade. These steps not only bring slope stability of the peripheral walls but provide space
for sun bathing and drying clothes.
When one observes a hiti, it not only gives the picture of engineered water conduit, but
lavishly designed religious master piece of architecture. Even the mediocre stone spouts on
the walkway to fields, the water conduit will have beautifully carved hitimangaa, few of
idols of water related gods, creatures, properly located with their religious beliefs and
functions. Tusaa Hiti in the inner court of Patan Durbar Square is one of the magnificent
master pieces in terms of architecture. Therefore, both from cultural and archaeological
view points; stone spouts are both the lifeline and ornament of these historic towns.
6
One more form of stone spout is prevalent
in the valley popularly known as jaroon
(deformed in Newari from Sanskrit word
Jaladrwoni). This is a stone water tank,
mostly constructed by a single stone, with
one or more tap holes. These holes provide
water to the passer by. There are jaroon also
arranged for domesticated animals like cows.
Construction of water conduits like hiti, dug
wells and jaroon are considered as pious acts
which give recognition in the society and
believed to be a deed considered for next Jaroon no more in
use at Mangā Hiti
incarnation.
PLATE 2
Tun: The dug wells

Dug wells are very common in Kathmandu Valley as a source of water for domestic purposes.
Built with brick masonry wall, normally in circular shape, these wells collect water from
shallow aquifer, normally 4 to 6 meters deep. Based on the water quality and depth of water
in the well, some wells are very popular while others are used for secondary purposes like
washing and cleaning. A rough estimate of more than 1000 such wells can be found in
Kathmandu Valley. Unlike in gaa hities, dug wells are not directly linked with traditional
ponds and canals, as they do not drain the water directly into the well. However, infiltration
of pond and canals are obvious from the drawdown of the well water after the recent

destruction of ponds and canals. Focusing on stone spouts, this book will not be discussing
much of dug wells, which perhaps require separate initiatives, a future intervention that is
very much in need.
Tun, the typical traditional

public dug well
PLATE 3
7
Pukhu (Pokhari) or the ponds
To feed the sub-surface aquifer of most of the stone spouts and wells, ponds were constructed.
Pukhu (in Newari) and Pokhari (in Nepali), the ponds are also part of landscape of Newar
settlements beautifying the neighbourhood and providing open space to the clustered setting
of the settlements. As per their location and thus the use, they may be categorised into
ponds outside the settlements and ponds within the settlements. External ponds, especially
those located in the higher elevation to the settlements are meant for recharging the aquifer
as well as serve as the reservoir for feeding irrigation canals. Lainchaur Pokhari, Rani Pokhari
(Nhu Pukhu in Newari), Ikha Pukhu3 in Kathmandu; Siddhi Pukhu, Bhaju Pukhu, Nā Pukhu
in Bhaktapur; and Lagankhel Pukhu, Paleswan Pukhu in Patan are the few examples of
external ponds in the valley.
The ponds inside the settlements are relatively smaller in size. By function they serve as the
places for washing, cleaning as a direct visible function, but support the settlements by
providing buffer to the down pours during rainy season; and more importantly, helps to
recharge the ground water particularly to local aquifers. Duck farming and grey water
treatment are some of the auxiliary functions they serve to the neighbourhoods. Pako Pukhu,
Khecha Pukhu4 in Kathmandu and Tekha Pukhu and Khancha Pukhu are the examples for
such ponds in Bhaktapur. In Lalitpur Pimbahal Pukhu is one of the best conserved ponds
at present time. There are 39 traditional Pukhus in Patan alone (Joshi, P. R. 1993).
Pukhu at Purnachandi,
already downsized
PLATE 4
3. Ikhapukhu is reduced in size and is inside the compound of Kanya Mandir School
4. Khecha Puku is a raised platform at present. The central office complex of Nepal Bank Limited is constructed over Paku Pukhu
next to Bhugol Park.
8
Mangā Hiti: the most
ancient working hiti (estd.
570 AD) at Mangal Bazaar
PLATE 5
Historical background of water system in Patan

Construction of stone spouts in Kathmandu Valley can be linked to the early settlements
of Kirats who have used ponds and springs in the tar lands and hill slopes. Later Lichchhavis
have linked the ponds and spouts to discharge water from stone spouts (Tiwari, S. R. 2002).
The oldest hiti found in Patan is the hiti at Mangal Bazaar. Popularly known as Mangā Hiti,
this hiti was built in 570 AD (Pradhan, R.)5 by Bharavi, daughter of Lichchhavi king Mandev.
Various legendary stories are linked to this fascinating stone spout.
Similarly, other famous old hities are Alkwo Hiti, Nugā Hiti (Sundhara), Thapaa Hiti, Taapaa

Hiti, Chyasal Hiti, Tyagā Hiti, Konti Hiti, and many more. At present there are 47 working
hities in Patan, many of them are in verge of collapse (NGOFUWS, 2006). The core city of
Patan is north and north east sloping. It encompasses 36 stone spouts out of which two are
already extinct. Many of them are drying up or reduced in discharge drastically.
The three large water works of historic time in Kathmandu Valley were the canals from
Budhanilkantha to downtown Kathnandu, the Bageswori canal feeding Bhaktapur water
system and the Tikabhairav canal feeding the ponds of Patan. The massive water works of
Patan was established at various periods of Lichchhavi Rule (Tiwari, S. R. 2002) and extended
during Mall period. Although there is an absence of written references of the installations
of the water works, the cultural activities, festivals and pujas started during the rein of
5. An inscription found at Hadigaon dated SS 472 (550 AD) mentioning about stone spout is so far the earliest available record in the
valley. But the oldest existing Dhunge Dhara is Mangā Hiti of Patan dated SS 492 (570 AD) which was built by Bharavi.
6. P R Joshi has reported 34 hities in his report on Feasibility of Rajkulo, 1993. The recent study of NGOFUWS showed several more.
Some hities are known with several names. The latest data of NGOFUWS (2006) is considered here. Four working hities are outside
the study area.
7. Lichchhavi ruler who established Saptapatal Pukhu and started Meen Nath Jatra before Matsyendranath Jatra by King Narendra
Dev. Based on communication with Purna Sthapit, Chairperson, Lagankhel Envrionment Improvement Organisation.
9
Lichchhivis logically prove that the system was already there to have the rituals. Lichchhavi
rulers Amsuverma (Tiwari, S. R. 2002), Balachandra Dev7 , Narendra Dev (Tiwari, S. R.
1992), Dhruva Dev8 are some of the names referred to the water works of Patan out of many.
Lunkhusi and Hakha Khusi are still in the memories of older generation of present time
that use to pass through the main town of Patan9 . It can be suggested that this massive
system was obviously not constructed during the time of a single king, but was gradually
added and improved during the time of Lichchhavies and their successor Mallas. The canals
and ponds were also improved (and altered) by Ranas as well. Several of these drains were
covered by Ranas with brick arch canals.
The traditional water network of Patan

The traditional water system has five major components:
• the intake,
• the conveyance system – surface or sub-surface flow channels;
• water storing cum recharging body – the Pukhus;
• water conduits- the hities and wells; and
• the drainage system.
The following paragraphs deals with these components in the case of Patan.
The city of Patan is settled on the northern sloppy terrain of Phulchwoki, the southern hills
of Kathmandu Valley. Two drainage lines Nakkhu and Kodku borders the watershed where
the city of Patan is on the northern most edge of the watershed. The northern border is
Bagmati River. The historic water works of Patan includes rajkulo (or the deidhā in Newari)
linked to pukhu, the ponds and then to water conduits.
Rajkulo and city canals

A multipurpose canal was built from upstream of Tikabhairav some 16 km south of
Lagankhel channelling water from Lele and Naldu rivers. This earthen canal while irrigating
the fields and serving the settlements on the way, is brought to the cascade of ponds at
Lagankhel. After charging several of the Pukhus of Lagankhel, the overflow is channelled
to Paleswan Pukhu at Pulchowk10 . When this pond is also filled including the neighbouring
8. Communication with Senior Scholar of Culture Mr. Satya Mohan Joshi. His reference was the stone inscription next to the Ganesh
Temple at the start of Momadu Galli heading towards the back of famous Krishna Temple of Patan Durbar Square. Based of the
location of the inscription with carving of fish symbolising perennial flow of water, there must be a canal flowing water along
present lane linking Mahapal with Kwalakhu of Patan.
9. Lunkhusi is the canal starting from Lagankhel Pukhu flowing towards east to Kanibahal and follows to Lunkhusi Tole and ends at
Lunkhusi Pukhu, the pond at present is ‘conserved’ by paving stone and fenced. Hakha Khusi is the canal flowing from Lagankhel
along Naudwon, passing
Chakrabahil road into present narrow lane and again follows the road from Saugā to Mangal Bazaar and turns to Bhandarkhal
Pukhu. Matsyendranath chariot when reaches this place changes his Dhoti resembling the crossing of the water canal as
explained by Mr. John K. Locke in his book Karunamaya (1980), Sahayogi Prakashan, Kathmandu.
10. Literatures contradict on whether Paleswan Pukhu draws water after Lagankhel or there was bifurcation of the main canal at
Tikhedewal area to bring water to Pulchowk separately. The later might be the case after the improvement of the system in later
period. Refer Thiophile & Joshi (1992) and Joshi P R (1993).
10
The stone inscription at
Mwo Madugu Galli, Patan
with sketch of fish at
the top
PLATE 6
pond called Pode Pukhu, the overflow runs to Pimbaha Pukhu. A sub-channel is linked to
Purnachandi Pukhu as well. Once the Pimbaha Pukhu is filled, the excess water is drained
through a canal called Nhyandha (meaning drain with fish) along present Ashok Party Palace
and ultimately discharge into Bagmati River after irrigating the surrounding fields.
Next canal starting from (or continues from) Lagankhel Pukhu passes Prayag Pukhu and
follows to Bhandarkhal Pukhu in an open drain. Topography shows that this is the ridge
line which can serve on both sides of the slope. After Bhandarkhal, the drain is made
underground and flows to Chyasal and ultimately in Bagmati. The open drain popularly
known as Hakha Khusi (meaning drain flowing through Hakha Tole) is still in the memories
of old generation of today.

Dhruvadev, administrator of Lichchhavi time, installed an inscription next to the Ganesh
Temple at the end of Mwo Madugu Galli is the only inscription with a sketch of a large fish.
There should be canal in historic time which describes the perennial flow of water11. These
informations helps to conclude that there were several canals flowing through the city which
serves water for washing, cleaning and similar purposes. Similar system still exists in Sankhu,
and believed that such system was there in Chapagaon until recent past.
Shallow aquifers: the source of water

Hities and wells are charged through shallow aquifers. Some hities are located next to the
aquifer while others are connected to the far away aquifer, linked by burnt clay or wooden
channels. The superb way adopted was recharging these aquifers by rajkuloes so that the
double benefits can be achieved. Three major aquifers found in Patan are Naricha, Nayekhyo,
Khwyebahi. There are other smaller aquifers in Patan core area near Guita, Ikhachhen (Joshi,
P. R. 1993) and Kiri Keba. These aquifers must be the outcome of the special geological
formation where the northern slope of the topography helped to punch confinements and
11. From the conversation with Mr. Satya Mohan Joshi, Senior Scholar of Newari Culture. There is a possibility that the Hakha Khusi
could have passed through this lane in earlier time or a separate drain flowing from Mahapal area.
11
made possible to store water in the sand reservoir. Naricha is the largest such aquifer. The
older generation remembers the days they use to drink water in Naricha where they punch
the ground with a reed stick about a foot and suck the ground water12.
Water conduits: the hities

From the aquifer, water is channelled through burnt clay channel (or hitidun in Newari)
up to stone spouts. In some places, wooden channels were also found. Before entering into
the stone spout (or the hitimangaa in Newari), there may be filtration system. Several types
of filtration systems were found where they use sand of various grading, gravel and even
charcoal (Joshi, P. R. 1993; and Becher-Ritterspach, R 1994). In Kathmandu even Lapsi is
being used for water treatment from Lichchhavi time (Tiwari, S. R. 2002). To elongate the
contact length for water treatment, several designs were adopted including the Swastika
shaped sand filter as shown in Plate 8. (Becher-Ritterspach, R 1994). The filtered water may
be delivered through one spout or provided a distribution vessel (known as athah in Newari
meaning the washing pot made of burnt clay) to distribute the water. In some cases stone
vessels may have been used. In this distribution vessel, holes may be provided at different
levels so that the lowest connection provides adequate flow, while the other spouts discharge
only when there is sufficient inflow into the vessel. The joints are normally sealed with
gathucha, the impermeable clay lining.
Drainage of water conduit is yet another important feature in the water system. Many of the
traditional gaa hities as constructed in depressions have collapsed because of the damaged or
clogged drainage. Obviously, in flatter terrain, drainage is equally challenging. For example
Mangā Hiti, Elahne Hiti and Saugā Hiti in Patan are fighting for survival because of the problems
in drainage system. Normally dhon, the drain outlets are provided in hities which discharge
the water to agricultural fields outside the settlement after the slopes. In some cases, this water
is collected in a pond so that it can be utilised for other functions like washing agricultural
products, duck farming and similar auxiliary functions. Moreover, these ponds provide buffer
The stone flow distributors

at Mangā Hiti and Sincha
Hiti, left unattended after
its replacements in recent
time
PLATE 7
12. Personal communication with Mr. Purna Man Shakya of Thapaa Hiti.
12
and also helps in reducing the flow by
recharging the ground and by evaporation.
The artistic and architectural part of hities is

yet another area of study which demands
serious attention from art, culture and
archaeological view points. Mr. Raimund O
A Becher-Ritterspach in his book Water The water filter
Conduits in the Kathmandu Valley has system and pair of
elaborated this topic with fascinating facts hands sketched in a
folded book known
and figures. The spatial location, the as thyasaphu.
functionality, the religious use and cultural (Courtsey: Becher-
Ritterspach, R 1994)
hierarchy, are some of the important aspects
of stone spouts in Patan, as in all other Newar PLATE 8
settlements.
Establishing hities are considered as pious act in Newar culture. It is interesting to note that
most of the hities are not referred to royals as in the case of temples and shrines. Perhaps
this revered deed is more communal and local initiations are more important. Therefore,
service motive of individuals must be the reason for installing hities. From the arts and
artefacts preserved in hities, it is very clear that a hiti construction is not a one time job.
They have accepted continuous supplements along with the time.
After the Lichchhavies, Mallas intensified the Newar towns superimposing additional lanes
and grids. To serve the enlarged population, more hities were added during Malla period.
Jitamitra Malla of Bhaktapur, Pratap Malla of Kathmandu and Siddhinarshinha Malla of

Patan are particularly famous for the water systems in these three cities.
Traditional water management system

From management view point the five components of traditional water works may be
grouped into two: the directly associated and indirectly associated components to the
beneficiaries. Directly associated components are the down stream components like hiti or
well, the surface or sub-surface structure bringing water to the spout and the waste water
drainage that allows the utilisation of the resource. These components are of local interest
to the immediate users. Clogging of drainage does not hamper the water use in other hiti
directly, nor the breaking of conveyance channel. Also because of the scale of work and
scale of space, by nature these elements are very local. They have specialities like Saugā Hiti
compelled to sunken for more than 6 meters but Sundhara elevated to ground. One could
have better taste and the others have better discharge. Therefore, the management of directly
associated parts are easier as it quickly shows the affect of management (or mis management).
Therefore, in the earlier time, local guthies were created to maintain particular hiti. Normally,
three levels of managements may be observed in traditional systems.
13
The naga puja still
performed at Bhailagaa,
where the cotton strip is
decorated with serpent
shape.
PLATE 9
Family level management

The local beliefs of naga and deities related to hiti are linked with the cleanliness and
management of the hiti. Superstitions and beliefs are other tools that were used to maintain
hities, and its management regulations. While offering puja to nagas; cleaning the complex
and opening the drain are other measures taken once people get sick. People have such a
strong belief on the possible mishaps by the furious deities when their habitat is damaged
that even opening and cleaning water conveyance channels and other elements are done
with the offer of Kshyama Puja13. Damaging the water works is not even thinkable in those
days.
Neighbourhood level management

The guthies set for hiti management are either established primarily by the founder like in
the case of Bajracharyas of Alkwo Hiti, Sinyaa Shresthas of Sundhara, Wonah Shresthas of
Taapaa Hiti or designated to particular group of people like in Chyasal Hiti to the Tepye to
look after hitigaa and internal elements are taken care by Shakyas. Whether it is the
descendants of the founder or the others, guthi14 was the system adopted for the maintenance
of the system from Lichchhavi period. The maintenance is not limited to the guthies, but
13. Kshyama Puja is the puja offered to the deities to forgive that if something was done wrong it was unintentional.
14. Prof. Tiwari explains the significance of Guthi in his unpublished article Transforming Patan’s Cultural Heritage into Sustainable
Future; “The institutionalisation of management, operation and maintenance of religious, social and cultural artefacts and
activities in an area appears already well developed as the Lichhchhavi inscriptions appear in the scene at Patan or other places in
the valley. This was done by the system of ‘Gosthi’ or ‘Gosthika’, which was a corporate body ‘financed to perpetuity’ through land
grants or other ‘fixed deposits’. Such bodies were created both by the government and private citizens to see to it that the
operation and maintenance of the artefacts and activities sep up as a community service by them did not suffer in future either for
lack of fund or after their death. The institution of the Gosthi had built financial and institutional sustainability of such surety that
they have survived to this day as the Guthi.” The document further adds, “ the cultural tradition of the Guthi has been crucial in
developing, operating and sustaining the town’s religious faiths, it was the Guthi and its structuring that led to the overall
sustenance of community services buildings, water supply, cleanliness and drainage. Guthi effectively channelled ‘individual
wealth’ into public endowments managed by committees recognised as permanent entities. It is important to note that the
rights of the donor ceased with the formation of the committee and it was the rights of the latter that continued to perpetuity...”
14
the whole neighbourhood is mobilised to maintain the local water system under the
leadership of the guthi to come together and clean the hiti.
It was found that different auspicious days were used for the puja and maintenance of hities
by the guthies. Yenya Punhi, (the full moon in September) and Khai Sahnu (the New year
day of Bikarm Era in April), Nag Panchami (the 5th day of the new moon in August); Fagu
Punhi (the full moon in March, the day Karunamaya Jatra starts); Disi Charhe (the day
before full moon in January) are some of the days dedicated for the puja in several hities by
the respective guties. The most common day of water works maintenance is Sithinakha,
one of the driest day in June. Even if there is special day for cleaning and offering puja to
specific hiti, Sithinakha is the national day of water works maintenance in this valley and
in Newar culture. The important feature of the day is that there is no limitation of particular
caste or creed to maintain water works (including hiti) on this day.
City level management

Management, operation and maintenance of the upstream elements of the system was also
challenging at that time. Since there is remote link (thus the affection) to the common
elements of the water system, larger system was established for the maintenance of these
components. These city level infrastructures were maintained under the leadership of city
level institutions. These institutions were not necessarily the state owned institutions, but
the involvement of state was unavoidable in such a large system. Festivals were created (or
utilised) to draw attention to these infrastructures. In case of water works of Patan, Bungadyo
Jatra (Rato Matsyendranath Jatra), the longest jatra of the valley is directly linked to water
management. There are links to water bodies like ponds and hities that need to serve various
activities of the jatra, making them maintaining the water works. For example, the La Pukhu
of Pulchowk is the place where the cane used for making the ratha needs to be wetted.

Similarly, the Thapaa Hiti is used to wet the materials to make Bau Pichaa by the 12 nayos
of Karunamaya. All major ponds of Patan charged by the rajkulo need to be filled with water
before the fabrication of the ratha of Matsyendra Nath at Pulchowk. All the locations where
The Bungadyo Jatra

in Patan: Chariots of
Matsyendranath and
Meennath
PLATE 10
15
the ratha is halted are next to the water bodies like Pulchowk, Gaa Bahal, Sundhara,
Lagankhel and Jyawalakhel.
All these water works are related to the great water works of Tikabhairav Rajkulo and
Lagankhel Pukhus. People from various toles and different castes were given specific
responsibilities in the jatra and its processes, perhaps to unite them and harmonise like in
an orchestra. Thus, Rato Matsyendranath Jatra is not limited to cultural activities, but
incorporates essential mundane activities required for the maintenance of water works
(Tiwari, S. R. 2002). It is interesting to note that the functions were distributed not only to
the citizens of Patan, but beyond Patan to Bhaktapur, Thimi, Bode, Nagadesh, Kirtipur,
Panga, etc. (Locke, J. K., 1980) showing their stake in the construction and/or maintenance
of this great water works.
The largest level management, perhaps the major maintenance is scheduled for every 12
years which are still commemorated every 12 years by visiting the whole population to
Bungmati. Besides, there are practices of going for mending and maintaining the rajkulo
every year by several toles as a mass work. People from Sundhara still remember the days
before and even some years after the construction of Ring Road that they go in mass from
several toles to maintain the rajkulo up stream to Lagankhel Pukhus, even beyond
Chapagaon15. The rituals related to Prayag Pukhu during Gai Jatra Festival, special functions
with Paleswan Pukhu, Tā Pukhu and Pimbahal Pukhu also shows its importance to the
society than other smaller and downstream Pukhus (Becker-Ritterspach R., 1994). Apart
from Rato Matsyendra Nath Jatra, there are several other rituals and functions that support
maintenance of ponds and spouts. One good example to quote would be the payment of
one out of twelve heaps of rice to the podes of Pode Pukhu for bringing lotus flower and
fish to Siddhilaxmi temple at Purnachandi from Paliswan Pukhu of Pulchowk in August16.
This ritual must be underpinned to conserve the pond ecosystem.
In conclusion, the foundation of management was on water need and users fuelled by culture
and religion, standing over beliefs and volunteerism rooted into communities and evolved
in festivities and rejoices.
15. Communication with members of Prabhat Pariwar Club of Sundhara.

16. One the first new moon day after Indra Jatra (in August / September), 12 rice heaps are offered to Siddhilaxmi at Purnachandi. In
this function, the podes residing next to Pode Pukhu should offer lotus flowers and fish harvested from Paleswan Pukhu. They are
paid by one heap of rice for their service. This ritual shows the traditional system of linking jobs, management of public amenities
16
CHAPTER
3
The Modern
Mismatch
The piped water in Patan
The first piped water taps
One of the unfortunate happening in Nepalese

history is the victory of Kathmandu Valley by
the khas rulers from the hills who were
relatively inferior in culture, science and
technology. All their predecessors who ruled
this valley were absorbed by the civilisation
of this valley where the rulers were fusioned,
and became part of the Newar nationality.
Perhaps, the new rulers could not digest the
superiority of the locals and used other tools
to establish their supremacy. Unlike the Malla One of the public
rulers, they were remote from the people. In spouts installed by
Ranas in Patan
the later time, when Ranas were the de facto
PLATE 11
rulers, being close to then British India rulers,
started importing western technologies to
solve the problems. These rulers having less respect to the indigenous knowledge of resource
management; started copying the technology in a blind manner. Construction of Phohara
Durbar (meaning Palace with water fountains) in Kathmandu could be a representative
and incentives. Based on the information given by Er. Pushpa Das Mulmi of Purnachandi.
17
example where the rulers destroyed the traditional water recharge system and diverted the
water to beautify their elite homes17. Aloof from people, they tried to establish their
supremacy by importing the technology at the cost of existing ones.
After establishing piped water system in 1895 in Kathmandu and Bhaktapur, Lalitpur
observed first such system in 1904. Beer Samsher, the then prime minister introduced public
taps collecting water from Doodhpokhari source on the west. Several stand posts were
installed to serve the public. Later Chandra Samsher added more taps. These taps were a
by product of their intention to reach several palaces surrounding Patan like Shanta Bhawan,
Ananda Niketan, Maan Bhawan, and many more18. Besides public taps, few private taps
were also installed in the houses of influential officers of that time.
The municipal water supply

Municipal water supply to individual houses was distributed rather late in Patan. Private
taps were distributed only after 1960 under the water work office called Pani Goswara.
Earlier, it was taken as a luxury to have taps at home while one can fetch water from the
stone spouts for free. As the population grew, the habits started changing and the demand
of water in Patan started increasing. Bhajangal reservoir was added in the system. In the
course of time several other sources were added to meet the demand in Patan.
Table 2. Municipal Water Supply Initiatives in Lalitpur 19

YEAR ACTIVITY
1905 Beer Dhara: the piped water system was introduced.
1960 Pani Goswara started distributing private taps in Patan
1970/71 Sundarighat sumpwell was added into the system

1974 Pani Goswara converted to Nepal Water Supply and Sewerage Committee under Committee act
1976 Chapagaon Muldole scheme added to Lalitpur system
1979/80 Saat Mul and Pherping system including two deep wells were added to Lalitpur system
1984 The committee is again converted into Water Supply and Sewerage Corporation
1989 Nepal Water Supply Corporation established
190/91 Basuki and Deuki schemes added
1992/93 Naldu scheme added
1993/94 Charghare Pumping Scheme added at Chapagaon
1995 Tahakhel reservoir enhanced to store more water
With all these efforts, the demand of water is not met by the municipal water system. There
is an acute water shortage in Patan, as in most of the other parts of the valley. Therefore,
stone spouts and public wells are the reliable sources for them. Although the municipal tap
coverage in Patan is high, the scarcity is forcing them back to the gaa hities and wells.
17. Personal communication with Mr. Tirtha Narayan Manandhar of Kamilachhi, Kathmandu.
18. Based on communication with Mr. Chandra Lal Nakarmi, Chief, NWSC, Lalitpur Branch.
19. Based on NWSC publications, communication with Mr. Chandra Lal Nakarmi, and Mr. Chandra Krishna Shrestha, NWSC.
18
Piped water in Patan is inevitable to meet the demand of increasing population and change
is socio-economic condition of the city. However, the initiation of municipal supply came
as an easy substitute to the traditional water supply system. The pride and convenience of
having water tap at home made the community easily betray the traditional water supply
system. One by one they shifted from traditional sources to the municipal supply. This has
left the spouts unattended and poorly managed. Some stone spouts could attract people
because of the taste of water that they are use to with. Elderly, destined to these spouts to
collect nilah, the pure (or sacred) water for their daily puja and rituals. In other cases, stone
spouts became alternative source in the absence of water storing tank or because municipal
supply was for morning hours only. Therefore, for washing clothes and taking bath, stone
spouts still played important role. Moreover, to the poor households, those not having
municipal tap or the poor renters, stone spouts were still reliable source of water. This has
become even important as the municipal supply became more and more unreliable and
uncertain.
The recent encroachments

In the absence of ownership, both at local level and city level, the traditional water supply
system fell down slowly and gradually. The state became unaware and indifferent in
understanding the traditional system. The subsistence economy of the country could not
generate attention to this precious knowledge, the structures as well as the system as a
whole. We lost many things; water management system is one of them.
Among all, the weakest point of the city management from recent past is understanding of

land use in general and urban land use in particular. The ecological contexts and environmental
services that land (and its different forms) is providing were not understood by the managers.
In the changed context where Kathmandu need to coup with influx of migrating people,
land is understood as property and capital to gain. The profound knowledge of land and its
use developed by the Kirats, enriched during Lichchhavi Period and extended by the Mallas
was overshadowed by the rampant poverty in understanding land and its uses, both by the
state and the public in the later period. Comparing to other cities in Asia, perhaps Nepal
has very limited land that is owned by the state. Those public lands, which was kept with
the state to safeguard its proposed use, were either grasped by the influential people in the
government or brought in use other than its ecological and historical purposes. Moreover,
community institutions like schools, clubs and neighbourhood organisations also have
encroached such land and spaces for extra-ecological purposes. The examples are the Sajha
Bhandar Building constructed over hiti at Bhotahiti, The RCT Club building constructed
over a gaa hiti at Kamilachhi, Nepal Bank Limited constructed over Pako Pukhu, City office
of Lalitpur over Paleswan Pukhu, and many many more. Not only these, several schools
and colleges, shopping complexs and roads are constructed over the traditional infrastructures
which use to serve various services including water works.
19
Government office
erected over Pode Pukhu,
Pulchowk
PLATE 12
Destruction of Pukhu
The knowledge and skill of recharging ground water to serve wells and hities was well
established in earlier time. The location of Pukhus like Rani Pokhari, Lagankhel Pukhu,
Siddhi Pukhu in three Tundikhels of the three cities and many more depicts the understanding
of then city managers in ecological water management.
Mr. Prayag Joshi has listed 39 Pukhus in his report of Rajkuloes of Patan (Joshi, P. R. 1993).
Almost all of these ponds were part of the water management system. Some of them also served
as waste water management, especially the grey water management. Out of the 39 reported
Pukhus, 16 are relatively in good condition from shape and size, 9 are encroached for other
uses reducing the size drastically, 14 are completely lost for public or private purposes.
Out of the 23 encroached or lost Pukhus, 8 were encroached or “reclaimed” for public schools;
3 for government office buildings and others were for public utilities like public toilets, bus
parks, etc. Tā Pukhu (meaning large pond in Newari) next to the main road to Lagankhel was
roughly 16 ropanies20 is reduced to hardly 2 ropanies area at present. This can be seen as one
of the devious act that is prevalent in the land management offices of the govenernment.
Moreover, if Lagankhel case is observed, all the public buildings, whether military camps or
electricity office; transportation office or mental hospital; land revenue office or district court;
school or bus park; market centre or road network; it is the encroachments of the traditional
Pukhus and its peripheries. A case study is presented about the encroachments in Lagankhel
in Chapter 5. Annex C provides the present status of Pukhus in Patan.
Pukhus that are intact in size and shape are the Pukhus which are inside the settlement.
Here Pukhus have their functions as a part of urban infrastructures. However, in recent
time, when people are shifting to other professions from farming, the direct uses of Pukhus
20. Ropani is the local unit of land equivalent to 5476 sq. ft.
20
are limiting. This might be the reasons of filling the pond to create a garden, as in the case
of Purnachandi Pukhu.
One more change is observed in Pukhus. Newars had unique waste management system.
Private toilet was not the practice of Newars, but they go to designated areas called
khichamugā or malā some distance outside the settlement. Preventing ground water
pollution; this practice have link to resource recycling in the then agrarian society. But in
recent days, toilets are constructed at home and the waste water is either discharged into
in-house pits or linked to sewerage network. The effluents are leaking (or some times directly
connected) to ponds. Because of eutrification, pond ecosystem is destroyed and they are
filled by the debris of the excess growth of the vegetation.
Thus the ponds which collects surface water and recharge the aquifers, are lost because of
ignorance, change is habits and economy, and greed of the people. These are some of the main
reasons of the reduction of discharge or drying up of some of the wells and hities in Patan.
Paleswan Pukhu: the lotus

pond was encroached

for municipal building
in Patan. The pond has
drastically reduced in size.
PLATE 13
Prayag Pukhu, one of the

important pukhu on the
flow path of traditional
rajkuloe and hities is now
encroached to house a
school and sports complex.
PLATE 14
21
Disturbance of underground water path
It is obvious that the discharges of water in traditional wells or stone spouts are from the
shallow aquifers. These aquifers are disturbed by recent construction activities. The activities
that could have negative impact in the subsurface flow of water in the aquifer are construction
of foundation for large buildings, construction of drainage and pipelines crossing the
aquifers, construction of shallow wells, etc.
Many people reported that the construction of sewerage system in Patan under IDA loan
in 197821 onwards is one of the major causes of flow reduction in some hities. It was reported
that while laying the concrete hume pipes crossing the flow path of the aquifers, they have
removed the sand layer and replaced by the concrete pipes. Moreover, some even argues
that during the construction the traditional burnt clay channels were also broken. After
1978 there was a trend of replacing surface drain by buried hume pipes all over the city. In
the absence of participation of local people, there indigenous knowledge was not heard by
the contractor who was obviously guided by the contract documents. Later, NWSC,
municipality and local people also added the lengths of sewer lines. No accounts of these
sewers are available nor are there proper management plan. Construction of such drains
could have three possible implications to traditional water systems. First would be the
obstruction to natural flow. Infiltration of the aquifer water into the drain is another tragedy
that could easily happen. The third effect of such sewer lines, as it is reported in the case of
Saugā Hiti that the exfiltration of the sewage into the hitidun, thus delivering the polluted
water through the hities. The worst case was observed in Jywalakhel Hiti where the hiti is
discharging merely the leakage of sewage flowing above the hiti. All these cases are equally
true for dug wells as well. However, no studies are made on these issues so far.
Laying of
sewerage line need to
consider the ground water
flow path
PLATE 12
21. This sewerage construction was done by Bhandari Builders. Therefore people refer these constructions in reference to this contractor.
22
The second negative intervention into the system is the construction of large buildings
which requires deep foundation. It was reported in the cases of Thapaa Hiti, Chysal Hiti,
and many others that their hitidun passing through private land or building. With deep
foundation there is a good chance that these water channels can be destroyed knowingly
or unknowingly.
Moreover, construction of basement has also started in the core of Patan. Since this fact is
overlooked so far, serious attention is required in this aspect as well.
Not to limit other areas from their opportunities to efficiently utilise underground space,
studies may be required to demarcate the subsurface flow pattern.
Wells are normally public utilities in earlier time perhaps because of the technological limits,
and the resources required. Shallow dug wells became popular in Kathmandu Valley in last
two decades with the availability of concrete rings, cheap electric water pumps, and convenient
plastic water tanks. Digging a shallow well costs around eight to ten thousand rupees. This
investment became attractive as the household could be self-reliant in water. The regular
uncertainty of city supply attracted people towards the construction of dug wells. In the
absence of regulating mechanisms to manage ground water, dug wells became popular in
Patan, especially for those who can afford and have some space for such facilities. Unfortunately,
this became one of the major reasons for the decrease in the discharge of hities. The wells
on the subsurface flow path of ground water enjoyed the water in their wells arresting the
flow in the deep holes. This became the major concern in the areas where the natural aquifers
feeding the stone spouts are located like in Naricha, Nayekhyo, Kiri Keba, or Nyakha
Chuka.
Baseme construction
Basement construction
is getting popular
to meet space
requirements
PLATE 16
23
24
CHAPTER
4
PRESENT WATER
STRESS IN PATAN
The NWSC supply
Nepal Water Supply Corporation is supplying water to Patan through the Saibu reservoir
and Tahakhel reservoir. These reservoirs are fed from several sources which includes
Seshnarayan spring, Naumule spring, Saatmule spring, Kuturi spring, Timauri mul, Kailibu

spring, Dudhpokhari Mul, Charghare well, Basuki Mul, Deuki Mul, Nallu intake, Muldole
well, etc. The above water is supplied to all the areas of the municipality, adjacent VDCs
and some sources are even shared with Kathmandu.
People at Lonla, Patan

waiting for NWSC tanker
offering water every
fifth day.
PLATE 17
25
In the recent time, the biggest demonstration of Patan people for water took place in 1977.
In this demonstration one person each from every house took part to picket Singha Durbar
(the seat of the government of Nepal) with torch in their hands. This demonstration was
the seed to the large water infrastructure investments for Kathmandu Valley. The first
project of the series of IDA loan was the outcome of this movement. Under the first project
two deep wells in Pherping, construction of Saibu reservoir and diversion of Pherping
Hydropower water for drinking purpose were made. It was only after this time, Lalitpur
observed sufficiency in water, though for not very long. The outskirt expansion of the
settlements in Patan mushroomed only after 1990, particularly after 1995, which again
brought water scarcity as elsewhere in the valley. Even during this time of scarcity, NWSC
have tried to cater some pockets of Patan like Khapinchhen, Guita, Chyasal areas; which
do not have other alternatives of water.
The latest data of NWSC shows that there are 32,000 taps distributed under Lalitpur Branch
of NWSC (including Patan and outskirt areas). If 1000 litres of water is allocated for a
connection 32 million litres of water is required every day. Adding 35% unaccounted for
water the requirement rise to 43.2 MLD. On the other hand present water production in
this branch is 27 MLD during wet season and 17 MLD during dry season. Thus the deficiency
for present population is 16 MLD during dry and 25 MLD during dry season (NWSC,
2007).
In this scarcity, NWSC need to wait for fifth day to deliver water to each house to built
pressure in the supply pipe. Therefore in the city core, all the areas (with few exceptions)
get water for two hours on every fifth day. Those who have high capacity pump and large
water tank, suck water from the municipal pipe and others, including the settlements in
high elevation, are left on their own for their water need. The unaccounted-for water in the
system is estimated to be more than 35%; where the leakage covers the biggest share. NWSC
is trying its best to deliver at least 1000 litre of water to each house in the city core which
makes up around 3 MLD of water every day.
464 million dollar Melamchi Water Supply Project, initiated in 1988 was the only hope for
many water managers to quench the thirst of the valley. Even today, this project is at the
verge of collapse due to several political, social and managerial reasons. NWSC, which was
supposed to be abolished from the valley after Melamchi take over, tried some projects to
add water in Patan. However, the endeavour was far behind the population growth. Apart
from Melamchi, NWSC and the government is also searching some alternatives to meet
some of the demands. Thonse Khola, Kodku project and combination of these are some of
the viable alternatives that may be considered by the government in the near future.
Notwithstanding, with the urban sprawl expanding to the rim of the valley, quenching the
thirst of Patan people will not be possible without serving the peripheral area where the
sources are. Therefore, water scarcity is bound to be there in Patan at least for the near
future.
26
Queuing for water at
Nā Hiti. Most of the
people are poor renters
of the area.
PLATE 18
The alternatives
Above paragraphs described the water scarcity
of Patan from last several decades. It explains
that why people went back to the traditional
water conduits. Except in few areas where Water stress:
there is absence of traditional sources or the carrying water
from some 2km
areas that have already lost their traditional away Konti Hiti
water system, traditional hities and dug wells to Balkumari in
are the last resort for the people. Not only in Patan
hities, but in traditional public wells, people PLATE 19

have developed their own system to collect
and distribute water in Patan.
Alkwo Hiti:
queuing for water
PLATE 20
27
Recently, private wells became famous to meet the water requirement, especially for
purposes other than drinking. For the urban poor, even the quality did not matter. Tanker
service flourished especially among the people who could afford. Thus the left out population
was again relying on the hities. It is not only the local population that are served by these
hities, but the people from surrounding areas. It was reported that people from Naya
Baneswor and Buddha Nagar area of Kathmandu also comes to the hities of Patan like Alkwo
Hiti, Mangā Hiti, Kwonti Hiti, Taapaa Hiti and many more. The crowd in the hiti is increasing
every year, an obvious measure of the increase in water stress in Kathmandu Valley.
28
CHAPTER
5
MOVEMENT FOR
WATER IN PATAN
The Alkwo Hiti case
Alkwo Hiti introduced
Alkwo Hiti is one of the highest discharging hities in Patan. The yet existing city gate next

to the hiti shows that this is one of the north-western end of old settlement of ancient Patan.
Ikhachhen Tole of present Ward no. 22 of Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City is the main
consumer of this hiti water. The silver inscription with the Bajracharya family responsible
for maintaining the hiti shows that it was established in 535 Nepal Sambat (1415 AD) during
the reign of the Mallas. Famous tantric vaidya22 of that time Tumha Dev Bajracharya
installed this hiti. A famous story of the hiti is well known to the Ikhachhen people23. Then
onwards the discharge in the hiti is continuous. Unlike many other hities in Patan, the
22. Tantric Buddhism was famous in those days. Tumha Dev was famous for his tantric power and medication.
23. There are two stories popular in Ikhachhen with reference to the establishment of the hiti. At that time tantrism was very strong.
Tumha Dev Bajracharya was one of the famous tantric and vaidya (medical doctor) of his time. One story says that he meditated
(Purushcharan Meditation) next to present water spout for 21 days which helped to locate water aquifer. The other story is more
like a fiction. A human turned serpent knocked the door of Tumha Dev for some medicine for the treatment of eye disease that his
family was suffering from. The tantric gave him the dirt collected from rubbing the back of his ear and gave him as medicine.
Surprisingly the ‘medicine’ helped. The naga became very pleased and asked for any gift he need. The tantric asked for some
water sources as water scarcity was the biggest suffering at the time. The naga gave him three stones and asked him to keep it
secret. As instructed he kept the stones in his store and kept the door locked. This raised the curiosity of his wife and desperate to
know the secret that her husband is hiding from her. One day the tantric forgot the key at home. His wife took the advantage and
opened the room. When found just three stones, she was disappointed and threw the stones from her terrace. The three sources
of present water spout are the places where the stone hit the ground.
29
Intake of Narayan Hiti
underneath the temple
Narayan Hiti
Alkwo Hiti: the hitigaa

and the hiti complex
PLATE 21
Intake of main
hities underneath
the Shiva Linga
The main aquifer of

Alkwo protected under

compound walls
PLATE 22
Ikhachhen
neighbourhood:
proud of their hiti
PLATE 23
30
aquifer feeding the hiti is believed to be the near by agricultural land on the north east, and
south of present hiti. The aquifer could be the artisan as the southern moderately elevated
areas do not enjoy this feature.
It is amazing to note that the hiti was constructed with highly engineered knowledge, skill,
and wisdom. There are five spouts in the hiti complex. Water is flowing through wooden
channel (hitidun) into the hitimangaa. These spouts have different sources. Out of the three
large hities the right hiti popularly known as Narayan Hiti has almost constant discharge
throughout a year. It is believed that the Ganesh Temple on the north east corner of the
hiti complex is built over the intake so that the intake can be preserved. The other two
spouts are charged from the eastern intake some 15 m from the hitigaa. Some 6 m east from
the hitimangaa one athah24 is provided which distribute the incoming water to two wooden
channels. At present this athah is located next to the garden wall below one of the stone
inscription. This athah is again linked to a chamber before which a caution stone is placed25,
meaning “do not go beyond this point”. It is not known what is there inside this chamber,
but it is believed that this should be filter and intake point of the water system. The chamber
is covered by brick and lined with gathucha (kind of water tight clay). There are two more
spouts with lower height (facing west and north). They are linked to southern aquifer. An
athah located on the south-east corner of the hiti complex distributes the flow in these two
spouts. Beyond the athah people have not explored the main intake of the water which likes
in the southern plot of the hiti complex.
This hiti complex and the surrounding were famous for snakes. Even two decades back the
hiti complex was inhabited by snakes. Old people remember that the area was full of snakes
that they even get snakes flown into the water vessel while fetching water. For the maintenance
of the hiti, 9.25 ropanies of land was allocated for the guthi which takes care of the hiti

complex and offer annual puja.
Management system of Alkwo hiti

Tumha Dev Bajracharya not only established the hiti, he has prescribed some regulations
for the maintenance of the hiti system. Every year the caretaker must organise Puja in the
hiti on Khai Sanhu, the new year day of Bikram Era. Apart from puja the hiti must be cleaned
and maintained26. While renovating the hiti, the inscription mentions not to open particular
place covered by a stone at the Navi Mandala. Moreover, this pristine land and its surrounding
should not be allowed to:
24. athah is a circular vessel of burnt clay used by Newars for washing clothes until the aluminium and plastic troughs were available
in the market. The burnt clay athah were popular duing Malla Period while stone vessels were used during Lichchhavi period
(communication with Mr. Prayag Joshi) as shown in Plate 7.
25. To protect the hiti system it was practiced in hities that a stone with pair of palms carved on it is placed which indicates that the
maintenance of the system does not need to go beyond this place. There is a belief that if people open or cross this limit there
could be any kind of mishap as the nagas get angry.
26. The stone and silver inscription of the hiti has mentioned the rules and regulations to be followed by the caretakers and the water
spout users.
31
• Throw waste water
• Use of soap
• Throw honey
• Use leather shoes
• Litter the area.
If these misconducts are committed the person has to bear Pancha Mahapaap (the five
great sins). Apart from other polluting deeds, the regulation also considers the throwing of
honey and use of soap, which is very detrimental to aquatic creatures, especially to snakes.
This shows their best understanding of the ecosystem. For the maintenance fund, 9.25
ropanies of land surrounding the hiti was also allocated and a guthi was established for the
maintenance of the hiti for the future.
The descendants of Tumha Dev Bajracharya are still practicing the rituals through their
guthi. They offer puja every year on Sithinakha and Nag Panchami. The Sithinakha puja is
the major one. However, the land mentioned in the inscription is not available now27. Apart
from the puja, Ikhachhen people participate every year in cleaning the hiti area on
Sithinakhah. People also offer puja to the nagas and the deities when they have some water
related sickness, especially when prescribed by traditional vaidyas. There were attempts to
control washing and bathing using soap in the hiti complex. Even women during their
menstrual period are not allowed to fetch water from the hiti.
With the urbanisation pressure, the agricultural land on the north of the hiti is already
occupied by housing, the inner backyards are filled with additional dwellings. With these
changes the users of the hiti are also changing. For migrant people in Ikhachhen and many
other neighbourhoods, Alkwo Hiti is the major source of water, especially for poor renters.
During the dry season, people come from long distance to take bath, wash clothes and even
Public notice: Dos and

Don’ts in the hiti area at
Alkwo Hiti
PLATE 24
27. Locals also believe that not only these 9 ropanies of land, they have more than 14 ropanies of land in Baneswor area that was
allocated for the maintenance cost of the hiti.
32
fetch water for their petty businesses like tea shops and poultry. In the recent years, perhaps
because of the encroachment of their habitat, snakes are rarely seen in the hiti. At present,
the hiti management committee does not allow taking bath with soap and washing clothes
inside the hitigaa. Moreover, recognising the importance of ecology, the locals have a
regulation to not to kill snakes in the area.
Time line of Alkwo Hiti movement

Alkwo Hiti is one of the perennial hities in Patan which is believed that it has not stopped
since its establishment. Because of the discharge and taste, this hiti was famous even during
Rana period. Old people remember the hauling of water by the servants of Rana Prime Minister
Juddha Samser whose palace was at Jawalakhel some two kilometres from the spout.
The 1961/62 renovation

Present generation remember the major maintenance of the hiti took place in 1961/62.
They already faced encroachment of the hiti area at that time. When they received some
9500 rupees from the magistrate of that time to renovate the hiti, huge support was brought
in to conserve the hiti. People participating the hiti maintenance did not limit to Ikhachhen,
but neighbouring toles like Nagbahal, Talachhen, Salichhen, etc. took part in the maintenance.
All the labours for several weeks were voluntary, and offered free snacks who could offer.
They cleaned the hitidun, and cleaned the channel to improve the discharge. The hitigaa
wall and platform was also constructed.
Since the aquifer area was encroached by the Pode settlement on the north east and Khadgi
settlement on the east, local people used the opportunity to save their land as much as

possible. They built present garden and conserved the intake of the major source by
demolishing two houses encroaching the area. Clear demarcation of the area is made to
protect the hiti area28. The southern border of the hiti is still in dispute as one of the sources
of the hiti lies in the central part of the southern cultivated land. This land is owned by the
descendants of Tumha Dev Bajracharya. Local people have dispute in use of this land with
the tenant and the land owners. Since the intake is just a meter below the ground level, any
agricultural practice ponding the area or planting deep rooted trees would damage the water
system. There were incidence that once the tenant tried to plant rice, has resulted with
muddy water discharge in the west facing spout. He also once irrigated with sewage. In all
these attempts, the Ikhachhen people were united to fight against such misconducts.
However, in the absence of deeds of the land, it is only the social pressure that is conserving
this area. In last decade locals put a signboard in the land saying that this is the intake of
the hiti and if someone bought this land for construction of house or other purposes should
be responsible for the consequences.
28. Interview with Mr. Madan Krishna Juwa, and Mr. Kil Bahadur Shrestha residents of Ikhachhen. Mr. Shrestha was one of the
leaders in the renovation work at that time. Mr. Juwa is advisor to neighbourhood committee. He was one of the active
participants of the improvement works during 1961/62.
33
Behind these initiatives, there was a strong local leadership in Ikhachhen at that time.
Motivated by left ideology (as it was dominant in Patan at that time), they were united
against the Panchayat Regime. Aalok Library was the platform they used for these social
causes. The library committee was reshuffled again in 1980, perhaps influenced by the
success of anti-Panchayat movement of that time. The third reshuffle was observed in 1995
again after the first Janandolan. This time the committee was organised under the banner
of Ikhachhen Tol Sudhar Samiti (meaning Ikhachhen neighbourhood improvement
committee). With the given political freedom and state heading towards decentralised
governance, the committee was formed to address primarily the physical development of
the neighbourhood and bargain with the municipality for their betterment. All these
committees were primarily led by the older generation who were active during 1961/62
initiatives. Apart from other developmental activities these committees offered Alkow Hiti
maintenance and conservation activities throughout these years.
Water scarcity after 90s

Patan was never sufficient with water from the beginning of the municipal water supply system.
There were several sources added, but always left behind by the growing demand. In 1985,
then Nepal Water Supply and Sewerage Committee proposed to install water collection system
in Alkwo Hiti and feed the municipal pipes. Locals could not agree as they were afraid that
this intervention of the government agency will make them loose the water right of the hiti29.
Even in 1992, UDLE under its Patan Conservation and Development Programme proposed
collecting hiti water for redistribution at household level in Ikhachhen and surrounding areas.
The proposal included several options (Theophile, E. and Joshi, P. R. 1992). However, the
community was not convinced as this was the external proposition to them.
In the changed context people moved from hiti and well to personal taps. When these taps
became unreliable, those who could afford started digging personal wells. After nineties
personal well became popular. However, this attempt was successful where shallow ground
water was available in abundance and of good quality. Others still have to rely on hities and
traditional wells after their unsuccessful attempts. This is also the picture of Ikhachhen. The
disadvantaged, again went back to the traditional sources and compelled to think on preserving
the hities.
The Bone mill incident of 2000

On 10th of August 2000, during the mid monsoon, suddenly people got sick after drinking
water from two of the five spouts of Alkwo Hiti. This was due to the leaching of the bone
mill waste located about 100 m south of the hiti. The monsoon rain washed the rotten bones
stored to prepare chicken feed, and infiltered into the aquifer. The spouts were discharging
reddish and smelly water. Dozens of the locals were rushed to hospitals because of diarrhoea,
vomiting and other difficulties. Ikhachhen people were trying to evacuate the bone mill
owned by people with royal influence from the start of its establishment due to the odour
and the water pollution. This incident captured the attention of media, environmentalists,
29. Based on communication with Mr. Prayag Joshi, then district chief of Nepal Water Supply and Sewerage Committee and Mr.
Madan Krishna Juwa, then executive member of Aalok Pustakalaya.
34
Narayan Hiti
The bone mill storing

of bones and horns of
animals next to the of
Alkwo Hiti aquifer.
PLATE 25

Alkwo Hiti crowded for
water every day.
PLATE 26
Inauguration
programme of the
general convention of
Alkwo Hiti managing
committee.
PLATE 27
35
politicians, and many more. The youths of Ikhachhen organised into Sher Bone Mill
Evacuation Movement Committee to ban the industry from the area.
With the strong pressure from the community, the municipality board immediately ordered
to close the industry. However, the Department of Industry tried to resist in favour of the
bone-mill. The committee pressurised government offices like Chief District Office, the
municipality, Cottage Industry Division, etc. Parliamentarians, municipal representatives, and
various social organisations showed their concern on the matter. As these approaches did not
work, the movement committee started delegations, demonstrations and picketing. Their
movement was supported and participated by neighbouring toles too. Ultimately, after the
continuous effort of the locals, the industry signed an agreed to leave the area within six months.
At present, the industry has moved, but the collection is still continued at the place.
The success of the movement encouraged the youths of Ikhachhen to conserve the hiti.
Moreover, as the municipal supply could not serve them from more than a decade, they
were in search of alternatives to their water needs.
The start of community water service

After the bone mill incidence of 2000, the suppressed pursuit of people of Ikhachhen to
conserve the hiti emerged as energy. Youths were in forefront and seniors were in backing.
This gave re-birth to the community organisation of Ikhachhen which was equally strong
and active some forty years back.
Table. 3. Activity time line in Alkwo Hiti Water Distribution System

DATE ACTIVITIES
October 2003 User's Committee formed

November 17, 2003 Water Supply Project Commenced
March 23, 2004 Project accomplished
March 28, 2004 Started distributing water
March 2005 First public exposure and wider media coverage
Encouraged by the success to remove the industry and polished by the continuous movement
of a year, the youths started searching sustainable alternatives to conserve Alkwo Hiti. They
started the possibilities of establishing the hiti water distribution system which was proposed
by NWSC in 1985 and UDLE in 1993. They established Aalok Hiti Conservation and Water
Supply Users’ Committee (AHCWSUC) and came up with harvesting of water of the hiti
and distribute door to door. A 7-membered committee was formed under the leadership
of Mr. Sushil Shrestha, and started working in the project from late 2003. When their effort
of bringing external support could not be successful, they initiated with their local fund
with the commitment of more than 50% of the community to participate.
It was not easy at the beginning as adequate fund contribution could not be collected. They
even thought of dropping the project. Later, as the water tower started rising, the confidence
started building. For more than three months locals contributed their labour every evening
36
in the construction work. The municipality helped them with two PVC water tanks. After
herculean efforts of three months, on 1st of Baisakh, 2061 BS, they inaugurated their
community based water management system. At the beginning the system was serving 150
houses, which was later extended to 180 houses. They have established their own rules and
regulations, regular meetings and continuous support from the community. With this effort
each house is getting 250 to 300 litres of water every day.
The best part of the system is the serving of water at their door step, which otherwise would not
serve the present changed lifestyle of the urban community. In Patan, there are several traditional
dug wells following this model before Alkwo Hiti. They pump the water from well and convey
through flexible pipes to the surrounding houses or store on a overhead tank to distribute later.
Alkwo Hiti was the first of its kind to do it at hiti level with service coverage more than 150
houses. Each user has to pay initial fee and regular monthly fee which is within affordable range.
Of several regulations one of the important regulations is to restrict construction of dug well in
their premises. They are saving some fund after deducting management cost for their future
expansion. Constructing two-hundred thousand litre tank and an overhead structure, they are
planning to expand the service area to serve 1000 families.
Renovation of 2005
To win the confidence of the older generation, the committee looking after water management
of Alkwo Hiti, promised to invest on renovation of Alkwo Hiti complex. In early 2005, they
invested five hundred thousand rupees to maintain the inner channels, redo the compound
walls, paving the upper platform, and protect the area from encroachment. A stone
inscription has been installed on 24th February, 2005 after the completion of the renovation
in full participation of local people.

The future planning
There is a huge demand for the water beyond the settlement. The discharge in Alkwo Hiti
still capable of serving 300 households during dry season and about 900 households during
wet season30. Although these houses are beyond the Ikhachhen Tole, the committee is
planning to distribute the water so that there will be more people served and simultaneousely
tied with Alkwo Hiti conservation. Alkwo Hiti leadership is very clear for their future
activities. They believe that limiting themselves to conserving one particular hiti does not
help conserving even their own hiti. With this philosophy they initiated the historical stone
spout conservation committee.
Strengths and weaknesses

Giving an example of hiti conservation, Ikhachhen people are hailed for their success and
innovativeness. This pioneering of the community-based hiti water management has
30. Taking 50 litres per day per capita and harvesting 12 hours of water. It is estimated that during two dry months the flow drops up
to 1.67 l/s and during wet season it goes up to 5l/s. Flow during the driest winter was 2006 noted 1.62 l/s in 2006 and wet season
highest was 6.67 in 2000.
37
encouraged several other hities to replicate the success. There are several of other hities in
line. Konti Hiti has already started the construction, while hities like Sundhara, Nakhipot,
Thapaa Hiti, Taapaa Hiti are in line. The biggest strength of Alkwo Hiti is the community
unity and the leadership. The continuous threat to their hiti, perhaps must have kept them
together based on which the dynamic leadership took the lead.
One of the foundation stones of Alkwo Hiti are the women of this neighbourhood. They
are the happiest users of the water distribution system that has saved their time, effort and
‘shame’ of carrying water on their waist. However, the committee seems unaware to this
fact. It is important to mainstreaming the gender issue in the management of water in Alkwo
Hiti, and rest of other systems. Placing women in decision making position, involvement
of them in water management, and raising their capacity to lead would provide the system
a deep-rooted foundation.
One significant challenge to Alkwo Hiti system is the volunteerism. It is the voluntary
sentiment and delight that has driven the movement thus far. As the organisation is getting
mature, there is a need to replace present system that is guided by the social service sentiment
by socio-economy based system. It is equally important to pay the cost of service in the
urban environment. If the religious feeling was not sufficient during previous time and
allocation of resources like guthi land was required, it will be even more required to
compensate ones service in this commercialised society of 21st century. Similarly, it is high
time to train new generation of leadership to manage the system for the continuity.
The other equally challenging aspect of water management is incorporation of the stake of
all stakeholders of the urban society. Including Ikhachhen, most of the old settlements of
Kathmandu Valley, and its periphery, are resided by urban poor, especially the poor renters.
These people are unaware of the importance of the hiti culture and could be insensible to
hiti regulations. It is very obvious that the rush of people during day and evening time in
hities is overwhelmed by this population. There is a risk of not addressing the need of these
stakeholders, not only in sharing the water resource, but also incorporating them in the
cultural activities of hiti management. Therefore, this aspect needs to be addressed by the
locals for further strengthening their position.
The Sundhara Case

Sundhara introduced
Sundhara, literally meaning golden spout is named after its spout wrapped with gold plated
metal. Local people call it Nugā Hiti. Probably this is only the hiti which is not in depression.
Locals remember that there were several steps to climb from the road to reach the spout31.
31. Sundhara being on the elevated location, a story was remembered by Mr. Kul Bahadur Chitrakar. When Saugā Hiti some 250m
away from Sundhara, was inaugurated, a person from Sundhara teased them for constructing the hiti more than two storied deep
to fetch water. He promised to bring water on building terrace. As he could please Phulchowki Mai, was blessed to have spout on
above the ground.
38
The famous Sundhara
without water. The
gold plated metal was
stolen from the left hiti
this year
PLATE 28
After continuous laying of bituminous surface year after year it is already about half a meter
below the road surface at present. Sundhara was established during Lichchhavi Period. One
more spout known as Byancha Hiti was added to the complex by the daughter of famous
Mall king Siddhinarsingha Malla in 1641 AD. Wrapping of the stone spout with gold plated
metal was done later perhaps during Rana period only32.
Sundhara is one of the spouts charged by

Nayekhyo Aquifer on the south. Some people
believe that the actual name of Nayekhyo was
Nag Khyo, meaning naga the serpent and khyo
(or khel in Nepali) is open ground in Newari.

The intake of Sincha Hiti and Sundhara are
same. The underground chamber (mangaa in
Newari) some 200 meters from the intake
divides the flow between Sincha Hiti and
Sundhara. A caution stone 33 is placed
Queuing for
upstream to this mangaa. Additional some water from one of
700 meters of traditional water channel brings the beautiful hiti
the water to Sundhara with another mangaa of Sundhara
at Chhwasah. The ancient channel was made PLATE 29
of burnt clay with brick lid on the top popularly
known as hitidun.
There are three spouts on the eastern main hitigaa while one single spout discharges on the
western part of the hit complex. Drainage of the hiti was never a serious problem because
of its elevated location. At present the drain is connected to municipal sewage line.
32. Based on the meeting with Prabhat Pariwar Club.

33. Caution stone suggesting not to open upstream to this point. Refer Plate. 8. and Foot note 25 for details.
39
For the management of the hiti, Sinya nicknamed Shrestha families of Sundhara were given
the responsibility. Every year their guthi called Sinya Guthi need to go to Godavari Nau
Dhara34 and offer puja to Goddess Phulchowki by sacrificing a goat. At their return they
need to visit the aquifer at Nayekhyo and once again take some ritual snacks and clean all
the pots and plates there. However, the guthi has been dismissed and this ritual is no more
performed by the Sinyas from several decades. Apart from the guthi rituals, the whole
community is involved in cleaning the hiti complex. In earlier days people still remembers
the tiring walk to clean rajkulo of Tikabhairav every year. They go in a crowd to clean even
until to 1980s, however the interest was lessoning after the construction of Ring Road which
damaged the main channel bringing water to Lagankhel Pukhu.
Time line of Sundhara movement

People remember that during the time of Rana Prime Minister Juddha Samser (i.e. before
1900 AD), the burnt clay channel from the mangaa of Sincha Hiti to Chhwasah was replaced
by cast iron pipe of 4” diameter. This shows that Sundhara required continuous maintenance
in the previous time as well. This might be due to the channel with length of a kilometre
that requires maintenance all the time, especially with the burnt clay channel.
This famous spout stopped discharging after the flood damaged the aquifer area in 1954. An
attempt was made in 1981 to bring water from Naricha Aquifer with the initiation of local
people and Nagar Panchayat during the Panchayat Rule in Nepal. Digging two infiltration
wells at present District Education Office Complex, they tried to bring water in 4” HDPE
pipe up to the mangaa at Chhwasah. Perhaps, due to insufficient head and improper levelling
the attempt was not successful in bringing water to the spouts (Joshi, P. R. 1993 and
Arnstroem, E. 1994). Thus Sundhara was left with nominal flow for some 39 years.
Meeting with Prabhat

Pariwar on hiti issues
PLATE 30
34. There is a belief that the water in Sundhara is linked with Godawari and Phulchoki. This could not be explained as there is a
depression and crossing of the flood plain of Kodku River in between. But the ritual shows the links to Godawari as Sinya Guthi
has to perform annual puja at Godawari and Nayekhyo on the same day, linking the hiti sources.
40
The UDLE/GTZ initiative
In 1993 UDLE/GTZ helped to revive the hiti
by improving the channel from Chhwasah
mangaa to Nhyephā (next to famous temple
of Mahaboudha). From Nhyephā a 4” HDPE
pipe is brought up to the distribution
chamber of the hiti. There was a proposal
from UDLE/GTZ to establish night collection
system so that the collected water during
night time can be utilised. This proposal did Nayekhyo
Aquifer: the
not materialise at that time. After 1993, the
intake of
perennial flow was disturbed from last four Sundhara
to five years, especially during dry seasons. PLATE 32
There are three possible reasons for low discharge in Sundhara from last decade. The first
is the construction of dug wells in Nayekhyo area. Part of the aquifer zone lies inside the
Patan Industrial Estate (PIE). In the later period several water consuming industries were
established in the industrial estate drawing enormous amount of ‘free’ water from the
aquifer. Refer Annex D for the industries with dug wells in PIE. This has affected the flow
of water to the spouts downstream. The second cause could be the habitation of the area
between PIE and the old settlement. The agricultural land is all occupied by buildings
restricting recharging of the ground water but drawing shallow water for their household
use. Furthermore, destruction of Lagankhel Pukhu and rajkulo recharge system are yet
other reasons for draw down of the ground water.
Bill board calling

for conservation of
Nayekhyo Aquifer
PLATE 32
The recent movement for source conservation

On this backdrop when people found that Sundhara spout almost dries up during office
hours but maintains its discharge during mornings, evenings and nights; it was not difficult
41
to guess the culprit. When the locals faced sever scarcity of water from 2005, they were
organised and led by Prabhat Parivar Club, a local community group, and initiated dialogue
with PIE administration. This year they limited themselves in verbal request to not to pump
extensive quantities of water affecting the flow of Sundhara. Under their request the PIE
industries did not pump water, during the festival days of May 14, 15 and 16. Consequently,
the hities started discharging. The lobbying of the Prabhat Pariwar Club brought the CDO
to visit the site. As the monsoon returned, the problem was not that sever, the issue was
not raised strongly.
The problem became even severer in 2006. This year the valley observed not a single rainy
day for five winter months. The hiti dried even from February. A meeting was conducted
with to solve the problem on 27 March 2006. Due to the public pressure a written agreement
was made in the presence of CDO, mayor of Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City, DDC
representative, PIE, NWSC, and Prabhat Pariwar Club. PIE agreed to go for a deep boring
to meet their water demand. For the time being the meeting agreed to allow the industries
to pump water from their existing wells only during night hours of 11 pm to 3 am.
However, the industries did not abide by the understanding. When the request of Sundhara
people were not heard by the industries, a mass of several hundred went inside PIE. They
found that all the water tanks of the industries with several thousand litres capacity were
full. The mass damaged the pump houses and buried five wells of textile and dying industries.
This pressure brought the PIE to make written agreement to burry other dug wells as well.
As expected, water started discharging from Sundhara after three hours of the event. It is
important to note that this was the time there was a campaign going on through out Patan
for the conservation of traditional hities. It was not only the residents of Sundhara that
participated in the demonstration, but people from several neighbouring areas also showed
their solidarity to this cause. The movement established the fact that the first right to water
is for drinking, industries get only the second priority.
Early months of 2007 also observed the same problem of water missing in the spout during
day time. The new manager in PIE took some time to understand the case. He tried to escape
from the problem when the deep boring project was not successful as expected. The new
leadership in PIE when challenged to prove PIE complex is the aquifer of Sundhara, local
users became desperate. The locals raised the voices to evacuation of the industrial estate
from their water source. Ultimately, CDO called a meeting on 26th April, 2007 which was
participated by the municipality, Nepal Water Supply Corporation, District Water Supply
Division, PIE and Prabhat Pariwar Club. The meeting was also attended by the representatives
of eight ruling parties. PIE reported in the meeting that there are 40 wells dug in the complex,
out of which 10 are already buried. The meeting took the decision to close all the wells
within one month period.
Even today, with these commitments and initiatives, the problem is not solved. Prabhat
Pariwar Club along with HSSCA are advocating for the cause of traditional water works
conservation, taking Sundhara case as an indication towards success.
42
Other cases
The issue of Saptapatal Pukhu at Lagankhel
Saptapatal Pukhu is one of the several Pukhus at Lagankhel. This pukhu is linked with Lord
Meen Nath, the second important chariot in the Matsyendranath Jatra. There are rituals
that after three weeks of the completion of the Matsyendranath Jatra, people come to this
pukhu on an auspicious day and release some fishes and sparrows to inform the two other
worlds about the happening that the jatra was a success. This function was started during
the reign of Lichchhavi king Balachandra Dev before Matsyendranath was brought to
Kathmandu. Apart from this the pukhu is also used for offering Samyek puja by affluent
Buddhists.
The public land around Ashok Thur35 in Lagankhel includes ground and Pukhus covering
600 ropanies (~30 hectares) of land. Even recent cadastral maps show there was 205 ropanies
of land. These Pukhus were charged by Tikabhairav rajkulo constructed during the reign
of Lichchhavis more than 1500 years back. The Pukhus of Lagankhel is famous for charging
local hities directly or indirectly through subsurface flows. Naricha and Nayekhyo aquifers
are the nearest aquifer recharged by these Pukhus.
The encroachment of Lagankhel area started long time back. The army camp was the first
encroachment while the electricity office, Sajha (the cooperative), Land Revenue Office,
Judiciary, Patan Mental Hospital, Veterinary Clinic and Namuna Matsyendra School are
the major encroachers. When Lagankhel ground was converted to major bus station of
Lalitpur District; the commercial value of this area multiplied by several folds. Namuna

Matsyendra School which occupied some land on the north of the Ashok Thur, engulfed
surrounding areas. In the name of income generation, the school used its encroachments
Saptapatalpukhu from
Ashok Thur in 1920
(Source: Images of the
Century, GTZ, 1995)
PLATE 33
35. Ashok Thur at lagankhel, one of the four Thurs in Patan, is believed to be erected by Emperor Ashok from India when he visited
this valley during his pilgrimage before Christian Era.
43
Panju, the Bajracharyas
offering Hom before
releasing the bird
and the fish at Batuk
Bhairav complex
PLATE 34
Releasing the birds

and fishes. In the
absence of the pond,
fishes are released
on the foundation of
encroaching school
building
PLATE 35
Saptapatal Pukhu
next to Ashok Thur at
Lagankhel in the 70s.
PLATE 36
44
for commercial purposes. The latest attempt of the school is to gulp already encroached
Saptapatal Pukhu and construct a commercial complex.
Locals gathered against these wicked intension of the school. Under the banner of Lagankhel
Environment Improvement Organisation, they filed a public litigation in the Supreme Court
in 2004. After the trial of more than six months, the court gave a verdict to conserve the
pukhu and ordered Land Revenue Department to rectify the land ownership certificate in
favour of the public land and CDO to support the execution of the verdict.
It is interesting to note that even today after the Supreme Court decision of two and half
years the land ownership certificate has not been rectified, instead, the school is pushing
its construction slowly but gradually. Recently, the Historical Stone Spout and Source
Conservation Association have joined hand with the Lagankhel Environment Improvement
Committee to jointly mobilise the masses for the conservation of the pukhu. The first
convention of HSSCA showed its solidarity to support the conservation movement.
Previous encroachment
Recent attempt
to encroach

Saptapatal Pukhu after
encroachment by the
school
PLATE 37
Public notice to
protect Saptapatal
Pukhu mentioning the
Supreme Court verdict
PLATE 38
45
The Taapaa Hiti protest
Taapaa Hiti is one of the perennial hities of Patan famous for its discharge. Lying on the
northern slope of the settlement, Taapaa Hiti is surrounded by Ikhachhen, Nayelakhu, Aki
Bahal, Nyakha Chuka, Nyadhā neighbourhoods surrounding from east to south. The location
of this hiti is the lowest level of the surrounding.
The date of establishment of the hiti is not known but the Lichchhavi time chaitya in the hiti
complex describes its establishment not later than Lichchhavi Period (Theophile, E. and Joshi,
P. R. 1992). People believe that the intake of Taapaa Hiti is some 500m aerial distance north
of the hiti at Khwyebahi aquifer. There are two hitigaas adjacent to each other. The main
hitigaa have three water spouts and the other hitigaa have two spouts. There must be two to
three sources tapped to discharge through these spouts as per the observation of locals that
the taste and colour of water is different from different spouts. The only discharging spout at
present is the main spout channelling water from south. However, people from the area have
not even moved a brick because of the belief of mishaps that could occur.
They faced water shortage from more than a decade. The scarcity became sever from last
three years when NWSC rationed the water every third and now every fifth day. In 2000,
people from Nyakha Chuka constructed a public well. It is said that when they failed in one
location they dig the other one. Here they found a water aquifer with clean sand. At present
they have community water supply pumping water from this well. Taapaa Hiti people believe
that the well must be on the path of Taapaa Hiti source. Later people from other areas also
started digging well or tube wells.
In early 2006 when Taapaa Hiti was almost dry, local youths complained the police and
Archaeology Department to control illegal tapping of water in Aki Bahal, north to the hiti.
Archaeology Department, requested CDO Office to intervene. When the office did not
show enthusiasm to react, local youths went each and every house in Aki Bahal and destroyed
Taapaa Hiti, people

remembers the flow
more than double a
decade back.
PLATE 39
46
Recently constructed
public well at Nyakha
Chuka believed to be on
the path of Taapaa Hiti
underground flow.
PLATE 40
around 15 tube wells. Soon after, the discharge increased in the spout. From then onwards
an unseen rift is being created between the two neighbourhoods. At present, Taapaa Hiti
people are planning to replicate Alkwo Hiti model incorporating Aki Bahal people.
The Chyasal Hiti protest

Chyasal Hiti is yet another historical hiti of Patan which is proud of having various idols from
Lichchhavi Period. An stone inscription was found of around 450 years old mentioning major
renovation of the complex at that time36. The source of Chaysah Hiti is believed to be Kiri
Keba area, some 200 m west of the hiti. The Kiri Keba aquifer east to Kumbheswor Temple
are occupied by new houses in last two decades to house additional population. This hiti was
serving surrounding neighbourhoods like Chikan Bahil, Ombahal, Kwyelachhi, Bhindyolachhi,

Khapinchhen, Bholakhel, Sankhamool, Bhelachhen, Chochhen encompassing around 1200
houses.
Chyasal Hiti: the main

spouts discharge only
during monsoon season.
PLATE 41
36. Based on the information gathered from Mr. Kaji Babu Byanjankar.
47
There are two guthies for the management of this hiti viz. guthi of Tepye and guthi of Shakyas.
One is responsible for the hiti complex while the other guthi is responsible for maintenance
and puja of inner part of the hiti. Falgun Purnima, Panjaa Astami, Disi Chahre are some
the important days for the puja based on lunar calendar. Recent major renovation was done
around 1962. In 1986 with some financial support of municipality, the hiti was maintained.
The regular cleaning and maintenance is done on Sithinakha. At present, Chyasal Tol
Improvement Committee is taking charge of the management of the hiti from 1982.
Rana Prime Minister Chandra Samsher installed two public taps after 1900. It is only about
three decades; the personal taps became popular in this area. At present almost 80% houses
have municipal connection but only 30% of them get water.
Municipal water supply is available every fifth day as in other parts of the city. Therefore,
the hiti is the only option for majority of the people. People started digging private wells in
this area from last decade. In last few years it mosroomed, especially in the Kiri Keba area.
Kathmandu Valley faced sever dry winter early 2006. When Chyasal Hiti dried, youths of
the area found that only that year more than 25 wells were constructed in Kiri Keba and
Chikan Bahi area, the aquifer of the hiti. There were wells some 50 feet deep with full of
water. The mob buried many of the wells and warned not to dig again. However, they believe
that several of these wells are again opened. Chyasal Tole Improvement Committee is also
initiating the aim of collecting off-time water.
The Thapaa Hiti case

This is one of the oldest hities in Patan charged from Naricha aquifer. The stone inscription
in the hiti complex with Surya Dewal37 describes that it is at least 900 years old. There are
three main hities and one small hiti with metal spout. The later was installed by bifurcating
the flow from the jaroon, which is no more in use. The intake of this hiti is located at Naricha
some 50m downstream to Naricha Hiti. A wide post is erected above the intake to protect
the intake. This hiti is serving around 250 houses of the neighbourhoods of Ubahal, Nau
Don, Gaji Bahal, and Prayag Pukhu.
The burnt clay hitidun is replaced by cast iron pipe during the major renovation in 1962.
After this renovation, aquatic life like frogs, snakes and fishes were lost. This year, people
of Thapaa Hiti and Tangal Hiti approached to Archaeology Department for land acquisition
of Naricha aquifer which could not happen in the absence of fund. Later influential people
started building houses on the aquifer area.
After the construction of houses in Naricha area, the discharge reduced greatly. In 2006, locals
found that some houses were running ‘mini water supply system’ by distributing water through
their shallow well. There were 22 wells in 47 houses. The community requested to control the
37. This design of Surya (meaning sun) are installed only in three other hities i.e. Sundhara, Mangā Hiti, and Saugā Hiti as informed
by Mr. Purna Man Shakya of Thapaa Hiti.
48
Thapaā Hiti
PLATE 42
The mangaa protected

under this post at
Naricha
PLATE 43
One of the drainage

chambers opened for
cleaning. The burnt clay
athah is the chamber.
PLATE 44
49
pumping of water from the aquifer. This initiative helped them to improve the discharge in
the hiti. The community is of the idea that there is an additional intake near cinema hall which
can be harvested for this hiti. In 1989, NWSC initiated water harvesting from the hiti during
night time. However, because of the poor management this system did not run for long. At
present because of limited discharge, local people are not convinced to go for Alkwo Model.
Time and again this hiti has faced problems of drainage. In 1943 Rana rulers constructed
a drain which drops in the drainage chamber of Saugā Hiti. Some 25 years ago the drain
was reconstructed and connected to hume pipe laid by IDA project. Because of improper
laying, the drain not only retuned the flow back, but discharged waste water of other areas
as well. At present this has been improved to much extent.
The guthi taking care of this hiti is already out of the memory of local people. Several attempts
were made earlier to conserve the hiti by the community. At present the most active committee
is Thapaa Hiti Lyamha Puchā (Thapaa Hiti Youth Group) which was established in 1999. Later
the seniors were organized under Thapaa Hiti Conservation Committee. The committee is
responsible for cleaning the hiti complex, regulating the use of hiti, and its maintenance.
The national movement of stone spout

conservation
There are three forces of dissatisfaction emerged to create a critical mass in bringing the
stone spout movement thus far. The first was the frustration of intellectuals and older
generation of the society of the destruction of the national heritage: arts and artefacts of
stone spouts and the culture related to it. The second was the slamming of religious norms
and culture in the competition with unmanaged urbanisation. The third and perhaps the
most strong force of dissatisfaction of the status quo is the thirst of the people. In recent
years in Nepal, and all over the world, conservation of water is one of the major issues. The
supply-side approaches of the 70s and 80s are being revised (?) to go for conservation.
Major renovation was conducted in several hities of Patan in the year 1961/62. It was not
known what was the reason for this initiative, but the government at that time gave some
fund to renovate several hities. The magistrate of Patan at that time mobilised the fund and
people for this cause38. Among several, the author was reported that Alkwo Hiti, Chyasal
Hiti, Thapaa Hiti, Saugā Hiti, Taapaa Hiti, Elahne Hiti were renovated. Some 15 years back
Lions Club of Patan initiated hiti renovation works, however in sporadic way. Lalitpur
Heritage Conservation Group later initiated renovation of some hities about a decade back.
Similar initiatives were taken time and again for the conservation of hiti where individuals
like Er. Narayan Govenda Halwai were involved.
38. Based on the conversation with Mr. Kil Bahadur Shrestha, Alkwo Hiti. One can observe English letter M in those renovations
representing King Mahendra or the materials used which is lime-surkhy, typical material before introduction of cement in those
days. This was the time the autocratic Panchayat System was introduced in Nepal by the same king.
50
Women were
in majority in the rally.
PLATE 45
NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation (NGOFUWS) and its members are one of
the pioneers in advocating these issues including conservation of traditional sources. When
municipal water supply failed to serve people, they started exploiting ground water unabated
in urban centres of Kathmandu Valley. The Alkwo Hiti case, Sundhara case, Chyasal Hiti,
Thapaa Hiti and Taapaa Hiti cases, the case of Saptapatal Pukhu of Lagankhel and many
more are the manifestation of these in-fights of our society where the government was not
in favour of the larger mass, knowingly or unknowingly. Perhaps, they lost their capacity in
competing with the market forces of urban areas where the land or water resource have
opportunity cost as well. Therefore, present movement to conserve traditional water spout
has become primarily the issue of governance.

After their initial success in distributing water in Ikhachhen neighbourhood, there was huge
pressure to Alkwo Hiti to expand the area. Other hiti organisations were also excited by
the success of Alkwo model. Alkwo Hiti and representatives of other hities have realised
that conservation of one hiti or water source is not possible leaving the others in vain.
Displaying their
concern in the rally.
PLATE 46
51
Establishment of HSSCA
While monitoring the multi million dollar project of Melamchi Water Supply for Kathmandu
Valley, NGOFUWS launched water conservation campaign in parallel. Rain water harvesting,
household level water conservation, value-based water education, are some of the areas the
forum was focussing. When the initiative of Alkwo Hiti was known, NGOFUWS lead a
promotion of such people-based water conservation projects using media and other tools.
Frustrated by the water scarcity, attracted by NGOFUWS water conservation initiatives
and stimulated by the success of Alkwo Hiti, a round table meeting took place at Ikhachhen
on 25th March 2006 among the local clubs and organisations related to hiti management.
This meeting agreed to establish Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation
Association (HSSCA) and formed nine-membered ad hoc committee. After two months,
the committee hosted a convention of hities and formally organised into HSSCA on 20 May,
2006 under the chairmanship of Mr. Sushil Shrestha from Alkwo Hiti. List of members are
presented in Annex A.
HSSCA launched first demonstration to call the people to join the conservation movement
on 27th May, 2006. All the associations of local hities took part in the demonstration for
conservation of traditional water sources. The situation has ripened this year. On 16 June,
2007 second rally was organised by HSSCA in association with LSMC, NGOFUWS, Rotract
Club of Patan Durban Square. 25 organisations, 31 tole improvement committees and 77
women groups took part in the rally calling for the conservation of traditional water
sources.
The first national convention

The hiti conservation initiatives of Patan also triggered similar acts to other cities of the
valley. NGOFORUM played important role to cross pollinate it to other cities of Kathmandu
The first convention on

hiti management.
PLATE 47
52
Valley. Young students and activists of several organisations of youths, Red Cross, Jaycees,
and NGOs including municipal staff were mobilised to raise the local issues of hities in these
four cities. For the national convention, all the cities organised city-level workshop to raise
their issues. All these findings were brought to the common forum under the banner of
national convention of stone spouts on 18th June, 2007. Participated by national personalities,
the convention ended with a declaration to work together at non-governmental as well as
governmental levels. The text of declaration is presented in Annex B. Apart from other
issues, as a token of joint effort, the convention declared to voice the cause of Saptapatal
Pukhu and Sundhara case.
Replication of Alkwo Hiti Model

One of the major achievements so far may be taken as the awareness of the people of Patan
to go for hiti conservation. With the initiation of HSSCA, NGOFUWS and Lalitpur Sub-
metropolitan City, several hities are in line to replicate the example of Alkwo Hiti model.
The hities trying to follow the Alkwo Hiti example are:
• Kwonti Hiti – under construction with the support of UN ESCAP.
• Elahne Hiti – the conservation work is underway with the support of USAID.
• Sundhara
• Taapaa Hiti
• Amrit Hiti
53
54
CHAPTER
6
THE CHALLENGES
The technical challenges
One of the first questions raised in every discourse of traditional hities is the ‘proof’ of aquifer
that is serving particular hiti or groups of hities. These issues are raised with several
intentions, sometimes to find excuse for encroaching the aquifer and the path of ground
water flow. And, there are also good reasons to explore these aspects as to conserve the area
both to recharge the water and control the activities affecting quantity as well as quality of
water. UDLE, in its studies of Patan Conservation and Development Programme, conducted

several studies on various aspects of ground water in Patan related to hities in 1992/93
(Joshi, P. R. 1993). These studies are a good basis for the further exploration of the issues.
A clear demarcation of all the aquifers, large and small are crucial for the conservation of
traditional water works.
It is already been very late to address the conservation of the aquifers as the urban expansion
has already gulped the areas for several purposes. It is reported that not only building houses
on these aquifers, they are extracting ground water indiscriminately from these aquifers. It
is not only the demarcation of the aquifers, but the flow path to stone spouts is equally
important. Mapping the channels linking the aquifers to hities, locating the mangaa, and
conserving the outlets are the preconditions for scientific and sustainable management of
traditional hities. This is more urgent in the case of drying out hities like Subaha Hiti, Kani
Baha Hiti, or Tyagā Hiti, for example. The issue of Alkwo Hiti incident, the Sundhara aquifer
case of PIE, the Taapaa Hiti case, the Chyasal Hiti case, the Thapaa Hiti and Sundhara
channels and many more are demanding some scientific studies in the area. Equally
challenging are the technologies used by the then engineers which are ‘maintenance free’
even for centuries. Scientific studies are required to discover the technologies used to filter
the water and maintaining the flow path.
55
Pukhus are yet another equally important segment of the whole system. Exploring the
possibilities of reviving the rajkuloes, alternative water ponding possibilities like rain water
harvesting, recycling of water, etc. are other areas of technical interventions. Observing the
topography, it is clear that the recharge zone of the aquifers of Patan is the southern tar
lands like Thecho, Sunakothi, and Chapagaon. Since these areas are encroached for housing
in very fast pace, recharging the aquifer would be another challenge in the days to come.
Therefore, recharging the ground with rain water is very crucial for the sustainability of hiti
systems in Patan in a long run.
Recommendations
Several activities are proposed for future interventions to further explore the technical
aspects of hities. This includes
• Study of traditional water conveyance and filtration systems
• Technical alternatives to hiti water distribution to meet present life style.
• Regular monitoring of discharge and quality of water.
• Replication of Alkwo model in potential hities.
• Study of technical problems associated with drying out hities.
• Study of aquifers, their boundaries, conservation, and recharge potentials.
• Mapping and documentation of hities: their intake systems and drainage systems
both in maps and physical demarcation at site.
• Study of Pukhus: the recharging function of Pukhus, possibilities of harvesting of
rain to feed through these Pukhus to the aquifers.
The legal challenges

Nepal is urbanising in very fast pace. However, the social and legal structure is not keeping
the pace with it. Even today, our land types are categorised based on agricultural productivity
norms. Therefore, the cadastral survey and land management departments do not recognise
various urban land uses. In the absence of such classification, with the given advancement
in building technologies; every land can be used for all purposes. Therefore, urban land
categorisation could be a milestone in urban management including the water works.
The complete system of water works of traditional hities are of public interest mainly from
two aspects, viz., the drinking water; and conservation of heritage and civilisation. The
Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) has categorically supported the right to conserve and
promote civilisation, culture, heritage including others39. The more than 1500 years old
water supply system undoubtedly lies under the scope of this constitutional provision.
39. Ineterim Constitution of Nepal 2063 (including 2064 amendments) (in Nepali) under Section 3.17.3 Civil right provision states
that all the communities residing in Nepal would have right to protect and conserve their language, script, culture, civilisation
and heritage.
56
In the case of water use and water rights, several acts are promulgated in recent past. Most
of these acts are limited to irrigation, hydro power and applicable to surface water sources.
There is a need of acts addressing ground water use. In case of traditional hities and its
complete systems, as discussed in previous chapters, there are several aspects of the system
that need to be protected. They are:
• the ownership of the complete system to the users and the state as public goods and
services,
• the control of unauthorised extraction of ground water at the source, flow path and at
spout,
• the protection of intake, mangaa, the water channels, the hiti complex, and drainage as
public goods and historical and archaeological objects,
• the protection of water bodies from point and non-point pollution sources, and
• the damage made by private or public intervention for other purposes at the source,
flow path and, at spout level
Of the several prevailing acts, most of the issues are addressed by Water Resource Act (1992)
and subsequent regulations, Essential Commodities Protection Act (1955), Ancient Monument
Protection Act (1956), and Environment Protection Act (1996). Moreover, the Local Self
Governance Act (1999) has categorically given the responsibility to protect and develop hities
to the respective municipalities. The Supreme Court decision against Namuna Matsyendra
School in the case of Saptapatal Pukhu was based on the religious, archaeological and cultural
importance40. Similar decision was made by the Supreme Court in the case of Ichangu water
dispute41 of local people and water vendors in Kathmandu. The decision of the court was in
favour of the local people that they have the first right to water against the vendors.
The Ichangu case could be precedence in the case of Sundhara source protection in PIE.

However, these cases do not answer the issues of extracting ground water by the houses at
the source or in the flow path for their household purposes. Does the land ownership also
gives right to ground water beneath it or not? Does the land title allows constructing house
and infrastructure that damage or restricts the natural flow of ground water? If proven that
the construction of infrastructures in recent past, be it private or public; that is damaging/
hampering the water system, can it be corrected or removed by the person or institution
doing so? To address these issues, a clear legislation addressing ground water issues including
drinking purpose is of dare need. However while preparing such legal tools; the social
organisations should use their political strengths to safeguard these historical and public
systems. Two major provisions may be used for such purposes for the time being. That are
the provision of Water Resource Act (1992) that declares the ownership of water found
within the Kingdom of Nepal is vested in the state (WAN, 2005). The second provision of
the same act that helps to protect the system is the priority of water use is given to drinking
40. Based on the decision made by the Supreme Court on 2005.02.18 made available by Mr. Purna Sthapit, Chairperson of Lagankhel
Environment Improvement Committee.
41. The decision of Supreme Court on 2005.06.13 against the water vendors made a decision that the primary water right is with the
people. One may extract ground water for household purposes, but sale of water will get secondary priority. Based on
conversation with Mr. Gyan Bahadur Karki, Chairperson, Paanch Dhara Mool Sangharsha Samiti.
57
water and domestic use (WAN, 2005). The third basis, in case of traditional hities, can be
drawn from the Ancient Monument Protection Act (1956) where these centuries old system
should be registered as national monument and heritage. Moreover, Environment Protection
Act (1996) also provides room for declaring hiti systems as National Heritage42.
One of the significant provisions in Water Resource Act (1992) and its subsequent regulations
of 1998 is the provision of Drinking Water Users’ Association. Registering such organisation
to manage water of each hiti will provide legal base to hiti conservation and its source
protection besides its equitable use.
Recommendations
There are several acts and regulations that support the conservation and operation of
traditional hiti systems. While utilising the existing provisions, one important aspects
of conservation of the water works is the first right to the aquifer to public use than
private use. Therefore, groundwater legislation may be required to address specific
issues of ground water management, its sharing among the stakeholders, and save the
resource from the syndrome of ‘tragedy of the commons’.
Declaring traditional water works (from source to sink) as a national heritage could
help to conserve the systems where users along with municipality, environment
ministry and archaeology department need to sit together.
The social challenges

The caste system, and the societal role based on the caste system has already changed. In
the changed context, the ‘upper class’ and ‘lower class’ norms are fading out. However, the
differences between haves and have nots have not differed. Those who could invest are
digging private wells, pumping water and relieved their burden even by paying tanker service.
Therefore, there is a rift between those who need to rely on hities and those who can escape
from the hities. This is true not only with differences in economic capabilities, but also the
fortunate in having reachable ground water in their land. The cases of Chyasal Hiti, Taapaa
Hiti and Konti Hiti are some of the examples of these. Therefore, the challenge is how to
bring all the members of the society in unity to address sustainable hiti management.
Drastic changes can be observed in the urban composition of historic core settlements of
Kathmandu Valley in recent days. There is in-migration and out- migration taking place in
parallel. Either because of sub division of parental properties, or inconvenience to meet
42. 42. EPA 1996 Clause 9 has provision to declare national heritage. By enlisting the site and publishing in the gazette National
heritage may be declared by the government.
58
changed life style, many people are migrating out of the old houses of the city core of Patan.
On the other hand, these houses are occupied by migrating people from other parts of the
country, particularly urban poor. They have migrated to these places because of cheaper
rent, nearness to their workplace, and/or easy access to public facilities including hities.
Migration of people from other culture obviously builds differences and conflicts. It is
obvious that when an alien goes to a hiti and becomes ignorant to the norms of hiti utilisation
that the locals were practising from centuries, rifts emerges. When their numbers is
overwhelmed, conflicts start taking shape. This is the case in most of the hities now a days.
Therefore, it is important to include the new comers in the system and patiently train them
with the common norms that they are practicing from centuries.
One more social issues need to be discussed here. Washing clothes, fetching water and cooking
are the customary job of the women from earlier time. Present urbanisation is heading towards
nuclear families, with both the male and female partners are working. In the changed context,
it is not only affordable to bring water from hities (with respect to time and efforts), the sharing
can be ‘shameful’ and difficult in the still male dominated society.
Therefore, maintaining the hities to discharge adequate water is only part of the solution.
Distributing at the door steps is equally important for the sustainability of the system. This
is one of the most appreciable aspects of Alkwo Hiti model.
It is not only the increase of the population that is demanding more water, but the change
in life style is also demanding more water. One of the social challenges is to make people
aware of the limitation of the resources and optimise available water sources. The Alkwo
model has started collecting water for five hours from 6 to 11 pm in the evening. There is

a plan to collect another several hours to expand the service. Two social risks that need to
be considered while expanding additional hours of water harvesting. The first is the right
of the poor to use this public facility. The second equally important issue is the historical
value and urban landscape of the hiti complex
in the neighbourhood. A hiti without water
is nothing better than a temple without god.
The dried Sundhara of Kathmandu does not
symbolise water to the passer by. Therefore,
whether harvesting water for household
delivery or for public use, diversion of water
before the spout should not be allowed. If
this is allowed, one will not have argument
against any attempt to extract water from the
intake or even from aquifer itself. Embankment
of Nhu Pukhu
encroached for
One more sharing needs to be discussed market. From three
here. It is not only sharing of water, it is also sides.
the sharing of the space that needs to be PLATE 47

59
The vegetable market
on the embankment
of Nhu Pukhu: there is
a competition for the
ownership of this space
between local club and
the municipality
PLATE 48
addressed. Space has become equally limited resource that should be shared by the public.
The hiti complex and its surrounding, the pukhu complex and its surrounding; and the
aquifer areas and its surrounding should be considered as public resources. Therefore, their
use for other than water management purposes can be labelled as inappropriate use. The
case of Nhu Pukhu in Lagankhel, where the surrounding of the pukhu is lost in the contest
with market forces to have shops and sheds. Tomorrow when these spaces become even
attractive to have multi-storeyed buildings, do we allow such buildings encroaching skyline
and the basement? This is another equally challenging social question we need to answer
now itself.
Recommendations
Two major recommendations may be drawn from social point of view. The attempts
of management work should gear towards harmonising the new comers towards hiti
management. Purposeful initiation of main streaming women in the process of decision
making and management of hities should be initiated
The most challenging part is the encroachment of Pukhus and hiti areas for other
purposes, be it public use like schools or government offices; or private use. There are
even trend of renting these spaces by community groups with one or other excuses.
Therefore, public awareness in keeping the public space intact for openness, public
functions and enjoying water works should be initiated by the municipality and local
user groups.
Awareness building programmes for schools and technical education centres should
be targeted. Municipal as well as community level leaders should be made aware of
the general concept of hities and its complete system.
60
The management challenges
Lichchhavi and Malla period management systems were emerged and refined with time.
They have divided the two tiers of water management so wisely that people even enjoyed
managing water. However, there were two major lackings in the traditional water
management, viz. the cover of religion and beliefs were made so thick in the course of time
that they forgot the real cause; and the transfer of technology and documentation of the
efforts were made so holy that everybody understood as the godly deeds and forgot the
skills; and consequently lost the technologies.
Urbanisation (in the recent form) is the most powerful force that is destroying the old
socio-economic base, and thus the social practices. The urban management backed by
rituals, religions and beliefs are no more appropriate with the same colour and outfits.
Perhaps, instead of fear pride might be appealing to many; and instead of benefit in ‘next
life’ admiration in this life may be persuasive to others.
The single-most cause of destruction of traditional management system is the erroneous policy
of the government to centralised management of the guthi system under Nepal Guthi
Corporation. This centralised system coupled with imprudent policy of replacing trust land
by cash, has destroyed the guthi and subsequently the whole management system that could
survive more than a millennium. This opportunity of breaking down the guthies not only raised
greed of people to grabbing the trust land, but also evoked them to hide other important
information, knowledge and wisdom which otherwise would have been shared with the new
generation. The Sinya Guthi of Sundhara lost when the land was shared among the guthi
members; the guthi of Bajracharyas of Alkwo Hiti were reluctant to share the information that

they have; the guthies of many hities are even out of the memory of people of this generation.
In such context, trying the same old tool may not help to address present demand of hiti
management. The reviving of Sundhara even in the absence of Sinya Guthi is an example.
It is very difficult to compete with the market forces in the country like Nepal with limited
land resources. The outskirt of previous time like Lagankhel and Jywalakhel are the new
centres of the expanded town. The so called school at Lagankhel43 or the Patan Industrial
Estate, the forces are commercial. In the first case it is the land resource and in the second
one it is the raw material for the industries in the form of water resource. Moreover,
encroachment of pukhu by Trade and Export Promotion Centre like in Pode Pukhu or
uncontrolled wells in all the aquifers, the market forces are so strong that the approach of
local people is too short and too weak. Therefore, the challenge is how to enhance their
capacity and how to make them politically stronger than the market forces.
The city level management of the water works was tarnished slowly and gradually also
because of the unwise participation of the state. There were issues emerged of allocating
43. Although it is said that the encroachment in Sapta Patal Pukhu is to expand the school, the reality is to construct a business
complex to utilize the strategic location of the pukhu next to Lagankhel Bus Park.
61
inadequate fund for building the chariot or similar activities in the case of Rato Matsyendranath
Jatra. The role of people and the community was minimised in last several decades. It is
annoying to note that instead of calling people to takeover the responsibilities once one
group of people were incapable of fulfilling their duties; the government used police and
army to pull the chariot or fulfil similar processes and activities. The caste system has
collapsed (at least in the form of profession). After sometimes Matsyendranath Jatra will
be suffering from the absence of Panjus as their new generation will be ‘delighted’ to flee
to the west. These examples have raised two aspects of the management: the direct
intervention of the state does not help nor the group (or caste) ownership of the past can
be continued in present form. The failure of NWSC managing water is yet another example
of central management system.
One of the foundation stones of management is the feeling of belongingness of the system.
The ownership feeling can be drawn from the dependency of the users to it. Therefore,
serving the population is a key to the sustainability of the system. Serving the water at
the door step is the strength of Alkwo Hiti model which not only attracted people to
invest in the system but also established ownership feeling. There can not be better
examples of ownership than burying their private wells to get the hiti water by the
individuals of Ikhachhen. The same technique is proposed by Taapaa Hiti Improvement
Committee. They are planning to distribute water with priority to the areas where private
ground water extraction was found. However, a question arises that if the supply of
municipal water is made sufficient, what will be the faith of these hities? As Melamchi is
still a dream at least for not less than a decade, there is still time for that. There are
management models under consideration in Melamchi Water Supply Project (and even
for electricity management) that the local level management is proposed to be devolved
to the communities at neighbourhood level to gain efficiency and controlling pilferage.
If this happens, the same community team can manage both the waters and bring best
out of it.
Alkwo Hiti model, as discussed above, has a risk as it is based on volunteerism. The
management committee and even the regular staff of the management team are volunteers
(or paid nominal). This is not possible in long run. Therefore, it is proposed that private
service provider (be it a person or group of people) must be serving under democratic
community leadership. Drinking Water Users’ Association to manage community water
could be a legal basis for the authorised water management body for a hiti.
In 2004 when Saptapatal Pukhu case was filed in the court, people from Mangā Hiti or
Thapaa Hiti (for example) read the news, but they were not prompted to support the
movement of Lagankhel Environment Improvement Organisation. This could be both,
because of ignorance that how important that pukhu is for these hities, and also because
people are confined to their immediate periphery. However, the recent initiative of HSSCA
is commendable. They, not only organised themselves, but wisely invited organisations
involved in pukhu conservation to join the team. Perhaps, rituals and festivals may not be
required to address these issues in 21st Century. Nonetheless, making most out of the
62
sentimental values of the people; which is defended by scientific knowledge that we have
gathered so far, would help to fight the commercially strong market forces. For this purpose
it is significant to bring state authorities like municipality, archaeology department,
environment department, district administration and many more on board who are
responsible for the maintenance, protection and management of such historic and public
utilities. The leadership, however, is required to be taken by among the users of the hities
and its system44.
Furthermore, recognising the strong bond of people to the festivals like Rato Matsyendranath
Jatra, HSSCA or the municipality can utilise the opportunity to educate the locals. Hiti
management and pukhu conservation activities may be harmonised with the festival. For
example, promoting the fish releasing ritual of Saptapatal Pukhu through media and brining
people to this auspicious activities or maintenance of pukhu or hities to welcome the ratha
of Matsyendranath could bring communities together in the conservation works.
Recommendations
Hiti management committee need to take the charge of local level management.
Neighbourhood organisations like tole improvement committee or local club, or
other forms of local organisations may be encouraged to take lead in such management.
Municipality and ward offices should be playing facilitating role in the process. In
hities where such organisations do not exist or are relatively weak, external supports
may be provided to raise awareness, build their capacity to recognise the need and
community mobilisation. Mobilisation and substantial involvement of women need
to be prioritised.

Since water works management is a service delivery system; corporate approach need
to taken for the management. As it was pointed out in the case of Alkwo Hiti, these
institutions may require external support to enhance their managerial capacity, the
skills of organisational management, nurtured by proper democratic institutional
norms. These institutions may require technical and other supports from external
agencies or from the local authorities.
In case of city level management, the municipality should be shouldering with HSSCA.
Broader representation of other stakeholders, both from civil society and government
organisations is important for the effective role of the organisation. Formal participation
of pukhu committees is also important in the HSSCA. Present HSSCA need to be
strengthened from this aspect.
44. It is important to mention here that the urbanization forces have enlarged the municipal boundaries both in aerial as well as
social sides. The Patan indigenous population could be already in minority when considered the whole municipality. Therefore, it
is important to categorically mention that the leadership of the management should be taken by the downstream users of the
water works so that proper representation is made for the sustainability.
63
Roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders
The narratives above have elaborated much of the roles of various stakeholders in the courses
of water movements in Patan. The recommendations are underpinned by roles of various
stakeholders. Putting it in more explicit terms there are five groups of stakeholders in
managing stone spouts.
• Users, the community groups
• Municipality
• Government agencies
— Department of Archaeology
— Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology
— District Administrators Office
— Divisional Office of Water Supply and Sewerage
• Non-governmental organisations including researchers
• Donors and International Conservation Organisations
As the local owners of the hities, users have the primary role in the conservation and
management of the system. With the establishment of HSSCA, the community groups have
already established their position not limiting to particular hiti, but a city level mechanism
with the strength of advocacy. Municipalities will have three roles. While providing financial
as well as other supports, they should be responsible for conservation of the spouts by playing
supervisory role. Moreover, they should be the link between concern governmental agencies
and donor communities as well. Here, the municipality should play the coordinating role.
Roles of various governmental agencies listed above, and many others would be at policy
level and will be based on sectoral expertise. For example, the archaeological department
would be more concerned with its historical and archaeological values but environmental
agencies are concerned on the conservation issues. The education office may play a vital
role in awareness building and research activities while water supply office should try to
incorporate the issues through their policy interventions.
NGOs should play a facilitating role in the whole process. This may include capacity building
of various stakeholders including the community groups, municipalities, and the government
agencies. Advocacy of the issues, technical backup and linking the donors and the users are
important roles of NGOs. Apart from supporting municipalities through its expertise, NGOs
can use its strength or bring the research partners for the research and development of the
hiti system.
Resource is one of the major limitations in the conservation and utilisation of hiti water.
Donor agencies including UN-HABITAT, UNESCO, INGOs have supportive role to play
in conserving and managing these resources for the welfare of locals and needy people.
Promoting these time proven technologies and management systems as best practices in
the international arena is yet another responsibility of this group.
64
CHAPTER
7
CONCLUSIONS:
THE PATH AHEAD
The fascinating water works of Patan, and rest of Kathmandu Valley; are exemplary works
of previous centuries which survived and serving even today. However, the technical
knowledge as well as management skills was not continued, thereby bringing the system to
the verge of extinct in competition with irresistible urban pressure in the valley. While this
book is being written, 12 hities of Bhaktapur are at the brink of collapse due to the widening
of a road. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to address the issues of traditional water
works conservation while meeting the water requirement of the locals.

Recent trend of forming hiti management committees is the replacement of lost (or about
to loose) guthi system by local level management system. At city level, establishment of
Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation Association, HSSCA in Patan shows an
encouraging trend in conservation of these time proven systems. Since this is the case of
resource sharing: sharing of the water resource – the sharing of aquifer or the discharge of
the hities; sharing of the Pukhus, and its recharge systems; these are the issues of governance.
Hence these are the political issues. Therefore, involvement of political institutions, be is
municipality or district administration of the government; their roles are equally vital. Local
level management by local users’ groups and city level management by city level community
institution (like HSSCA) in collaboration with other public institutions like municipalities,
and respective government organisations can create a synergy.
The most important activities for the sustainability of these water works would be bringing
awareness of the people, enhance the hiti systems to meet local water needs (partially if not
completely), and conserving Pukhus and aquifers that helps to maintain the system.
Investments are required in establishing water distribution systems, installation of
65
management systems in each hiti committees at local level and strengthening of HSSCA
and respective government institutions. Promotion of meaningful involvement of women,
both in decision making and management is crucial for the sustainability of the system.
Technical studies of the system and further researches, documentation of historical and
existing facts and figures, mapping of the systems are required. Rain water recharging to
the Pukhus and aquifers is yet another areas requiring applied research. Transfer of these
lessons to new generation through education institutions like schools and colleges are
equally important for the sustainability.
Besides others, two major legal recommendations can be made; i.e. establishment of first
right to public in using underground water resources (like aquifer) against private use, even
if it is household water use. The second legal provision would be enlisting the hiti systems
(from source to sink) as national heritage.
At last, hities can not be alive if there is absence of flowing water; therefore, conservation
is a must. The second social dimension is improving the system to cater present lifestyle,
while sharing the resource through out the cross section of the society including the poor
renters who are most dependent on this natural gift. Joint efforts of CBOs, NGOs, and the
governmental authorities including municipalities can bring faith to this pride of our
ancestors and hope of our future.
66
REFERENCES
1. Arnstroem, E. KV (1994) Water Supply in Lalitpur, Nepal- Case Study: Storage and
Redistribution of Water from Hities (stone spouts) in a small, urban area. Master Thesis,
Lulea University of Technology (unpublished).
2. Becker-ritterspach R. O. A. (1994) Water Conduits in the Kathmandu Valley; Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
3. Dixit, A. and Upadhya M. (2005) Augmenting Ground Water in Kathmandu Valley:
Challenges and Possibilities; Nepal Water Conservation Foundation, Kathmandu.
(internet publication)
4. HMGN, (1996) Environment Protection Act 1996, in Collection of Acts, Pairavi Prakashan,
Kathmandu.

5. HMGN, (1997) Environment Protection Regulations 1997, Ministry of Population and
Environment, Kathmandu.
6. HMGN, (1955) Essential Goods Protection Act 1955, in Collection of Acts, Pairavi
Prakashan, Kathmandu.
7. HMGN, (1956) Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1956, in Collection of Acts, Pairavi
Prakashan, Kathmandu.
8. Joshi, P. R. (1993) Feasibility Study of Rajkulo: Rehabilitation of Patan’s Traditional
Water Supply Network; Final Report; Patan Conservation and Development Programme,
UDLE/GTZ, (unpublished report).
9. Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007), Himali Prakashan, Kathmandu.
10. Locke, J. K. (1980) Karunamaya, Sahayogi Prakashan, Kathmandu.
11. NGOFUWS (2006), Traditional Stone Spouts Enumeration, Mapping & Water Quality,
NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation, (unpublished report).
12. NWSC Lalitpur Branch (2007), Introduction to Water Supply Problems and Alternative
Solutions, Internal report of Lalitpur Branch, (unpublished).
13. Pradhan, R. Dhunge Dhara: A Case Study of the Three Cities of Kathmandu Valley, In
Ancient Nepal, Journal.
67
14. Theophile, E. And Joshi, P. R. (1992) Historical Hiti and Pokhari: Traditional Solutions
to Water Scarcity in Patan; Patan Conservation and Development Programme, UDLE/
GTZ, (unpublished report).
15. Tiwari, S R (2001), in City Diagnostic Report for City Development Strategy of Kathmandu
Metropolitan City, Kathmandu Metropolitan City / World Bank, Kathmandu.
16. Tiwari, S. R. (2002) The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the ancient capital
of Nepal; Himal Books, Lalitpur.
17. Tiwari, S R, (2002) Transforming Patan’s Cultural Heritage into Sustainable Future:
Case Studies of the Past and the Present, (unpublished).
18. WAN (2005) Water Laws in Nepal; Water Aid Nepal Shanta Bhawan, Lalitpur.
68
Important events of Historical
ANNEX–A
Stone spouts and Source
Conservation Association (HSSCA)
1. Ad-hoc Committee Formation: 25 March 2006
1. Co coordinator Mr. Sushil Shrestha
2. Member Mr. Kullal Dangol
3. Member Mr. Purna Man Shakya
4. Member Mr. Shree Gopal Maharjan
5. Member Mr. Gopal Bahadur Shrestha
6. Member Mr. Narayan Hari Maharjan
7. Member Mr. Aroj Khadgi
8. Member Mr. Dilip Joshi
9. Member Mr. Manoj Chipalu
2. Formation of Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation Association :

20 May 2006

This first convention of organisations related to stone spouts took place at Alkwo
Hiti Chapah. The organization was given the name as Historial Stone Spouts and
Source Conservation Association (P]ltxfl;s 9'Ëw] f/f tyf d'xfg ;+/If0f ;+3)= Similarly, The
ad hoc committee was deformed and then nominated the new nine members
committee from the floor. The executive committee was formed over the working
period for 3 (three) years. The elected committee members
1. President Mr. Sushil Shrestha
2. Vice President Mr. Manoj Chipalu
3. Secretary Mr. Dilip Joshi
4. Jt. Secretary Mr. Narayan Hari Maharjan
5. Treasurer Mr. Shree Gopal Maharjan
6. Jt. Treasurer Mr. Tirtha Raj Bajracharya
7. Member Mr. Tulsi Prasad Sigdel
8. Member Mr. Bhai Raja Shrestha
9. Member Mr. Raju Byanjankar
69
Participating hiti or neighbourhood improvement committees in HSSCA
1. Alkwo Hiti Improvement Committee
2. Bhindyo Lachhi Tole Improvement Committee
3. Chhay Bahal Tole Improvement Committee
4. Chyasal Tole Improvement Committee
5. Hiku Hiti Improvement Committee
6. Iku Hiti Improvement Committee
7. Imukhyo Tole Improvement Committee
8. Kanibaha Tole Improvement Committee
9. Kumbheswor Tole Improvement Committee
10. Makā Hiti Improvement Committee
11. Mangā Hiti Improvement Committee
12. Naa Hiti Improvement Committee
13. Nagbahal Tole Improvement Committee
14. Nakhipot Tole Improvement Committee
15. Naricha Hiti Improvement Committee
16. Prabhat Parivar Club
17. Puchwo Tole Improvement Committee
18. Saithu Ganesh Hiti Improvement Committee
19. Saugal Tole Improvement Committee
20. Sincha Hiti Improvement Committee
21. Subahal Tole Improvement Committee
22. Taapaa Hiti Tole Improvement Committee
23. Tangal Tole Improvement Committee
24. Thapaa Hiti Tole Improvement Committee
3. Rally on Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation: 27 May 2006

A rally organized in association with Lalitpur Municipality and NGO Forum in Patan on
the occasion of Sithinakha to raise the issue of hiti conservation in Lalitpur.
4. Workshop on Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation 2006: 7 April 2007
Lalitpur Municipality Stone Spouts Conservation Workshop was held in Chyasal, Lalitpur.
This workshop to identify the issues and challenges was attended by organisations
representing hities of Lalitpur as well as participants from Bhaktapur and Kirtipur.
5. Pre-convention Workshops on Hiti and Source Conservation

7 April 2007 Lalitpur Pre-convention workshop
26 May 2007 Kirtipur Pre-convention workshop
9 June 2007 Bhaktapur Pre-convention workshop
15 June 2007 Madhyapur Thimi Pre-convention workshop
70
6. Rally on Historical Stone Spouts and Source Conservation 2007: 16 June 2007
A rally organized in association with Lalitpur Municipality, NGO Forum and Rotract Clubs
of Lalitpur in Patan on the occasion of Sithinakha. Twenty-five organisations 31 various
committees and 77 women groups representing various walks of life from Patan participated
in this rally. More than 10,000 people participated in the rally demonstrating their solidarity
in conserving stone spouts and traditional water sources.
7. National Convention on Stone Spouts: 18th June 2007

A national Workshop on Drinking water and Conservation of Stone Spouts and their Sources
was organized in association with NGO Forum at Hotel Himalaya. This workshop cum
convention was participated by representatives of five cities of Kathmandu Valley.
Inaugurated by Minister of Physical Planning and Works Ms. Hisila Yami, the workshop
was chaired by Mr. Satya Mohan Joshi, Senior Scholar of Newari Culture. Mr. Prayag Raj
Joshi and Mr. Padma Sunder Joshi presented papers on technical and managerial parts of
hiti conservation. Representatives of Archaeology Department, Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction, CEO of Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City, political
party representatives, Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee, Nepal Water
Supply Corporation, university professors, etc. participated in the workshop.
The workshop was the plenary of five workshops organised by five cities and was synthesised
to produce a common declaration on hiti and source conservation.
In addition, as the token of conservation, the convention declared to take the case of
Saptapatal Pukhu and Sundhara Hiti Conservation as the national issue to be addressed
with priority.
71
ANNEX–B
Declaration of National
Convention on Stone Spouts
Conservation of Stone Spouts and Source Conservation for Drinking Water

Declaration 2007
1. The ownership of traditional water sources including stone spouts be given to local
authorities.
2. The policy lacking in the field of stone spouts and source conservation will be addressed
by the Government of Nepal.
3. Local authorities will take the responsibilities of preparing maps of stone spout system
from source to sink along with cadastral mapping.
4. Historical stone spouts will be declared as national heritage
5. Conserve water sources and water path passing through private land. For the conservation
of watersheds and aquifers the government will declare the area as watershed area.
6. Annual budget for stone spout and source conservation will be allocated.
7. The municipalities will organise local communities including women into formal users’
groups and strengthen them for the conservation of stone spouts and sources.
8. Promote and celebrate Sithinakha festival as national festival of sanitation and organise
programmes of traditional water sources conservation on that day.
9. Promote studies on stone spouts, conduct researches and incorporate the subject in
various levels of curricula.
10. Promulgation of acts to control unauthorised use of ground water that hampers the
stone spout system.
11. Bring concrete programmes on stone spouts and source conservation by national and
international non-governmental organisations.
12. Adopt concrete policies, programmes and resources for the conservation of stone spouts
and source by local and central government.
Signatories
Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, GoN, Minister, (Mr. Dilip Maharjan)
(Ms. Hisila Yami) Member of Parliament
(Bhaktapur Municipality) (Bhaktapur Municipality)
Chairperson, HSSCA (Ms. Lajana Manandhar)

(Mr. Sushil Shrestha) Chairperson, NGOFUWS
72
ANNEX–C
Status of
Pukhus in Patan
SN NAME OF PUKHU STATUS USE REMARKS
1 La Pukhu Existing
2 Paleswan Pukhu Existing, size reduced Office The Municipality office
3 Pode Pukhu Lost Office Trade Promotion Centre Office
4 Pukhu behind M School Lost School Madan Memorial School
5 Chhabaha Pukhu Lost Public facility Community Dev. Div. of LSMC
6 Nag Pukhu Lost School Shree Shanti Vidyashram P S
7 Ligan Pukhu Lost Public facility Public toilet at Patan Dhoka
8 Pimbaha Pukhu Existing Conserved
9 Purnachandi Pukhu Existing, size reduced Public facility Public garden
10 Kumbheswor Pukhu Existing
11 Bhandarkhal Pukhu Existing
12 Kuti Saugaa Pukhu Existing
13 Khapichhen Pukhu Existing Maintenance initiated
14 Cyasal Pukhu (A) Lost School Shramik Shanti School
15 Cyasal Pukhu (B) Existing
16 Capah Pukhu Existing
17 Bhinchhebaha Pukhu Lost Private
18 Guita Pukhu Existing

19 Balkumari Pukhu (west) Existing, size reduced Public facility Converted to garden
20 Balkumari Pukhu (north) Lost Public facility Solid Waste Transfer station
21 Balkumari Pukhu (east) Lost Private
22 Tyagal Pukhu Existing
23 Podekasi Pukhu Lost Public facility Public open space
24 Chau Pukhu Lost School Prabhat School
25 Lakhe Pukhu Lost School Shramajeet Kishore School
26 Kanibahal Pukhu (Bhailagaa Pukhu) Existing, size reduced, surface sealed Public facility
27 Luksi Pukhu Existing, size reduced, surface sealed Public facility
28 Prayag (Pya) Pukhu Existing, size reduced, surface sealed School
29 Lagan Pukhu Lost Office
Namuna Machindra Boarding
30 Saptapatal Pukhu Existing, size reduced School School
31 Lagankhel Pukhu 1 Existing
34 Nhu Pukhu Existing Market Sides encroached for market
35 Ta Pukhu Existing, size reduced Private
36 Itungaha Pukhu Existing
37 Pukhu next to Chabaha Lost School Baal Mandir
38 Jywalakhel Pukhu Existing
39 Eulakhyo Pukhu Existing No water
Source: Joshi, P R (1993) and updated by the author
73
ANNEX–D
List of persons contributed

in the study
1. Mangah Hiti, Mangal Bazar d. Prem Bahadur Shakya

a. Gopal Shrestha e. Rajesh karmacharya
b. Bhai Raja Shrestha f. Kul Bahadur Chitrakar
2. Chyasa Hiti, Chyasal g. Bhim Hari Joshi
a. Raju Byanjankar h. Saroj Tandukar
b. Kaji Babu Byanjankar 8. Mr. Padma Sunder Joshi,Associate
c. Mohan Byanjankar Professor IOE (TU)
d. Bhim Maya Byanjankar 9. Mr. Satya Mohan Joshi, Pragya,
e. Hari Krishna Byanjankar Bakhum Bahal
f. Narayan Byanjankar 10. Dr. Sundarsan Raj Tiwari, Professor,
3. Taapaa Hiti, Tapahiti IOE, TU
a. Dev Krishna Khadgi 11. Mr. Pryag Raj Joshi, Program Officer,
4. Alkwo Hiti, Ikhachhen UDLE/GTZ
a. Bhaju Ratna Shakya 12. Mr. Narayan Govinda Halwai, MEH

b. Gyan Bahadur Napit Consultant
c. Madan Krishna Juwaa 13. Mr. Dilip Joshi, Secretary, HSSCA,
d. Kil Bahadur Shrestha subahal
5. Thapaa Hiti, Thapahiti 14. Mr. Chandra Lal Nakarmi, Branch
a. Naresh Bir Shakya Manager, NWSC
b. Purna Man Shakya 16. Mr. Prakash Amatya, ED, NGO forum
c. Amir Shakya for Urban Water and Sanitation
d. Rajan Shakya 17. Ms. Saubhagya Amaty, Lalitpur Sub-
6. L a g a n k h e l B a t a w a r a n S u d h i r Metropolitian City
Shrestha, Lagankhel 18. Mr. Prabin shrestha, Lalitpur Sub-
a. Purna Sthapit Metropolitian City
7. Nugah Hiti, Sundhara 19. Dr. Roshan Raj Shrestha, CTA, UN-
a. Manoj Chipalu HABITAT
b. Hari Sharan Chakhun 20. Mr. Rajesh Manandhar,UN-HABITAT
c. Rajiv Shrestha 21. Ms. Sudha Shrestha, UN-HABITAT
74
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
WATER
Andre Dzikus
Chief, Water and Sanitation Section II
Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure Branch MOVEMENT
IN PATAN
UN-HABITAT
P.O.Box 30030, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel +254-20-7623060, 7625082
Fax +254-20-7623588
Email andre.dzikus@unhabitat.org
Web www.unhabitat.org | www.unwac.org
Roshan Raj Shrestha

WITH REFERENCE TO
Chief Technical Advisor
UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal
UN House, Pulchowk, Lalitpur
P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel +977-1-5542816
Fax +977-1-5539877
Email roshan.shrestha@unhabitat.org.np
wac.nepal@unhabitat.org.np

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Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal

United Nations Human Settlements Programme

Roshan Raj Shrestha

United Nations Human Settlements

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

vii Abbreviations & glossary

5 The Historical Context

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

17 The Modern Mismatch 17

25 Present Water Stress in Patan

29 Movement for Water in Patan

65 CONCLUSIONS: THE PATH AHEAD 65

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Patan: The example

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

TABLE 1. Stone spouts in Kathmandu Valley

Typical gaa hiti

Photo courtesy NGO Forum

Gaa hiti: The stone spouts

Tun: The dug wells

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Tun, the typical traditional

Historical background of water system in Patan

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

The traditional water network of Patan

Rajkulo and city canals

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Shallow aquifers: the source of water

Water conduits: the hities

The stone flow distributors

The artistic and architectural part of hities is

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Traditional water management system

Family level management

Neighbourhood level management

City level management

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

The Bungadyo Jatra

This ritual must be underpinned to conserve the pond ecosystem.

15. Communication with members of Prabhat Pariwar Club of Sundhara.

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

The municipal water supply

Table 2. Municipal Water Supply Initiatives in Lalitpur 19

1970/71 Sundarighat sumpwell was added into the system

The recent encroachments

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Paleswan Pukhu: the lotus

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Prayag Pukhu, one of the

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

People at Lonla, Patan

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Alkwo Hiti: the hitigaa

The main aquifer of

Alkwo protected under

Water Movement in Patan with reference to traditional stone spouts

Management system of Alkwo hiti