ND Manual 2015-2016

LABAROTARY MANUAL
Of
Network device
For 2nd Year
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

PALUR HILLS, BERHAMPUR, ODISHA
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Network Device Lab Manual
1 | Page
Network & Devices Laboratory Rules

1) Students must enter the lab in time with wearing shoes, proper dress code,
observation copy & record .
2) Prior coming to the lab, students should have written the following in their
observation copy.
a) Aim
b) Apparatus required
c) Theory
d) Circuit Diagram
3) To facilitate student regarding experiment, the lab supervisors and faculty
member(s) will be available. But at the end of the semester, the students
perform the experiments by his/her own.
4) No student is allowed to switch on supply without the permission of faculty/lab
supervisor.
5) Student cannot leave the lab without approval of the result(s) from the
concerned faculty/lab supervisor.
6) Participation of each of the student in the lab is compulsory.
7) Record should be completed in all respects and submitted in the lab as
instructed by faculty (either in the same class or in the next).
8) Late submission of record shall be penalized.
9) Extra lab may be taken for the absentees, with prior permission from the
concerned HOD/Batch Coordinator in written, after the scheduled classes are
over. Students attending the extra lab will be evaluated out of 80 and not of 100.
10) Lab Exam/ quiz tests may be taken by the concerned faculty with prior notice.
Students failing to attend shall be penalized.
11) Any misbehavior in the laboratory will be viewed seriously and shall be
liable to disciplinary action.
12) Use of Mobile and other electronic gadgets are strictly prohibited except
calculator in the laboratory.
Lab In-charge
: Sasmita Padhy
Lab Supervisors
: Prasant Kumar Swain

S. Rabi Narayan Patro
EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2 | Page
GRADING POLICY FOR

NETWORK & DEVICES LABORATORY
SL NO.
CONTENTS
MARKS
DISTRIBUTION
1.
Experiment Performance
30
2.
Attendance
20
3.
Record
20
4.
Viva-voice
20
5.
Observation Copy
10
TOTAL MARKS
100
3 | Page
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
PAGE
Sl. No. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

1.
NUMBER
Verification of DC Network Theorems
(Thevenins Theorem, Nortons Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem, Reciprocity Theorem, Superposition Theorem )
2. (1) Study of Series RLC Dc Transient Circuits
(2) Time Response of First Order RC/RL Networks
25
Using bread board
30
3. (1) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter (Z & Y- parameters)
41
(2) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter

(Z & Y- parameters)
With rheostat
4. (1) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter
49
57
(ABCD & H - parameters)

(2) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter
(ABCD & H - parameters)
With rheostat
65
5.
Study of first order and second low pass Active Filters
73
6.
Study of first order and second High pass Active Filters
78
7.
Determination of self inductance and mutual inductance of a 82

Transformer As A Coupled Circuit
8.
Study of Resonance in Series R-L-C Circuit
88
9.
Study of Resonance in Parallel R-L-C Circuit
92
10.
Frequency response analysis of Tuned Coupled Circuits
96
11.
Verification of Compensation theorem and Millimans theorem for DC Networks.
99
12.
Study of Fourier Analysis
106
4 | Page
EXPT NO: 1
Verification of DC Network Theorems
(Thevenins & Nortons Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem,

Superposition & Reciprocity Theorems)
AIM:
The main objective of this experiment is to verify the theoretical results with the practical
results of Network theorems (Thevenins theorem & Nortons theorem, Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem, Superposition & Reciprocity theorem) for DC Network.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No
1.
2.
DESCRIPTION
SPECIFICATION
Theorem trainer kits

Digital Multimeter
QUANTITY
1
2
Required for the
Patch Cords
experiment
Table 1.1: Apparatus Required For the Experiment
3.
THEORY
An electric circuit is a closed conducting path through which electric current either flows
or is intended to flow. In a simple electric circuit, calculation of current through or the voltage
across any element is easier by application of basic electric laws. But, when it comes to a
complicated circuit, the application of ohms law makes solving more difficult. In order to
simplify this task certain network theorems came into existence.
Some of the important
commonly used theorems are:

1.
Thevenins Theorem.
2.
Nortons theorem.
3.
Superposition Theorem.
4.
Reciprocity Theorem.
5.
Compensation Theorem.
6.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
7.
Tellegens Theorem.
8.
Mill mans Theorem.
9.
Substitution Theorem
5 | Page
1(a) THEVENINS THEOREM:

STATEMENT:
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks A and B that are
connected together by two resistances less conductors. If either network contains a dependent
source, its control variable must be in the same network. Define a voltage Voc as the open circuit
voltage which would appear across the terminals of A if B were disconnected so that no current
is drawn from A, then all the currents and voltages in B will remain unchanged. If A is killed
(all independent voltage sources and current sources in A replaced by short circuits and open
circuits, respectively) and an independent voltage source Voc is connected, with proper polarity
in series with the dead (inactive) A network.
EXPLANATION:
The value of open circuit voltage Voc across the terminals of dead A network is called
the Thevenins voltage Vth and the equivalent resistance of dead (inactive) A network is called
the Thevenins resistance Rth. By rearranging the given network, by connecting the source
voltage Vth, thevenins resistance Rth and the load resistance RL in series. Then, we can calculate
the current flows through the load resistance.
Figure 1.1: Experimental Circuit Diagram
Figure 1.2: THEVENINS Circuit Diagram
To find the current through the load resistance RL divide the network in to two parts A
and B by separating the RL from the original network.
6 | Page
Figure 1.3: Circuit For Finding VTH

VO.C. = Vth =IR2R2
Vs
=
R2
R
R
2
1
=
Vth =
To find Rth: Replace all the current sources, voltage sources with open circuit and short circuit
respectively, in network below.
Figure 1.4: Circuit Diagram for Finding RTH

Rth =
R1 R2
R3 =
R1 R2
Now, we can replace the network in to Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in figure
below.
Figure 1.5: Circuit Diagram for Finding Load Current

IL =
Vth
=
Rth RL
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Using a multimeter across the + and connectors of (0- 12)V DC supply, observe the
voltage. Vary the pot and set the voltage to 12v, after switching ON the power supply.
7 | Page
3. From the Thevenins equivalent circuit diagram and from the measured values, calculate
the current flows through the load.
4. Connect the (+) connector of (0-12)V DC to (+) connector of DC network circuit and (-)
connector to (-) connector of DC network.
5. Open circuit the load resistor with the help of a connector and find out Vo.c orVth by using
multimeter as voltmeter in series.
6. Now measure Rth by short circuiting the voltage source and connecting the ohm-meter at
the open circuit terminals.
7. Then set the values of Rth and Vo.c orVth by using potentiometer which is given at the top
of the kit and connect these values to the equivalent circuit and find out the value of I L .
Again find out the value of I L from the main circuit and verify the results.
Result:
Verification of Thevenins theorem of the given DC network completed
successfully. Theoretical values & Practical values are tabulated as shown below.
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION THEORITICAL PRACTICAL
1.
Vth (Voc)
2.
Rth
3.
IL
Table 1.2: Theoretical and Practical Values of The experiment
8 | Page
1(b) NORTONS THEOREM

STATEMENT:
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks A and B that are
connected together by two resistances less conductors. If either network contains a dependent
source, its control variable must be in that same network. Define a current Isc as the short circuit
current which would appear at the terminals of A if B were short circuited so that no voltage is
provided by A, then all the currents and voltages in B will remain unchanged if A is killed (all
independent voltage sources and current source Isc is connected, with proper polarity, in parallel
with the dead (inactive network) A network.
EXPLANATION:
Divide the given network in to two parts A and B by separating the load resistance from
the given network. Short circuit current Isc is called Nortons current; it is the current flows
through the load resistor RL if it is short circuited. RN is the Nortons equivalent resistance
looking from the points of short circuited RL, then replaces the given network with the Nortons
current source (IN), Nortons equivalent resistance (RN), and the load resistance RL connected in
parallel.
Figure 1.7: Nortons Equivalent Circuit

Diagram
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS FOR IN, RN

Divide the network in to two parts A and B.
9 | Page
Figure 1.8: Equivalent circuit Diagram after removal of Load resistor

Calculations for IN (Isc)
Figure 1.9: Circuit Diagram For

Finding IN (Isc) Value
Vs
R2 R3
R1
R2 R3
Apply the Current Division Principal At Node to the branch R3

I sc
IR2
R2 R3
= A
Calculations for RN
Replace the current sources and voltage sources with
its equivalents and find the Req at the terminals BE
Req = RN =
RN =
R1 R2
=
R1 R2
Figure
1.10:
Circuit
Diagram
for
Finding RN
10 | P a g e
Calculation for IL: connect the current source IN <

Nortons resistance RN, and load resistance RL in
parallel
IL = IN X
RN
=
R N RL
=
Figure 1.11: Circuit Diagram for
A
IL =
Finding Load Current
mA
Therefore
IN =
mA
RN =
IL =
mA
PROCEDURE:
2. Using a multimeter across the + and connectors of (0- 12)V DC supply, observe the
voltage. Vary the pot and set the voltage to 12v, after switching ON the power supply.
3. From the Nortons equivalent circuit diagram and from the measured values, calculate the
current flows through the load.
4. Connect the (+) connector of (0-12)V DC to (+) connector of DC network circuit and (-)
connector to (-) connector of DC network.
5. Short circuit the load resistor with the help of a connector and find out I N orI SC by using
multimeter as an ammeter in series.
6. Now measure R N or Rth by short circuiting the voltage source and connecting the ohmmeter at the open circuit terminals.
7. Then set the values of Rth and I N by using potentiometer and DC current source which
is given at the top of the kit and connect these values to the equivalent circuit and find out
the value of I L . Again find out the value of I L from the main circuit and verify the
results.
Result: Verification of Nortons theorem of the given DC network completed successfully.
Theoretical values & Practical values are tabulated as shown below.

Sl. No.
DESCRIPTION
1.
ISC (IN)
2.
RN
3.
IL
THEORITICAL
11 | P a g e
PRACTICAL
Table 1.3: Theoretical and Practical Values of The experiment
1(C) SUPER POSITION THEOREM

STATEMENT:
The Superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network containing two or
more sources, the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused
by individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are non-operative; that is, while
considering the effects of individual sources, other ideal voltage sources and ideal current
sources in the network are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across their terminals. This
theorem is valid only for linear systems. Power cannot be determined by superposition, since the
relation between the power and current or voltage are non linear.
THEORY:
The principle of Superposition is a combination of additivity property and homogeneity
property. The property of additivity says that the response in a circuit due to no. of sources is
given by the sum of the response due to individual sources acting alone. The property of
Homogeneity says that if all the sources multiplied by a constant then the response is also
multiplied by the same constant.
The responses that can be determined by Superposition theorem are listed below:
1. Current in resistance, inductance and capacitance.
2. Voltage across resistance, inductance and capacitance.
3. Current delivered by the independent voltage sources.
4. Voltage across independent current sources.
5. Voltage and current of linear dependent sources.
12 | P a g e
While calculating the response due to individual sources all other sources are made inactive.
Therefore, while calculating the response due to one source, all other voltage sources and current
sources are replaced by short circuit and open circuit respectively
EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Figure 1.12: Circuit Diagram for Superposition Theorem

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
, R4 =
R5 =
Here, we are calculating the current in R2 branch using the superposition theorem.
When, Vs Source Acts Alone :(Is make it zero means open circuited find current in R2)
Figure 1.13: Equivalent Circuit After Open circuited the Current Source
The current values in each branch when the individual voltage source acting alone and
other Current source replaced by the open circuited is given below
Figure 1.14: Equivalent Circuit after Removal of current source

In, R5 No current will flows, because it is open circuited. So, neglect the R5 resistor
R3 and R4 both are in series. So replace it with its equivalent .

R6= (R3+R4) =
13 | P a g e
R6 and R2 both are in Parallel. So replace it with its equivalent .

R7 =
R2 R6
=
R2 R6
R7 and R1 both are in Parallel. So replace it with its equivalent .

R8= (R1+R7) =
Rearrange the Circuit, as shown in figure 1.15.
Figure 1.15(a):Equivalent Circuit
Figure 1.15(b):Equivalent
Figure 1.15(c):Equivalent
after Replacement of R3, R4 with R6
Circuit after Replacement
Circuit after Replacement
of R6, R2 with R7
of R1, R7 with R8
Now,
I1
Vs
=
R8
By using Current division principle find I11 & I 21

I 12 I 1
R6
R6 R2
I11 I 1
R2
R6 R2
When, Is Source Acts Alone :(Vs make it zero means Short circuited find current in R2)
The current values in different branches are given below.
14 | P a g e
Figure: 1.16: Equivalent Circuit After Short circuited the Voltage Source
Figure 1.17: Circuit with Current Notations

Apply KCL at junction 2,
I111 I 211 I 411

V1 V2 V2 V2
R3
R2 R1
----------------- (1.1)
Apply KCL at junction 1,
I 11 I111 I 311
Is
V1 V2 V1
R3
R4
----------------- (1.2)
Find the value of V2 by using the above equations (1) & (2)
IR2 = I 2
11
V2
=
R2
When, both the sources acts simultaneously (Vs and Is)
Figure 1.18: Equivalent Circuit when the both

the sources acts simultaneously and voltage notations
Now, apply Nodal analysis at junction 1,
V1 VS V1 V2 V1
0
R1
R3
R2
--------------- (1.3)
Now, apply Nodal analysis at junction 2,
15 | P a g e
V2 V1 V2
Is 0
R3
R4
--------------- (1.4)
By solving the equations 1.3 and 1.4, V1= Volts, V2=

Now, I2 =
V1
=
R2
Volts
Amps.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the power supply to the unit and switch ON the DC supply.
2. Connect the (+) and (-) of the DC Voltage source in between P1 and P2 respectively .
3. Connect the ammeter in between P3 and P4
4. Open the terminal P7 .
5. Note down the current I 21 reading in the ammeter.
6. Connect the (+) and (-) of the DC Current Source in between P7 and P6 respectively .
7. Short the Terminals P1 and P2 by using patch cord
10. Connect the (+) and (-) of the DC Voltage source in between P1 and P2 respectively
11. Connect the (+) and (-) of the DC Current Source in between P7 and P6 respectively .
16. Now switch OFF the supply, interchange the ammeter and voltage source, switch ON
again and measure current I 1 i.e. current through R1 .
17. Verify whether I 2 I 12 I 11
.
2
Result: By the observation the algebraic sum of the responses are equal to the responses when
both the voltage source and current source acting simultaneously. Hence the superposition
theorem is verified.

Description
16 | P a g e
When Vs Source
When Is Source
When both the sources Vs & Is
Acts Alone
Acts Alone
Acts Simultaneously
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
Theoretical
Practical
11
1
1
1
11
11
( I2 )
( I2 )
( I2 )
( I2 )
( I 2 I 2 I 2 ) ( I 2 I 211 I 21 )
Current in
R2 Branch
Table 1.3: Current in R2 Branch when Vs acts alone, Is acts alone,
and Vs & Is acts simultaneously
1(D) RECIPROCITY THEOREM

STATEMENT:
The reciprocity theorem states that In a linear bilateral single source circuit, the
ratio of excitation to response remains constants even though they are interchanged. Here the
excitation is either voltage source or current source and the response is either circuit current or
voltage in an element R, L, C.
The reciprocity theorem will be satisfied only by the circuits which does not have
dependent sources.
EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 1.19: Circuit Diagram-1 for Reciprocity theorem
17 | P a g e
Figure 1.19: Circuit Diagram-2 for Reciprocity theorem

EXPLANATION:
Consider the network shown in figure. 1.20 , AA1 denotes the input terminals and BB1
denotes output terminals. The application voltage V across AA1 produces current I at BB1. Now
if the position of the source is change from AA1 to BB1 the response will be at AA1. According
to Reciprocity theorem the ratio of input to response should be same in both the cases.
When the excitation is given at the terminals AA1 the response at BB1 is given below
Figure 1.20: Circuit Diagram when Source is at AA1 terminals

R6 = R4 | | R5 =
R7 = R3 + R6 =
18 | P a g e
Figure 1.21: Network Diagram After reduction

R8 = R7 | | R2 =
R9 = Req = R8 + R1 =
I=
V
= I1 =
Req
I2 = I X
R2
=
R 2 R7
I3 = I2 X
R5
=
R5 R3
For Volts excitation the response is
A.
If the excitation is changed from AA1 to BB1 terminals the response at AA1 is given
below
Figure 1.22: Circuit Diagram when Source is at AA1 terminals
R6 = R1 | | R2 =
R7 = R6 + R3 =
19 | P a g e
R8 = R7 | | R4 =
R9 = Req = R8 + R5 =
Figure 1.23: Network Diagram After reduction

I=
V
= I3 =
Req
I2 = I3 X
R4
=
R 4 R7
I1 = I2 X
R2
=
R2 R1
For V excitation at BB1 the response is
A at the terminals AA1.
By observation the ratio of the excitation to response is same as in the previous condition (when
excitation is at AA1 and the response is at BB1). Hence the reciprocity theorem is verified.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the (+) and (-) of the DC supply to P1 and P2 respectively .
2. Connect P3 and P4 using connecting wires.
3. Connect the ammeter across P6 and P7 .
6. Now switch OFF the supply, interchange the ammeter and voltage source, switch ON
again and measure current I 1 i.e. current through R1 .
7. Verify whether I 5 I1 .
Result: By the observation the ratio of excitation to response remains same even though they are
interchanged. Hence Reciprocity theorem is verified.
20 | P a g e
S.
No
1.
Condition
Excitation
Excitation at AA & Response at BB
2.
Excitation at BB1 & Response at BB1
Response
Theoretical
Practical
Table 1.3: Excitation and Response Values When Source position Interchanged
1(E) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

STATEMENT: (D.C. Network)
A resistance load, being connected to a D.C. network, receives maximum power when
the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance (Thevenins equivalent resistance of the
source network as seen from the load terminals.
EXPLANATION:
A variable resistance RL is connected to a D.C. source network as shown in figure 5.2 (a)
while figure 1.24(b) represents the Thevenin voltage V0 and Thevenin resistance Rth of the
source network.
21 | P a g e
Figure 1.24: Simple DC Network with Load RL

And Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Diagram
The main aim is to determine the value of RL such that it receives maximum power from
the D.C. source.
With reference to the figure 11.24 (b) I =
V0
( Rth RL )
While the power delivered to the resistive load is

V0
PL = I RL =
Rth RL
2
X RL
PL can be maximized by varying RL and hence, maximum power can be delivered when
dPL
0
dRL
However,
dPL
1
=
dR L
Rth RL 2
1
Rth RL 4
V0
d
2 d
2
2
Rth RL 2
V0 RL V0 RL
Rth RL
dRL
dRL
RL V0 V0 RL X 2Rth RL
2
th
Rth RL Rth RL 2RL = V0 2 Rth RL

Rth RL 4
Rth RL 3
V0 Rth RL
2
Finally
Rth RL 3
which gives Rth - RL = 0
=0
(or) Rth = RL
Hence, it has been proved that power transfer from a D.C. source network to a resistive
network is maximum when the internal resistance of the D.C. source network is equal to the load
resistance.
22 | P a g e
Pmax =
V0 RL
Rth RL 2
V0 Rth
2 Rth 2
V0
4 Rth
This is the power consumed by the load.

EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT DIARAM:
Figure 1.25: Circuit Diagram for the Experiment

Step 1: Remove the load resistance and find Thevenins resistance (Rth) of the source network
looking through open circuited load terminals.
Figure 1.26: Circuit Diagram for Finding RTH

Rth =
=
Step 2: As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this Rth is the load resistance of the
network i.e. RL = Rth that allows maximum power transfer
RL = Rth =
step 3: Find the Thevenins voltage V0 across the open circuited terminals
Figure 1.27: Circuit Diagram for Finding VTH
23 | P a g e
Vo.c. = VAB = Vth = I3 R=

Req =
=
V
I=
=
= I3 =
Req
Vth =
=
Step 4: Maximum power transfer is given by

Pmax = =
RL < Rth =
V0
4 Rth
P=
V0 RL
Rth RL 2
RL > Rth = 3.5 K

2
V0 RL
P=
=
Rth RL 2
OBSERVATIONS:
S.
No
1.
VTH
Condition
RL
(in ohms)
IL
PL= (IL) 2 RL
(in mAmp)
(in Watts)
RL < RTH
2.
RL = RTH
3.
RL > RTH
Table 1.4: IL, PL Values for Various Values of RL

MODEL GRAPH:
Figure 1.28: RL Verses Load Power Graph
24 | P a g e
PROCEDURE
2. Find the Rth Value by using multimeter.
3. Then set R L to the value of Rth and find out I L .Then find out power by using the
formula PL I L RL , Again set R L value less than Rth and another value greater than Rth
2
and fallow the same procedure. Then compare the powers in three cases, it should be
maximum for RL Rth .
4. Draw the graph between RL and Power.
Result: Successfully conducted the Maximum Power Transfer theorem experiment and a graph
is drawn for Power across the load with respect to Load resistance value. The various readings of
load current for the conditions RL< Rth , RL> Rth, and RL=Rth are also tabulated.
25 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 2.1
Study of Series RLC DC Transients

AIM:
Study of DC transients of RL, RC and RLC series circuit.
APPARATUS:
S. No
Description
Specification
Quantity
1.
DC transient trainer kit.
2.
CRO
3.
Patch cords
Required for
the Experiment
Table 2.1.1: Equipment required for the Experiment

THEORY:
Steady State & Transient State:
A circuit with currents and voltages having constant amplitude and constant frequency sinusoidal
functions are also consider to be steady state. That means circuit having constant source is said to
be steady state, so that the amplitude and frequency of sinusoidal never changes in a steady state
circuit. In this circuit response depends on nature of the source. That is why it is called steady
state response.
In a network containing energy storage elements like inductors and capacitors with change in
excitation the current and voltage changes from one state to another state is called transient state.
For example in our house, when switch S is in OFF condition, at that time circuit is in initial
steady state with no current and hence no voltage drop. When switch S is in ON condition,
transient voltage develops and the circuit achieves final steady state within short period of time.
The period during which current and voltage changes take place is called transient condition.
Hence the complete response of a circuit consists of two parts i.e. steady state response and
transient response.
DC Response of a Series R-L Circuit:
Consider the R-L circuit shown in figure below with switch S open and applied DC voltage
V.
26 | P a g e
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1.1. (a) Series RL Circuit (b) Charging current profile in R-L Circuit
When the switch S is closed, we can determine the complete solution by applying the kirchoffs
voltage law to the circuit i.e.
V Ri L
di
dt
Divide equation (1) by L,

V
di R
i
L
dt L
The above equation is a linear differential equation. It can be written as,

dx
px k
dt
Whose solution is,

x e pt ke pt dt Ce pt
where C is a arbitrary constant.

In a similar way the current equation will be,
i Ce
R
t
L
R
t
L
V L t
i Ce
L e dt
R
t
L
V
R
To determine the constant C, apply the initial condition i.e. at
t 0, i 0.
Substituting the value of i 0 in the above equation, we get,

C
V
R
Substituting the value of C in the above equation we get,
27 | P a g e
V L t V
e
i
R
R
t
V
i 1 e L
R
In the above equation, steady state part is
V t
V
and transient part is e L .
R
R
Dc Response of a Series R-C Circuit:

Consider the RC circuit shown in figure below
with switch S and applied DC voltage V.
When switch S is closed , we can determine the
complete solution by applying kirchoffs voltage
law to the circuit,
V Ri
1
idt
C
Figure 2.1.2. Profiles of v R and vC in RC

Charging Circuit
Differentiating the above equation we get,
0R
di i
dt c
Dividing the above equation by R we get,

1
di
i0
dt RC
The above equation is a linear differential function whit only complementary solution.
The solution for this equation is,
i Ce
RC
When switch S is closed at t 0 , the capacitor never allows sudden changes in voltage,
it will act as a short circuit. At t 0, i V
Substituting these values in the above equation we get,

C
V
R
28 | P a g e
V
the current equation becomes, i e RC
R
In this equation
1
is time constant and denoted by .
RC
DC Response of a Series R-L-C Circuit:

Consider the RLC circuit shown in figure below, with switch S & applied voltage V.
When switch S is closed at t 0, we can determine complete solution. Applying kirchoffs
voltage law,
V iR L
di 1
idt
dt C
differentiating the above equation we get,
0R
di
d 2i i
L 2
dt
C
dt
d 2 i R di
1
i
2
L dt LC
dt
The above equation is a second order, linear, homogenous differential equation. The
characteristic equation then becomes
D2
1
R
D
0
L
LC
where the coefficients are constant. The roots of the characteristic equation then becomes
2
1
R
R
D1 , D2

2L
LC
2L
Let,
k1
R
,
2L
D1 k1 k 2 ,
1
R
k2
LC
2L
D2 k1 k 2
Also, the solution of differential equation becomes,

i C1e D1t C2 e D2t
C1 and C 2 being the constants.
29 | P a g e
CASE - I
2
1
R
When
, the current response is
LC
2L
over-damped as shown below.
Figure 2.1.3. Current Over damping
CASE - II
2
1
R
When
LC
2L
under damped as shown below.
Figure 2.1.4. Current Oscillation

CASE - III
2
1
R
When
LC
2L
critically damped as shown below.
Figure 2.1.5. Critical Damping of Current
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the R-L Circuit as per the circuit Diagram.
2. Apply the square wave signal voltage to circuit.
3. Observe the waveform across R and across L in the CRO, trace the output.
4. Repeat the above steps for both R-C and as well as R- L-C Circuit.
Result: Successfully conducted the DC Transients experiment and observe the voltage across R,
across L and across C.
30 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 2.2
Time Response of First Order RC/RL Networks

AIM: To find the time response of first order RC network for periodic waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No
1.
Description
Function generator
Specification
20 V P-P
Quantity
1
2.
Decade Resistance Box
1 1M
3.
Decade Capacitance Box
10F 1mF
4.
Decade Inductance Box
10H 1H
5.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
6.
Bread board
7.
Connecting probes
Required For the

Experiment
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 2.2.1:High Pass RC Circuit:
Figure 2.2.2: Low Pass RC Circuit
THEORY:
Time response means the response (or) variation of output voltage with change in time.
Here, we consider the RL and RC circuits.
Low pass circuits are those which reject all frequencies above a specified value called cut
off frequency. The signal of all frequencies is passed without attenuation.
31 | P a g e
The High pass circuits are those which reject all frequencies below a specified value.
This circuit is a compliment of Low pass circuit. This passes all frequencies above the cut off
frequency without attenuation.
Time constant: Time constant is defined as the time during which voltage across the capacitor
would have reached to its maximum value v and it is maintained its initial rate of rise = RC, the
time constant for RL circuit is given by = L/R.
These RL and RC circuits are useful in many applications. RC differentiator finds useful
applications in converting a triangular into square wave. By using High pass RC circuits pulses
can be considered into spikes by making time constant small.
Low pass circuit can be used as a voltage sweep generator (or) ramp generator. We obtain
under damped or over damped responses using RLC circuits. We can obtain average or DC
values of output voltages at constant, whatever the DC value of input voltage using the circuit.
We can study a band of frequencies using these circuits. In electrical engineering Low
pass and High pass filters are also utilized in order to eliminate the undesired frequency
components resulting from control circuits.
RL circuit (step input)
Figure 12. 3: Equivalent Series RL Circuit
Figure 12.4: Time Verse Voltage across
for Transient Analysis
Inductor, Resistor
V Ri L
di
dt
(or)
di R
V
i
dt L
L
R
V
D i =
L
L
Since it is a Non Homogeneous linear equation it (i) has two parts (i) = ic +ip
ic = C
ip
R
t
L
V 0t
e
L
R
D
L
put D = 0,
i ic i p = C e
At t = 0
Then i =
32 | P a g e
R
t
L
V
R
V L V
=
X
L R
R
V
R
C
i (0) = 0
R
t
L
ip =
V
R
V
R
t
V
L
1
e
= R
t
V

1 e
= R
amps
Here =
L
R
voltage across resistor VR = iR

t

V
1 e = V
VR = R X

1 e
Voltage across inductor VL = L
di
dt
t
V R
VL = L X e
=V
R L
t
e
RC circuit (step input)
Figure 2.2. 5: Equivalent Series RL Circuit

for Transient Analysis
Figure 2.2.6: Time Verse Voltage across

Inductor, Resistor

V Ri
33 | P a g e
1
idt
C
By differentiating the above equation, we get
di 1
i =0
dt C
di
1
+
i=0
dt
RC
(or)
Since the equation is a Homogeneous linear differential equation. It has only complimentary
solution.
i Ce
t
RC
amp
V
substitute in the above equation
i
R
At t = 0
t
RC
V
e
i
R
V
e
(or)
R
Voltage across resistor R is
i
Here = RC sec
VR R i R
V
e
R
VR Ve
---------(3)
voltage across capacitor C is
1
vC = idt
C
t
1 V
Ce RC dt
=
C R
V
RC
e RC +C = - V e +C
=
XRC
1
At t = 0 voltage across capacitor is V
vC = 0 = - V e0 + C C=V
vC = V
1 e
V --------(4)
34 | P a g e
HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT

Consider the RC circuit shown in figure.
Figure 2.2.7: High Pass RC Circuit

Let Vin = Input signal and V0 = Output voltage
I = Current flows through the circuit.
If the input signal Vi is non-sinusoidal, it can be visualized as comprising of several sine
waves of frequencies which are multiples of the frequency of the signal, and there may be a d.c.
component also. Since the reactance of the capacitor decrease as the frequency increases
Xc=1/2fC, the capacitor offers very little impedance to harmonics of higher orders. Hence the
high frequency components of the input voltage pass through the network with very little
attenuation. For this reason the circuit is termed as High Pass RC circuit.
LOW PASS R-C CIRCUIT
Consider the RC circuit shown in figure 2.5
Figure 2.2. 8: Low Pass RC Circuit

It may be observed that this circuit is same as the high pass RC circuit, so far as the
circuit configuration is concerned. However there is one basic difference, where as in the high
35 | P a g e
pass circuit the output is taken across the resistor, in the circuit under consideration the output is
taken across the capacitor.
Since the reactance of a capacitor decreases with increase in frequency and vice versa it
can be seen that the capacitor offers larger impedance to the low frequency components of the
input voltage and hence these low frequency components pass out easily to the output without
any appreciable attenuation. The circuit is therefore called Low Pass RC circuit
RESPONSE OF HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT TO SYMMETRICAL SQUARE WAVE INPUT:
Figure 2.2.9: Circuit Diagram and Its Input signal for High Pass RC Circuit.
Consider the high pass RC circuit as shown in fig. Let the forcing functio9n be a
symmetrical square wave of peak to peak amplitude V and period T
Case (i) Let RC<<T
If the time constant is far smaller than the time period the output voltage decays rapidly
and exponentially as already discussed in step input. At t=T/2, the input voltage drops from +V/2
to V/2 abruptly. Hence the output voltage also drop by the same amount V. Therefore Vo=-V at
t=T/2 . The voltage V rapidly and exponentially decays towards zero as shown in output wave
form.
Again at t=T i.e., at the end of a period, the input voltage rises abruptly from 0 to +V and
there it begins to decay exponentially towards zero.
Here the time constant =RC
36 | P a g e
Figure 2.2.10
Let RC>>T
If the time constant is quite large the exponential decay of the output voltage is slower, as
seen already. This results in a tilt at the top of the input wave and an undershoot at the bottom, as
is obvious from the output wave form.
Figure 2.2.11
PQ is the tilt at the top of the wave. The general expression for percentage tilt is
1 e
% Tilt =
1 e
T
2 RC
T
2 RC
X 200
If RC >> T The percentage tilt becomes.

% Tilt =
37 | P a g e
T
x 100
2 RC
RESPONSE OF LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT TO SYMMETRICAL SQUARE WAVE INPUT;
Figure 2.2.12
Let =RC <<T where
is the time constant and T is the time period of the wave. At time t=0,
the input voltage is equal to V/2 . The output voltage is exponentially increasing, we have
V0=V(1-e-t/RC), where V is the amplitude of voltage at t = T/2 the output voltage is less than V/2,
by making the line constant is too low (RC << T) V0 reaches to V/2 before T/2, at t = T/2 the
input voltage changes to (V/2) from V/2. So, the output is progressively decreases and reaches
to (V/2) at some time. The output voltage V0 waveforms is shown in figure.
Figure 2.2.13
At RC >> T.
38 | P a g e
At t = 0 the input voltage is at V/2 and the output voltage is exponentially increasing and it
cannot reaches to its maximum value at t = T/2 because of large time constant. When t = T/2 the
input voltage is (V/2), then the output exponentially deacreases and the voltage wave form is
repeats for the successive input wave (square wave). The output wave forms when RC >> T is
shown in figure.
Figure 2.2.14
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
Figure 2.2.15
At t =
R = 1 K,
C = 1 F,
T = 1 ms.
= 1 X 103 X 1 X 10 -3 s.

V0 =
V
tanh x
2
where x =
T
4 RC
AT V = 20 V, R = 1X103, C = 1X10-6 F,
V0 =
39 | P a g e
t = 1X10-3 s
1X 10 3
20
tanh
= 2.44 V
2
4 X 1X 10 3
(2) RC = << t
Figure 2.2.16
t = 1 m sec,
= 1 sec
at R = 1 (in between 1 to 1 K ), C = 1 F
V0 =
V
tanh x
2
V0 =
1X 10 3
20
tanh
=
2
4 X 1X 10 6
where x =
T
4 RC
(3) RC = >> t
Figure 2.2.17
40 | P a g e
t = 1 m sec,
For = 10 m sec,
V0 =
V
tanh x
2
R = 1 K (in between 1 K 10 K),

where x =
C = 1 F.
T
4 RC
1X 10 3
20
tanh
= 0.25 V
V0 =
2
4 X 10 X 10 3
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per the circuit to observe the output voltage across
resistor.
2. Set the resistance value in the Rheostat by using multimeter.
3. Apply Non sinusoidal square input of 20 V peak to peak and with a time period (t) of 1 m
sec.
4. Observe the wave form across R at different conditions viz, (1) = t, (2) << t, (3) >> t,
by varying its Time constant where = RC
5. Draw the observed wave forms on a graph sheet
6. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram to observe the output wave across capacitor.
7. Apply Non sinusoidal square wave 20 V Vp-p with a time period (t) of 1 m sec.
8. Observe the wave forms in C.R.O. at different conditions viz, (1) = t, (2) << t, (3) >>
t, by varying its Time constant where = RC
RESULT:
Hence the response of RC circuit is determined and output wave forms are drawn at
different time constants.
41 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 3
Determination of Two Port Network Parameter

(Z & Y- parameters)
AIM: To find the Impedance (Z) and Admittance (Y) parameters of a given network.
APPARATUS:
S. No
Description
1.
Two port network trainer kit
2.
Multi meter
3.
Patch cords
Specification
Quantity
1
Digital
1
Required for
the Experiment
Table 3.1.1: Equipment Required For The Experiment

THEORY:
A two port network is simply a network inside a black box, and the network has only two
pairs of accessible terminals. A port is defined as any pair of terminals into which energy is
supplied, or from which energy is withdrawn. Usually one pair represents the input and the other
represents the output. Such a building block is very common in electronic systems, transmission
and distribution systems.
Figure 3.1.1: Block diagram of Two port Dc Network

Figure shows a two port network, or two terminal pair network, in which the four
terminals have been paired into ports 1-1| and 2-2|. The terminals together 1-1| together
constitutes a port. Similarly the terminals 2-2| constitute another port. The voltage and current
assigned to each of the two ports. The voltage and current at the input terminals are V1 and I1
where as V2 and I2 are specified at the output port. It is also assumed that the currents I1 and I2
are entering into the network at the upper terminals 1 and 2 respectively. The variables of the two
42 | P a g e
port network are V1, V2 and I1, I2. Two of these are dependent variables the other two are
independent variables.
Z- Parameters:

The Z parameters of a two port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port voltages V1 and V2 in terms of the currents I1 and I2. Here V1
and V2 are dependent variables and I1 and I2 are independent variables. The voltage at port 1-1| is
the response produced by the two currents I1 and I2.
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
Similarly,
------------------ (1)
V2=Z21I1+Z22I2 ------------------ (2)
Z11,Z12,Z21,Z22 are the network functions and are called impedance(Z) parameters. These
parameters can be represented by matrices
[V]=[Z][I]
V1
Where [V] is the voltage matrix =
V2
Z11
[Z] is the square matrix =
Z 21
Z12
Z 22
I1
and we may writ [I] in the column matrix =
I 2
V1 Z11
Thus =
V2 Z 21
Z12 I 1
Z 22 I 2
The individual Z parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each port
current is equal to zero, suppose port 2-2I is left open circuited then I2 = 0
Thus Z11 =
V1
at I2 = 0
I1
43 | P a g e
Where Z11 is the driving point impedance at port 1 1| with port 2 2| open circuited. It is called
the open circuit input impedance.
Similarly Z21 =
V2
at I2 = 0
I1
Where Z21 is the transfer impedance at 1 1| with port 2 2| open circuited. It is also called
open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Suppose port 1-1I is left open circuited then I1 = 0
Thus Z12 =
V1
at I1 = 0
I2
Where Z12 is the transfer impedance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1| open circuited. It is also called
the open circuit reverse impedance
Similarly Z22 =
V2
at I1 = 0
I2
Where Z22 is the driving point impedance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1| open circuited. It is also
called open circuit output impedance.
EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Figure 3.1.3: Circuit Diagram for the Experiment

OPEN CIRCUITS IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS:
To find Z11, Z21 when I2=0 ie.,

open circuited
Figure 3.1.4: Circuit Diagram for Z11 and Z21
44 | P a g e
To find Z12, Z22 when I1=0 ie.,

open circuit
Figure 3.1.5: Circuit Diagram for Z22 and Z12

Short circuit Admittance parameters (Y):

The Y parameters of a two port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may be
defined by expressing the port currents I1 and I2 are dependent variables and V1 and V2 are
independent variables. I1 caused by the effect of two voltages V1 and V2.
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 and I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
The individual Y parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each port voltage to
zero. If we let V2 be zero by short circuiting port 2 - 2| then
Y PARAMETERS

SHORT CIRCUITS ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS:
45 | P a g e
To find Y11, Y21 when V2 = 0 i.e.

short circuited the port 2 2|
Figure 3.1.8: Circuit Diagram for Y11 and Y21

To find Y22, Y12 when V1 = 0 i.e.
short circuited the port 1 1|
Figure 3.1.9: Circuit Diagram for Y22 and Y12

Y11 =
I1
at V2 = 0
V1
where Y11 is the driving point admittance at port 1 1| with port 2 - 2|
short circuited. It is also called short circuit input admittance

Similarly Y21 =
I2
at V2 = 0 where y12 is the transfer admittance at port 1 1| with port 2 - 2|
V1
short circuited. It is also called short circuit forward transfer admittance

If we let V1 be zero by short circuiting port 1 1 |
Y12 =
I1
at V1 = 0
V2
where Y12 is the transfer admittance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1I short
circuited. It is also called short circuit reverse transfer admittance

Y22 =
I2
at V1 = 0
V2
where Y22 is the driving point admittance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1|
short circuited. It is also called short circuit output admittance.

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (Z PARAMETERS)
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
V2=Z21I1+Z22I2
46 | P a g e
When I2 = 0, i.e. 2 - 2I is open circuited.
I1
V1
Req
I R4 I1
V2 =
R3
R3 R4 R2
I R4 R4
V
Figure 3.1.10
V
Z11 = 1 at I2 = 0 =
I1
V2
at I2 = 0 =
=
I1
To find Z12 and Z22 let I1 be zero by making port 1
1| open circuited.
V
=
A.
I2 2 =
Z eq
Z21 =
V1 =
I 2 R4
X R3 =
R2 R 3 R4
V
Figure 3.1.11
Z12 =
V1
at I1 = 0
I2
Z22 =
V2
at I1 = 0
I2
Z11 =
Z12 =
Z21 =
Z22 =
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (Y PARAMETERS)
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
and
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
To find the values of Y11 and Y21, let V2 be zero by making short circuit at port 2 - 2|
Figure 3.1.12

Req =
I1 =
V1
=
Req
I2 = I1 X
R2 R3
=
R2 R3
R1
R3
R2 R3
mA
I1
at V2 = 0
V1
Y11 =
47 | P a g e
.
mA
mho
I2
at V2 = 0
=
=
V1
To calculate Y12 and Y22 make V1 at 1 1| port is zero.
Y21 =
mho
Figure 3.13
R5 =
Req=
I2 =
R1 R3
R1 R3
R5 R 4
R5 R 4
R2
V2
Req
R4
R5 R4
R3
I1= I3 X
R1 R3
I3 =I2
Y22 =
Y21 =
Y11 =
I2
at V2 = 0
V2
I1
at V2 = 0
V2
mho, Y12 =
mho
mho
mho, Y21 =
mho, and Y22 =
mho
48 | P a g e
OBSERVATIONS:
Z PARAMETERS
SL.
NO.
THEORITICAL
Y PARAMETERS
SL.
PRACTICAL
NO.
THEORITICAL
1.
Z11 =
1.
Y11=
2.
Z12 =
2.
Y12=
3.
Z21 =
3.
Y21=
4.
Z22 =
4.
Y22=
PRACTICAL
Table 3.1.2: Theoretical And Practical Values
Table 3.1.3: Theoretical And Practical Values
Of Z- Parameters
Of Y- Parameters
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect V1 to input port and connect all the dashed lines with the help of
connecting wires.
2. Output port should be open.
3. Find out the voltage V1 ,V2 & I1 using multimeter and calculate Z11 , Z 21.
4. Switch off the trainer power supply.
5. Now open the input port , connect V2 to output port .
6. Switch on supply and measure V1 ,V2 & I 2
using multimeter , then calculate
Z12 & Z 22 .
7. Y parameters can be calculated same as Z parameters. In case of Y parameters
the input port and output port are short circuited
8. Short circuit at port 1 1I i.e. V1 = 0 to find the values of Y12 and Y 22 with the readings
of I1 and I2.
9. From the obtained readings calculate all Z and Y parameters and verify with Theoretical
values.
RESULT:
Open circuit impedance (Z) parameters and Short circuit (Y) admittance parameters for the two
port network are determined and which are matched with the theoretical values.
49 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 3.2
TWO PORT NETWORK (Z & Y) PARAMETERS

AIM: To find the Impedance (Z) and Admittance (Y) parameters of a given network.
APPARATUS:
S. No
1.
2.
Description
Regulated power supply
Rheostat
3.
4.
Ammeter
Patch cords
Specification
(0-30) V
50/1A
100/1A
(0-200) mA
-
5.
Multi meter
Digital
Quantity
1
1
2
2
Required for the
Experiment
1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Figure 3.2.1
THEORY:
Figure 3.2.2
50 | P a g e
Z- Parameters:
Figure 3.2.3
The Z parameters of a two port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port voltages V1 and V2 in terms of the currents I1 and I2. Here V1
and V2 are dependent variables and I1 and I2 are independent variables. The voltage at port 1-1| is
the response produced by the two currents I1 and I2.
Similarly,
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2 ------------------ (1)

V2=Z21I1+Z22I2 ------------------ (2)
Z11,Z12,Z21,Z22 are the network functions and are called impedance(Z) parameters. These
parameters can be represented by matrices
[V]=[Z][I]
V1
Where [V] is the voltage matrix =
V2
Z11
[Z] is the square matrix =
Z 21
Z12
Z 22
I1
and we may writ [I] in the column matrix =
I 2
V1 Z11 Z12 I 1
Thus =

V2 Z 21 Z 22 I 2
The individual Z parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each port
current is equal to zero, suppose port 2-2I is left open circuited then I2 = 0
V
Thus Z11 = 1 at I2 = 0
I1
Where Z11 is the driving point impedance at port 1 1| with port 2 2| open circuited. It is called
the open circuit input impedance.
51 | P a g e
V2
at I2 = 0
I1
Where Z21 is the transfer impedance at 1 1| with port 2 2| open circuited. It is also called
open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Similarly Z21 =
Suppose port 1-1I is left open circuited then I1 = 0

V
Thus Z12 = 1 at I1 = 0
I2
Where Z12 is the transfer impedance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1| open circuited. It is also called
the open circuit reverse impedance
V
Similarly Z22 = 2 at I1 = 0
I2
Where Z22 is the driving point impedance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1| open circuited. It is also
called open circuit output impedance.
OPEN CIRCUITS IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS:
To find Z11, Z21 when I2=0 ie., open circuited
Figure 3.2.4
To find Z12, Z22 when I1=0 ie., open circuit
Figure 3.2.5
52 | P a g e
Short circuit Admittance parameters (Y):
Figure 3.2.6
The Y parameters of a two port for the positive directions of voltages and currents may be
defined by expressing the port currents I1 and I2 are dependent variables and V1 and V2 are
independent variables. I1 caused by the effect of two voltages V1 and V2.
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 and I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
The individual Y parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each port voltage to
zero. If we let V2 be zero by short circuiting port 2 - 2| then
Y PARAMETERS
Figure 3.2.7
CIRCUIT for Y22, Y12 when V1 = 0 i.e. short circuited the port 1 1|
Figure 3.2.8
I1
at V2 = 0 where Y11 is the driving point admittance at port 1 1| with port 2 - 2|
V1
short circuited. It is also called short circuit input admittance
Y11 =
53 | P a g e
I2
at V2 = 0 where y12 is the transfer admittance at port 1 1| with port 2 - 2|
V1
short circuited. It is also called short circuit forward transfer admittance
Similarly Y21 =
If we let V1 be zero by short circuiting port 1 1 |

I
Y12 = 1 at V1 = 0 where Y12 is the transfer admittance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1I short
V2
circuited. It is also called short circuit reverse transfer admittance
I
Y22 = 2 at V1 = 0 where Y22 is the driving point admittance at port 2 - 2| with port 1 1|
V2
short circuited. It is also called short circuit output admittance.
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (Z PARAMETERS)
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
V2=Z21I1+Z22I2
Figure 3.2.9
I1
V1
Req
V2 = I1 X R3 =
Z11 =
Z21 =
V1
at I2 = 0
I1
V2
at I2 = 0
I1
=
=
mA
V
To find Z12 and Z22 let I1 be zero by making port 1 1| open circuited.
54 | P a g e
Figure 3.2.10
I2
V2
=
Z eq
V1 = I2 X R3 =
m A.
Z12 =
V1
at I1 = 0
I2
Z22 =
V2
at I1 = 0
I2
Z11 =
Z12 =
Z21 =
Z22 =
Y PARAMETERS
and
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
To find the values of Y11 and Y21, let V2 be zero by making short circuit at port 2 - 2|
Figure 3.2.11
Req =
R1
R2 R3
=
R2 R3
I1 =
V1
=
Req
I2 = I1 X
R3
R2 R3
mA
55 | P a g e
mA
Y11 =
I1
at V2 = 0
V1
mho
Y21 =
I2
at V2 = 0
V1
mho
To calculate Y12 and Y22 make V1 at 1 1| port is zero.
Figure 3.2.12
R2
Req =
I2 =
V2
Req
I1= I2 X
R1 R3
R1 R3
R3
R2 R3
Y22 =
Y21 =
Y11 =
mA
mA
I2
at V2 = 0
V2
I1
at V2 = 0
V2
mho, Y12 =
mho
mho
mho, Y21 =
mho, and Y22 =
mho
56 | P a g e
TABULAR FORMS
Z PARAMETERS
SL.
NO.
01.
THEORITICAL
PRACTICAL
Z11 =
02.
Z12 =
03.
Z21 =
04.
Z22 =
Y PARAMETERS:
SL.
NO.
01.
THEORITICAL
PRACTICAL
Y11 =
02.
Y12 =
03.
Y21 =
04.
Y22 =
PROCEDURE:
2. Set the resistance value in the Rheostat by using multimeter.
3. To find the values of Z11, Z21, open circuit at port 2-2I to make I2 = 0, and Note down the
values of I1 and V2
4. To find the values of Z12 and Z22, make the current I1 = 0 by open circuiting the terminals
of port 1 1I and the note down the values of I2 and V 1
5. To find the Y parameters, making short circuit at port 2 2I i.3. V2 = 0 and note down
the values of I1 and I2 to determine Y11 and Y21 parameters
6. Short circuit at port 1 1I i.e. V1 = 0 to find the values of Y12 and Y 22 with the readings
of I1 and I2.
7. From the obtained readings calculate all Z and Y parameters and verify with Theoretical
values.
N.B: Procedure should be written in past participle form.
RESULT:
Open circuit impedance (Z) parameters and Short circuit (Y) admittance parameters for the two
port network are verified.
57 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 4.1

(ABCD & H -Parameters)
AIM: To find the Transmission line parameters (ABCD) and Hybrid Parameters (H) parameters
of a given network.
APPARATUS:
S. No
Description
1.
Two poet network trainer kit
2.
Multi meter
3.
Patch cords
Specification
Quantity
1
Digital
1
Required for
the Experiment
Table 4.1.1: Parameters Equipment Required For The Experiment

THEORY:
Figure 4.1.1: Representation of two port network

58 | P a g e
ABCD Parameters:
Figure 4.1.2: Representation of input, output Voltages & Currents

in two port network for ABCD Parameter Representation
ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering where
they are termed as Generalized Circuit Parameters. ABCD parameters are also called as
Transmission Parameters.
It is conventional to designate the input port as sending end and the output port as
receiving end while representing ABCD parameters. Moreover, the output current direction,
assumed in figure 4.2 is taken reverse.
Here, the ABCD parameter equations are given as
V1 A B V2
(4.1)

I 1 C D I 2
Such that
V1 AV 2 B( I 2 ) (4.2)
I 1 CV2 D( I 2 ) (4.3)
Assuming the receiving end to be open circuited, I 2 0 . This gives, from equation 4.2,
A
V1
V2
and from equation 4.3

C
I1
V2
Being a ratio of voltages, A is called reverse voltage ratio and does not have any unit. C is
known as transfer admittance and has the unit mho.
59 | P a g e
Next, let us assume that the receiving end be short-circuited. Then from equ.4.1 & equ.4.3, with
V2 0,
B
V1
I2
I1
I2
while
being a ratio of two currents, it is called reverse current ratio; it is a unit less quantity while
B is expressed in ohm and is termed as transfer impedance.


A AND C PARAMETERS:
To find A, C when I2=0 ie., open

circuited
Figure 4.1.4: Circuit Diagram for A and C

To find B, C when V2=0 i.e., Short
circuit
Figure 4.1.5: Circuit Diagram for B and D
60 | P a g e
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (ABCD PARAMETERS)

V1=AV2-BI2
I1=CV2-DI2
V1
Req
I1
I R4 I1
V2 =
R3
R3 R4 R2
I R4 R4
A=
V1
at I2 = 0 =
V2
C=
I1
at I2 = 0 =
V2
Figure 4.1.6
mho
To find B and D let V2 be zero by making port

2 2| Short Circuited
I1
V1
=
Z eq
I R 2 I1
D=
R3
R3 R2
I1
at V2=0 =
I2
V
B = 1 at V2=0 =
I2
A.
Figure 4.1.7
A=
B =
C =
D =
HYBRID PARAMETERS (H- parameters)

h-parameter representation is widely used in modeling of electronic components and
circuits, particularly transistors. As both short circuit and open circuit terminal
conditions are utilized hence, this parameter representation is known as hybrid
parameter representation. In this form of representation, the voltage of the input port
61 | P a g e
and the current of the output port are expressed in terms of the current of the input port
and voltage of the output port.
Here,
V1 h11 h12 I1
I h
--------------------------------1
2 21 h22 V2
Or,
V1 h11I1 h12V2 2
I 2 h21I1 h22V2 3
Assuming short circuit conditions at the output, V2 0 . This gives, from equation 2
h11
V1
I1
and from equation 3, h21
I2
I1
Here,
And
V
h11 1 / V2 0
I1
I
h21 2 / V2 0
I1
are called input impedance and forward current gain. h11 is expressed in ohms while
h21 is a unit less quantity.

In a similar way, from equation 2 & 3, for the input open circuited condition, with I1 0 .
h12 1 / I1 0 and,
V2
I
h22 2 / I1 0
V2
are called reverse voltage gain and output admittance. h12 has got no unit while h22 has
unit of mho. The equivalent circuit of the hybrid parameter representation is shown in
fig. below.
62 | P a g e
Figure 4.1.8: h- parameter equivalent circuit [h12V2 is the

controlled voltage source while h21I1 is the controlled current source]
h11 AND h21 PARAMETERS:
To find h11, h21 when V2=0 ie., short

circuited
Figure 4.1.10: Circuit Diagram for h11 and h21

To find h12, h22 when I1=0 i.e., open

circuit
63 | P a g e
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (H PARAMETERS)

V1= h11I1 + h12 V2
I1 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
When V2 = 0, i.e. 2 - 2I is short circuited.
I1
V1
Req
R3
R3 R2
h11 =
V1
at V2 = 0 =
I2
h21 =
I2
at V2 = 0 =
I1
I 2 I1
Figure 4.1.12
To find h22 and h12 let I1 be zero by making

port 1 1| open Circuited
I2
V2
=
Req
V1 =
I 2 R4
X R3 =
R2 R 3 R4
V
Figure 4.1.13
I
h22 = 2 at I1=0 =
V2
V1
at I1=0 =
V2
h12 =
A.
mho
h11 =
h12 =
h21 =
h22 =
mho
PROCEDURE For ABCD -Parameters:

connecting wires.
2. Output port should be Open.
3. Find out the voltage V1 , V2 & I 1 using multimeter and calculate A and C
5. Now Short the input port , connect V2 to output port .
64 | P a g e
6. Switch on supply and measure V1 , I 1 & I 2 using multimeter , then calculate B and
D.
7. From the obtained readings calculate all H- parameters and verify with
Theoretical values.
PROCEDURE for H- Parameters:
1. H-parameters can also be calculated in the same way making respective ports
short and open accordingly.
2. To calculate h-parameters, short circuit port 2-21 i.e. V2=0 to find values of h11
and h21.
3. Similarly, open circuit port 1-11 i.e. I2=0 to find the values of h12 and h22.
Theoretical values.
RESULT:
Transmission line (ABCD) - parameters and Hybrid (H) - parameters for the two port
network are determined and which are matched with the theoretical values.
65 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 4.2

(ABCD & H -Parameters)
AIM: To find the Transmission line parameters (ABCD) and Hybrid Parameters (H) parameters
of a given network.
APPARATUS:
S. No
Description
Specification
Quantity
1.
Regulated power supply
(0-30) V
2.
Rheostat
50/1A
100/1A
(0-200) mA
2
Required for
the Experiment
1
3.
Ammeter
4.
Patch cords
5.
Multi meter
Digital
Table 4.2.1: Parameters Equipment Required For the Experiment

THEORY:
Figure 4.2.1: Representation of two port network

66 | P a g e
ABCD Parameters:
Figure 4.2.2: Representation of input, output Voltages & Currents

in two port network for ABCD Parameter Representation
ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering where
they are termed as Generalized Circuit Parameters. ABCD parameters are also called as
Transmission Parameters.
It is conventional to designate the input port as sending end and the output port as
receiving end while representing ABCD parameters. Moreover, the output current direction,
assumed in figure 4.2 is taken reverse.
Here, the ABCD parameter equations are given as
V1 A B V2
(4.1)

I 1 C D I 2
Such that
V1 AV 2 B( I 2 ) (4.2)
I 1 CV2 D( I 2 ) (4.3)
Assuming the receiving end to be open circuited, I 2 0 . This gives, from equation 4.2,
V1
V2
and from equation 4.3

C
I1
V2
67 | P a g e
Being a ratio of voltages, A is called reverse voltage ratio and does not have any unit. C is
known as transfer admittance and has the unit mho.
Next, let us assume that the receiving end be short-circuited. Then from equ.4.1 & equ.4.3, with
V2 0,
V1
, while
I2
I1
I2
being a ratio of two currents, it is called reverse current ratio; it is a unit less quantity while
B is expressed in ohm and is termed as transfer impedance.


A AND C PARAMETERS:
To find A, C when I2=0 ie., open

circuited
Figure 4.2.4
B AND D PARAMETERS:
To find B, D when V2=0 i.e.,

Short circuit
Figure 4.2.5
68 | P a g e
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (ABCD PARAMETERS)

V1=AV2-BI2
I1=CV2-DI2
Figure 4.2.6
I1
V1
Req
V2 = I1 R3 =
A=
V1
at I2 = 0
V2
C=
I1
at I2 = 0
V2
mA
V
=
mho
To find B and D let V2 be zero by making port 2 2| Short Circuited
Figure 4.2.7
I1
V1
=
Z eq
A.
I2 =
I1 R3
=
R2 R 3

I1
at V2=0 =
I2
V1
at V2=0 =
I2
D=
B=
69 | P a g e
, B=
, C =
mho,
D=
A=
HYBRID PARAMETERS (h- parameters)
h-parameter representation is widely used in modeling of electronic components and
circuits, particularly transistors. As both short circuit and open circuit terminal
conditions are utilized hence, this parameter representation is known as hybrid
parameter representation. In this form of representation, the voltage of the input port
and the current of the output port are expressed in terms of the current of the input port
and voltage of the output port.
Here,
V1 h11 h12 I1
I h
--------------------------------1
2 21 h22 V2
Or,
V1 h11I1 h12V2 2
I 2 h21I1 h22V2 3
Assuming short circuit conditions at the output, V2 0 . This gives, from equation 2
V
h11 1
I1
I
and from equation 3, h21 2
I1
Here,
V
h11 1 / V2 0
I1
And
I
h21 2 / V2 0
I1
are called input impedance and forward current gain. h11 is expressed in ohms while
h21 is a unitless quantity.
In a similar way, from equation 2 & 3, for the input open circuited condition, with I1 0 .
h12 1 / I1 0
V2
and,
70 | P a g e
I
h22 2 / I1 0
V2
are called reverse voltage gain and output admittance. h12 has got no unit while h22 has
unit of mho. The equivalent circuit of the hybrid parameter representation is shown in
fig. below.
Figure 4.2.8: h- parameter equivalent circuit [h12V2 is the

controlled voltage source while h21I1 is the controlled current source]

To find h11, h21 when V2=0 ie., short

circuited

To find h12, h22 when I1=0 i.e., open

circuit
71 | P a g e
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: (H PARAMETERS)

V1= h11I1 + h12 V2
I1 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
When V2 = 0, i.e. 2 - 2I is short circuited.
I1
V1
Req
R3
R3 R2
V
h11 = 1 at V2 = 0 =
I2
I2
at V2 = 0 =
I1
I 2 I1
h21 =
Figure 4.2.12
To find h22 and h12 let I1 be zero by making

port 1 1| open Circuited
I2
V2
=
Req
V1 = I 2 X R3 =
A.
V
Figure 4.2.13
I
h22 = 2 at I1=0 =
V2
V
h12 = 1 at I1=0 =
V2
mho
h11 =
h12 =
h21 =
h22 =
mho
PROCEDURE For ABCD -Parameters:

connecting wires.
9. Output port should be Open.
10. Find out the voltage V1 , V2 & I 1 using multimeter and calculate A and C
72 | P a g e
12. Now Short the input port , connect V2 to output port .

13. Switch on supply and measure V1 , I 1 & I 2 using multimeter , then calculate B and
D.
Theoretical values.
PROCEDURE for H- Parameters:
5. H-parameters can also be calculated in the same way making respective ports
short and open accordingly.
6. To calculate h-parameters, short circuit port 2-21 i.e. V2=0 to find values of h11
and h21.
7. Similarly, open circuit port 1-11 i.e. I2=0 to find the values of h12 and h22.
Theoretical values.
RESULT:
Transmission line (ABCD) - parameters and Hybrid (H) - parameters for the two port
network are determined and which are matched with the theoretical values.
73 | P a g e
EXPT NO:5
Study of Active Filters

AIM:
Determination of frequency response of low pass, high pass and band pass filters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
Description
Specification
Quantity
Active filter trainer kit.
1
Function Generator
1
CRO
1
Patching wires.
Required for the Experiment
Table 5.1: Equipment Required For The Experiment
THEORY:
A filter is a frequency selective network that passes desired range of frequencies from the
input to the output while rejecting other frequency components. This frequency range is called
pass band and other frequency band where the signals are suppressed is called attenuation band
or stop band. The frequency that separates the pass and attenuation bands is known as cut-off
frequency or it is the frequency at which the magnitude is 1 / 2 times of maximum magnitude.
Filters are frequently used in numerous fields of electrical and electronics engineering.
The filter being a frequency selecting device, it can be utilized for selecting a particular band or
frequency from a wide range of frequency spectrum. Filters are widely used in communication
systems, signal processing and in almost all sophisticated electronic instruments. In audio
amplifiers , filters are used to reduce harmonic distortion and voice rejection. In regulated power
supply units, filters are used to provide smooth d.c. output from a.c. input. Such filters can be
built from passive RLC components and op-amps. In active filters op-amp is used as the active
element and resistors and capacitors as the passive elements. Op-amp is used in non-inverting
configuration. It offers high input impedance and low output impedance. This will improve the
load drive capacity and the load is isolated from the frequency-determining network.
The active filters have their limitation too. High frequency response is limited by the
gain-bandwidth product and slew rate of the op-amp. More over the high frequency active filters
are more expensive than the passive filters. The passive filters in high frequency range is a more
economic choice for applications.
The most commonly used filters are,

1.
Low pass filter.
2.
High pass filter.
3.
Band pass filter.
4.
Band reject filter.
74 | P a g e
First Order Low Pass Filter:

Active filters may be of different orders and types. A first order low pass filter consists of single
RC network connected to the input terminal of a non-inverting op-amp as shown in figure(a).
Figure 5.1
The input signal is applied at the non-inverting terminal. V2 being +ve, vo would be positive, i is
also +ve. Voltage v1 (=iR1) is applied to the inverting terminal as ve voltage feedback signal.
Assuming the op-amp to be ideal, iin = 0, vd = 0 ; v1 = v2.
Since iin = 0,the current through R2 & R1 must be same,
i.e,
v0 v1 v1
R2
R1
or,
v0 v1
v
1
R2 R2 R1
v0
1
1
v1 ( )
R2
R1 R2
or,
v0
v1
R1 R2
R1
or
v 0 R2
1
v 2
R1
75 | P a g e
Applying this concept in Fig. with vA v2 for the particular case when R1= R2, The Gain in the
non-inverting amplifier of the LPF ckt. Is given as
v0 R1
1 = 2
v A R1
v0 2v A
----------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Since,
the input current of the op-amp in the LPF ckt. Is 0 the voltage v1 gets divided over R & C.
vA
1 / sC1
1
v1
v1
R 1 / sC1
sRC1 1
From eqn 1
1
v A v0
2
1
1
v0
v1
sRC1 1
2
v0
2
v1 sRC1 1
Since, v0 / v1 is the net Gain of the LPF ckt.& s = j Hence, with higher value of , the
frequency, the Gain decreases while at lower values of , the Gain is comparatively large
enough. Thus the above transfer function represents the LPF ckt characteristics & has the cutoff
frequency of 1 / RC1.
Second Order Low Pass Filter:
An improved filter response can be obtained by using a second order active filter. A second order
filter consists of two RC pairs and has a roll-off rate of 40 db/dc.
Figure 5.2: Second order Op-amp active filter
76 | P a g e
It has been obtained earlier that for the non-inverting amplifier, the output voltagev0 is related to
VB by the relation
R
v0 1 1 v B 2v B
R1
---------------------------------(2)
Applying node-voltage method at node 1, we get

v1 v A v B v A
(v0 v B ) sC 0 (at s-domain)---------------------------------(3)

R
R
using (2) & (3)simplification yields
1
( sRC )v0 v1
2
vA
sRC 2
----------------------------------------(4)
Assuming op-amp current to be negligibly small, the input voltage division is as follows:
1
1
sC v
v B v0
A
2 R 1
sC
Substituting for vA from (4) in (5) simplification yields

v0
v1
2
( RC ) 2
H s
2
1 1
s
s
RC RC
2
K 0
K
=
2

2
s 2 0 s 0 s 1 s
0
Q
Q 0
1
,Q 1
where, K =2, 0 =
RC
2
By adjusting different components of R and C in the op-amp circuit, the value of Q can be
adjusted to give different pattern of responses. By adjusting the value of Q = 0.707, the
horizontal portion of the filter response curve is extended to the maximum possible extent. This
condition is frequently referred to as maximally flat response.
77 | P a g e
Figure 5.3: Response curve of second order active filter

TABULATION:
Sl.
No.
Input Voltage (Vin)

(Volts)
Input Frequency (fin)

(Hz, Khz)
Output Voltage Vo
(Volts)
Gain (dB)
= 20 log Vo / Vin
Table 5.2.: VIN, .fin, .Vo, .Gain (dB)

PROCEDURE:
1.
Switch ON CRO, Function generator and Active filter trainer kit.
2.
Connect function generator output to CRO and set some input, then connect it to filter
input and filter output to CRO.
3.
Increase the frequency from the function generator till it reaches the cut off frequency
and above cut off frequency till Vo reaches zero value and note the corresponding
outputs.
4.
Now calculate db gain and plot the frequency response, db gain Vs frequency.
5.
Chose the frequency range according to the type of filter.
RESULT:
78 | P a g e
EXPT NO:6
Study of first order and second High pass Active Filters

AIM:
Determination of frequency response of high passes Active filters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
Description
Specification
Quantity
Active filter trainer kit.
1
Function Generator
1
CRO
1
Patching wires.
Required for the Experiment
Table 6.1: Equipment Required For The Experiment
First Order High Pass Filter:

High pass filter is the complement of the low pass filter and can be obtained simply
interchanging R&C in the low pass configuration & is shown in figure below.
Figure 6.1: Schematic of first order HPF
R
v0 1 1 v A 2v A -----------------------------------------------(6)
R1
Since the op-amp is assumed to be ideal, there is practically no input current of the op-amp and
the voltage division for V1 would be across the capacitor and R only. Thus, in laplace domain,
VA
sRC
R
v1
v1
sRC 1
R 1 C
s
-----------------------------------(7)
From (6), VA = V0 / 2 ;using the expression for vA in (7) , we get,

v0
sRC
v1
2 sRC 1

v0
2.sRC
v1 sRC 1
79 | P a g e
------------------------------------(8)
Expression (8) reveals that using s = j , the gain becomes high and constant at higher values of
while it is very low at lower order frequencies. Thus the cut-off frequency is 1/RC.
Second Order High Pass Filter:
An improved filter response can be obtained by using a second order active filter. A second order
filter consists of two RC pairs and has a roll-off rate of 40 db/dc.
Figure 6.2: Schematic of an second order Active HPF

The active component of the circuit shown in fig. is a non-inverting amplifier; vA and v0 are
related by
R
v0 1 v A 2v A
R
------------------------------(9)
Applying node-voltage analysis at node (1), we get
v1 v B
1 / sC
v A v B v0 v B
0
R
1 / sC
v1 vB sC v A vB sC v0 vB / R 0
----------------(10)
Using vA = v0/2 from (9) & substituting in (10) rearrangement results
sRC 1v0 sRCv1

2
vB
S .2 RC
-----------------------------(11)
Assuming the op-amp to be ideal, voltage division results for the ckt. Shown in fig.

R
sRC
1
v A v0
.v B
.v B
sRC 1
2 R 1 / sC
80 | P a g e
-----------------(12)
Using (11) & (12) rearrangement results
v0
v1
2s 2
1
1
s2
.s
RC
RC
-------------------------------(13)
Thus the transfer takes the form of
v
a2 s 2
H s 0
2
v1 b2 s b1 s b0
i.e. that of HPF.
The presence of s2 term in the numerator and denominator makes the gain very high & constant
when the input frequency is very high. On the other-hand, for lower ranges of frequencies, H(s)
becomes appreciably low. Thus, the given circuit. In fig. represents a HP filter. Due to presence
of two poles in the denominator in the expression of the gain of the HPF, this representation is
commonly called Second Order Filter.
The transfer function H(s) for this filter can be represented in the following form:
H s
v0
v1
2s 2
1
1
s
.s
RC
RC
2
Ks 2
2
0

s 2 0
Q
where K=2; 0 =1/RC, Q =1

By varying R & C components both 0 &Q can be altered. To get a maximally flat response the
value of Q is made to be 0.707.
Figure 6.3: Active HPF Characteristics
81 | P a g e
TABULATION:
Sl.
No.
Input Voltage (Vin)

(Volts)
Input Frequency (fin)

(Hz, Khz)
Output Voltage Vo
(Volts)
Gain (dB)
= 20 log Vo / Vin
Table 6.2.: VIN, .fin, .Vo, .Gain (dB)

PROCEDURE:
1.
Switch ON CRO, Function generator and Active filter trainer kit.
2.
Connect function generator output to CRO and set some input, then connect it to filter
input and filter output to CRO.
3.
Increase the frequency from the function generator till it reaches the cut off frequency
and above cut off frequency till Vo reaches zero value and note the corresponding
outputs.
4.
Now calculate db gain and plot the frequency response, db gain Vs frequency.
5.
Chose the frequency range according to the type of filter.
RESULT:
82 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 7
Determination of Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance of

a Transformer as a Coupled Circuit
AIM:
Study of transformer as a coupled circuit and determination of self and mutual inductance.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Coupled circuit trainer kit
Patch cords
Digital multimeter
THEORY:
The coupled circuits work on the principle of self and mutual inductance.
Self Inductance:
When the current in a circuit is changing, the magnetic flux linking the same circuit changes, and
an emf is induced in the circuit. If permeability is constant, the induced emf is proportional to
the rate of change of current, i.e.
di
dt
or,
eL
di
dt
(1)
The constant of proportionality L is known as self inductance of the circuit. According to

Faradays law of electro-magnetic induction, the induced emf in a coil having N turns is given
by,
eN
d
dt
(2)
From eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
d
di
N
di
dt
If the permeability is constant then, we have
LN
Where L is called the self inductance of the circuit.
83 | P a g e
Definition of L:
The self inductance of a coil is defined as flux linkage in the coil per one ampere current in the
same coil. It is also called weber turns per ampere current in the coil. The SI unit of self
inductance is weber/ampre or henry.
Mutual Inductance (M):
Consider the circuit shown above, the changing current i1 , produces a variable flux 1 in the
first coil. 1 11 12 For the purpose of analysis, 1 is divided into two components.
Here 1 is the total flux established by i1 , 11 a part of 1 . It links with coil 1 only but
not with coil 2.
Figure 6.1
12 it is a part of 1 . It links with both coils 1 and 2. As the flux linking with coil 2 changes
an emf is induced in the coil 2 and is given by,
d12
dt
e2 N 2
Also, e2 is proportional to the time rate of change of i, it is because 12 is produced by i ,

hence
e2 M
di1
dt
Comparing the above two equations,
M N2
d12
di1
If the permeability is constant, the above equation becomes

M N2
84 | P a g e
12
i1
Suppose that the second coil is connected to a voltage source. Let i 2 be the current flow and 2
be the total flux.
2 22 21
Here, 21 is a part of 2 and links with coil 1. Then, the emf in coil 1 = e1 .
e1 N1
M
d 21
dt
also
e1 M
di2
e
dt
d
di2
N1 21
dt
dt
M N1
d 21
i2
Here, M is called the mutual inductance.

Definition of M:
The mutual inductance between two coils is defined as the weber turns in one coil per ampere
current in other coil, or it is also defined as the ability of one coil to produce emf in other coil by
induction when the current in the first coil changes.
Analysis of Coupled Circuits:
Figure 6.2
Consider the coupled circuits shown below. Each circuit contains a voltage source. As both
current i1 and i 2 enter the coil through the dotted ends M is taken as positive. By applying
KVL, the two loop equations may be written as below.

R1i1 L1
85 | P a g e
di
di1
M 2 e1
dt
dt
and
R2 i2 L2
di2
di
M 1 e2
dt
dt
In the sinusoidal steady state, the above equations become
R1 jL1 I1 jMI 2 E1
jMI1 R2 jL2 I 2 E2
In the matrix form the above two equations can be written as,
R1 j4 M M I1 jMI 2 E1
and
jMI1 R2 jL2 M M I 2 E2
Now the coupled circuit shown above can be redrawn as shown below and it is called
conductively coupled equivalent circuit of the mutually coupled circuit. It is so called because of
the common conducting element M.
Figure 6.3
Combination of Conductively Connected Mutually Coupled Coils:
Consider two coils of self inductances L1 and L2 . Let M be the mutual inductance between
them. These two coils can be connected in the following ways.
Series Connection
Parallel Connection
Again, series connection can be
Series aiding or cumulative
86 | P a g e
Series opposition or differential
Similarly, the parallel connection can be,
Parallel aiding or cumulative
Parallel opposition or differential
Series Connection (Aiding):
Figure 6.4
In the above figure, the current is entering both the coils at the doted terminals, so it is called
series aiding combination. For this circuit, we can write that
V t L1
di
di
di
di
M L2 M
dt
dt
dt
dt
V t L1 L2 2M
di
dt
Let La be the equivalent inductance of the combination shown in figure. Then
La
di
V t
dt
From the above equation,

La L1 L2 2M
Series Opposition (Bucking):
Figure 6.5
87 | P a g e
In the above figure, the current is entering first coil at the doted terminal and leaving the other
coil at dotted terminal, so the mesh equation for this circuit is given by,
L1
di
di
di
di
M L2 M V t
dt
dt
dt
dt
L1 L2 2M
di
V t
dt
Let Lb be the equivalent inductance of the combination shown in figure. Then
Lb
di
V t
dt
From the above equation,

Lb L1 L2 2M
TABULATION:
Sl. No.
R (Ohm)
Sl. No.
Description
I (milli amp.)
R
(Ohm)
I
(mA)
VL1 (volts)
VL1
(volts)
VL2 (volts)
VL2
(volts)
VL3
(volts)
Series Aiding:
Series Bucking:
PROCEDURE:
1.
Give the input of 12v to the circuit.
2.
Connect a resistance of required value from the resister bank.
3.
Connect the transformer i.e. primary and secondary coils to the circuit.
4.
Connect an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure the circuit current and voltage.
5.
Switch ON the power supply and tabulate readings as shown above, and find out the
values of self inductances (i.e. L1 and L2), mutual inductance (i.e. M) and La , Lb .
6.
For series aiding and series bucking circuits calculate La , Lb , again find M value and
verify the results.
RESULT:
88 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 8
Study of Resonance in Series RLC Circuit

AIM: To find the resonant frequency, bandwidth and quality factor in series find parallel R-L-C
circuits.
APPARATUS:
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Description
Function generator
Series and parallel resonance
circuit trainer TRST-08
Multimeter
Patch Cards
Specification
20 V P-P
-
Digital
Quantity
1
1
1
2
Required for
the Experiment
SPECIFICATION of Inductance on kit:

i.
Inductance between P7 P8
ii. Inductance between P11 P12
iii. Inductance between P15 P16
iv.
v.
vi.
vii. Capacitance between P9 P10
viii. Capacitance between P13 P14
ix.
Capacitance between P17 P18
x. Capacitance between P21 P22
xi.
xii. Capacitance between P29 P30
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
= 40mH
= 50mH
= 60mH
= 70mH
= 80mH
= 90mH
= 0.1F
= 0.2 F
= 0.3 F
= 0.01 F
= 0.02 F
= 0.03 F
Figure 8.1: Series RLC Resonant Circuit

THEORY:
In any electrical circuits, resonance is very important phenomenon. In a series RLC
circuits, the current lags behind or leads the applied voltage depending upon the values of XL and
89 | P a g e
XC. When XL > XC, the circuit is predominantly inductive and the current lags behind the voltage
and when XL < XC, the current is predominantly capacitive and the current leads the voltage.
However if one of the parameters in RLC circuit is varied in such a way that the current in the
circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, then the circuit is said to be (at resonance) resonating.
Total impedance in RLC series circuit is
Z = R + j(XL - XC) = R + j (L 1/C)
It is clear from the circuit that the current I = V/Z
In series RLC circuit, series resonance occurs when XL =XC. The frequency at which the
resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency. Since XL = XC the impedance in series RLC
circuit is purely resistive at the resonant frequency fr
XL = XC. i.e. L = 1/C
Solving for resonant frequency, we get
1
1
1
2frL =
fr 2 =
fr =
2
2f r C
2 LC
2 LC
R
Band width= 2 1 =
L
r
r
1 L
Quality Factor =
=
B.W 2 1 R C
2
B.W
R
1
R
Lower cut-off frequency 1 r
=

2
2L
LC
2L
2
B.W R
1
R
Upper cut-off frequency 2 r
=

2
2L
2 L LC
where r = resonant frequency in rad/sec
At resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance, and hence
the impedance is minimum. Because of minimum impedance, maximum current flows through
the circuit, the current variation with frequency is plotted.
The bandwidth of any system is the range of frequencies for which the current on voltage
is equal to 70.7% of its value at the resonant frequency and it is denoted by band width.
Figure 8.2: Frequency Verse Current

Figure 8.3: Frequency Verse Voltage
Graph
Graph
Here the frequency f1 is the frequency at which the current is 0.707 times the current at
90 | P a g e
resonant value and it is called the Lower cut-off frequency. The frequency f2is the frequency
at which the current is 0.707 times the current at resonant value and is called the Upper cut-off
frequency.
The Bandwidth or B.W is defined as the frequency difference between f2 and f1
Quality Factor:- It is known as figure of merit and is an indication of the quality of the coil.
1
r
1 L
Q=
LC
R
R C
2 1
L
A higher value of Q results in smaller bandwidth and a lower value of Q causes higher
bandwidth.
OBSERVATIONS
FOR SERIES RESONANCE
SL. No.
SERIES RESONANCE
FREQUENCY(HZ)
CURRENT(mA)
Voltage ( in Volts)
Table 8.1: Current and Voltage Values w.r.to Frequency,

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect function generator output P1, P2.
2. Patch P5 to P31 and P6 to P32.
3. By patching required inductance and capacitance value, complete the circuit diagram.
4. Connect (P37, P38) to CRO or multimeter.
5. Switch ON the unit.
6. Vary the function generator frequency knob step by step for each step note down the
output voltage and frequency in tabulation 1.
7. Plot the graph frequency f 0 vs. output voltage V0 .
8. From this graph find out the resonance frequency.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of inductance and capacitance.
Note: While giving the input signal to the circuit by function generator, input voltage should not
exceed above 5 volt
91 | P a g e
RESULT: Successfully conducted the Series RLC resonant Circuit, plotted the graph for
frequency verse current and frequency verse voltage. The values of bandwidth, resonant
frequency, quality factor are calculated and tabulated as shown in Table 8.2.
For L=
SL. No.
QUANTITY
fr
2.
f1
3.
f2
4.
Band Width
5.
Quality factor
THEORITICAL
For L=
SL. No.
MEASURED
QUANTITY
1.
fr
2.
f1
3.
f2
4.
Band Width
5.
Quality factor
C=
SERIES RESONANCE
MEASURED
1.
PRACTICAL
C=
SERIES RESONANCE
THEORITICAL
PRACTICAL
Table 8.2: Resonant Frequency, Bandwidth, quality factor
92 | P a g e
EXPT NO:9
Study of Resonance in Parallel RLC Circuit

AIM: To find the resonant frequency, bandwidth and quality factor in series find parallel R-L-C
circuits.
APPARATUS:
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Description
Function generator
Series and parallel resonance
circuit trainer TRST-08
Multimeter
Patch Cards
Specification
Quantity
20 V P-P
-
1
1
Digital
1
2
Required for
the Experiment
SPECIFICATION of Inductance on Kit:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
= 40mH
= 50mH
= 60mH
= 70mH
= 80mH
= 90mH
= 0.1F
= 0.2 F
= 0.3 F
= 0.01 F
= 0.02 F
= 0.03 F
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 9.1: Parallel RLC Resonant Circuit
93 | P a g e
THEORY:
In any electrical circuits, resonance is very important phenomenon. However if one of the
parameters in RLC circuit is varied in such a way that the current in the circuit is in phase with
the applied voltage, then the circuit is said to be (at resonance) resonating.
Total admittance in RLC parallel circuit is
Y= G + j B
=( 1/R )+ j (C (1/L))
It is clear from the circuit that the current I = YV
In Parallel RLC circuit, resonance occurs when XL =XC. The frequency at which the
resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency. Since XL = XC the admittance in parallel RLC
circuit is purely resistive at the resonant frequency fr
XL = XC. i.e. L = 1/C
Solving for resonant frequency, we get
1
1
1
2frL =
fr 2 =
fr =
2
2f r C
2 LC
2 LC
where fr = resonant frequency
At resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance, and hence
the admittance is minimum. Because of minimum admittance, minimum current flows through
the circuit; the current variation with frequency is plotted.
The bandwidth of any system is the range of frequencies for which the current on voltage
is equal to 70.7% of its value at the resonant frequency and it is denoted by band width.
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
fr
1
=
, Quality factor =
fr =
f 2 f1
2 LC
Here f 2 f1 = Band width, where f 2 = higher cut off frequency and f 1 is the lower cut off
frequency.
Parallel Resonance:
1
when X L X C
fr =
2 LC
fr =
fr
Quality factor =
f 2 f1
Figure 9.2: Frequency Verse Current Graph
Figure 9.3: Frequency Verse Voltage

Graph
94 | P a g e
Quality Factor
It is known as figure of merit and is an indication of the quality of the coil.
1
r
C
Q=
LC R
1
2 1
L
RC
A higher value of Q results in smaller bandwidth and a lower value of Q causes higher
bandwidth.
In a parallel RLC circuit the resonant frequency fr , when RL = RC is given by
Theoretical Calculations:
1
Band width= 2 1
=
RC
Quality Factor =
r
B.W
2 1
C
=
L
2
B.W
1
1
1
Lower cut-off frequency 1 r
=

2
2 RC
2 RC LC
2
B.W
1
1
1
=
Upper cut-off frequency 2 r

2
2 RC
LC
2 RC
OBSERVATIONS:
SL. No.
PARALLEL RESONANCE
FREQUENCY(HZ)
CURRENT(mA)
Voltage ( in Volts)
Table 9.1: Current and Voltage Values w.r.to Frequency,

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect function generator output P1, P2.
2. Patch P5 to P31 and P6 to P32.
3. By patching required inductance and capacitance value, complete the circuit diagram.
4. Connect (P37, P38) to CRO or multimeter.
5. Switch ON the unit.
95 | P a g e
6. Vary the function generator frequency knob step by step for each step note down the
output voltage and frequency in tabulation 1.
7. Plot the graph frequency f 0 vs. output voltage V0 & Current .
8. From this graph find out the resonance frequency.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of inductance and capacitance.
Note: While giving the input signal to the circuit by function generator, input voltage should not
exceed above 5 volt.
Result: Successfully conducted the parallel RLC resonant Circuit, plotted the graph for
frequency verse current and frequency verse voltage. The values of bandwidth, resonant
frequency, quality factor are calculated and tabulated as shown in Table 9.2.
For L=
SL. No.
1.
fr
2.
f1
3.
f2
4.
Band Width
5.
Quality factor
THEORITICAL
For L=
SL. No.
MEASURED
QUANTITY
1.
fr
2.
f1
3.
f2
4.
Band Width
5.
Quality factor
C=
PARALLEL RESONANCE
MEASURED
QUANTITY
PRACTICAL
C=
PARALLEL RESONANCE
THEORITICAL
PRACTICAL
Table 9.2: Resonant Frequency, Bandwidth, quality factor
96 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 10
Frequency Response Analysis Of

Tuned Coupled Circuits
AIM:
To study the frequency response analysis of single tuned coupled circuits.
APPARATUS:
1.
Coupled circuit trainer kit
2.
Function generator
3.
CRO
4.
Patching cords
5.
Multi meters
THEORY:
The coupled circuits are mainly used to transfer energy from a weak, source to a load or
employed for maximum power transfer from one circuit to other circuit. This is possible only
when both the coils work at resonance condition.
In coupled coils, the coil to which the source is connected is called primary and the coil
to which the load is connected is called secondary. The coupled coils can be brought to response
by adding capacitors to the primary and secondary coils. When primary inductance is very low
then it is sufficient if we resonate the secondary coil alone by adding capacitor to the secondary
coil, to achieve maximum power transfer condition.
When capacitor is added only to secondary coil, the coupled coils are called single tuned
coupled coils. When capacitors are added to both secondary and primary, the coupled coils are
called double tuned coupled coils.
Single Tuned Coupled Circuits:

Let us consider a basic single tuned coupled circuit as shown below.
Figure 10.1: Circuit Diagram for Single Tuned Figure 10.2: Frequency verses Output Voltage
Coupled Circuit
Graph
Let us assume the mesh equations for the above circuit are,
97 | P a g e
R1 jL1 I1 jMI 2 E
jM I1 R2 jL2 j1/ C I 2 0
The solution of I 2 in the above equation if given by,
I 2 jME / ' R1 jL1 R2 jL2 j 1 / C 2 M 2
The single tuned coupled circuits are employed only when the primary inductive reactance is
negligible. Hence in the primary circuit, R1 L1 . The equation of I 2 becomes,
I 2 jME / ' R1 R2 jR1 L2 1 / C 2 M 2
Let, V0 be the voltage in the secondary which is given by,

V0 L2 j 1 / C
ME / C / R1 R2 jR1 L2 1 / C 2 M 2
In single tuned coupled circuits the secondary is tuned by varying the capacitance in secondary.
Let r be the frequency of response. At resonance the secondary coil will behave as purely
resistive circuit. Hence at resonance,
r L2 1/ r C 0
r 1 / L2 C
Now, output voltage at resonance is given by,
V0,r ME / C / R1 R2 r2 M 2
Hence output voltage at resonance are functions of mutual inductance. Hence it is possible to
vary the secondary current and output voltage by varying the mutual inductance, which in turn
can be varied by varying the coefficient of coupling k . It can be proved that for a particular
value of k called critical coefficient of coupling k c , the output voltage at resonance will be
maximum. The variation of output voltage with angular frequency is shown in the above
figure.
Formula to be used:
1.
r 1 / L2 C
2.
kc
3.
R1 R2 k c L wr
R1 R2 / L1 L2 / r ,
L1 L2 L 100mH
98 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
1.
Make the switch S in the upper position.
2.
Select one value of capacitor and calculate the resonant frequency (if the value of
the capacitor is 0.01 f, the resonant frequency is 5.02kHz).
Assume one value of k, then find out value of R1 , R2 . Now select resistor
3.
values from the trainer. (for k c value 0.2, the desired values of R1 , R2 are 4000
and 100).
4.
Apply sine waveform from function generator to the input terminals.
5.
Now vary the frequency of the sine waveform form the input between the desired
values, and for each step tabulate the output voltage and frequency.
6.
Plot the graph between angular frequency or normal frequency V s output voltage.
7.
Repeat the procedure for 3 different values of k.
Observations:
Sl.
No.
Condition
1.
K< Kc =0.1
2.
K= Kc = 0.2
3.
K> Kc =0.5
Input Voltage
(volts)
Input Frequency
(kHz)
Output
Voltage
(volts)
Table 10.1: Output voltage. Input voltage, Input Frequency

for Various Values of K
Result: Successfully conducted the experiment tabulated the Input voltage, Input frequency &
output voltage for the different conditions of coefficient coupling.
99 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 11
Verification of Compensation Theorem

and Millimans Theorem for Dc Networks.
Verification of Compensation Theorem
AIM: The main objective of this experiment is to verify the theoretical results with the practical
results of Compensation Theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No
1.
Description
Specification
Quantity
3
(0-1M)
Resistors
2.
3.
Digital Multi meter
4.
Bread board
5.
Connecting probes
Required For the

Experiment
Table 11.1: Equipment Required for the Experiment

STATEMENT:
In a linear time invariant network when the resistance (R) of an uncoupled branch,
carrying a current (I), is changed by (R), the currents in all the branches would change and can
be obtained by assuming that an ideal voltage source of (Vc) has been connected [such that Vc = I
(R)] in series with (R+R) when all other sources in the network are replaced by their internal
resistances.
[The Source voltage (Vc) opposes the original current]
EXPLANATION:
Let us assume a load RL be connected to a dc source network whose Thevenins
equivalent gives V0 as in Thevenin voltage and Rth as Thevenin resistance (internal resistance of
the network) as evident from Figure 11.1
Here, I
Vo
RTH RL
100 | P a g e
Figure 11.1: Load connected to DC source and its Thevenins equivalent

Le the Load resistance RL be changed to RL+RL. Since the rest of the circuit remains
unchanged, the Thevenin equivalent network remains the same (Figure 12.2).
Vo
Here
I1
RTH ( RL RL )
Figure 11.2: Thevenins equivalent Source

Figure 11.3: Source Network with source replaced by internal resistance
The change of current being termed as I, we find
I I 1 I
I
I
RTH
Vo
Vo
( RL RL ) RTH RL
Vo [ Rth RL ( Rth RL RL )]
( RTH RL RL )( RTH RL )
( RTH
Vo [RL )]
RL RL )( RTH RL )
IRL
( RTh RL RL )
Vc
( RTh RL RL )
101 | P a g e
[Vc being equal to I (RL) and is termed as compensation voltage].

Thus it has been proved that with change of branch resistance, branch current(s) is/are
changed and the change is equivalent to an ideal compensating voltage source in series with the
branch opposing the original current, all other sources in the network being replaced by their
internal resistances.
In the network shown in figure 11.5, the resistance R is changed from 40 ohm to 60 ohm . Verify
the compensation theorem.

Current in load resistance when RL=
ohm connected to the network:
Figure 11.5: Circuit Diagram when RL=

resistor is connected
ohm
Apply the KVL to the network, V = ( R1 ) I1+ ( RL )(I1-I2)

0=(R2 ) I2 + ( RL )(I2 I1)
I1 (i1 i2 )
Current in load resistance when it is changed to RL+RL =
ohm:
Figure 11.6: Circuit Diagram when RL+RL =

resistor is connected
102 | P a g e
ohm
Apply the KVL to the network, 15 = ( ) I11+ ( )( I11- I21)

0=( ) I21 + ( )( I21 I11)
I11 (i11 i21 )
Change in Current, I ( I1 I11 )

Compensating Network:
Figure 11.7: Compensating Network

Using Compensation Theorem
Vc = I1 X Z =
I=Vc/(Rh+RL)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram on the bread board.
2. By using the multi meter find the current values through load before and after change in
load resistance value.
3. Connect the compensated voltage in series with your changed load resistor, short
circuited the source determine the current through the load resistor value.
4. Compare the theoretical and practical values.
103 | P a g e
Verification of Millimans Theorem for DC Network

AIM:
The main objective of this experiment is to verify the theoretical results with the practical
results of Millimans Theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DESCRIPTION
Bread Board
Regulated DC Power Supply
Resistors
Digital Multi meter
SPECIFICATION
(0-20) V
(0-1M)
2K
-
QUANTITY
1
2
1
3
2
Required for the
Patch Cords
experiment
Table 1.1: Apparatus Required For the Experiment
STATEMENT:
The theorem states that , when a number of voltage sources (V1, V2, V3,-------)are in
parallel having internal resistances(R1,R2, R3,-----) respectively, the arrangement can be replaced
by a single equivalent voltage source v in series with an equivalent resistance R as given below.
Figure 11.8 : Illustration of Millimans Theorem

As per Millimans theorem,
V1G1 V2 G2 V3 G3 Vn Gn
G1 G2 G3 Gn
1
1
G G1 G2 G3 Gn
104 | P a g e

Here, find the current through load resistor by using this theorem.
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Deactivate the sources present in the network, remove the load resistor and find the
equivalent resistance value.
Figure 11.10: Circuit Diagram For Measurement Of Resistance

Step 2: Remove the load resistor and find the equivalent voltage value across the open circuited
load terminals.
Figure 11.11: Circuit Diagram for measurement of

Voltage across load terminals
105 | P a g e
Step 3: Connect the circuit as in the figure 14.5.Note the reading of Ammeter as (IL1).
Figure 11.12: Circuit Diagram for current

measurement of the given network
Step -4: Rearrange the original circuit with Millimans equivalent circuit , Connect the circuit as
in the figure 14.6, Apply (Veq). Note the reading of Ammeter as (IL2).
Figure 11.13: Circuit Diagram for current

measurement of the Millimans equivalent circuit
Tabulate the readings of theoretical and Practical values
Sl. No.
Description
1.
Veq
2.
Req
3.
IL1
4.
IL2
Theoretical Values
Practical Value
Table 14.2: Theoretical and Practical values of Veq, Req, IL1 and IL2
Result:- Successfully conducted the Compensation and Millmans theorems experiment and is
verified theoretically and practically.
106 | P a g e
EXPT NO: 12
Study of Fourier Analysis

AIM:
Spectral analysis of a non-sinusoidal periodic wave form.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
Fourier trainer kit
2.
Patch chords
3.
CRO
THEORY:
A periodic function of time f t of period T can be considered as the superposition of a
number of sinusoidal signals of frequency 0 and its harmonics. This is the Trigonometric
Fourier series. We also consider the generalized Fourier series. A function of time t is said to be
periodic if f t f t T for all values of t and T is the period of f t . The function repeats
itself after a time interval T .
For example, consider the sinusoidal signals cos 0 t and sin 0 t . An angular separation
of 2 gives the same value for these functions, i.e.
cos 0 t cos 0 t 2
2
cos 0 t
0
cos 0 t T
with the period T 2 / 0 .

Further, the signals cos 20 t , cos 30 t and cos n0 t are called the second ,third and nth
harmonic signals, whereas cos 0 t is the fundamental signal.
A periodic signal f t of period T
, under certain conditions, can be expressed by
the fourier series given below
f t
a0
a1 cos 0 t a 2 cos 2 0 t ......
2
b1 sin 0 t b2 sin 2 0 t ...... a n cos n 0 t ... bn sin n 0 t ........
which can be written more compactly as,

f t
107 | P a g e
a0
a k cos k0 t bk sin k0 t
2 k 1
SUMMARY OF FOURIER COEFFICIENTS AND FOURIER SERIES:

(a)
When the period of the waveform is 2 and f t is even, the fourier coefficients are
given by
f t cos ntdt f t cos ntdt
f t sin ntdt 0
bn
an
f t dt f t dt
1
a0
2
and the fourier series is given by
n 1
n 1
f t a0 a n cos nt bn sin nt a0 a n cos nt
(b)
On the other hand, the period being remaining 2 but f t becoming odd, the fourier
coefficients are given by
f t dt 0
1
a0
2
an
bn
f t cos ntdt 0
f t sin ntdt
f t sin ntdt
0
and the fourier series is given by
f t a0 a n cos nt bn sin nt
n 1
bn sin nt
n 1
(c)
IExponential form of fourier series

f t
c e
jn0t

1
Cn
T0
t1 T0
f t e
jn0t
108 | P a g e
dt
t1
EXAMPLE OF AN ODD FUNCTION IS GIVEN BELOW.

1)
A square waveform is shown in figure below. Obtain the fourier series.
Figure 12.1
Solution: It may be observed that in the interval 0 t , f t V
while in the
interval t 2 , f t V . Hence the given waveform possess symmetry.
The series does not contain any cosine term and the average value would be zero. i.e.,
an 0; a0 0
However sine terms would be present, i.e., bn would be present. Here,
1
a n V cos ntd t V cos ntd wt
0
V 1
1
sin nt sin nt
n
n

0
V 1
1
1
sin n sin n2 sin n

n
n
n
for any value of n.

And,

bn
109 | P a g e
V cosnt d t
V
n
t
d
t
sin
V 1
1
cos nt cos nt
n
n
V
cos n cos 0 cos n2 cos n
n
2V
1 cos n ;
4V
for
n 1,
bn
for
n 2,
bn 0
for
n 3,
bn
for
n 4,
bn 0
for
n 5,
bn
4V
3
4V
5
and so on, since cos n 1 for n odd and 1 for n even.
The fourier series of the given waveform is

f t
4V
sin t
4V
4V
sin 5t ...............
sin 3t
5
3
TABULATION:
Sl. No.
Name of the
Harmonics
Amplitude of the
Harmonics
Frequency of the
Harmonics
Table 12.1

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LABAROTARY MANUAL

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Network & Devices Laboratory Rules

: Prasant Kumar Swain

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

GRADING POLICY FOR

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Sl. No. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

Verification of DC Network Theorems

(Thevenins Theorem, Nortons Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer

3. (1) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter (Z & Y- parameters)

(2) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter

4. (1) Determination of Two Port Network Parameter

(ABCD & H - parameters)

Study of first order and second low pass Active Filters

Study of first order and second High pass Active Filters

Determination of self inductance and mutual inductance of a 82

Study of Resonance in Series R-L-C Circuit

Study of Resonance in Parallel R-L-C Circuit

Frequency response analysis of Tuned Coupled Circuits

Verification of Compensation theorem and Millimans theorem for DC Networks.

Study of Fourier Analysis

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Verification of DC Network Theorems

(Thevenins & Nortons Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem,

Theorem trainer kits

Some of the important

commonly used theorems are:

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Mill mans Theorem.

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

1(a) THEVENINS THEOREM:

Figure 1.1: Experimental Circuit Diagram

Figure 1.2: THEVENINS Circuit Diagram

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Figure 1.3: Circuit For Finding VTH

Figure 1.4: Circuit Diagram for Finding RTH

Figure 1.5: Circuit Diagram for Finding Load Current

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Verification of Thevenins theorem of the given DC network completed

Table 1.2: Theoretical and Practical Values of The experiment

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

1(b) NORTONS THEOREM

Figure 1.6: Experimental Circuit Diagram

Figure 1.7: Nortons Equivalent Circuit

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS FOR IN, RN

EE Department NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Network Device Lab Manual

Figure 1.8: Equivalent circuit Diagram after removal of Load resistor

Figure 1.9: Circuit Diagram For