Unit I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Unit I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Unit I Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
UNIT I
ENVIRONMENT DEFINITION: It is defined as the sum total of water, air, and the inter-relationship
that exists among them and with the human beings, other living organisms and materials.
SCOPE: As a subject it has a wide scope. It encompasses a large number of areas and aspects, which
may be summarized as follows
1. Natural resources
2. Ecology and biodiversity
3. Environmental pollution and control
4. Social issues in relation to development and environment
5. Human population and environment
Career Options:
1. Research and development in environment
2. Green Advocacy
3. Green marketing
4. Green Media
5. Environmental Consultancy
Importance:
Whatever be the occupation or age of a person, he will be affected by environment and also he will affect
the environment by his deeds. To mark some important aspect or issue of environment we internationally
observe international calendar
1. World wetland day Feb 2
2. World forest day
March 21
3. Earth day
April 22
4. Ozone week
Sept 16-23
5. Anti-tobacco day
May 31
Global vs local Nature of Environment.
Issues like global warming, Depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forests and energy resources, loss of
global biodiversity etc. which are going to affect the mankind as a whole are global in nature and for that
we have to think and plan globally.
Some issues have localized importance. E.g. impact of mining or hydro-electric project in an area,
problems of disposal, management of solid wastes and river or lake pollution.
Individualistic Nature of Environment:
Environmental Studies is very important since it deals with the most mundane problems of life where
each individual matters, like dealing with safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, Clean
and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and sustainable development.
IMPORTANCE OF RISK AND HAZARDS: (Chemical, Physical & Biological Hazards.)
Risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse health effect if
exposed to a hazard. It may also apply to situations with property or equipment loss.
For example: The risk of developing cancer from smoking cigarettes could be expressed as "cigarette
smokers are 12 times (for example) more likely to die of lung cancer than non-smokers". Another way of
reporting risk is "a certain number, "Y", of smokers per 100,000 smokers will likely develop lung cancer"
(depending on their age and how many years they have been smoking). These risks are expressed as a
probability or likelihood of developing a disease or getting injured, whereas hazards refer to the possible
consequences (e.g., lung cancer, emphysema and heart disease from cigarette smoking).
Factors that influence the degree of risk include:
1.
2.
3.
An environmental hazard is any condition, process or state adversely affecting the environment.
Environmental hazard manifest as physical or chemical pollution in air, water and soils. Environmental
hazard can cause wide spread harm to humans and the physical environment.
Three specific examples are:
1. lead, an element historically used in many products causing neurological problems
2. PCBs, or polychlorinated biphenyls, a group of nearly indestructible molecules with cancercausing properties
3. Asbestos, a widely used flame retardant which leads to cancers with long latency periods.
TYPES OF HAZARDS:
Chemical hazard: depends on physical, chemical and toxic property of the chemicals.
Biological Hazard: bacteria, Virus, insects, plants, birds and animals
Physical hazard: Radiation, Magnetic field, pressure extreme (vacuum), noise.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
ECOSYSTEM:
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro organisms in an area
functioning together with all the non living physical factors of the environment. The term ecosystem has
emanated from a Greek word meaning study of home.
Definition: A group of organisms interacting among them and with the environment is known as an
ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with
Biotic Component
1. Producers: Organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs. The
autotrophs convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are called producers because all
species of the ecosystem depend on them.
2. Consumers: All the organisms that cannot make their own food (and need producers) are called
heterotrophs. In an ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others. They
obtain food by eating other organisms. There are different levels of consumers as Primary, Secondary
and Tertiary Consumer.
Those that feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms that eat plant or plant products are called primary
consumers. In the figure above the grasshopper is a primary consumer.
Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those who feed on
secondary consumers are tertiary consumers. In the figure above the snake acts as a secondary consumer
and the hawk as a tertiary consumer. Some organisms, like the squirrel are at different levels. When the
squirrel eats acorns or fruits (which are plant product), it is a primary consumer; however, when it eats
insects or nestling birds, is it is a tertiary consumer.
Depending on what they eat they are classified as Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores
and detritivores.
a. Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products. Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits,
deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.
b. Carnivores, on the other hand, are those that eat only other animals. Examples of carnivores are
foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders.
c. Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consumers) and meat (acting as
secondary or tertiary consumers). Examples of omnivores are:
Bears --They eat insects, fish, moose, elk, deer, sheep as well as honey, grass, and sedges.
Turtles -- They eat snails, crayfish, crickets, earthworms, but also lettuce, small plants, and algae.
Monkeys -- They eat frogs and lizards as well as fruits, flowers, and leaves.
Squirrels -- They eat insects, moths, bird eggs and nestling birds and also seeds, fruits, acorns,
and nuts.
d. Detritivores (Detritus feeders or saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of
living organism, their cast-offs and partially decomposed matter. E.g beetles, termites ants crabs,
eartworms etc
3. Decomposers (various bacteria and fungi): They derive their nutrition by breaking down the
complex organic molecules to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into organic compounds and
ultimately into inorganic nutrients.
Abiotic Component:
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure. It includes
climatic factors, edaphic (soil) factors, energy, nutrients, and toxic substances.
A. Physical Factors
The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours, average temperature,
maximum-minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude, Altitude, Soil type, Water
availability, Water currents etc. are some of the important physical features which have strong
influence on the ecosystem.
B. Chemical factors
Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen,
oxygen and sulphur, level of toxic substances, salinity and various organic components present in
the soil or water largely influence the functioning of the ecosystem.
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES.
Food chain, Food web and trophic structure
Energy Flow
Cycling Of Nutrients
Primary and secondary production
Ecosystem development and regulation
Food chain: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an echo system is known as food chain.
Transfer of food energy from the plants through a series of organisms is referred to as food chain is
another definition. These food chains are present in a grass land, in a pond, in a forest ecosystem etc.
Here is a figure showing one such food and energy chain in Grassland ecosystem:
Food Webs: In looking at the previous picture, the concept of food chain looks very simple, but in
reality it is more complex. Think about it. How many different animals eat grass? And from the Facts
about Red-tailed Hawks page, how many different foods does the hawk eat? One doesn't find simple
independent food chains in an ecosystem, but many interdependent and complex food chains that look
more like a web and are therefore called food webs. A food web that shows the energy transformations
in an ecosystem looks like this:
Through the biotic and abiotic components nutrient cycle and energy flow occur.
The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials and flow of energy.
NUTRIENT CYCLING:
Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus etc. move in circular path
through biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as biogeochemical cycle.
1. Oxygen Cycle
2. Nitrgen Cycle
1. Oxygen Cycle:
Exchange of O2 between the lithosphere and atmosphere and hydrosphere is known as the
oxygen cycle.
Transpiration is the process by which plants take CO2 and give out oxygen. This oxygen is
released to the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains 21% of Oxygen. Man then takes in O2 from
the environment by respiration
Water is made up of O2 and Hydrogen. Rain is precipitated from clouds.
The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within its three
main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the biosphere (the
global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere (Earth's crust). Failures in the oxygen cycle within
the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface
of planet Earth) can result in the development of hypoxic zones.
The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis and sometimes through Photolysis
atmospheric oxygen is created when sun reacts with the watervapour.
Almost all living things need oxygen. They use this oxygen during the process of creating energy in
living cells.
Oxygen is used for the decomposition of dead animals.
The process of rusting, also called oxidation, occurs when oxygen combines with metal.
Fire is a chemical reaction that involves Oxygen.
a.Photosynthesis:
Plants mark the beginning of the oxygen cycle. Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis.
This means that plants "breathe" in carbon dioxide and "breathe" out oxygen. So oxygen is created in
plants and used up by animals, as is shown in the picture above. But the oxygen cycle is not actually quite
that simple. Plants must break carbohydrates down into energy just as animals do. During the day, plants
hold onto a bit of the oxygen which they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down
carbohydrates. But in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at night, the plants
must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide just as animals do. Even though plants
produce approximately ten times as much oxygen during the day as they consume at night, the night-time
consumption of oxygen by plants can create low oxygen conditions in some water habitats.
b.Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle. We breathe in oxygen which we use to break
carbohydrates down into energy in a process called respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is breathed out by animals into the air.
c.Oxygen in Water:
Oxygen in water is known as dissolved oxygen or DO. In nature, oxygen enters ater when water
runs over rocks and creates tremendous amounts of surface area. The high surface area allows
oxygen to transfer from the air into the water
very quickly.
When the water in a stream enters a pond, microorganisms in the pond begin to metabolize (break
down) organic matter, consuming oxygen in the process. This is another form of oxygen cycle - oxygen
enters water in rapids and leaves water in pools.
Oxygen uptake rate (O.U.R.) is the rate at which oxygen is consumed by living organisms in the water.
Since organisms are constantly using up oxygen in the water and oxygen is constantly reentering the
water from the air, the amount of oxygen in water remains relatively constant. In a healthy ecosystem,
the rates of oxygen transfer (being used up) and oxygen uptake are balanced in the water.
2.Nitrogen cycle:
The exchange of nitrogen between the lithosphere and atmosphere is nitrogen cycle.
Free nitrogen from atmosphere is taken up by plants as nitrates
These nitrates are denitrified to ammonia by anaerobic bacteria denitrification
Nitrosomonas converts ammonia to nitrites.
Nitrobacter converts nitrites to nitrates. This processes is called nitrification
Rhizobium is the N2 fixing bacteria present in the roots.
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amount (78%) and it is fixed either by the physical
process of lightening or biologically but some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue green algae). The
nitrogen is taken by the plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino acids, proteins, vitamins
etc. and passes through the food chain. After death of the plants and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead
tissues is decomposed by several groups of ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert them into
ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates, into
molecular nitrogen or N2 which is released back into the atmosphere and cycle goes on.
Photosynthesis is only the beginning of a chain of energy conversions. There are many types of animals
that will eat the products of the photosynthesis process. Examples are deer eating shrub leaves, rabbits
eating carrots, or worms eating grass. When these animals eat these plant products, food energy and
organic compounds are transferred from the plants to the animals. These animals are in turn eaten by other
animals, again transferring energy and organic compounds from one animal to another. Examples would
be lions eating deer, foxes eating rabbits, or birds eating worms.
This chain of energy transferring from one species to another can continue several more times, but it
eventually ends. It ends with the dead animals that are broken down and used as food or nutrition by
bacteria and fungi. As these organisms, referred to as decomposers, feed from the dead animals, they
break down the complex organic compounds into simple nutrients. Decomposers play a very important
role in this world because they take care of breaking down (cleaning) many dead material. There are more
than 100,000 different types of decomposer organisms! These simpler nutrients are returned to the soil and
can be used again by the plants. The energy transformation chain starts all over again.
1.
2.
3.
4.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)
1. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
A forest ecosystem is the one in which tall and dense trees grow to support many animals and birds. The
forests are found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high rainfall. The forest occupies nearly 40%
of the worlds land area. In India it occupies only 19% of its total land area. Forests are habitats in which
the trees are the dominant form of vegetation. They occur in many regions and climates around the globe
the tropical rainforests of the Amazon basin, the temperate forests of eastern North America, and the boreal
forests of northern Europe are just a few examples.
The different types of forest eco system are:
1] Tropical rain forests: These are found near the equator and are characterized by high temperature.
They have broad leafed trees like teak and sandal and the animals like lion, tiger and monkey.
Forest Structure: The species composition of a forest is often unique to that forest, with some forests
consisting of many hundreds of species of trees while others consist of just a handful of species. Forests are
constantly changing and progress through a series of succession stages during which species composition
changes within the forest.
Mature forests often have several distinct vertical layers. These include:
Forest floor
Herb layer
Shrub layer
Understory
Canopy
Emergent
The forest floor is often blanketed with decaying leaves, twigs, fallen trees, animal scat, moss, and other
detritus. The forest floor is where recycling occurs, fungi, insects, bacteria, and earthworms are among the
many organisms that break down waste materials and ready them for reuse and recycling throughout the
forest system.
The herb layer of the forest is dominated by herbaceous (or soft-stemmed) plants such as grasses, ferns,
wildflowers, and other ground cover. Vegetation in the herb layer often gets little light and in forests with
thick canopies, shade tolerant species are predominant in the herb layer.
The shrub layer is characterized by woody vegetation that grows relatively close to the ground. Bushes
and brambles grown where enough light passes through the canopy to support shrub growth.
The understory of a forest consists of immature trees and small trees that are shorter than the main canopy
level of the tree. Understory trees provide shelter for a wide range of animals. When gaps form in the
canopy, often times understory trees take advantage of the opening and grow to fill in the canopy.
The canopy is the layer where the crowns of most of the forest's trees meet and form a thick
layer. Emergents are trees whose crowns emerge above the rest of the canopy.
2] Tropical deciduous forests: These are found a little away from the equator and are characterized by a
warm climate with rain only during monsoon. They have different types of deciduous trees like maple, oak
and hickory and animals like deer, fox, rabbit and rat.
3] Tropical scrub forests: These are characterized by a dry climate for longer time. They have small
deciduous trees and shrubs and animals like deer, fox etc.
4] Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. They are
characterized by coniferous tees like pines, firs, red wood etc., and animals like squirrels, fox, cats, bear.
5] Temperate deciduous forests: These are found in areas with moderate temperatures. They have major
trees including broad leaf deciduous trees like oak, hickory and animals like deer, fox, bear etc.
6] Coniferous or Boreal Forest:
Characteristics of Forest ecosystems:
1. Forests are characterized by warm temperature and adequate rainfall, which make thegeneration of
number of ponds, lakes etc.
2. Forests maintain climate and rain fall,
3. Forests support many wild animals and protect biodiversity,
4. The forest soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients which support the growth of trees.
Since the penetration of light is so poor, the conversion of organic matter into nutrients is very fast
2. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Grass land occupies about 20% of earth surface. In addition to grass species which dominates Grass land
ecosystem, some shrubs and trees are also present in grasslands. Limited grazing helps to improve the net
primary production of the grasslands. Overgrazing leads to their degradation.
Types of Grassland ecosystems: (i) Tropical grasslands, (ii) Temperate grasslands & (iii) Polar grasslands
Tropical grass lands: Found near the borders of tropical rain forests are characterized by high temperature
and moderate rainfall. (also known as Savanna type). They have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and
shunted trees and animals like zebras, giraffes, antelopes etc.
During dry season, fires are quite common. It has zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes,etc. The termites
gather the detritus containing cellulose and build up a mound.
It has an efficient system of photosynthesis and carbon is assimilated by them in the form of
carbohydratesin the rhizomes. Carbon dioxide which is responsible for global warming is released in huhe
manner during grassland fire.
Temperate grass lands: Usually found in the centres of continents, on flat, sloped hills characterized by
very cold winters and hot summers. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow growth of shrubs and
trees.
The soil is very fertile and so cleared vastly for agriculture. They are known by different names
Priaries(US), pampas(south america), Velds(Africa), and steppes(Asia).
Polar grasslands: Found in arctic polar regions are characterized by severe cold and strong winds with ice
and snow. In summer several small annual plants grow and inhabited by animals like arctic wolf, weasel,
arctic fox etc.
A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface called as Permafrost. In summer shallow lakes
appear where mosquitoes, insects and migratory birds live
Characteristics of grassland ecosystem: plain land occupied by grasses; Soil very rich in nutrients and
organic matter; tall grass facilitates grazing of animals and low or uneven rain fall are encountered.
Structure and function of the grassland ecosystem:
I. Abiotic components: Nutrients, C. H, O, N, P, S etc. These abiotic components are supplied by CO2,
H2O, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates.
II. Biotic components:
(1) Producers: Grasses, forbs and shrubs. (They produce food)
(2) Consumers (a) Primary consumers (herbivores): Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep etc. They depend on
grasses for food. (b) Secondary consumers (Carnivores) Snakes, lizards, birds, Jackals, fox etc. They
feed on herbivores.(c) Tertiary consumers: Hawks, eagles, etc. The feed on secondary consumers.
(3) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria. They decompose the dead organic matter.
3. DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
rd
In this region evaporation exceeds precipitation. 1/3 of our worlds land is covered by deserts. The
atmosphere is very dry and called as poor insulator. It has little species and drought resistant plants. Desert
animals like reptiles and insects with thick outer covering live inside burrows where humidity is better.
a) Tropical deserts
b) Temperate deserts
c) Cold deserts
Tropical deserts (Sahara, Nambia, Thar desert) are driest of all and have few species. Wind blow and sand
dunes are common.
Temperate deserts (Mojave in california) are very hot in summer and cool in winter.
Cold desert (Gobi desert in china) has cold winters and warm summers.
Desert Plants:
It has scaly and succulent leaves to reduce water loss (transpiration) and to store water.
Flat stems develop chlorophyll to increase photosynthesis.
Leaves have waxy cuticle to prevent water loss from transpiration.
4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Aquatic Ecosystem: The aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies. The major types of organisms found
in aquatic environments are determined by the water salinity.Aquatic ecosystems are those ecosystems
exist in the medium of water. Some of the aquatic ecosystems are : pond, lake, stream, river, wet land,
estuary, sea and ocean ecosystems.
The characteristic features of aquatic ecosystems are as follows :
i) They may be lentic (ie, standing or non-flowing ) or lotic (i.e flowing ) systems.
ii) Aquatic food chains are inter linked with terrestrial food chains.
iii) The medium contains moderate to less nutrients.
iv) Much of the solar energy is fixed in ecosystems, and
They are the reservoirs or exchange pools for hydrological cycle.
Lakes are large natural shallow water bodies and are used for various purposes. Lakes are supplied with
water from rainfall, melting snow and streams.
A. POND ECOSYSTEM: A pond is a fresh water aquatic ecosystem, where is water is stagnant. It
receives water during rainy season. It contains contains several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes
and birds. Pond is temporary- only seasonal- stagnat fresh water body-gets polluted easily due to limited
amount of water. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, water, inorganic and organic compounds. Biotic
components: Green photosynthetic organisms a) Phytoplanton-microscopic aquatic plants which float
freely on water surface algae, small floating plants likevolvox, pandorina, anabaena, cosmarium b)
Mycrophytes- Large floating plants explain Consumers, and decomposers of pond eco system
B. LAKE ECOSYSTEM: Different types of Lakes are: Oligotrophic lake- having low nutrient
concentrations, Eutrophic Lakes- over nourished by nutrients Nitrogen and Phosphorous, Dystrophic lakeshave low pH, high Humic acid content and brown waters, Volcanic lakes-receive water from magma afer
volcanic eruptions, meromictic lakes- rich in salts, artificial lake4s created due to dam constructions.
Different zones of lake: Depending upon their depth and distance from the shore lakes consist of four
distinct zones. Littoral Zones top layer of a lake having shallow water; Limnetic Zone-next to the littoral
effective penetration of solar light takes place; Profundal zone The deep open water, where it is too dark
and /benthic zone-found at lake bottom.
Characteristic features of lake ecosystem: It is a shallow fresh water body; a permanent water body with
large water resources helping in irrigation and drinking
Structure and function of Lake Ecosystem:
I. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, proteins and lipids, turbidity, O2 and CO2.
II. Biotic components:
1. Producres: They are green plants, may be submerged, free floating and amphibious plants.
2. Consumers:(a) Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): Cilictes, protozoans etc. They feed on
phytoplankton
(b) Secondary consumers (carnivores): Insects and small fishes. They feed
on Zooplankton.
(c) Large fishes like game fish. They feed on smaller fish
3. Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes. They decompose dead plants and animals.
C.STREAMS:
These are fresh water aquatic ecosystem where water current is a major controlling factor, oxygen and
nutrient in the water is more uniform amd land water exchange is more expensive. Although stream
organisms have to face more extremes of temperature and action of currents as compared to pond or lake
organisms, but they do not have to face oxygen deficiency under natural conditions. This is because the
streams are shallow, have a large surface exposed to air and constant motion which churns the water and
provides abundant oxygen. Their dissolved oxygen level is higher than that of ponds even though the green
plants are much less in number. The stream animals usually have a narrow range of tolerance to oxygen.
Streams are worst victims of industrial Waste.
D.RIVER ECOSYSTEM:
Rivers are large streams that flow downward from mountain highlands and flowing through the plains fall
into the sea. So the river ecosystems show a series of different conditions.
The Mountain Highland part has cold, clear waters rushing down as waterfalls with large amounts of
dissolved oxygen. The plants are attached to rocks and fishes are cold water, high oxygen requiring fish
like trouts.
In the second phase on the gentle slopes, the waters are warmer and support a luxuriant growth of plants
and less oxygen requiring fishes.
In the third phase, the river waters are very rich in biotic diversity. Moving down the hills, rivers shape
the land. They bring with them lots of silt rich in nutrients which are deposited in the plains and in the delta
before reaching the ocean.
E.OCEAN ECOSYSTEM:
These are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than 70% of our earths surface and has 2, 50,000
marine species. Oceans provide us iron, magnesium, oil, Natural gas, sand and gravel. They are major sinks
of carbon dioxide and play an important role in regulating biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle.
The ocean has two major life zones,
1. Coastal Zone: It is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients and sunlight ,
it is the zone of high primary producticvity.
2. Open Sea:it is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf.It is vertically divided
into 3 regions.
I.
Euphotic Zone-Abuntant sunlight and high photosysnthesis activity.
II.
Bathyal Zone- Dimlight and usually geologically active.
III.
Abyssal Zone dark zone 2000 to 5000 meters deep. Has no primary source of energy(no
sunlight). It is the worlds largest ecological unit but it is an incomplete ecosystem.
F.ESTUARY ECOSYSTEM
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where fresh water and salty seawater
meet.these are transition zones which are strongly affected by tides. There are wide variations in the strean
flow and tidal currents at any given location diurnally, monthly and seasonally. Therefore, the organisms
present in estuaries show a wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity. Such organisms are known
as eurythermal and euryhaline. Coastal bays and tidal marshes are examples of estuaries. There are many
migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and half in
salty water. Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems. They have rich biodiversity and many of the
species are endemic.
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: GENETIC, SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEM
DIVERSITY:
BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION: Bio means life and diversity means variety, hence Biodiversity refers
to variety of life on the earth. Planet earth (biosphere) contains more than 20 million species of organisms.
They differ widely from one another. Diversification in the species is influenced by various physical and
climatic factors, resulting in the production of new sub-species. Biodiversity is defined as, the variety and
variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY:
A. GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which gives rise to
some variability. When the genes within the same species show different versions due to new
combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example rice belongs to the species oryza sativa which has
many varieties that differ in size, shape, aroma etc.
B. SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different species of a community. It
broadly represents the species richness and their abundance in a community. Shannon Wiener index and Simpson
index are two popular indices of measuring species diversity.
C. ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niches, trophic structure,
food webs, nutrient cycling etc. The ecosystem also shows variations with respect to physical parameters
like moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA:
S.
No
Biogeographi
c zone
Biotic province
TransHimalayan
Upper region
Himalayan
Nort west,
west,central and
East wimalayas
Desert
Kutch,thar and
ladkh
Acacia, zizyphus, khejri, date palmCamel, bastard, wild ass, desert cat,fox, rat
Semi-arid
Central india,
Gujarat
Acacia, date palm, peepal Gir lion, tiger, sariska and Rranthampore tiger
Western
ghats
Malabar coast
Western ghats
mountain
Deccan
peninsula
Deccan plateau
Gangetic
plain
Sal, acacia, jamun, mango, baelblack chinkara, stag, rhinoceros, gazzel, Alligator,
turtle
North-east
india
Brahmaputra
valley
Bamboo, sal,jack fruit, tuna, Chestnut catorElephnat, Rhinocers, yak, deer, porcupine
Islands
Andaman islands,
Nicobar islands &
Lakshadeep islands
10
coasts
West coast
East coast
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: (consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option
values)
Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About 80,000 plants are from
wild. About 90%of crops are domesticated from tropical forest
Drugs and medicine: About 75% of population depends upon plant or plnt extracts for medicine. Penicillin
antibiotic drug is derived from the fungus penicillium.
Fuel: The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are products of fossilized biodiversity.
It refers to the service provided by ecosystem services like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods,
maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks,
pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming etc.
2. Centre of origin: A large number of species have known to originate in India. Nearly 5000
flowering species, 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops
origin in india.
3. Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves, estuaries, coral
reefs, back waters etc. there exist a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species of corals of the world
are found here.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is
under threat from humans. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspotmap, a region must meet two strict criteria:
1. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, and
2. It must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine others possible candidates.
These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with
a very high share of endemic species.
The importance of biodiversity: Biodiversity is often used to draw attention to issues related to the
environment. It can be closely related to
citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane Taxal yielding plant also sparcely distributed 63% mammals
are from this region- 60% of Indian Birds- huge wealth of fungi, insects, mammals and birds found in this
region
Western Ghats: Comprises of parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala nearly 1500
endemic, dicotyledones 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic here- Ternstroemia, Japonica,
Rhododendron and Hypericum common plants- Blue Bird and Lizard hawk are common animals.
Biodiversity is the richness & varied species of different organisms contained in a particular ecosystem
Indian biodiversity is highly diverse and rich such that there are various hot spots. However there are
numerous threats to our Biodiversity.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY :(habitat loss, poaching of wildlife &man-wildlife conflicts)
In 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover,
scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which has not been formally recognized.
About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as
threatened with extinction.
LOSS OF HABITAT:
Habitat destruction:
Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest destruction.
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Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air pollution,
water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change.
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living
at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
Climate change:
Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the future.
Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence supporting the
statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology and is
acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but the major impacts
that have been predicted are still just potential impacts. We have not documented major extinctions yet,
even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.
POACHING: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e. poaching is
another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species,
smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products worth million
of dollars per year continues. The developing nations in Asia, latin America and Africa are the richest
source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth in wildlife.
Overexploitation:
Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the
form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife
trade. Joe Walston, director of the Wildlife Conservation Society's Asian programs, called the latter the
"single largest threat" to biodiversity in Asia. The international trade of endangered species is second in
size only to drug trafficking
MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:
CAUSES OF MAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT:
1. Dwindling habitats of elephants, Tigers, rhinos and bears due to forest shrinkage compels them to
move outside foraet
2. Usally ill, weak, and injured animals have a tendency to attack the humans.
3. Earlier Forest department used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane within the sanctuaries, due to lack of
such practices the animals move out of forest foe food.
4. Villagers put Electric Wiring around their crop field which injures the elephants and turn them
violent.
5. Wildlife corridors have been disrupted which makes the animals attack human beings during their
migration.
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CURB THE CONFLICT:
1. Tiger conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles, tranquillizer
guns, binoculars and radio sets etc to tactfully deal with any imminent danger.
2. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started.
3. Solar powered fencing should be provided to prevent animals from straying into fields.
4. Cropping pattern should be changed near the border.
5. Wildlife corridors should be provided.
Introduced and invasive species:
Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling
independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. The term
invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them
constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by
occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species.
Genetic pollution:
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e.
uncontrolled
hybridization,
introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to
homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage
of an introduced species.Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion.
Hybridization, genetic pollution/erosion and food security
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional
hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further
hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate
and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools
of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic
pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA:
1. ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
The international Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the red Data
book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals.
S.No
Species
Names
Reptiles
Birds
Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian hornbill, Siberian White
crane
CarnivoresMammals
Indian Wolf, red fox, sloth bear, red panda, tiger, leopard, Stripped Hyena,
Indian lion, Golden cat, desert cat, Dugong
Primates
Hoolock Gibbon, lion tailed Macaque, Nilgri languor, capped monkey, Golden
monkey
plants
India has two biodiversity hotspots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species. Out of about
47,000 species of plants in our country 7000 species are endemic. Thus, Indian subcontinent has about 62%
endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and WesternGhats. Some of the endemic flora
includes orchids and species like Sapria Himalaya, Uvaria lurdia
A large number out of total 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic. The Western Ghats are
particularly rich in amphibians and reptiles. About 62% Amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to
Western Ghats. Different species of Monitor lizards, reticulated python and Indian salamander and
viviparous toad are some important endemic species of our country.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY (In-situ conservation & Ex-situ conservation)
In-situ and ex-situ conservation along with their merits and limitations:
Conservation of Biodiversity: Biodiversity faces threat of extinction due human activities to salvage
situation conservation of biodiversity need of the hour- to preserve biodiversity to prevent their extinction
and future flourishing conservation of Biodiversity required
In-situ conservation: Involves allocating large areas of the land mass for wild life development- such areas
can be closed to the public for tourism wild life can be allowed to flourish in their own environmentpromotes genetic diversity- does not stagnate the gene pool
Advantages: cheap and convenient method Species gets adjusted the natural disaters like drought, floods,
forest fires.
Limitations: Large surface area of the earth required shartage of staff and pollution may lead to improper
maintenance of the habitat.
Ex-situ conservation: Involves conservation of wild life in zoos, botanical gardens-human supervisionwildlife can grow under controlled conditions - animals would be properly taken care- food, shelter and
water- help in the flourishing of endangered species- possible the gene pool could stagnate and result in no
genetic diversity taking place.
Advantages: Special care and attention lead to survival of endangered speciesIn captive breeding, animals
are assured food, water, shelter and security - hence longer life span- it is carried out for the endangered
species, which donot have any chances of survival in the wild.
Limitations: Expensive method- freedom of wild life is lost animals cannot survive in such environments
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