10 Breakthrough

MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM
10
Breakthrough
Technologies
10 BREAKTHROUGH TECHNOLOGIES
10 Breakthrough
Technologies 2016
JESSICA SVENDSEN
Which of todays emerging technologies have a

chance at solving a big problem and opening up new
opportunities? Here are our picks. The 10 on this list
all reached an impressive milestone in the past year or
are on the verge of reaching one.
Breakthrough
Availability
Immune Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1-2 years
Precise Gene Editing in Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5-10 years
Conversational Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
now
Reusable Rockets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
now
Robots That Teach Each Other.. . . . . . . . . . 17
3-5 years
DNA App Store. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
this year
SolarCitys Gigafactory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
next year
Slack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
now
Tesla Autopilot.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
now
Power from the Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2-3 years
Immune
Engineering
Genetically engineered immune cells are saving the lives
of cancer patients. That may be just the start.
By Antonio Regalado
Breakthrough
Killer T cells programmed to wipe out
cancer.
3
3
Why It Matters
Cancer, multiple sclerosis, and HIV could
all be treated by engineering the immune
system.
Key Players in
Immune Therapies
- Cellectis
- Juno Therapeutics
- Novartis
ILLUSTRATIONS BY JON HAN
The doctors looking at Layla Richards saw a little girl with leukemia bubbling in her veins. Shed had bags and bags of chemotherapy and a bone marrow transplant. But the cancer still
thrived. By last June, the 12-month-old was desperately ill.
Her parents beggedwasnt there anything?
There was. In a freezer at her hospitalGreat Ormond
Street, in Londonsat a vial of white blood cells. The cells had
been genetically altered to hunt and destroy leukemia, but the
hospital hadnt yet sought permission to test them. They were
the most extensively engineered cells ever proposed as a therapy, with a total of four genetic changes, two of them introduced by the new technique of genome editing.
Soon a doctor from Great Ormond was on the phone to
Cellectis, a biotechnology company with French roots that
is now located on the East Side of Manhattan. The company
owned the cancer treatment, which it had devised using a
gene-editing method called TALENs, a way of making cuts
and fixes to DNA in living cells. We got a call. The doctors
said, Weve got a girl who is out of T cells and out of options,
Andr Choulika, the CEO of Cellectis, remembers. They
wanted one of the vials made during quality-control testing.
The doctors hoped to make Layla a special, a patient who
got the drug outside a clinical trial. It was a gamble, since the
treatment had been tried only in mice. If it failed, the com-
panys stock and reputation could tank, and even if it

succeeded, the company might get in trouble with regulators. It was saving a life versus the chance of bad
news, Choulika says.
In November, Great Ormond announced that

Layla was cured. The British press jumped on the
heartwarming story of a brave kid and daring doctors.
Accounts splashed on front pages sent Cellectiss stock
price shooting upward. Two weeks
later, the drug companies Pfizer and
Servier announced they would ante
up $40 million to purchase rights to
the treatment.
Although many of the details of
Laylas case have yet to be disclosed,
and some cancer experts say the
role of the engineered T cells in her
cure remains murky, her recovery
pointed a spotlight on immune engineering, and on
the way that advances in controlling and manipulating
the immune system are leading to unexpected breakthroughs in cancer treatment. They also could lead to
new treatments for HIV and autoimmune diseases like
arthritis and multiple sclerosis.
T cells can crawl, sense

things, and even kill other
cells. Theyre little robots.
Cellectis began developing the treatment in 2011
after doctors in New York and Philadelphia reported
that theyd found a way to gain control over T cells,
the so-called killer cells of the immune system. They
had shown that they could take T cells from a persons
bloodstream and, using a virus, add new DNA instructions to aim them at the type of blood cell that goes
awry in leukemia. The technique has now been tested
in more than 300 patients, with spectacular results,
often resulting in complete remission. A dozen drug
firms and biotechnology companies are now working
to bring such a treatment to market.
The T cells created by Cellectis could have even
broader applications. The previous treatments use a
persons own cells. But some patients, especially small
children like Layla, dont have enough T cells.
Foreseeing this problem, Cellectis had set out to
use gene editing to create a more highly engineered
but ultimately simpler universal supply of T cells
made from the blood of donors. The company would
still add the new DNA, but it would also use gene editing to delete the receptor that T cells normally use to
sniff out foreign-looking molecules.
The T cell has a huge potential for killing. But the
thing you cant do is inject T cells from Mr. X into Mr.
Y, Choulika says. Theyd recognize Mr. Y as non-self
and start firing off at everything, and the patient will
melt down. But if the T cells are stripped down with
gene editing, like the ones that were sitting in Great
Ormonds freezer, that risk is mostly eliminated. Or so
everyone hoped.
Known killer
The human immune system has been called natures
weapon of mass destruction. It has a dozen major
cell types, including several kinds of T cells. It defends
against viruses its never seen before, suppresses cancer (though not always), and for the most part manages
to avoid harming the bodys own tissue. It even has a
memory, which is the basis of all vaccines.
More than 100 years ago, the American surgeon
William Coley observed that an unexpected infection could sometimes make a tumor evaporate. Sub-
Boom Times
Immune-engineering startups have gone
public, raising large sums for human trials.
Company
Amount
Raised in IPO
Date
Kite Pharma
$134 million
June 2014
Juno Therapeutics
$304 million
December 2014
Bellicum
Pharmaceuticals
$160 million
December 2014
Cellectis
$228 million
March 2015
sequently, Coley injected streptococcal

cultures into cancer patients and saw
the tumors shrink in some cases. The
finding, published in 1893, showed the
immune system could confront and
fight cancerbut how did it work? Until
recently, the answers werent known,
and cancer immunotherapy was seen as
a failed idea.
But scientists have gradually
mapped the network of molecules that
govern how the immune system interacts with a tumor. And over the last
few years, these insights have allowed
drug companies and labs to start tinkering with the immune systems behavior.
From 40 years and more of science,
we know the general nature of the conversation between the tumor cells and
the immune system, says Philip Sharp,
a biologist at MITs Koch Institute
for Integrative Cancer Research and
a recipient of the 1993 Nobel Prize in
medicine. Thats the conversation were
trying to join in order to have a therapeutic effect. We are still at the level of
a five-year-old kid. We know there are
nouns, and that there are verbs. But the
diversity of the vocabulary is still being
mapped out.
The most extreme of these proposals is to change the genetic instructions
inside the T cell itself, something thats
become much easier using gene-editing
methods like TALENs and the even
newer CRISPR. Last year, the geneediting startups Editas Medicine and
Intellia Therapeutics each struck deals
with companies developing T-cell-based
therapeutics. Its the perfect setup, says
Jeffrey Bluestone, a researcher at the
University of California, San Francisco.
Immune cells are machines that work
pretty well, but we can make them work
even better.
A Time Line of Engineering Immunity
500 million years ago

Jawed fish are first to develop adaptive immunityspecialized
cells that learn from, remember, and respond to threats.
1796
Edward Jenner inoculates a boy against smallpox using pus from a
cowpox blister. It is celebrated as the first vaccine.
1893
New York surgeon William Coley believes cancer can be cured by
an immune response. He uses live bacteria, called Coleys toxins, to
treat tumors.
1908
German doctor Paul Ehrlich wins a Nobel Prize for his theories about
the immune system. He introduces the idea of the Wundermittel, or
magic bulletthe precursor of todays targeted drugs.
1971
President Nixon declares a War on Cancer. The National Cancer
Institutes budget rises to $378 million, or $2.1 billion in current
dollars. Today it is $4.95 billion.
1981
The HIV epidemic begins. By 1987 the first antiretroviral drug
treatment, AZT, goes on sale. A vaccine remains elusive to this day.
19831987
Scientists discover the T cell antigen receptor. It is what killer T cells
use to identify virus-infected cells and cancer.
2000
Two immune-deficient children are cured in France of bubble boy
disease in the first successful use of gene therapy. A missing gene
is added to their bone marrow.
2011
The first immune checkpoint inhibitor, ipilimumab, is approved in the
United States to treat late-stage melanoma. The drug unleashes T
cells. In many patients, the results are dramatic.
2011
Carl June of the University of Pennsylvania reports the successful
treatment of leukemia using genetically modified T cells.
2015
Former U.S. president Jimmy Carter, at 90, receives immune therapy
treatments for melanoma and a brain cancer. His brain scans are
later clear.
2016
Recognizing amazing advances in immune therapy, President
Obama and Vice President Biden announce a new moon shot to
cure cancer.
Researchers are building on decades of research

(and several Nobel Prizes involving immunology)
that worked out many important details, including
how T cells recognize invaders and go in for the kill.
Seen through a microscope, these cells display almost
animal-like behavior: they crawl, probe, then grab
another cell and shoot it full of toxic granules. Whats
exciting is they have the ability to move all around;
theyre autonomous, says Wendell Lim, a synthetic
biologist who is also at UCSF. Immune cells talk to
other cells, they deliver poisons, they can change what
happens in a microenvironment, they have a memory,
and they make more of themselves. I think of them as
little robots.
Lim is now breaking new ground in what he calls
synthetic immunology. This year and last, he produced some futuristic T cells. Tested only in mice so
far, the cells deploy their targeted search-and-kill
behavior only if a specific drug is addeda feature that
could be used to turn the cells on at specific places and
times, which Lim calls remote control. Another T
cell he designed is a two-stage affair, which kills only
if it locates not one but two different markers on a
cancer cell; it is like a dual authentication method for
the enemy cell. Lim thinks of it as a sensing circuit or
advanced Google search.
Such work is critical because targeting T cells to
tumors of the liver, lung, or brain is dangerous, and
some patients have been killed in trials. The prob-
lem has been friendly fire. So far, easy ways to target

only cancer cells are lacking. Lim has founded his own
startup, Cell Design Labs, to commercialize his engineering ideas. He declined to say how much money he
has raised, but he says everyone working with T cells is
stunned by the kind of money being thrown at the idea.
Its a wow type of situation, he says.
Googling cures
The search to expand immune therapy now involves
not only the worlds largest drug companies but also
tech firms. Sharp says that last year Google held two
summits at MIT of top immune oncologists and bioengineers to determine what parts of the problem
could be Googlified. Attendees say the search giant
paid special attention to new research techniques
that fingerprint cells from a tumor biopsy in rapidfire fashion. These methods might generate big data
about what immune system cells are actually doing
inside a tumor, and new clues about how to influence
them. So far, Googles life science unit, named Verily,
hasnt revealed its plans in cancer immunotherapy.
But in New Yorks Union Square, I met Jeffrey Hammerbacher, a former Facebook employee who now
runs a lab that is part of Mount Sinai, the hospital
and medical school. With 12 programmers in a lightsoaked loftthe nearest thing to blood and guts is a
photo of an exhausted surgeon on the wallhes also
spending time on T cells. Hes developing software to
Big Deals
T-cell companies have sought agreements with drug
companies and specialists in gene editing.
August 2012
Swiss drug giant
Novartis forms a
sweeping alliance
with the University
of Pennsylvania,
site of early
successes using
engineered T cells.
January 2015
Novartis buys
CRISPR geneediting rights
from Intellia
Therapeutics.
Juno and Editas
Medicine later
strike a similar deal
for $25 million.
June 2015
Biotech firm
Celgene pays
Seattle-based
Juno $1 billion for
a slice of its T-cell
treatment portfolio.
November 2015
Drug companies
Pfizer and Servier
pay Cellectis $40
million for rights
to the first off
the shelf T-cell
treatment for
leukemia.
January 2016
Food maker Nestl
pays $120 million
to a startup named
Seres for bacteria
pills able to ward
off infection and
immune disorders.
January 2016
Juno pays $125
million to buy
AbVitro, a Boston
company that can
sequence the DNA
inside individual T
cells.
interpret the DNA sequence in a patients cancer

and predict from it how to goose the response of
killer T cells.
A clinical trial by Mount Sinai should start this
year. The patients receive a dose of abnormal protein fragments that Hammerbachers software predicts will train T cells to attack the cancer. What was
Lin says years of scientific work have finally

resulted in a level of mastery that makes therapeutic products seem practical. He thinks the treatments
will go beyond leukemia, and beyond cancer. We
think that this fundamental principle, engineering
human cells, could have broad implications, he says,
and the immune system will be the most convenient
vehicle for it, because they can
move and migrate and play such
important roles.
Researchers are already working on autoimmune disorders, like
diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and
lupus. Infectious disease is also
in the sights of T-cell engineers.
Edward Berger, a virologist at the
National Institutes of Health who
helped discover how HIV enters
human cells, thinks it may be possible to permanently
keep the virus in check, a so-called functional cure.
In February, he says, he will start giving monkeys T
cells genetically programmed to find and destroy any
cell in which the simian version of HIV is replicating.
The actual process isnt as simple as the theory.
Berger is sure that years of missteps and do-overs lie
ahead. Also, most protocols involving engineered T
cells require patients, or monkeys, to take drugs that
temporarily kill off their own T cells, which isnt without risks. Where the technology stands, its a pretty
radical treatment, Berger says. You arent going to
use it on a cold sore. But despite all the progress that
has been made treating HIV, a better approach is still
needed. Because the virus hides in the body even after
treatment, patients have to take antiretroviral drugs
for life. With immune engineering, maybe not. Berger
sees the chance of a one-time treatment that can hold
the virus in check for good.
I was totally inspired by the cancer work, he says.
They cured leukemia, and weve borrowed it from
them. The extension of those ideas for engineering the
immune system against other things that ail people
is a major front. I think HIV is the best candidate in
infectious disease. If you talk to the HIV community,
they are crying for a curea treatment that, ideally,
you do once and never again.
Where the technology

stands, its a pretty radical
treatment.
fun was that what we submitted to the [U.S. Food
and Drug Administration] was not a molecule but an
algorithm, he says. It might be one of the first times
the output of a program is the therapy.
In January, Juno Therapeutics (see Biotechs
Coming Cancer Cure, July/August 2015) paid $125
million to acquire AbVitro, a Boston-area company
that specializes in sequencing the DNA inside single
T cells. Now Juno is trying to locate T cells that are
active inside cancers and study their receptors. Junos
chief scientist, Hyam Levitsky, says an experiment
that used to take seven months now takes seven days.
And data is piling up: an average experiment generates 100 gigabytes of information. A lot of what is
happening is technology-driven, he says. The questions have been there for a while, but there was no
way to get at the answers. Now were visualizing them
with new technology in ways we never could before.
Beyond cancer
In March Pfizer appointed John Lin to head its San
Francisco biotech unit, which develops cancer drugs
and recently started making engineered T cells. He says
the company had been negotiating with C
ellectis well
before the news of Laylas treatment and that no one
there was even aware the girl had been treated before it
hit the news. The publicity was a big surprise, he says.
Photographs by RC Rivera
Precise Gene
Editing in Plants
CRISPR offers an easy, exact way to alter genes to create
traits such as disease resistance and drought tolerance.
By David Talbot
Breakthrough
The ability to cheaply
and precisely edit
plant genomes without leaving foreign
DNA behind.
Why It Matters
We need to increase
agricultural productivity to feed
the worlds growing
population, which is
expected to reach 10
billion by 2050.
GRANT CORNET T
Key Players in
Engineering Crops
- The Sainsbury
Laboratory and
John Innes Centre,
Norwich, U.K.
- Seoul National
University
- University of
Minnesota
- Institute of Genetics
and Developmental
Biology, Beijing
A new gene-editing method is providing a precise

way to modify crops in hopes of making them yield
more food and resist drought and disease more
effectively. Research in the past year has shown that
the resulting plants have no traces of foreign DNA,
making it possible that they will not fall under
existing regulations governing genetically modified
organisms and will sidestep many of the consumer
concerns over these GMOs.
The technology is known as CRISPR (see 10
Breakthrough Technologies 2014: Genome Editing),
and plants modified with it are sprouting in laboratory greenhouses around the world. Already, a lab
in China has used it to create a fungus-resistant
wheat; several groups in China are using the technique on rice in efforts to boost yields; and a group
in the U.K. has used it to tweak a gene in barley
that helps govern seed germination, which could
aid efforts to produce drought-resistant varieties.
Indeed, because its so easy to do and the plants
could avoid the lengthy and expensive regulatory process associated with GMOs, the method
is increasingly being used by research labs, small
companies, and public plant breeders unwilling
to take on the expense and risks of conventional
genetic engineering.
The gene-editing technique could be critical
in helping scientists keep up with the constantly
evolving microbes that attack crops, says Sophien
Kamoun, who leads a research group at the Sainsbury Lab in Norwich, England, that is applying the
technology to potatoes, tomatoes, and other crops
to fight fungal diseases. It takes millions of dollars
and many years of work to go through the regula-
tory process, Kamoun says. But the pathogens

dont sit and wait for you; they keep evolving and
changing.
A version of CRISPR he co-developed paved
the way for recent work on barley and a broccolilike plant at the John Innes Centre, a plant science
research center also in Norwich. Kamoun and colleagues showed that the second generation of some
of the edited plants contain none of the foreign
DNA that had been used to create the first generation. (Though CRISPR doesnt require inserting
foreign genes, it does typically use bits of bacterial
genetic material to target the editing.) Meanwhile,
a group at Seoul National University has avoided
leaving any foreign genetic material even in firstgeneration plants.
Big and small companies alike are jumping in.
DuPont Pioneer has already invested in Caribou
Biosciences, the CRISPR startup cofounded by
Jennifer Doudna, one of the inventors of the technology, and is using it in experiments on corn, soybeans, wheat, and rice. It hopes to sell seeds bred
with CRISPR technology in as little as five years.
The big question is whether CRISPR crops will
be governed by the same regulations as GMOs. The
U.S. Department of Agriculture has already said
some examples of gene-edited corn, potatoes, and
soybeans (edited using a different method, known
as TALENs) dont fall under existing regulations.
But both the United States and the more restrictive European Union are now conducting reviews
of todays regulations. And Chinese authorities have
not said whether they will allow the crops to be
planted.
10
11
10
MIT
BREAKTHROUGH
TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGIES
REVIEW
Conversational
Interfaces
Powerful speech technology from Chinas leading Internet
company makes it much easier to use a smartphone.
TOMI UM
By Will Knight
Breakthrough
Combining voice
recognition and natural
language understanding
to create effective
speech interfaces for
the worlds largest
Internet market.
Why It Matters
It can be timeconsuming and
frustrating to interact
with computers by
typing.
Key Players in Voice

Recognition and
Language Processing
- Baidu
- Google
- Apple
- Nuance
- Facebook
10 BREAKTHROUGH
MIT TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGIES
REVIEW
Stroll through Sanlitun, a bustling neighborhood in Beijing filled with tourists, karaoke
bars, and luxury shops, and youll see plenty
of people using the latest smartphones from
Apple, Samsung, or Xiaomi. Look closely,
however, and you might notice some of them
ignoring the touch screens on these devices in
favor of something much more efficient and
intuitive: their voice.
A growing number of Chinas 691 million smartphone users now regularly dispense with swipes, taps, and tiny keyboards
when looking things up on the countrys
most popular search engine, Baidu. China
is an ideal place for voice interfaces to take
off, because Chinese characters were hardly
designed with tiny touch screens in mind.
But people everywhere should benefit as
Baidu advances speech technology and
12
makes voice interfaces more practical and useful. That

could make it easier for anyone to communicate with the
machines around us.
I see speech approaching a point where it could become
so reliable that you can just use it and not even think about it,
says Andrew Ng, Baidus chief scientist and an associate professor at Stanford University. The best technology is often
invisible, and as speech recognition becomes more reliable, I
hope it will disappear into the background.
Voice interfaces have been a dream of technologists (not
to mention science fiction writers) for many decades. But in
recent years, thanks to some impressive advances in machine
learning, voice control has become a lot more practical.
offer a glimpse of a graceful future in which theres less need to

learn a new interface for every new device.
Baidu is making particularly impressive progress, especially with the accuracy of its voice recognition, and it has the
scale to advance conversational interfaces even further. The
companyfounded in 2000 as Chinas answer to Google,
which is currently blocked theredominates the countrys
domestic search market, with 70 percent of all queries. And it
has evolved into a purveyor of many services, from music and
movie streaming to banking and insurance.
A more efficient mobile interface would come as a big help
in China. Smartphones are far more common than desktops
or laptops, and yet browsing the Web, sending messages, and
doing other tasks can be painfully slow and frustrating. There are thousands of Chinese characters,
and although a system called Pinyin allows them to
be generated phonetically from Latin ones, many
people (especially those over 50) do not know the
system. Its also common in China to use messaging
apps such as WeChat to do all sorts of tasks, such as
paying restaurant tabs. And yet in many of Chinas
poorer regions, where there is perhaps more opportunity for the Internet to have big social and economic effects, literacy levels are still low.
It is a challenge and an opportunity, says Ng,
who was named one of MIT Technology Reviews Innovators
Under 35 in 2008 for his work in AI and robotics at Stanford.
Rather than having to train people used to desktop computers to new behaviors appropriate for cell phones, many of them
can learn the best ways to use a mobile device from the start.
Ng believes that voice may soon be reliable enough to be
used for interacting with all sorts of devices. Robots or home
appliances, for example, could be easier to deal with if you
could simply talk to them. The company has research teams
at its headquarters in Beijing and at a facility in Silicon Valley
No longer limited to just a small set of predetermined

commands, it now works even in a noisy environment like
the streets of Beijing or when youre speaking across a room.
Voice-operated virtual assistants such as Apples Siri, Microsofts Cortana, and Google Now come bundled with most
smartphones, and newer devices, like Amazons Alexa, offer
a simple way to look up information, cue up songs, and build
shopping lists with your voice. These systems are hardly perfect, sometimes mishearing and misinterpreting commands
in comedic fashion, but they are improving steadily, and they
Booming smartphone market

Innovation in voice technologies has
been driven by the surge of mobile
Internet use in China.
Mobile Internet users, in millions
Proportion of Internet users on
mobile devices
750 million
81%
600
61%
40%
300
69%
75%
500
100%
557
80
420
450
150
303
60
356
40
233
24%
118
20
50
2007
13
66%
86%
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
SOURCE: CHINA INTERNET NET WORK INFORMATION CENTER
The systems offer a glimpse

of a future in which theres
less need to learn a new
interface for every device.
QILAI SHEN/BLOOMBERG VIA GET T Y IMAGES
Researchers at Baidus
headquarters in Beijing are
plugging away at a digital
assistant that can hold a
conversation.
Few of those behind

Deep Speech 2 speak
Mandarin or Cantonese.
Its a universal language
engine.
that are dedicated to advancing the accuracy of speech recognition and working to make computers better at parsing the
meaning of sentences.
Jim Glass, a senior research scientist at MIT who has been
working on voice technology for the past few decades, agrees
that the timing may finally be right for voice control. Speech
has reached a tipping point in our society, he says. In my
experience, when people can talk to a device rather than via a
remote control, they want to do that.
Last November, Baidu reached an important landmark
with its voice technology, announcing that its Silicon Valley lab
had developed a powerful new speech recognition engine called
Deep Speech 2. It consists of a very large, or deep, neural network that learns to associate sounds with words and phrases
as it is fed millions of examples of transcribed speech. Deep
Speech 2 can recognize spoken words with stunning accuracy.
In fact, the researchers found that it can sometimes transcribe
snippets of Mandarin speech more accurately than a person.
Baidus progress is all the more impressive because Mandarin is phonetically complex and uses tones that transform
the meaning of a word. Deep Speech 2 is also striking because
few of the researchers in the California lab where the technology was developed speak Mandarin, Cantonese, or any other
variant of Chinese. The engine essentially works as a universal
speech system, learning English just as well when fed enough
examples.
Most of the voice commands that Baidus search engine
hears today are simple queriesconcerning tomorrows
weather or pollution levels, for example. For these, the system is usually impressively accurate. Increasingly, however,
users are asking more complicated questions. To take them on,
last year the company launched its own voice assistant, called
DuEr, as part of its main mobile app. DuEr can help users find
movie show times or book a table at a restaurant.
The big challenge for Baidu will be teaching its AI systems
to understand and respond intelligently to more complicated
spoken phrases. Eventually, Baidu would like for DuEr to take
part in a meaningful back-and-forth conversation, incorporating changing information into the discussion. To get there, a
research group at Baidus Beijing offices is devoted to improving the system that interprets users queries. This involves using
the kind of neural-network technology that Baidu has applied
in voice recognition, but it also requires other tricks. And Baidu
has hired a team to analyze the queries fed to DuEr and correct
mistakes, thus gradually training the system to perform better.
In the future, I would love for us to be able to talk to all of
our devices and have them understand us, Ng says. I hope to
someday have grandchildren who are mystified at how, back in
2016, if you were to say Hi to your microwave oven, it would
rudely sit there and ignore you.
14
Reusable
Rockets
Rockets typically are destroyed on their maiden voyage. But
now they can make an upright landing and be refueled for
another trip, setting the stage for a new era in spaceflight.
By Brian Bergstein
Breakthrough
Rockets that can
launch payloads
into orbit and
then land safely.
15
Why It Matters
Lowering the
cost of flight
would open the
door to many
new endeavors in
space.
Key Players in the

New Space Industry
- SpaceX
- Blue Origin
- United Launch
Alliance
Thousands of rockets have flown into space, but not until

2015 did one return like this: it came down upright on a
landing pad, steadily firingto control its descent, almost as
if a movie of its launch were being played backward.If this
can be done regularly and rockets can be refueled over and
over, spaceflight could become a hundred times cheaper.
Two tech billionaires made it happen. Jeff Bezoss Blue
Origin first pulled off a landing in November; Elon Musks
SpaceX did it in December. The companies are quite differentBlue Origin hopes to propel tourists in capsules on
four-minute space rides, while SpaceX already launches
satellites and space station supply missionsbut both need
reusable rockets to improve the economics of spaceflight.
Blasting things into space has been expensive because
rockets cost tens of millions of dollars and fly once before
burning up in a free fall back through the atmosphere.
SpaceX and Blue Origin instead bring theirs down on
fold-out legs, a trick that requires onboard software to
fire thrusters and manipulate flaps that slow or nudge the
rockets at precise moments.
SpaceX has the harder job because Blue Origins craft
go half as fast and half as high and stay mostly vertical,
whereas SpaceXs rockets have to switch out of a horizontal position. A reminder of how many things can go wrong
came in January, when SpaceX just missed a second landing
because a rocket leg didnt latch into place. Even so, its now
clear that the future of spaceflight will be far more interesting than the Apollo-era hangover of the past 40 years.
THIS PAGE COURTESY OF EMTECH; OPPOSITE PAGE COURTESY OF SPACEX
Facing page: SpaceX

made test landings in
Texas. This page: A long
exposure captured a
SpaceX rocket taking off
and returning at Cape
Canaveral, Florida.
16
Robots
That Teach
Each Other
What if robots could figure out more things
on their own and share that knowledge
among themselves?
By Amanda Schaffer
Many of the jobs humans would like robots

to perform, such as packing items in warehouses, assisting bedridden patients, or
aiding soldiers on the front lines, arent yet
possible because robots still dont recognize
and easily handle common objects. People
generally have no trouble folding socks or
picking up water glasses, because weve gone
through a big data collection process
Breakthrough
Robots that learn
tasks and send that
knowledge to the
cloud for other robots
to pick up later.
Why It Matters
Progress in robotics could accelerate dramatically if
each type of machine
didnt have to be programmed separately.
17
Key Players in
Advanced Robotics
- Ashutosh Saxena,
Brain of Things
- Stefanie Tellex,
Brown University
- Pieter Abbeel, Ken
Goldberg, and
Sergey Levine,
University of
California, Berkeley
- Jan Peters, Technical
University of
Darmstadt, Germany
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MIT
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18
One researcher expects

an explosion in the
ability of robots.
Stefanie Tellex and

a Baxter robot at
Brown University.
19
called childhood, says Stefanie Tellex,

a computer science professor at Brown
University. For robots to do the same
types of routine tasks, they also need
access to reams of data on how to grasp
and manipulate objects. Where does
that data come from? Typically it has
come from painstaking programming.
But ideally, robots could get some information from each other.
Thats the theory behind Tellexs Million Object Challenge. The goal is for
research robots around the world to learn
how to spot and handle simple items
from bowls to bananas, upload their data
to the cloud, and allow other robots to
analyze and use the information.
Tellexs lab in Providence, Rhode
Island, has the air of a playful preschool. On the day I visit, a Baxter robot,
an industrial machine produced by
Rethink Robotics, stands among oversized blocks, scanning a small hairbrush.
It moves its right arm noisily back and
forth above the object, taking multiple
pictures with its camera and measuring depth with an infrared sensor. Then,
with its two-pronged gripper, it tries different grasps that might allow it to lift
the brush. Once it has the object in the
air, it shakes it to make sure the grip is
secure. If so, the robot has learned how
to pick up one more thing.
The robot can work around the
clock, frequently with a different object
in each of its grippers. Tellex and her
graduate student John Oberlin have
gatheredand are now sharingdata
on roughly 200 items, starting with
such things as a childs shoe, a plastic
boat, a rubber duck, a garlic press and
other cookware, and a sippy cup that
originally belonged to her three-yearold son. Other scientists can contribute their robots own data, and Tellex
hopes that together they will build up
a library of information on how robots
should handle a million different items.
PHOTOGRAPHS BY LEONARD GRECO
Each time the robot determines the best way to

grasp and hold something, it files that data away
in a format other robots can use.
Eventually, robots confronting a crowded shelf will be able to

identify the pen in front of them and pick it up, Tellex says.
Projects like this are possible because many research robots
use the same standard framework for programming, known
as ROS. Once one machine learns a given task, it can pass
the data on to othersand those machines can upload feedback that will in turn refine the instructions given to subsequent machines. Tellex says the data about how to recognize
and grasp any given object can be compressed to just five to 10
megabytes, about the size of a song in your music library.
Tellex was an early partner in a project called RoboBrain,
which demonstrated how one robot could learn from anoth-
ers experience. Her collaborator Ashutosh Saxena, then at

Cornell, taught his PR2 robot to lift small cups and position
them on a table. Then, at Brown, Tellex downloaded that
information from the cloud and used it to train her Baxter,
which is physically different, to perform the same task in a
different environment.
Such progress might seem incremental now, but in the next
five to 10 years, we can expect to see an explosion in the ability of robots, says Saxena, now CEO of a startup called Brain
of Things. As more researchers contribute to and refine cloudbased knowledge, he says, robots should have access to all the
information they need, at their fingertips.
20
21
DNA App Store

An online store for information about your genes will
make it cheap and easy to learn more about your health
risks and predispositions.
By Antonio Regalado
JAVIER JAN
While driving and listening to National Public Radio one day,

Justin Kao heard about the discovery of a sweet tooth gene
that makes you more likely to crave sweets. Oh my God,
thought Kao, who has always loved cookies. I would pay $5 to
know if I had that.
Kao is hoping that millions of other people will be just as
eager to spend a few bucks for tidbits revealed in their DNA.
He is a cofounder of Helix, a San Franciscobased company
that last summer secured more than $100 million in a quest to
create the first app store for genetic information.
Our genomes hold information about our health risks,
our physical traits, and whom were related to. Yet aside from
ancestry tests that provide a limited genetic snapshot, theres
not a mass market for DNA data. Helix is a bet by Kaos former
employer, the buyout firm Warburg Pincus, and Illumina, the
leading manufacturer of ultrafast DNA sequencing machines,
that whats been missing is the right business model.
Helixs idea is to collect a spit sample from anyone who
buys a DNA app, sequence and analyze the customers genes,
and then digitize the findings so they can be accessed by software developers who want to sell other apps. Helix calls the
idea sequence once, query often. (The company says customers will find these apps on websites and possibly in the
Android and Apple app stores.)
With its ties to Illumina, Helix thinks it can decode the
most important part of a persons genomeall 20,000 genes
and a few other bitsat a cost of about $100, about one-fifth
Breakthrough
A new business model
for DNA sequencing
that will make genetic
information widely
accessible online.
Why It Matters
Your genome
determines a great
deal about you,
including your
likelihood of getting
certain diseases.
Key Players in
Consumer Genomics
- Helix
- Illumina
- Veritas Genomics
of what it costs other companies. Thats why Helix can afford

its second gambit: to generate and store this type of data for all
customers, even if they initially make only one specific genetic
querysuch as whether they have the sweet tooth gene or a
risk for a certain disease. Maybe two guys in a garage will write
a $10 app that shows you how old youll look in 10 years, or
which celebrity you are most closely related to. Kao says the
tactic will make genetic information available to consumers at
an unprecedentedly low entry price.
The engine to power the app store is being assembled a
mile from Illuminas San Diego headquarters, in a building
where workmen were still bending sheet metal and laying floor
tiles in January. Several miles of data cables strung through
the ceiling will be connected to a large farm of sequencing
machines, able to process the DNA from a million samples a
year. Illuminas CEO, Jay Flatley, also chairman of Helix, has
said it could be the largest sequencing center anywhere.
Helix plans to launch the store this year or next. Customers will control their data by deciding who sees it. Theres even
a nuclear button to erase every A, G, C, and T. But key details
are still being sorted out. Will people be able to download their
DNA information and take it elsewhere? Probably, though
they might pay extra for the privilege.
One company working with Helix is Good Start Genetics, a startup in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that offers pre
conception testing. These DNA tests tell parents-to-be if they
share a risk for passing on a serious genetic condition, such
as cystic fibrosis. Jeffrey Luber, Good Starts head of business
development, says it hopes to reach a larger audience with an
app that can report a few important risks. As with browsing
on Amazon, he thinks, people will discover things they didnt
know they needed but that [are] targeted to them, and that
they want.
A looming question mark is the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, which has kept close tabs on gene tests and
will decide how much information Helix apps can reveal.
Right now, says Keith Stewart, director of the Center for Individualized Medicine at the Mayo Clinic, most apps that return
real medical informationyour chance of cancer, say, not just
how much Neanderthal is in your DNAwould need agency
approval, or at least a doctor in the loop.
The bottom line is going to be: What are the regulatory
constraints on information that is truly useful? says Mirza
Cifric, CEO of Veritas Genomics. His company has been offering since last fall to sequence a persons entire genome and is
creating its own app to explore the data, complete with a button to get a FaceTime appointment with a genetic counselor.
Cifric hasnt decided whether to create an app with Helix, but
he says he shares its core belief: The genome is an asset that
you have for life, and youll keep going back to it.
22
The massive solar

manufacturing
facility, shown here
in late December, is
scheduled to begin
full-scale production
sometime next year.
SolarCitys
Gigafactory
A $750 million solar facility in Buffalo will produce
a gigawatt of high-efficiency solar panels per year
and make residential panels far more attractive to
homeowners.
By Richard Martin
Photographs by Gus Powell
23
In an industrial park near the shore of Lake Erie, hard by the

Buffalo River, the future of the solar power industry is under
construction. SolarCitys sprawling Buffalo factory, built and
paid for by the state of New York, is nearing completion and
will soon begin producing some of the most efficient solar panels available commercially. Capable of making 10,000 solar
panels a day, or one gigawatt of solar capacity a year, it will be
the largest solar manufacturing plant in North America and
one of the biggest in the world.
When production begins, SolarCity, already the leading
installer of residential solar panels in the United States, will
become a vertically integrated manufacturer and provider
doing everything from making the solar cells to putting them
on rooftops. At a time when conventional silicon-based solar
panels from China have never been cheaper, investing in a new
SolarCity CEO
Lyndon Rive
SolarCitys new panels

use a novel combination
of materials.
Breakthrough
Highly efficient solar
panels made using a
simplified, low-cost
manufacturing process.
Why It Matters
The solar industry
needs cheaper and
more efficient technology to be more competitive with fossil fuels.
Key Players in
Photovoltaics
- SolarCity
- SunPower
- Panasonic
24
The gigafactory covers

some 27 acres, making
it the largest solar
production facility in
North America.
25
type of solar technology is a risky undertaking. However, the potential benefits are
huge. The new factory, says SolarCity chief
technology officer Peter Rive, could transform both SolarCitys business, which has
consistently lost money, and the economics
of residential solar power.
Solar panels installed by SolarCity
cost the company $2.84 per watt (including sales and marketing plus overhead, in
addition to the cost of the hardware), down
from $4.73 in 2012. The combination of the
new, highly efficient panels, the volume of
product coming out of the new factory, and
a simplified manufacturing process is a big
reason why the company expects its costs
for residential solar to fall well below $2.50
per watt by the end of 2017, when the Buffalo facility reaches full production.
Bolstered by federal solar subsidies and
net metering, the rules that allow homeowners to sell excess power back to the grid
at retail prices in many states, SolarCity is
already leading the way in making residential systems financially attractive to many
households, spurring an explosion in the
popularity of the rooftop panels. The drop
in installed costs could make residential
solar even more popular.
Right now we can sell you energy in 14
states at a rate lower than what youre currently paying the utility, says Rive. The Buffalo factory, he adds, sets us up for a future
where solar plus batteries is cheaper than
fossil fuels.
Key to the companys ambitions is a
technology it acquired when it bought a
small solar company called Silevo in 2014.
That technology, which allows it to make
panels that are highly efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, traces its origins to the Australian solar power pioneer
Martin Green in the late 1970s. It combines a standard crystalline-silicon solar
cell with elements of a thin-film cell, along
with a layer of a semiconductor oxide. Last
October, SolarCity announced that test
panels made at a small facility in Fre
26
mont, California, had tested at just over 22 percent efficiency. Todays commodity silicon-based solar panels have
efficiencies of between 16 and 18 percent. SolarCity competitor SunPower previously led the market with cells that can
reach 21.5 percent.
Efficiency matters because the panels themselves represent only 15 to 20 percent of the cost of the full installation.
Much of the rest comes in whats known as balance-of-system
costs: inverters to connect to the grid, materials to house the
array, nuts and bolts to attach it to the roof, the labor to install
it, and so on. SolarCitys installation, says the company, will
require one-third fewer panels to produce the same amount of
electricity as conventional installations. Fewer panels means
fewer bits and pieces, less wire, less days on the roof to install,
says Francis OSullivan, the director of research and analysis at
the MIT Energy Initiative.
SolarCity uses a deposition manufacturing process that
reduces the number of steps required to make the cells from
two dozen or more to just six. It also replaces silver, one of the
most expensive elements of conventional solar cells, with less
expensive copper.
But the difference in performance between solar panels
produced in a small facility like SolarCitys Fremont plant
and in a large factory like the Buffalo one could be significant. And scaling up production could be particularly tricky
given SolarCitys lack of manufacturing experience. Rive
acknowledges that there could be small risks around the
actual time line in getting the products coming out of Buffalo to match the efficiencies achieved at small scale. Already,
SolarCity has pushed back the target date for full production
27
from the Buffalo factory from the first quarter of 2017 to later
in the year.
But the real risk lies in the rapid advance of solar technology: a record-setting panel today might look relatively inefficient three or five years down the road. Soon after SolarCity
showed off its high-efficiency panels last October, Panasonic
topped its rival by claiming that its new panels would reach
efficiencies of 22.5 percent. Meanwhile, efficiencies in the lab
are even higher: researchers have made exotic solar-cell materials with efficiencies of up to 40 percent. I think that within
10 years, most manufacturers will be producing panels over 20
percent efficiency, with the best commercial panels reaching
over 23 percent, Green says.
OSullivan adds: For now, SolarCity is moving the boat
out as far as it can with, generically speaking, contemporary
technology. But were beginning to approach a choke point for
the economics of any silicon-based technologyincluding
the new cells SolarCity is bringing online. Future advances, he
says, will entail much lighter, flexible panels that offer much
higher efficiencies and are even cheaper to installand thus
produce electricity at a much lower cost.
At that point, the solar panels coming out of the gigafactory may seem as conventional as commodity panels produced
in China today. It is, however, SolarCitys willingness to take
on such risks that makes the Buffalo facility so ambitious. Over
the last 10 years, the Silicon Valley company has made residential solar a popular choice for many consumers through smart
marketing and attractive financing. Now it wants to transform
solar manufacturing. Whether SolarCity succeeds or fails, it is
once again pushing the possibilities of solar power.
COURTESY OF SOLARCIT Y
The factory is
situated on a former
Republic Steel
manufacturing
site, not far from
downtown Buffalo.
Senator Charles Schumer

speaks alongside CEO
Rive at the Buffalo
facility, a key part of New
Yorks effort to revitalize
manufacturing in the city.
28
Proportion of online time spent on mobile devices in the U.S.
TODAY
51%
2008
12%
Proportion of U.S. workers who telecommute
TODAY
37%
1995
9%
Estimated average number of e-mails sent and received by business users each day
TODAY
122
2011
105
29
Slack
A service built for the era of mobile phones and short text
messages is changing the workplace.
By Lee Gomes
Breakthrough
Easy-to-use communication software that
is supplanting e-mail
as a method of getting work done.
Why It Matters
In many kinds of
workplaces, the
water cooler effect
that lets people overhear their colleagues
conversations can
enhance productivity.
MIGUEL PORLAN; DATA SOURCES: EMARKETER, GALLUP, RADICATI GROUP
Key Players in
Communication
Software
- Slack
- Quip
- Hipchat
- Microsoft
The intra-office messaging system known as Slack

is often described as the fastest-growing workplace
software the world has ever seen. It surpassed two
million daily users less than three years after its
launch in 2013.
But what, exactly, makes it so popular?
Slack gives you a centralized place to communicate with your colleagues through instant messages and in chat rooms, which can reduce the
time you have to spend on e-mail. Whether youre
on a mobile device or a desktop computer, you can
upload files, get and manipulate information stored
in spreadsheets or other business applications, and
easily search through past conversations. But many
of the core features have been around since the
1990s. And there have been other Facebook for the
office software packages that resemble Slack and
have failed to generate anything close to the same
level of enthusiasm.
The reason for its success lies in part with big
trends: more and more people now get work done
on mobile devices, in collaboration with people who
arent always in the same office at the same time.
But Slacks specific design choices have also been
important. Gerald C. Kane, associate professor of
information systems at Boston Colleges Carroll
School of Management, points out that Slack funnels messages into streams that everyone who
works together can see. That allows you to overhear what is going on in an organization, which
research has shown can lead to business impact, he
says. Its a kind of ambient awareness that you just
dont get from e-mail.
Kristina Lerman, a specialist in social computing at the Information Sciences Institute at
the University of Southern California, notes that
Slack messages tend to be short and casual, much
more like the mobile text messages that people are
increasingly favoring over e-mail in their personal
life. This creates the perception that keeping in
touch with coworkers is effortless. You get the feeling that you are quickly responding to everything
that is happening around you, Lerman says.
In fact, Slack makes it so easy to create messages that it might end up placing as many
demands on peoples time as e-mail traditionally
has, albeit with a hip and friendly interface. There
are limits to the amount of time that we have to
interact with each other, and Slack doesnt really
cure that, Lerman says. Software might take some
of the friction out of getting work done, but it is
still work.
30
The author could keep

his hands off the wheel
as his borrowed Tesla
maneuvered itself through
Los Angeles.
31
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Tesla Autopilot
The electric-vehicle maker sent its cars
a software update that suddenly made
autonomous driving a reality.
By Ryan Bradley
Photographs by Julian Berman
Breakthrough
A car that drives
itself safely in a variety of conditions.
Why It Matters
Car crashes caused
by human error kill
thousands of people
a day worldwide.
Key Players in
Autonomous Driving
- Ford Motor
- General Motors
- Google
- Nissan
- Mercedes
- Tesla Motors
- Toyota
- Uber
- Volvo
In October 2014, Elon Musks electric-car company began rolling out sedans with a dozen
ultrasonic sensors discreetly placed around both
bumpers and sides. For an additional $4,250,
Tesla customers could purchase a technology
package that used the sensors, as well as a camera, a front radar, and digitally controlled brakes,
to help avoid collisionsessentially allowing the
car to take over and stop before crashing. But
mostly, the hardware sat there, waiting, waiting,
and gathering reams of data. A year later, last
October 14, the company sent a software update
to the 60,000 sensor-laden cars it had sold in that
time. The software update was officially named
Tesla Version 7.0, but its nicknameAutopilot
was what stuck.
It did in fact give drivers something similar to
what airline pilots employ in flight. The car could
manage its speed, steer within and even change
lanes, and park itself. Some of these features, like
automatic parallel parking, were already on offer
from other car companies (including Mercedes,
BMW, and General Motors), but the self-steering
was suddenly, overnight, via a software update, a
giant leap toward full autonomy.
Tesla customers, delighted, posted videos of
themselves on the highway, hands free, reading
the paper, sipping coffee, and even, once, riding
on the roof. Some of these are, its worth pointing
out, illegal acts. Autopilot existed in a legal gray
area, but it was a grand gesture toward an ever
nearing future, one that will reshape not just the
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Autopilot could even handle twisty

Mulholland Drive, though it shut itself off in
the middle of particularly tight turns.
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Like many other

features in the car,
Autopilot can be
activated or shut off
from a touch screen.
It also turns off with a
tap on the brakes.
car and our relationship with it but the road and our
entire transportation infrastructure.
Which is why I jumped at the chance to borrow a car
with Autopilot for a few days and drive itor let it drive
mearound Los Angeles.
Everyone wanted to know what it felt like, the strange
surrender of allowing a car to take control. The only
moments that seemed like magic were when the car parked
itself or changed lanes, mostly because watching a steering
wheel turn all on its own was unnatural and ghostly.Other
than that, I was amazed by how quickly I got used to it, how
inevitable it began to feel. As a Tesla engineer told meon
condition of anonymity, because the company wont let anyone but Musk speak publicly these daysthe thing that
quickly becomes strange is driving a car without Autopilot.
Youll feel like the car is not doing its job, he said.
The car cant start in Autopilot; it requires a set of circumstances (good data, basically) before you can engage the
setting. These include clear lane lines, a relatively constant
speed, a sense of the cars around you, and a map of the area
youre traveling throughroughly in that order. L.A.s abundant highway traffic is the ideal scenario for Autopilot, not
simply because of all the data it makes available to the ultrasonic sensorswhich use high-frequency sound waves to
identify objects up to 16 feet awaybut also because humans

are awful in traffic. We are bad at estimating distances to
begin with, and we are constantly trying to switch lanes
when the next one looks faster, causing accidents in the process. With Autopilot, I no longer had to stare at the bumper
ahead of me, and I could look around to see the variety of
bad decisions drivers make, stopping and starting and stopping again. Meanwhile, my car accelerated and slowed more
smoothly than it ever could have with me in charge.
With its incremental approach, Tesla stands in contrast to Google and other companies that have small test
fleets gathering data in hopes of someday launching fully
autonomous cars. For Tesla, its customers and their partially
autonomous cars are a widely distributed test fleet. The
hardware required for true autonomy is already in place, so
the transition can play out in software updates. Musk has
said that could be technically feasibleif not legally so
within two years.
The day after I returned the Tesla, my fiance and I were
on an L.A. freeway and saw someone, speeding, cross three
lanes, cutting in front of several drivers. As the traffic stopped,
the car behind us came in way too fast and crashed into our
bumper, which fell right off. The future, I thought, was practically here, and it couldnt arrive soon enough.
34
35
Power from
the Air
Internet devices powered by Wi-Fi and other
telecommunications signals will make small
computers and sensors more pervasive.
By Mark Harris
Breakthrough
Wireless gadgets
that repurpose
nearby radio signals, such as Wi-Fi,
to power themselves
and communicate.
ILLUSTRATION BY BRENDAN MONROE; PHOTOGRAPH BY DANIEL BERMAN
Why It Matters
Freeing Internet-
connected devices
from the constraints
of batteries and
power cords will
open up many new
uses.
Key Players in
Harvesting
Radio Waves
- University of
Washington
- Texas Instruments
- University of
Massachusetts,
Amherst
Even the smallest Internet-connected devices

typically need a battery or power cord. Not
for much longer. Technology that lets gadgets
work and communicate using only energy
harvested from nearby TV, radio, cell-phone,
or Wi-Fi signals is headed toward commercialization. The University of Washington
researchers who developed the technique
have demonstrated Internet-connected temperature and motion sensors, and even a
camera, powered that way.
Transferring power wirelessly is not a
new trick. But getting a device without a conventional power source to communicate is
harder, because generating radio signals is
very power-intensive and the airwaves harvested from radio, TV, and other telecommunication technologies hold little energy.
Shyamnath Gollakota and his colleague
Joshua Smith have proved that weak radio
signals can indeed provide all an Internet
gadget needs, using a principle called backscattering. Instead of generating original signals, one of their devices selectively reflects
incoming radio waves to construct a new
signala bit like an injured hiker sending
an SOS message using the sun and a mirror.
A gadget using the technique absorbs some

energy from the signal it is modifying to
power its own circuits.
We can get communication for free,
says Gollakota. RFID chips for the contactless smart cards used in mass transit also
rely on backscattering, but they require specialized reader devices and can communicate only within a few inches because the
reflected signals are weak and the reader
itself presents interference.
One version of the University of Washington technology, dubbed passive Wi-Fi, is
being commercialized through a spin-off company, Jeeva Wireless. It lets battery-free gadgets connect with conventional devices such
as computers and smartphones by backscattering Wi-Fi signals. In tests, prototype passive Wi-Fi devices have beamed data as far as
100 feet and made connections through walls.
Doing that requires altering the software of a
Wi-Fi access point to generate an extra signal
for passive Wi-Fi devices to use, very slightly
increasing its power consumption.
Smith says that passive Wi-Fi consumes
just 1/10,000th as much power as existing
Wi-Fi chipsets. It uses a thousandth as much
power as the Bluetooth LE and ZigBee communications standards used by some small
connected devices and has a longer range.
A device using passive Wi-Fi to communicatefor example, a security cameracould
power its other circuits using energy harvested from the Wi-Fi signals it is backscattering, or by feeding on other signals such as
TV and radio broadcasts.
The researchers believe that tiny passive
Wi-Fi devices could be extremely cheap to
make, perhaps less than a dollar. In tomorrows smart home, security cameras, temperature sensors, and smoke alarms should
never need to have their batteries changed.
36

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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

Which of todays emerging technologies have a

Precise Gene Editing in Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Robots That Teach Each Other.. . . . . . . . . . 17

DNA App Store. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Power from the Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

ILLUSTRATIONS BY JON HAN

panys stock and reputation could tank, and even if it

In November, Great Ormond announced that

T cells can crawl, sense

sequently, Coley injected streptococcal

A Time Line of Engineering Immunity

500 million years ago

Researchers are building on decades of research

lem has been friendly fire. So far, easy ways to target

interpret the DNA sequence in a patients cancer

Lin says years of scientific work have finally

Where the technology

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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

A new gene-editing method is providing a precise

tory process, Kamoun says. But the pathogens

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Key Players in Voice

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makes voice interfaces more practical and useful. That

offer a glimpse of a graceful future in which theres less need to

No longer limited to just a small set of predetermined

Booming smartphone market

SOURCE: CHINA INTERNET NET WORK INFORMATION CENTER

The systems offer a glimpse

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QILAI SHEN/BLOOMBERG VIA GET T Y IMAGES

Few of those behind

Key Players in the

Thousands of rockets have flown into space, but not until

THIS PAGE COURTESY OF EMTECH; OPPOSITE PAGE COURTESY OF SPACEX

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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

Facing page: SpaceX

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Many of the jobs humans would like robots

One researcher expects

Stefanie Tellex and

called childhood, says Stefanie Tellex,

PHOTOGRAPHS BY LEONARD GRECO

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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

Each time the robot determines the best way to

Eventually, robots confronting a crowded shelf will be able to

ers experience. Her collaborator Ashutosh Saxena, then at

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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

DNA App Store

While driving and listening to National Public Radio one day,

of what it costs other companies. Thats why Helix can afford

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The massive solar