Basics of Power System

Basics of Power System
Basics Of Power System

Table of Contents
Generation .................................................................................................................................. 4
Basic Concept of Generation ................................................................................................. 4
Source of Generation ............................................................................................................ 5
Types of Generation .............................................................................................................. 6
Basic Concept of Thermal Power Plant .................................................................................. 7
Basic Concept of Nuclear Power Plant ................................................................................... 8
Basic Concept of Hydro Power Plant .................................................................................... 10
Basic Concept of Solar Power Plant ..................................................................................... 12
Basic Concept of Geo-thermal Power Plant ......................................................................... 14
Basic concept of Wind power plant ..................................................................................... 17
Transmission ............................................................................................................................. 19
Basic Concept of Transmission ............................................................................................ 19
Basic Concept of Step up Transformer ................................................................................. 20
Basic Concept of Step down Transformer ............................................................................ 21
Basic Concept of Outdoor Substation .................................................................................. 23
Basic Concept of Indoor Substation ..................................................................................... 24
Basic Types of Transmission Tower ...................................................................................... 25
Tower Accessories ........................................................................................................ 26
Power Loss in Transmission Line .......................................................................................... 27
Distribution ............................................................................................................................... 29
Basic Concept of Distribution .............................................................................................. 29
Types of Distribution Systems ............................................................................................. 30
Types of Distribution Network ............................................................................................. 32
Radial Distribution System ............................................................................................ 32
Ring Main Distribution System ...................................................................................... 33
Interconnected Grid System .......................................................................................... 34
Earthing System ........................................................................................................................ 36
Basic concept of Earthling ................................................................................................... 36
Need of Earthing or Grounding ............................................................................................ 37
Types of Earthling Systems .................................................................................................. 38
Plate Earthing ............................................................................................................... 38
Pipe Earthing ................................................................................................................ 38
Why we use Different types of earthing systems ................................................................. 41
1. Generation
Cable Dimensioning ................................................................................................................... 42
Requirements of Cable dimensioning .................................................................................. 42
Current Carrying Capacity.................................................................................................... 42
Basic Construction of Cable ................................................................................................. 43
Different Types of Cable ...................................................................................................... 45
Cable Dimensioning based on Overload protection ............................................................. 46
Cable Dimensioning based on Short circuit protection ......................................................... 47
Cable Dimensioning based on Tripping time ........................................................................ 48
Cable Dimensioning based on Loop Impedance ................................................................... 48
Voltage Drop ............................................................................................................................. 50
Basic concept of Voltage drop ............................................................................................. 50
Cable dimensioning based on voltage drop ......................................................................... 52
Circuit Breaker Basics ................................................................................................................ 53
Basic concept of Circuit breaker .......................................................................................... 53
Basic working principle of circuit breaker ............................................................................ 53
Methods of Arc Extinction ................................................................................................... 54
High resistance method ................................................................................................ 54
Low resistance or Current zero method ........................................................................ 55
Current Zero Principle: ........................................................................................................ 57
Classifications of Circuit breaker .......................................................................................... 60
Types of Oil Circuit Breakers.......................................................................................... 60
Air-Blast Circuit Breakers............................................................................................... 62
SENTRON 3WT ACB ....................................................................................................... 64
SENTRON 3WL ACB ....................................................................................................... 66
SF6 Circuit Breakers ...................................................................................................... 70
Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB)...................................................................................... 72
Different types of Capacity and Ratings for Circuit breaker .................................................. 74
Circuit Breaker Ratings ........................................................................................................ 76
Selectivity for Different types of circuit breaker ................................................................... 77
Fault Level Calculation ............................................................................................................... 79
Common Terminologies regarding Short Circuit Faults ........................................................ 79
Common Terminologies Utilization Categories .................................................................... 80
Tripping Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 81
Different Types of Single Line Diagrams ..................................................................................... 82
1. Generation
SLD of Different Busbar Systems.......................................................................................... 82
SLD for PF improvement with capacitor bank ...................................................................... 85
SLD of capacitor bank for Star-Delta .................................................................................... 85
SLD of Power System ........................................................................................................... 86
SLD of Different Motor Starter ............................................................................................ 88
Introduction about SIMARIS ...................................................................................................... 92
Dimensioning of electrical Networks with SIMARIS design Introduction .............................. 92
Project Definition .......................................................................................................... 93
Introduction to Network Design .................................................................................... 96
Network Design................................................................................................................... 98
System Infeed ............................................................................................................... 98
Distribution Board....................................................................................................... 101
Load............................................................................................................................ 104
Separate Network ....................................................................................................... 106
Busbar Systems and Loads .......................................................................................... 107
1. Generation
Generation
Basic Concept of Generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from other sources of primary
energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s
and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today:
electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the
poles of a magnet.
Before Michael Faraday had discovered his famous law of electromagnetic induction, battery
were the only source of electric power. After that, DC generator was developed, but it could
produce only a few hundred volts of electric power and naturally this low voltage power could
not transmitted efficiently to a large distance. In the latter half of eighteen centuries, AC
electric power generation, transmission and distribution came into the picture. In an AC
system, it became possible to step up voltage of electric power to desire level for efficient
transmission to a long distance. After that 3-phase induction motor was developed which was
much simpler in construction. Generation, transmission and distribution of AC power were
much easier than DC power; hence very fast AC power system became the most popular means
of electric power.
The AC power is generated in 3 phase system as 3-phase AC electric power generation is
most economical. 3 phase AC generator is commonly known as the alternator. An alternator
has balanced three phase winding on its stator and an electromagnetic field is rotated inside the
stator. Due to this system, rotating magnetic field cuts the stator windings conductor and as a
result, electricity is induced in the stator windings. From terminals of the stator three phase
power is obtained. In an alternator, rotating electromagnet is energized by the DC source. The
rotor is driven by some external means with the help of thermal, Hydro, wind or other forms
of energy. For example, in thermal power plant, the rotor of the alternator is rotated by means
of a turbine shaft and the turbine is driven by means of high temperature and pressure steam.
The steam is produced in a boiler by burning coal in the furnace. As the stator winding is
perfectly balanced, the three phase power produced in an alternator is also balanced that means
phase difference between two conjugative phases is 120 degrees (electrical).
1. Generation
Source of Generation
These following are the sources of the generation.
1. Water
4. Sun
7. Lava
2. Coal
5. Diesel
8. Uranium (NUCLEARS)
3. Wind
6. Natural Gas
There are mainly three conventional source of electric power generation, and they are thermal
hydro and nuclear energy. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882. The
first power plants were run on water power or coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind
generators, and petroleum, with a small amount from solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal
sources.
Although the main sources of electric power generation are thermal, hydro, and nuclear power
plants, but still there are many other non-conventional sources of power available. These nonconventional sources, like wind power, solar power, MHD generation, fuel cell, etc. are
becoming the promising alternative sources for electric power generation.
CONVENTIONAL (Renewable energy sources)

Sources which is unlimited
E.g.: wind, hydro, geothermal, solar
NON-CONVENTIONAL (Non-renewable energy sources)
Sources which is limited
E.g.: thermal (coal), thermal (diesel), nuclear
1. Generation
Types of Generation
As Discussed above, depending on the type of fuel used, the power generating stations as well
as the types of power generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications for power
production in reasonably large scale are:
1. Thermal power generation.
2. Nuclear power generation.
3. Hydro-electric power generation.
Apart from these major types of power generations, we can resort to small scale generation
techniques as well, to serve the discrete demands. These are often referred to as the alternative
methods of power generation and can be classified as:1. Solar power generation. (Making use of the available solar energy)
2. Geo-thermal power generation. (Energy available in the Earths crust)
3. Tidal power generation.
These alternative sources of generation has been given due importance in the last few decades
owing to the depleting amount of the natural fuels available to us. In the centuries to come, a
stage might be reached when several countries across the globe would run out of their entire
reserve for fossil fuels. The only way forward would then lie in the mercy of these alternative
sources of energy which might play an instrumental role in shaping the energy supplies of the
future. For this reason these might rightfully be referred as the energy of the future.
1. Generation
Basic Concept of Thermal Power Plant
In thermal power plant coal or diesel is burnt to produce sufficient heat. This heat energy is
utilized to produce high temperature and high pressure steam in the boiler.
This steam is then passed through the turbine blades and the turbine shaft rotates due to this
steam pressure. The rotor of an alternator is mechanically coupled with the turbine shaft and
hence it also rotates. This rotation produces electric power.
A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by far, the most conventional
method of generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary
fuel to boil the water available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine. The steam
turbine is then mechanically coupled to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the
generation of electric power. Generally in India, bituminous coal or brown coal are used as
fuel of boiler which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16%. To
enhance the thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its pulverized form.
The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered stable energy
produced as a percentage of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%
As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the laws
of thermodynamics falling water into electricity .By comparison, most hydro power stations in
the United States are about 90 % efficient in converting the energy of falling water into
electricity.
1. Generation
Basic Concept of Nuclear Power Plant

It is estimated that, the coal reserve of our country will be exhausted within next 40 years if
the coal is continued to be consumed in present rate. The solution of this situation is a nuclear
power plant as thought. In a nuclear power station, Uranium 235 is subjected to nuclear fission.
In fission process, U 235 is bombarded by a beam of neutrons. The collision of neutrons with
the nucleus of U 235 creates huge heat energy along with other neutrons. These newly created
neutrons are called fission neutrons which again hit by other U 235 nuclear and create mare
heat energy and other fission neutrons. During fission process the nucleus of U 235 is divided
into two parts. The fission process is commutative in nature. That is why, a nuclear reaction is
a chain reaction and hence it should be allowed to be occurred in a controlled manner. The
moderates and control rods are used to control this chain reaction.
Moderates are used to reduce the velocity of neutrons and control rods are used to absorb
neutrons for maintaining, required number of neutrons for the process. Moderates are made of
heavy water or pure carbon and control rods are made of cadmium or boron steel.
The speed of the nuclear reaction can be controlled by inserting control rods up to a desire deep
into the reaction chamber. By pushing down and pulling up the control rods, the output of the
nuclear generating plant is controlled. Although this process is not manual, it is controlled by
the automatic feedback control system. The heat generated during fission is taken out from the
reactor by means of coolant consisting of liquid sodium or some gaseous fluids.
1. Generation
The coolant is circulated between heat exchanger and the reactor. It takes heat from the reactor
and gives the heat to the water in the heat exchanger. Thus the water in the heat exchanger is
converted to high pressure and high temperature steam. This steam then drives a turbine and
exhausts into a condenser where it is condensed into water and cooled down for re- feeding to
the heater changes again via a feed water pump.
The main advantage of nuclear power plant is its minimum fuel consumption. It has been
observed that for running a 1000 MW thermal power plant, nearly 6 X106 kg of coal to be
burnt every day, whereas in a nuclear power plant only 2.5 kg of Uranium to be consumed
daily for getting same output.
But the initial investment of nuclear power plant is quite high. It produces electricity without
causing any air pollution, but, it has always a chance of radiation hazard because of leakage in
reactor chamber. Another major disadvantage of this plant is its disposals, as because its
disposals are not free from radioactivity.
1. Generation
Basic Concept of Hydro Power Plant
Here the water head is used to rotate the rotor shaft of an alternator. Water head can be naturally
available or it can be created. In hilly region water head can be naturally available in the hill
top natural lakes. In plain land, it can be created by constructing dams across suitable rivers.
In comparing to a thermal power plant, hydro plants are more echo-friendly as they are free
from fuel combustion.
Also the running cost of hydro plant is much cheaper than that of thermal plants as there is no
need of fuel to be burnt.
Although running cost of a hydro power plant is quilt low, but initial construction cost of this
plant is quilt high as compared to thermal power plant.
As because, there is huge involvement of money in construction of dams and other necessary
civil buildings. Water turbine generally runs at a low speed, hence number of poles in the
generator are higher to achieve fixed 50 Hz power frequency. The number of pole in a hydro
alternator may be up to 20 or more.
In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the turbine which in
turn runs the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earths surface has potential
energy relative to the oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted to shaft work
where the water falls through an appreciable vertical distance.
The hydraulic power is therefore a naturally available renewable energy given by the eqn:
P =g QH
Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2
10
1. Generation
= density of water = 1000 kg/m 3
H = height of fall of water.
This power is utilized for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to equivalent electrical energy.
An important point to be noted is that, the hydro-electric plants are of much lower capacity compared
to their thermal or nuclear counterpart. For this reason hydro plants are generally used in scheduling
with thermal stations, to serve the load during peak hours. They in a way assist the thermal or the
nuclear plant to deliver power efficiently during periods of peak hours.
ADVANTAGES:
Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.

If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity generation.
The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is high.
Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.
The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure
activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
The build-up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when
the water is released to produce electricity.
When in use, electricity produced by dam systems does not produce greenhouse gases.
They do not pollute the atmosphere.
DISADVANATGES:
Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high standard.
The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many decades to
become profitable.
The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.
People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move out.
This means that they lose their farms and businesses. In some countries, people are
forcibly removed so that hydro-power schemes can go ahead.
The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For example, the
building of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth quakes and has
depressed the earths surface at its location.
Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old dams have been
known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight of water in the lake). This has
led to deaths and flooding.
Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that the water
supply from the same river in the following country is out of their control. This can
lead to serious problems between neighbouring countries.
11
1. Generation
Basic Concept of Solar Power Plant
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. Photovoltaic convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic
effect.
Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that control Earth's climate and weather
and protract life. It is a renewable source of energy and originates with the thermonuclear
process that transfers about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium per second. This action
produces lots of heat and electromagnetic radiation. The produced heat remains in the sun and
is helpful in upholding the thermonuclear reaction and Electromagnetic radiation together with
visible, infrared and ultra-violet radiation flow out into space in all directions.
Solar energy is in reality nuclear energy. Similar to all stars, the sun is a large gas sphere made
up mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. In the internal surface of sun 25% of hydrogen is fusing
into helium at a rate of about 7 x 1011 kg of hydrogen per second. Heat from the canter is first
and foremost spread out, and then sends down, to the Sun surface, where it keeps up at a
temperature of 5800 K. According to Stefan-Boltzmanns Law, the total energy that is released
by the Sun, and therefore, the quantity of solar energy that we get here on Earth, is significantly
reliant upon this surface temperature.
12
1. Generation
The array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current (DC) power
which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion
to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters.[3] Multiple
solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied
to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired
frequency/phase
Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, especially in
developed countries with large markets. In these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy
storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing
countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such standalone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.
Types of Solar Power Station
There are mainly four types of solar power stations.
1. Stand Alone or Off Grid type Solar Power Plant
2. Grid Tie type Solar Power Plant
3. Grid Tie with Power Backup or Grid Interactive type Solar Power Plant
4. Grid Fallback type Solar Power Plant.
13
1. Generation
Basic Concept of Geo-thermal Power Plant
Most power plantswhether fuelled by coal, gas, nuclear power, or geothermal energyhave
one feature in common: they convert heat to electricity. Heat from the Earth, or geothermal
Geo (Earth) + thermal (heat) energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process
similar to drilling for oil.
Geothermal energy is a renewable resource. One of its biggest advantages is that it is constantly
available. The constant flow of heat from the Earth ensures an inexhaustible and essentially
limitless supply of energy for billions of years to come.
The uses of geothermal for heat and other purposes were indigenous practices across a variety
of world cultures: The Maoris in New Zealand and Native Americans used water from hot
springs for cooking and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. Ancient Greeks and
Romans had geothermal heated spas. The people of Pompeii, living too close to Mount
Vesuvius, tapped hot water from the earth to heat their buildings. Romans used geothermal
waters for treating eye and skin disease. The Japanese have enjoyed geothermal spas for
centuries.
A viable geothermal system requires heat, permeability, and water. Developers explore a
geothermal reservoir to test its potential for development by drilling and testing temperatures
and flow rates. Rainwater and snowmelt feed underground thermal aquifers when hot water or
steam is trapped in racks and pores under a layer of impermeable rock, it forms a geothermal
reservoir.
14
1. Generation
At the Larderello, Italy dry steam field, Prince Piero Ginori Conti first proved the viability of
geothermal power plant technology in 1904.Larderello is still producing today.
Geothermal power plants have much in common with traditional power-generating stations.
They use many of the same components, including turbines, generators, transformers, and
other standard power generating equipment. While there are three types of geothermal power
plants, this animation shows a generic plant.
15
1. Generation
A production well is drilled into a known geothermal reservoir. Typically, an injection well is
also drilled to return used geothermal fluids to the geothermal reservoir. Hot geothermal fluids
flow through pipes to a power plant for use in generating electricity.
Hot, pressurized geothermal fluid, or a secondary working fluid, is allowed to expand rapidly
and provide rotational or mechanical energy to turn the turbine blades on a shaft.
Rotational energy from the turning turbine shaft is used directly to spin magnets inside a large
coil and create electrical current. The turbine and generator are the primary pieces of equipment
used to convert geothermal energy to electrical energy.
Electrical current from the generator is sent to a step-up transformer outside the power plant.
Voltage is increased in the transformer and electrical current is transmitted over power lines to
homes, buildings, and businesses.
16
1. Generation
Basic concept of Wind power plant
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere
by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow
patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This
wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to
generate electricity.
Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and power an electric
generator that supplies an electric current. Simply stated, a wind turbine is the opposite of
a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make
electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator
and makes electricity.
17
1. Generation
Horizontal turbine components include:
Blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy;
A drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator;
A tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and
Other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment,
and interconnection equipment.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind-Generated Electricity
Wind energy is a free, renewable resource, so no matter how much is used today, there will still be the
same supply in the future. Wind energy is also a source of clean, non-polluting, electricity. Unlike
conventional power plants, wind plants emit no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. According to the
U.S. Department of Energy, in 1990, California's wind power plants offset the emission of more than
2.5 billion pounds of carbon dioxide, and 15 million pounds of other pollutants that would have
otherwise been produced. It would take a forest of 90 million to 175 million trees to provide the same
air quality.
Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the
technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fuelled generators. Roughly 80%
of the cost is the machinery, with the balance being site preparation and installation. If wind
generating systems are compared with fossil-fuelled systems on a "life-cycle" cost basis
(counting fuel and operating expenses for the life of the generator), however, wind costs are
much more competitive with other generating technologies because there is no fuel to purchase
and minimal operating expenses.
The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that it is intermittent and does not
always blow when electricity is needed. Wind cannot be stored (although wind-generated
electricity can be stored, if batteries are used), and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the
timing of electricity demands. Further, good wind sites are often located in remote
locations far from areas of electric power demand (such as cities). Finally, wind resource
development may compete with other uses for the land, and those alternative uses may be
more highly valued than electricity generation. However, wind turbines can be located on land
that is also used for grazing or even farming.
18
2. Transmission
Transmission
Basic Concept of Transmission
Electrical power is generated at different generating stations. These generating stations are not
necessarily situated at the load centre. During construction of generating station number of
factors to be considered from economical point of view. These all factors may not be easily
available at load canter hence generating stations are not normally situated very nearer to load
canter. Load canter is the place where maximum power is consumed. Hence there must be
some means by which the generated power must be transmitted to the load canter. Electrical
transmission system is the means of transmitting power from generating station to different
load centres.
Fundamentally there are two systems by which electrical energy can be transmitted.
(1) High voltage DC electrical transmission system.
(2) High voltage AC electrical transmission system.
There are some advantages in using DC transmission system Only two conductor are required for Dc transmission system. It is further possible to
use only one conductor of DC transmission system if earth is utilized as return path of
the system.
The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission system is about 70% of same
voltage AC transmission system. Hence less insulation cost is involved in DC
transmission system.
Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems can be eliminated in
DC system.
Even having these advantages in DC system, generally electrical energy is transmitted by 3phase AC transmission system.
The alternating voltages can easily be stepped up & down, which is not possible in DC
transmission system.
Maintenance of AC substation is quite easy and economical compared to DC site.
The transforming in AC electrical substation is much easier than motor-generator sets
in DC system.
But AC transmission system also has some disadvantages like,
The volume of conductor used in AC system is much higher than that of DC.
The reactance of the line, affects the voltage regulation of electrical power transmission
system.
Problems of skin effects and proximity effects only found in AC system.
AC transmission system is more likely to be affected by corona effect than DC system.
Construction of AC electrical power transmission network is more completed than DC
system.
Proper synchronizing is required before inter connecting two or more transmission lines
together; synchronizing can totally be omitted in DC transmission system.
19
2. Transmission
Basic Concept of Step up Transformer
A transformer is a device that changes (transforms) and alternating potential difference
(voltage) from one value to another value be it smaller or greater using the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
A transformer consists of a soft iron coil with two coils wound around it which are not
connected to one another. These coils can be wound either on separate limbs of the iron core
or be arranged on top of each other.
The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied is called the primary coil or primary
winding. When an alternating potential difference is supplied the resulting alternating current
in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic field around it. This changing field induces
an alternating current in the secondary coil. The size of the induced voltage resulting from the
induced current in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil.
The relationship between the voltage and the number of turns in each coil is given by:
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil. The
induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across the primary
coil or in other words the voltage has been stepped-up.
20
2. Transmission
This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the primary winding
and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit, this transformer converts highvoltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used
in the secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding,
which doesnt have to conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.
The fact that voltage and current get stepped in opposite directions (one up, the other down)
makes perfect sense when you recall that power is equal to voltage times current, and realize
that transformers cannot produce power, only convert it. Any device that could output more
power than it took in would violate the Law of Energy Conservation in physics, namely that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. As with the first transformer example
we looked at, power transfer efficiency is very good from the primary to the secondary sides
of the device.
Basic Concept of Step down Transformer

A step down transformer has less turns on the secondary coil that the primary coils. The
induced voltage across the secondary coil is less the applied voltage across the primary coil or
in other words the voltage is stepped-down.
Transformers are very efficient. If it is assumed that a transformer is 100% efficient (and this
is a safe assumption as transformers may be up to 99% efficient) then the power in the primary
coil has to be equal to the power in the secondary coil, as per the law of conservation of energy.
Power in primary coil = Power in secondary coil
Remember, power = potential difference x current
Thus,
Primary coil p.d. x primary coil current = Secondary coil p.d. x secondary coil current
VP x IP = VS x IS
21
2. Transmission
So if the potential difference is stepped up by a transformer then the current is stepped down
by roughly the same ratio. In the case of the potential being stepped down by the transformer
then the current is stepped up by the same ratio.
It is possible to operate either of these transformer types backwards (powering the secondary
winding with an AC source and letting the primary winding power a load) to perform the
opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-down and visa-versa.
One of the most important considerations to increase transformer efficiency and reduce heat is
choosing the metal type of the windings. Copper windings are much more efficient than
aluminium and many other winding metal choices, but it also costs more. Transformers with
copper windings cost more to purchase initially, but save on electrical cost over time as the
efficiency more than makes up for the initial cost.
Step-down transformers are commonly used to convert the 220 volt electricity into lower
voltage rectification for DC equipment.
22
2. Transmission
Basic Concept of Outdoor Substation
Now days the electrical power demand is increasing very rapidly. For fulfilling these huge
power demands the modern time requires creation of bigger and bigger power generating
stations. These power generating stations may be hydro electric, thermal or atomic.
Depending upon the availability of resources these stations are constructed different places.
These places may not be nearer to load centres where the actual consumption of power takes
place. So it is necessary to transmit these huge power blocks from generating station to their
load centres. Long and high voltage transmission networks are needed for this purpose. Power
is generated comparatively in low voltage level. It is economical to transmit power at high
voltage level. Distribution of electrical power is done at lower voltage levels as specified by
consumers. For maintaining these voltage levels and for providing greater stability a number
of transformation and switching stations have to be created in between generating station and
consumer ends. These transformation and switching stations are generally known as electrical
substations.
Outdoor type substations are constructed in open air. Nearly all 132KV, 220KV, 400KV
substation are outdoor type substation. Although now days special GIS (Gas insulated
substation) are constructed for extra high voltage system which are generally situated under
roof.
23
2. Transmission
Basic Concept of Indoor Substation
The substations are constructed under roof is called indoor type substation. Generally 11KV
and sometime 33KV substation are of this type.
Mobile Substation
The mobile substations are also very special purpose sub station temporarily required for
construction purpose. For big construction purpose this substation fulfils the temporary power
requirement during construction work.
Underground Substation
The substation are situated at underground is called underground substation. In congested
places where place for constructing distribution substation is difficult to find out, one can go
for underground sub station scheme.
Pole Mounted Substation
Pole mounted substation are mainly distribution substation constructed on two pole, four pole
and sometime six or more poles structures. In this type of substation fuse protected distribution
transformer are mounted on poles along with electrical isolator switches.
24
2. Transmission
Basic Types of Transmission Tower
A power transmission tower consists of the following parts,

1. Peak of transmission tower
2. Cross arm of transmission tower
3. Boom of transmission tower
4. Cage of transmission tower
5. Transmission Tower Body
6. Leg of transmission tower
7. Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower
According to the angle of deviation there are four types of transmission tower A Type tower angle of deviation 0o to 2o.
B Type tower angle of deviation 2o to 15o.
C Type tower angle of deviation 15o to 30o.
D Type tower angle of deviation 30o to 60o.
As per the force applied by the conductor on the cross arms, the transmission towers can be
categorized in another way Tangent suspension tower and it is generally A - type tower.
Angle tower or tension tower or sometime it is called section tower. All B, C and D types
of transmission towers come under this category.
These are called special type tower

River crossing tower
Railway/ Highway crossing tower
Transposition tower
25
2. Transmission
Tower Accessories
1. Tower
2. Cross arms
3. Dampers
4. Spacers
5. Conductors
6. Insulators
7. Earth wire (Ground wire)
8. Arching horn gap arrestors
9. Bird guard
10. Danger plate etc.
26
2. Transmission
Power Loss in Transmission Line
Permanent / Fixed Technical losses
Fixed losses do not vary according to current. These losses take the form of heat and noise
and occur as long as a transformer is energized
Corona Losses
Leakage Current Losses
Dielectric Losses
Open-circuit Losses
Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements
Losses caused by continuous load of control elements
Variable Technical losses

Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity distributed and are, more precisely,
proportional to the square of the current. Consequently, a 1% increase in current leads to an
increase in losses of more than 1%.
By increasing the cross sectional area of lines and cables for a given load, losses will
fall. This leads to a direct trade-off between cost of losses and cost of capital
expenditure. It has been suggested that optimal average utilization rate on a
distribution network that considers the cost of losses in its design could be as low as
30 per cent.
Joule losses in lines in each voltage level
Impedance losses
Losses caused by contact resistance.
27
2. Transmission
Main Reasons for Technical Losses
1. Lengthy Distribution lines.
In practically 11 KV and 415 volts lines, in rural areas are extended over long distances to
feed loads scattered over large areas. Thus the primary and secondary distributions lines in
rural areas are largely radial laid usually extend over long distances.
2. Inadequate Size of Conductors of Distribution lines.
The size of the conductors should be selected on the basis of KVA x KM capacity of
standard conductor for a required voltage regulation, but rural loads are usually scattered
and generally fed by radial feeders. The conductor size of these feeders should be adequate.
3. Installation of Distribution transformers away from load centres.

Distribution Transformers are not located at Load center on the Secondary Distribution
System. In most of case Distribution Transformers are not located centrally with respect to
consumers. Consequently, the farthest consumers obtain an extremity low voltage even
though a good voltage levels maintained at the transformers secondary.
4. Low Power Factor of Primary and secondary distribution system.

In most LT distribution circuits normally the Power Factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.75.
A low Power Factor contributes towards high distribution losses. For a given load, if
the Power Factor is low, the current drawn in high and the losses proportional to
square of current.
28
3. Distribution
Distribution
Basic Concept of Distribution
The main function of an electrical power distribution system is to provide power to
individual consumer premises. Distribution of electric power to different consumers is done
with much low voltage level.
An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries
electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to
the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between
2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage
power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers
again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of household appliances and typically feed several
customers through secondary distribution lines at this voltage. Commercial and residential customers
are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much
larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the sub
transmission level.
Distribution of electric power is done by distribution networks. Distribution networks consist

of following main parts
1. Distribution substation,
2. Primary distribution feeder,
3. Distribution Transformer,
4. Distributors,
5. Service mains.
The transmitted electric power is stepped down is substations, for primary distribution purpose.
Now these stepped down electric power is fed to the distribution transformer through primary
distribution feeders. Overhead primary distribution feeders are supported by mainly supporting
iron pole (preferably rail pole). The conductors are strand aluminium conductors and they are
mounted on the arms of the pole by means of pin insulators. Some times in congested places,
underground cables may also be used for primary distribution purposes.
29
3. Distribution
Types of Distribution Systems
An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it
carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution
substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium
voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution
lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's
premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of
household appliances and typically feed several customers through secondary distribution lines
at this voltage. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary
distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount
of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the sub
transmission level.
In the very early days of electricity distribution (for example Thomas Edison's Pearl Street
Station), direct current (DC) generators were connected to loads at the same voltage. The
generation, transmission and loads had to be of the same voltage because there was no way of
changing DC voltage levels, other than inefficient motor-generator sets. Low DC voltages
(around 100 volts) were used since that was a practical voltage for Incan descent lamps, which
were the primary electrical load. Low voltage also required less insulation for safe distribution
within buildings. The loss in a cable is proportional to the square of the current, and the
resistance of the cable. And, since voltage and current are inversely proportional in this system,
by greatly increasing the voltage the current is correspondingly reduced. Therefore, a higher
transmission voltage would reduce the copper size to transmit a given quantity of power, but
no efficient method existed to change the voltage of DC power circuits. To keep losses to an
economically practical level the Edison DC system needed thick cables and local generators.
Early DC generating plants needed to be within about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of the farthest
customer to avoid excessively large and expensive conductors.
Because the maximum voltage a generator can produce is economically limited by the
insulation of its windings, electric power is normally generated at a "medium" voltage, less
than 33 kV, in a power station. The voltage is stepped up to "high voltage (more than 66 kV)
at the generating station for transmission to distant load centres. The exact voltage level
depends on the amount of power to be transmitted and the distance. Different standardized
voltages are used in different countries, depending on local engineering practice.
Power is carried through this transmission network of high voltage lines for up to hundreds of
kilometres. For reliability and economy, transmission systems are interconnected to form the
"electric grid" which may have many sources and loads interconnected. Sometimes
intermediate "sub transmission" voltage levels are used for smaller loads or geographically
isolated places.
At electrical substations, the voltage is stepped down to lower values for distribution, for
example, around a city. "Medium" voltage, lower than 33 kV, is used for distribution. Near
30
3. Distribution
each customer's premises, a final transformer is used to reduce the transmission voltage to the
level used by the customer's lighting and power equipment. Depending on the geographic
density of customers, a single transformer may serve only one user or might have many
individual customers. In very densely populated areas, "secondary networks" are used, with
many distribution transformers feeding a "grid" at the utilization voltage. This improves
reliability since many distribution transformers share the collected load.
The modern distribution system begins as the primary circuit leaves the sub-station and ends
as the secondary service enters the customer's meter socket by way of a service drop.
Distribution circuits serve many customers. The voltage used is appropriate for the shorter
distance and varies from 2,300 to about 35,000 volts depending on utility standard practice,
distance, and load to be served. Distribution circuits are fed from a transformer located in
a substation, where the voltage is reduced from the high values used for power transmission.
Conductors for distribution may be carried on overhead pole lines, or in densely populated
areas, buried underground. Urban and suburban distribution is done with three-phase systems
to serve residential, commercial, and industrial loads. Distribution in rural areas may be only
single-phase if it is not economical to install three-phase power for relatively few and small
customers.
31
3. Distribution
Types of Distribution Network
Distribution Systems can be defined as the sequential flow of procedures, systems, and
activities which are designed and linked to facilitate and monitor the movement of goods and
services from the source to the consumer.
Radial Distribution System

In early days of electrical power distribution system, different feeders were radially come out
from the substation and connected to the primary of distribution transformer directly.
But radial electrical power distribution system has one major drawback that in case of any
feeder failure, the associated consumers would not get any power as there was no alternative
path to feed the transformer. In case of transformer failure also, the power supply is interrupted.
In other words the consumer in the radial electrical distribution system would be in darkness
until the feeder or transformer was rectified.
32
3. Distribution
Ring Main Distribution System
The drawback of radial electrical power distribution system can be overcome by introducing
a ring main electrical power distribution system. Here one ring network of distributors is
fed by more than one feeder. In this case if one feeder is under fault or maintenance, the ring
distributor is still energized by other feeders connected to it. In this way the supply to the
consumers is not affected even when any feeder becomes out of service. In addition to that the
ring main system is also provided with different section isolates at different suitable points. If
any fault occurs on any section, of the ring, this section can easily be isolated by opening the
associated section isolators on both sides of the faulty zone.
In this way, supply to the consumers connected to the healthy zone of the ring, can easily be
maintained even when one section of the ring is under shutdown. The number of feeders
connected to the ring main electrical power distribution system depends upon the following
factors.
System Maximum demand of the: If it is more, then more numbers of feeders feed the ring.
Total length of the ring main distributors: It length is more, to compensate the voltage drop
in the line, more feeders to be connected to the ring system.
Required voltage regulation: The number of feeders connected to the ring also depends
upon the permissible allowable, voltage drop of the line.
The sub distributors and service mains are taken off may be via distribution transformer at
different suitable points on the ring depending upon the location of the consumers. Sometimes,
instead of connecting service main directly to the ring, sub distributors are also used to feed a
group of service mains where direct access of ring distributor is not possible.
33
3. Distribution
Interconnected Grid System
Advantages
The function of generating station is to provide power to a large number of consumers. But
consumers power requirement will vary as per their activities.
Due to this variation in demand, the load on a power station is never constant and it varies
from time to time.
We know the fact that electrical power cannot be stored.
The power generating stations must produce power as and when demanded to meet the
requirements of the consumers.
On the other hand, to get maximum efficiency the alternators in the power station have to
run at rated capacity.
In order to meet both varying demands of the consumers and get maximum efficiency
from the power station the prime station (steam, thermal, hydralic powre plants) are
connected with small power plants ( like biogas, solar, wind etc).
The connection of several generating stations in parallel is known as interconnected grid
system.
Even though this arrangements adds extra cost, it gives huge benefits. So it is widely used in
now a days. Some of the advantages of interconnected Grid System are given below;
(1) Exchange of peak loads
An important advantage of interconnected system is that the peak load of the power station
can be exchanged.
If the load curve of a power station shows a peak demand that is greater than the rated
capacity of the plant, then the excess load can be shared by other stations interconnected
with it.
(2) Use of Older Plants:
The interconnected grid system makes it possible to use the older and less efficient plants
to carry peak loads of short durations.
Even though such plants may be inadequate when used alone, they have sufficient capacity
to carry short peaks of loads when interconnected with other modern plants.
(3) Ensures economical operation:
The interconnected grid system makes the operation of concerned power stations quite
economical.
It is because sharing of load among the stations is arranged in such a way that more
efficient stations work continuously throughout the year at a high load factor and the less
efficient plants work for peak load hours only.
(4) Increases diversity factor:
The load curves of different interconnected stations are generally different.
The result is that the maximum demand on the system is much reduced as compared to
the sum of individual maximum demands of different stations.
34
3. Distribution
In other words, the diversity factor of the system is improved, so increasing the effective
capacity of the system.
(5) Reduces plant reserve capacity:

Every power station is required to have a standby unit for emergencies.
But when several power stations are connected in parallel, the reserve capacity of the grid
system is reduced drastically. This increases the efficiency of the system.
(6) Increases reliability of supply:
The interconnected system increases the reliability of supply.
If a major breakdown occurs in one station, continuity of the supply can be maintained by
other healthy stations.
35
4. Earthing System
Earthing System
Basic concept of Earthling
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the earth
(ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth plate
or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor wire (which
has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or grounding.
To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as metallic
covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry current to the
earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power supply system to
the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical energy.
Earthing and Grounding is the same terms used for earthing. Grounding is the commonly word used
for earthing in the North American standards like IEEE, NEC, ANSI and UL etc. while, Earthing is
used in European, Common wealth countries and Britain standards like IS and IEC etc.
The word Bonding used for jointing two wires (as well as conductors, pipes or appliances together.
Bonding is known as connecting the metallic parts of different machines which is not considered to be
carrying electric current during normal operation of the machines to bring them at the same level of
electric potential.
36
4. Earthing System
The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or earth
plate is called earthing joint or Earthing lead. The point where earth continuity conductor
and earth electrode meet is known as connecting point
Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for high
installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the copper wire.
To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead to
connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use two earth
electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be considered that
the two earth leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents but both paths should
work properly to carry the fault current because it is important for better safety.
Need of Earthing or Grounding

The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire due
to earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential of a current
carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage of
electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations or
failure in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates on it. If a
person touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
37
4. Earthing System
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be earthed
so as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.
Below are the basic needs of Earthing.
To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from
leakage current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
Types of Earthling Systems

Plate Earthing
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm
(2ft x 2ft x in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m
(10ft) from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate introduction)
to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth plate.
Pipe Earthing
38
4. Earthing System
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically
in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The dimension
of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or
greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to
be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
39
4. Earthing System
Rod Earthing:
It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft.) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
Earthing through the Waterman

In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing purpose.
Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the
resistance for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire and
make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect tightly to
the waterman pipe.
Strip or Wire Earthing:
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in
x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a crosssection of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if its a galvanized
iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less
than 6.0mm2 if its a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground
would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m.
40
4. Earthing System
Why we use Different types of earthing systems
The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire due
to earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential of a current
carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage of
electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations or
failure in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates on it. If a
person touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be earthed
so as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.
Below are the basic needs of Earthing.

To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from
leakage current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
41
5. Cable Dimensioning
Cable Dimensioning
Requirements of Cable dimensioning
Cables are mainly designed as per requirement. Power cables are mainly used for power
transmission & distribution purpose. It is an assembly of one or more individually insulated
electrical conductors, usually held together with an overall sheath. The assembly is used for
transmission and distribution of electrical power. Electrical power cables may be installed as
permanent wiring within buildings, buried in the ground and run overhead or exposed.
Flexible power cables are used for portable devices, mobile tools and machinery. These are
designed and manufactured as per voltage, current to be carried, operating maximum
temperature and purpose of applications desired by customer.
Current Carrying Capacity

We know that all conductors and cables (except Super conductor) have some amount of
resistance. This resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to
the diameter of conductor R L/a.
[Laws of resistance R = (L/a)]
Current carrying capacity is an important aspect is the selection of the optimum size of
conductor. Voltage drop & short rating is also very important aspect to select the economical
and optimum size of conductor.
42
Basic Construction of Cable
There are various parts of a cable to be taken care of during construction. The power cable
mainly consists of
1. CONDUCTOR
2. INSULATION
3. LAY for Multicore cables only
4. BEDDING
5. BRAIDING/ARMOURING (IF REQUIRED) 6. OUTER SHEATH
1) CONDUCTOR
Conductors are the only power carrying path in a power cable. Conductors are of different
materials. Mainly in cable industry we use copper (ATC, ABC) and aluminium conductors
for power cables. There are different types of conductor as Class 1: solid, Class 2 stranded,
Class 5 flexible, Class 6 Extra flexible (Mostly used for cords & welding) etc. Conductor
sizes are identified with conductor resistance.
2) INSULATION
The insulation provided on each conductor of a cable by mainly PVC (POLY VINYL
CLORIDE), XLPE (CROSSLINKED POLYETHYELENE), RUBBER (VARIUS TYPES
OF RUBBER). Insulating material is based on operating temperature.
43
3) BEDDING (INNER SHEATH)
This portion of the cable is also known as inner sheath. Mostly it is used in Multi core cables.
It works as binder for insulated conductors together in multi-core power cables and provides
bedding to armour/braid. This portion of the cable is mainly made of PVC( PVC ST-1, PVC
ST-2 ), RUBBER (CSP SE-3, CSP SE-4 & PCP SE-3, PCP SE-4, HOFR SE-3 HOFR SE-4,
HD HOFR SE-3 ETC)
4) ARMOURING
There are mainly G.I. WIRE ARMOURING, G.I. STEEL STRIP armouring. It is done by
placing G.I. WIREs, GI or STEEL STRIPs one by one on inner sheath. Armouring is a
process which is done mainly for providing earthing shield to the current carrying conductors
as well as it is also used for earthing purpose of the cable for safety. When there is any
insulation failure in the conductor, the fault current gets enough paths to flow through the
armour if it is properly earthed. Providing extra mechanical protection and strength to cable
an important added advantage of armouring. In MINING CABLES it is done for conductance
5) BRAIDING
ANNEALED TINNED COPPER WIRE, NYLON BRAID, COTTON BRAID are mainly
used for this purpose. Braiding is the process which gives high mechanical protection to cable
and also used for earthing purpose. Significance of braiding is it is more flexible in
comparison to armouring.
6) OUTER SHEATH
This is outermost cover of the cable normally made of PVC (POLYVINYL CLORIDE),
RUBBER (VARIUS TYPES OF RUBBER) and often the same material as the bedding.
Mainly above 6 sq. mm cables are called power cables but it depends upon the use of cable.
For PVC power cables we use IS: 1554 and for XLPE power cables we use IS: 7098 and for
Rubber based power cables we use IS: 9968 and other relevant specifications. Power cables
are defined by voltage grade and nominal cross sectional area.
44
Different Types of Cable
Depending on the nature of application, different types of Cables can be used. Cables are
majorly categorized on the basis of their make. For instance, there are single-conductor cables
as well as multi-conductor cables that find application in different circumstances. Continue
reading to know in detail about the different types of Cables used in domestic, commercial
and industrial set ups.
Aluminium Cables:
Aluminium Cables are a type of Electrical Cable that is extensively used. These types of
Cables are known for high electrical conductivity. The aluminium Cables are ductile, light
weight, non-magnetic and can be used for several heavy-duty applications. Furthermore, the
silver-white metal of aluminium Cables is reflective to heat and can be recycled also. The
application areas of these types of cables include electric lights, telephone lines, and motors.
Copper Cables:
Copper Cables are a widely used Electrical Cable that are utilized in a number of industrial
segments, the major ones being mining, electronics, transportation, and telecommunication.
The Copper Cables specifically used in telecommunication sector are known as
Telecommunication Cables. Just like the aluminium Cables, Copper Cables have high
electrical conductivity and are ductile, lightweight and flexible. Largely, the Copper Cables
find application in microwave ovens, integrated circuits, electromagnets, electrical bus bars,
electrical switches, etc.
Industrial Cables:
Industrial Cables are especially designed to withstand extreme temperatures and find
application in sectors such as chemical plants, oil refineries, aviation, pharmaceutical
companies, etc. The Industrial Cables offer great resistance to oil, grease, chemicals, &
flames etc. Some commonly used types of Industrial Cables include Coaxial Cables,
Armoured Shielded Instrumentation Cables, Control Cables and several other Industrial
Power Cables.
45
Cable Dimensioning based on Overload protection
Failure of underground cables can be costly and time consuming to repair. Protection systems
are designed to protect cables from the high current levels present under fault conditions.
However, the temperature rise due to extended overload conditions is just as likely to cause
cable failure. As the trend in power system operations is to utilize equipment as close to
operating limits as possible, the importance of protecting equipment against thermal
overloads becomes more critical.
Thermal overload protection calculates the temperature of the conductor based on specific
conductor data and the current present in the circuit, and is used to protect conductors from
damage due to extended overloads. In this application example thermal overload protection
of underground cables only is described.
Thermal overload protection is normally used in an alarm mode to notify system operators
of the potential for cable damage. However, thermal overload protection can be used to trip
a circuit breaker as well. In either case, the presence of thermal overload can be detected and
removed before cable failure occurs.
The failure of underground cables due to heating caused by long term overload conditions is
easily prevented by using thermal overload protection. Based on information provided by
cable manufacturers, circuit configuration, and operating conditions, it is simple to determine
settings for thermal overload protection. Thermal overload protection is normally used to
alarm for overload conditions, to allow system operators to make informed decisions on how
to handle an overload to prevent cable damage. A thermal overload alarm, when combined
with a SCADA system, can be used to track the amount of time the cable is exposed to
overload, allowing for estimates of the remaining life of the cable.
46
Cable Dimensioning based on Short circuit protection
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to five
seconds maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the conductor, causing
its temperature to rise. The heating process is said to be adiabatic, an assumption that
simplifies the calculation and gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature
than that which would actually occur, since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor
and pass into the insulation. For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I 2t =
k2S2 characterizes the time in seconds during which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm 2) can be
allowed to carry a current I, before its temperature reaches a level which would damage the
surrounding insulation.
47
Cable Dimensioning based on Tripping time
When sizing cables for non-motor loads, the upstream protective device (fuse or circuit
breaker) is typically selected to also protect the cable against damage from thermal overload.
The protective device must therefore be selected to exceed the full load current, but not
exceed the cable's installed current rating.
As the cable length increase the resistance of cable also increase which affect the tripping
time of circuit.
Cable Dimensioning based on Loop Impedance

The fault loop impedance is the most important aspect to take into consideration when
designing an electrical circuit. It directly affects the size of the circuit breaker and the size of
the cable that can be used on an installation. All electricians have heard of it. However, the
author's experience is that almost half of all electricians do not fully understand it. Designing
and wiring electrical circuits without a full and comprehensive understanding of this concept
can pose a serious safety hazard to the end user. This document will explain in detail the
concept of fault loop impedance, how to calculate it and how to ensure your circuits are well
designed.
The fault loop impedance is exactly what its name implies - it is the impedance (or resistance)
of the loop (or circuit) under fault conditions.
A fault condition is usually considered a short circuit at the end of the cable run or at the
terminals of the load.
The "loop" in this case refers to the entire path that the current will flow in the circuit under
fault conditions. There are 2 possibilities for a short circuit at the end of the cable run. The
first is a phase to phase short circuit. The second is a phase to earth short circuit.
The impedance of the phase to earth short circuit is used in these calculations. This is because
the earth wire is usually smaller than the active wires, so it will have more resistance than a
phase to phase fault. Why we want the higher resistance value will make more sense later.
48
This diagram below shows the current path that would occur under a phase to earth short
circuit.
The impedance on the circuit determines how much current will flow if there is a short circuit.
The cable path effectively acts like a resistor that has been placed across the circuit breaker,
as shown in the diagram below.
When the impedance is high, less current will flow. If it is too high, there is a very real chance
that the circuit breaker will take too long to trip, if it trips at all.
49
Voltage Drop
Basic concept of Voltage drop
Wires carrying current always have inherent resistance, or impedance, to current flow.
Voltage drop is defined as the amount of voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a
circuit due to impedance.
A common analogy used to explain voltage, current and voltage drop is a garden hose.
Voltage is analogous to the water pressure supplied to the hose. Current is analogous to the
water flowing through the hose. And the inherent resistance of the hose is determined by the
type and size of the hose - just like the type and size of an electrical wire determines its
resistance.
Excessive voltage drop in a circuit can cause lights to flicker or burn dimly, heaters to heat
poorly, and motors to run hotter than normal and burn out. This condition causes the load to
work harder with less voltage pushing the current.
Voltage drop should never be greater than 3 present this is done by selecting the right size of
wire, and by taking care in the use of extension cords and similar devices.
There are four basic causes of voltage drop.
The first is the choice of material used for the wire. Copper is a better conductor than
aluminium and will have less voltage drop than aluminium for a given length and wire size.
The electricity that moves through a copper wire is actually a group of electrons being pushed
by voltage. The higher the voltage, the more electrons that can be sent flowing through the
wire.
Wire size is another important factor in determining voltage drop. Larger wire sizes (those
with a greater diameter) will have less voltage drop than smaller wire sizes of the same length.
In American wire gauge, every 6 gauge decrease gives a doubling of the wire diameter, and
every 3 gauge decrease doubles the wire cross sectional area. In the Metric Gauge scale, the
gauge is 10 times the diameter in millimetres, so a 50 gauge metric wire would be 5 mm in
diameter.
Still another critical factor in voltage drop is wire length. Shorter wires will have less voltage
drop than longer wires for the same wire size (diameter). Voltage drop becomes important
when the length of a run of wire or cable becomes very long. Usually this is not a problem in
circuits within a house, but may become an issue when running wire to an outbuilding, well
pump, etc.
50
6. Voltage Drop
Cable selection is guided by two main principles. First, the cable should be able to carry the
current load imposed on it without overheating. It should be able to do this in the most
extreme conditions of temperature it will encounter during its working life. Second, it Should
offer sufficiently sound earthing to (i) limit the voltage to which people are exposed to a safe
level and (ii) allow the fault current to trip the fuse in a short time.
Example based on voltage drop

The size of conductor for any voltage drop can be determined readily by using mathematical
formulas which calculate the voltage drop for given wires sizes, lengths, and types under
load. These formulas may be used to determine any one of the four factors affecting voltage
drop if the other three factors are known. Keep in mind there are separate formulas for single
and three phases, and for copper and aluminium.
Formulas
For Copper Single Phase Circuits:
Where:
CM = Area of conductor in circular mills
1 = Single Phase line current in Amperes
L = Length (one-way) of circuit in feet
V = Voltage Drop (Volts)
For Copper Three Phase Circuits:
Where 13 = average three phase line current in amperes.

For sizes of aluminum conductors, these formulas may be used and the results multiplied by
1.6 or the formulas may be modified as follows:
Find the size of copper wire to carry a load of 40 amperes at 240 volts a distance of 500 feet
with 2% voltage drop. Use the formula:
Example-1
Referring to Table showing "Data on Sizes & Weights of Conductors," it will be found that this size
51
6. Voltage Drop
lies between No. 1 and No. 0, so No. 0 would be the wire size selected. For aluminum, multiply
104,167 x 1.6 = 166,667 circular mils. This lies between No. 00 and No. 000, so No. 000 would be
selected.
Example-2
How far can No. 6 copper wire be used to carry a load of 30 amperes at 240 volts and keep
within 1% voltage drop?
Cable dimensioning based on voltage drop

The allowable maximum voltage drops from source to load is another aspect of power cable
conductor design. As per Ohm's law, V = IR. The first is the choice of material used for the
wire. Copper is a better conductor than aluminium and will have less voltage drop than
aluminium for a given length and wire size. Wire size is another important factor in
determining voltage drop. Larger wire sizes (those with a greater diameter) will have less
voltage drop than smaller wire sizes of the same length. In American wire gauge, every 6
gauge decrease gives a doubling of the wire diameter, and every 3 gauge decrease doubles
the wire cross sectional area. In the Metric Gauge scale, the gauge is 10 times the diameter
in millimetres, so a 50 gauge metric wire would be 5 mm in diameter.
You can also check the classical Wire & Cable Size by using below formulas
Calculating Wire/Cable Size formula for single Phase Circuits
Wire Circular mils =2 x x I x L / (%Allowable Voltage drop of source voltage)
Calculating Wire/Cable Size formula for Three Phase Circuits
Wire Circular mils =3 x 2 x x I x L / (%Allowable Voltage drop of source voltage)
Where;
= Specific resistance or resistivity of Conductor
D = Distance in Feet (One way) i.e. the total circuit length
I = Load Current
Note: the Value of = Specific resistance or resistivity of Conductor is used here for
copper and aluminium is 11.2 and 17.4 respectively at 53 C (127 F)
52
7. Circuit Breaker Basics

Circuit Breaker Basics
Basic concept of Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
(i) Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions.
(ii) Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
(iii) Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions
Thus a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic control
for switching functions. The latter control employs relays and operates only under fault
conditions.
Basic working principle of circuit breaker

Operating principle
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under
normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically
until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can be opened manually
or by remote control whenever desired.
When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get
energised and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the
circuit.
When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck
between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production
of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat
which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main
problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that
heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.
Arc Phenomenon
When short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through the contacts of the circuit breaker
before they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to
separate, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current causes increased current
density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium between contacts
(usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient to ionise the air or vaporise and ionise the oil.
The ionised air or vapour acts as conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The
potential difference between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the
arc. The arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit remains
uninterrupted so long as the arc persists.
53

During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc
resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the
contacts. The arc resistance depends upon the following factors:
(i) Degree of ionisation the arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number of
ionised particles between the contacts.
(ii) Length of the arc the arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e.,
separation of contacts.
(iii) Cross-section of arc the arc resistance increases with the decrease in area of Xsection of the arc.
Principles of Arc Extinction

Before discussing the methods of arc extinction, it is necessary to examine the factors
responsible for the maintenance of arc between the contacts. These are:
P.D. between the contacts
ionised particles between contacts Taking these in turn,
(i) When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d. between them is sufficient to maintain
the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to such a distance that p.d.
becomes inadequate to maintain the arc. However, this method is impracticable in high
voltage system where a separation of many metres may be required.
(ii) The ionised particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc path is
deionised, the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling the arc or
by bodily removing the ionised particles from the space between the contacts.
Methods of Arc Extinction

There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.
1. High resistance method. 2. Low resistance or current zero method
High resistance method

In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that current is reduced to a
value insufficient to maintain the arc. Consequently, the current is interrupted or the arc is
extinguished. The principal disadvantage of this method is that enormous energy is dissipated
in the arc. Therefore, it is employed only in D.C. circuit breakers and low-capacity a.c. circuit
breakers.
The resistance of the arc may be increased by:
(i) Lengthening the arc. The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to its length. The
length of the arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts.
(ii) Cooling the arc. Cooling helps in the deionisation of the medium between the
contacts. This increases the arc resistance. Efficient cooling may be obtained by a gas blast
directed along the arc.
54

(iii) Reducing X-section of the arc. If the area of X-section of the arc is reduced, the
voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. In other words, the resistance of the arc
path is increased. The cross-section of the arc can be reduced by letting the arc pass through
a narrow opening or by having smaller area of contacts.
(iv) Splitting the arc. The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into
a number of smaller arcs in series. Each one of these arcs experiences the effect of
lengthening and cooling. The arc may be split by introducing some conducting plates between
the contacts.
Low resistance or Current zero method

This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits only. In this method, arc resistance
is kept low until current is zero where the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from
restriking inspite of the rising voltage across the contacts. All modern high power a.c. circuit
breakers employ this method for arc extinction.
In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-cycle. At every current zero, the arc
extinguishes for a brief moment. Now the medium between the contacts contains ions and
electrons so that it has small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising
contact voltage known as restriking voltage. If such a breakdown does occur, the arc will
persist for another half-cycle. If immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength of the
medium between contacts is built up more rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the
arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.
The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero can be achieved by:
Causing the ionised particles in the space between contacts to recombine into neutral
molecules.
Sweeping the ionised particles away and replacing them by un-ionised particles
Therefore, the real problem in a.c. arc interruption is to rapidly deionise the medium between
contacts as soon as the current becomes zero so that the rising contact voltage or restriking
voltage cannot breakdown the space between contacts.
The de-ionisation of the medium can be achieved by:
Lengthening of the gap. The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to the
length of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by opening the contacts rapidly, higher
dielectric strength of the medium can be achieved.
High pressure. If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc is increased, the density of the
particles constituting the discharge also increases. The increased density of particles
causes higher rate of de-ionisation and consequently the dielectric strength of the
medium between contacts is increased.
55
Cooling. Natural combination of ionised particles takes place more rapidly if they are
al-lowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts can
be increased by cooling the arc.
Blast effect. If the ionised particles between the contacts are swept away and replaced
by un-ionised particles, the dielectric strength of the medium can be increased
considerably. This may be achieved by a gas blast directed along the discharge or by
forcing oil into the contact space.
56

Current Zero Principle:
Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively breaking no
load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency i.e.
100 times per second for 50Hz
Current Limiting Circuit Breaker:

A circuit-breaker with a break- time short enough to prevent the short circuit current reaching
its otherwise attainable peak value.
57

Two methods are there for circuit breakers to sense circuit current
1.
2.
Thermal
Magnetic
All circuit breakers perform the following functions:

SENSE when an overcurrent occurs.
MEASURE the amount of overcurrent.
ACT by tripping in a timely manner to prevent damage to the circuit breaker and the
conductors it protects.
Thermal circuit breaker
Sense circuit current through the production of heat

Generally uses some type of heating element in series with the load
The heater is located close to a bimetallic strip
The bimetallic strip is mechanically connected to the moveable contacts
Schematic symbol:
58

Magnetic circuit breaker
Also known as Instantaneous trip circuit breaker

Senses circuit current by connecting a coil in series with the load
When current flows thought the circuit, a magnetic field is established around the coil
The magnetic field attracts the metal arm of a solenoid
When the magnetic field becomes intense enough the metal arm mechanically opens
the contacts
There is very little time delay in opening the contacts when an abnormal condition
occurs
Schematic symbol
59

Classifications of Circuit breaker
There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the most general way of
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction. The medium used for arc extinction
is usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum. Accordingly, circuit breakers may be
classified into:
(i) Oil circuit breakers which employ some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) for arc extinction.
(ii) Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
(iii) Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers in which sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc
extinction.
(iv) Vacuum circuit breakers in which vacuum is used for arc extinction.
Types of Oil Circuit Breakers

The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power system. These can be classified into the
following types:
(i)
Bulk oil circuit breakers which use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two
purposes. Firstly, it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and secondly, it insulates the
cur-rent conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit breakers may
be classified into:
(a) Plain break oil circuit breaker (Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker)
60

(b) Arc control oil circuit breaker (Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker).
Self-blast oil circuit breakers in which arc control is provided by internal means i.e.
the arc itself is employed for its own extinction efficiently.
Forced-blast oil circuit breakers in which arc control is provided by mechanical
means external to the circuit breaker.
In the former type, no special means is available for controlling the arc and the contacts are
directly exposed to the whole of the oil in the tank. However, in the latter type, special arc
control devices are employed to get the beneficial action of the arc as efficiently as possible.
Low oil circuit breakers which use minimum amount of oil. In such circuit breakers,
oil is used only for arc extinction; the current conducting parts are insulated by air or
porcelain or organic insulating material.
61

Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
Principle of Operation of Air Circuit Breaker:
The working principle of Air Circuit breaker is rather different from other types of circuit
breaker. The main aim of circuit breaker is to prevent reestablishment of arcing after current
zero where the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage. It does it same work,
but in a different manner. During interruption of arc, it creates an arc voltage instead of supply
voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required for maintaining arc .The
circuit breaker increases the voltage in three different ways:
1. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc
plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more
voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc.
2. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is
increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc
current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage
is increased.
3. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.
It is operated within voltage level up to 1 KV. It contains two pairs of contact. The main pair
carries the current and the contact made of copper. An additional pair of contact is made of
carbon. When the breaker is opened, the main contact opens first. During opening of the main
contact, the arc contact remains in touch with each other. The arcing gets initiated when arc
contacts are separated. The circuit breaker is obsolete for medium voltage.
Depending upon the direction of air-blast in relation to the arc, air-blast circuit breakers are
classified into:
Axial-blast type in which the air-blast is directed along the arc path as shown in Fig. (i)
Cross-blast type in which the air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc path as shown
in Fig. (ii)
Radial-blast type in which the air-blast is directed radially as shown in Fig. (iii)
62
Advantages of Air-Blast Circuit Beaker
Air blast circuit breaker is a suitable option to use where frequent operation is required
because of lesser arc energy

The risk of fire is eliminated in the operation of Air blast circuit breaker.
Air blast circuit breaker is small in size, because of the growth of dielectric strength is
so rapid (which final contact gap needed for arc extinction is very small).
Speed of circuit breaker is much higher during operation of the air blast.
Arc quenching is much faster
The duration of the arc is same for all values of current.
Stability of operation can be maintained and depends on speed operation of circuit
breakers.
It requires less maintenance.
Disadvantages of Air-Blast Circuit Breaker
The air supplier plant requires additional maintenance.
It contains high capacity air compressor.

There is a chance of air pressure leakage from the air pipes junction.
There is chance of a high rate rise of re-striking voltage and current chopping.
The air has relatively lower arc extinguishing properties.
Application and Uses of Air Circuit Breaker:

It is used for protection of plants
It is used for common protection of electrical machines
It used for protection of transformers, capacitors and generators.
Air circuit breaker is also used in Electricity sharing system and NGD about 15kV
Also used in Low as well as High voltage and Currents applications.
63

SENTRON 3WT ACB
The 3WT ACB family from 400A to 4000 A

One Series 2 sizes
3-pole and 4-pole
Fixed-Mounted and Withdrawable
High Breaking Capacity
4 x microprocessor base ETUs
In-built display
High ambient temperature
Front View of 3WT ACB
64

Construction of 3WT ACB
65

SENTRON 3WL ACB
The complete ACB family from 630A to 6300 A

One Series 3 sizes
3-pole and 4-pole
Fixed-Mounted and Withdrawable
AC & DC application
4 x making/breaking capacity classes
N/S/H/C
5 x microprocessor base ETUs
Rating Plug
66

Front View of 3WL ACB
Flexibly Applicable and Communication-Capable

3WL air circuit breakers offer a very flexible applicability and integrated communication
capability. They optimally meet the increased requirements placed upon air circuit breakers
particularly with regard to the operation and monitoring of network processes in connection
with electronic control systems. The quality of this range sets new standards worldwide.
With only three sizes, the 3WL air circuit breakers cover a power range from 630 A to 6300
A. Featuring a 3- or 4-pole design, they are suitable for applications up to 1000 V. All models
are characterized by identical design in fixed-mounted as well as withdraw able version
identical operation and identical comprehensive accessories. The particularity: In the upper
performance range, the 3WL is the worlds smallest circuit breaker of its class.
67

Construction of 3WL ACB
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
Guide frame
Main terminal on front, flange, horizontal, vertical
Position signaling switch
Grounding contact, leading
Shutter
COM15 PROFIBUS module or COM16 MODBUS module
External Cubicle BUS modules
Switch-on solenoid, auxiliary release
Aux. conductor plug-in system
Auxiliary switch block
Door sealing frame
Locking set for base plate
Transparent inset, function insert
EMERGENCY STOP pushbutton, key operation
Motorized operating mechanism
68

16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
Switching cycle counter

Breaker Status Sensor (BSS)
Protective device with device holder, overcurrent release (ETU)
Remote reset solenoid
Breaker Data Adapter (BDA)
Four-line display
Ground-fault protection module
Rated current module
Measurement function module
Circuit breaker
69

SF6 Circuit Breakers
Working of SF6 Circuit Breaker

The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple it is some extent similar to air blast
circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high pressure reservoir. During
operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through the arc in
breaker and collected to relatively low pressure reservoir and then it pumped back to the high
pressure reservoir for re utilize. The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in
modern time. Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 CB much easier. In
buffer type design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc
quenching.
70
Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed contact fitted with
a specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to fixed contacts. The cylinder can
axially slide upward and downward along the contacts. There is one stationary piston inside
the cylinder which is fixed with other stationary parts of the SF6 circuit breaker, in such a way
that it cannot change its position during the movement of the cylinder. As the piston is fixed
and cylinder is movable or sliding, the internal volume of the cylinder changes when the
cylinder slides.
During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against position of the fixed
piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces compressed SF6 gas
inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents which were blocked by upper fixed
contact body during closed position. As the cylinder move further downwards, these vent
openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas
inside the cylinder will come out through this vents in high speed towards the arc and passes
through the axial hole of the both fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of SF 6
gas.
During closing of the circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and as the position
of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases which introduces low
pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding. Due to this pressure difference SF6
gas from surrounding will try to enter in the cylinder. The higher pressure gas will come
through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters into cylinder via vent and during this
flow; the gas will quench the arc.
71

Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB)
Operation of Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by
establishing high dielectric strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after
current zero becomes impossible. The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than
that of air and four times greater than that of SF6 gas. This high dielectric strength makes it
possible to quench a vacuum arc within very small contact gap. For short contact gap, low
contact mass and no compression of medium the drive energy required in vacuum circuit
breaker is minimum. When two face to face contact areas are just being separated to each other,
they do not be separated instantly, contact area on the contact face is being reduced and
ultimately comes to a point and then they are finally de-touched. Although this happens in a
fraction of micro second but it is the fact. At this instant of de-touching of contacts in a vacuum,
the current through the contacts concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface
and makes a hot spot. As it is vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due
to that hot spot and create a conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and
continued until the next current zero.
At current zero this vacuum arc is extinguished and the conducting metal vapour is recondensed on the contact surface. At this point, the contacts are already separated hence there
72

is no question of re-vaporization of contact surface, for next cycle of current. That means, the
arc cannot be re-established again. In this way vacuum circuit breaker prevents the
reestablishment of arc by producing high dielectric strength in the contact gap after current
zero.
There are two types of arc shapes. For interrupting current up to 10 kA, the arc remains diffused
and the form of vapour discharge and cover the entire contact surface. Above 10 kA the
diffused arc is constricted considerably by its own magnetic field and it contracts. The
phenomenon gives rise over heating of contact at its centre. In order to prevent this, the design
of the contacts should be such that the arc does not remain stationary but keeps travelling by
its own magnetic field. Specially designed contact shape of vacuum circuit breaker make the
constricted stationary arc travel along the surface of the contacts, thereby causing minimum
and uniform contact erosion.
Advantages of Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

Service life of vacuum circuit breaker is much longer than other types of circuit breakers. There
is no chance of fire hazard as oil circuit breaker. It is much environment friendly than SF6 Circuit
breaker. Beside of that contraction of VCB is much user friendly. Replacement of vacuum
interrupter (VI) is much convenient.
73

Different types of Capacity and Ratings for Circuit breaker
1) Arc Voltage.
It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker during the arcing
period.
2) Restriking voltage.
It is the transient voltage that appears across the contacts at or near current zero during
arcing period.
3) Recovery voltage.
It is the normal frequency (50 Hz) r.m.s. voltage that appears across the contacts of the
circuit breaker after final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the system voltage.
4) Rate of rise of re-striking voltage (RRRV).
It is the rate of increase of re-striking voltage and is abbreviated by R.R.R.V. usually, the
voltage is in kV and time in microseconds so that R.R.R.V. is in kV/ sec.
5) Current chopping.
It is the phenomenon of current interruption before the natural current zero is reached.
Current chopping is not common in oil circuit breakers because in most of them, arc control
is proportional to the fault current to be interrupted. In other words, the extinguishing
power in such breakers is proportional to the current to be interrupted.
6) Capacitive current breaking.
Another cause of excessive voltage surges in the circuit breakers is the interruption of
capacitive currents. Examples of such instances are opening of an unloaded long
transmission line, disconnecting a capacitor bank used for power factor improvement etc.
74
Resistance Switching:
These excessive voltage surges during circuit interruption can be pre-vented by the use of shunt
resistance R connected across the circuit breaker contacts as shown in the equivalent circuit in Fig.
(i) This is known as resistance switching.
Resistors across breaker contacts may be used to perform one or more of the following
functions:
To reduce the rate of rise of re-striking voltage and the peak value of re-striking voltage.
To reduce the voltage surges due to current chopping and capacitive current breaking.
To ensure even sharing of re-striking voltage transient across the various breaks in
multi-break circuit breakers.
75

Circuit Breaker Ratings
A circuit breaker may be called upon to operate under all conditions. However, major duties
are imposed on the circuit breaker when there is a fault on the system in which it is connected.
Under fault conditions, a circuit breaker is required to perform the following three duties:
It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the fault current.
It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.
It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time while another circuit breaker
(in series) is clearing the fault.
Corresponding to the above mentioned duties, the circuit breakers have three ratings viz.
(i) Breaking capacity (ii) Making capacity and (iii) Short-time capacity.
1.
Breaking capacity.
It is current (r.m.s.) that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking at given recovery voltage and
under specified conditions (e.g., power factor, rate of rise of re-striking voltage).
2.
Making capacity.
There is always a possibility of closing or making the circuit under short-circuit conditions.
The capacity of a breaker to make current depends upon its ability to withstand and close
successfully against the effects of electromagnetic forces. These forces are proportional to the
square of maximum instantaneous current on closing. Therefore, making capacity is stated in
terms of a peak value of current instead of r.m.s. value.
The peak value of current (including D.C. component) during the first cycle of current wave
after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity.
Making capacity = 255 Symmetrical breaking capacity
3.
Short-time rating.
It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while remaining
closed.
4.
Normal current rating.
It is the r.m.s. value of current which the circuit breaker is capable of carrying continuously at
its rated frequency under specified conditions. The only limitation in this case is the
temperature rise of current-carrying parts.
76

Selectivity for Different types of circuit breaker
Selectivity implies that the protective devices closest to the point of fault should operate in the
quickest possible manner to avoid the healthy feeders being affected
Full Selectivity
Down Stream Circuit Breaker alone trips in the event of any short circuit up to Ik Max
77

Partial Selectivity
Down Stream Circuit Breaker alone trips up to a defined over-current level (called Selectivity
Limit Isel). Beyond this limit both Circuit Breakers Trip
Utilization Application with respect to selectivity

CAT A
Circuit-breakers not specifically intended for selectivity under short-circuit conditions with
respect to other short-circuit protective devices in series on the load side, i.e. without an intentional
short-time delay provided for selectivity under short-circuit conditions, and therefore without a
short-time withstand current rating.
CAT B
Circuit-breakers specifically intended for selectivity under short-circuit conditions with respect to
other short circuit protective devices in series on the load side, i.e. with an intentional short-time
delay (which may be adjustable) provided for selectivity under short circuit conditions Such
circuit breakers have a short time withstand current rating.
78
8. Fault Level Calculation

Fault Level Calculation
Common Terminologies regarding Short Circuit Faults
Rated short circuit short-making capacity (Icm)
The rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit-breaker is the value of short-circuit making
capacity assigned to that circuit-breaker by the manufacturer for the rated operational voltage
at rated frequency and at a specified power factor for a.c., or time constant for d.c. It is
expressed as the maximum prospective peak current.
For a.c. the rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit-breaker shall be not less than its
rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity, multiplied by a factor.
For D.C. the rated short-circuit making capacity of a circuit breaker shall be not less than its
rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity.
A rated short circuit making capacity implies that the circuit-breaker shall be able to make the
current corresponding to that rated capacity at the appropriate applied voltage related to the
rated operational voltage.
Rated short-circuit breaking capacities

The rated short-circuit breaking capacities of a circuit-breaker are the values of short-circuit
breaking capacity assigned to that circuit-breaker by the manufacturer for the rated operational
voltage, under specified conditions.
A rated short-circuit breaking capacity requires that the circuit-breaker shall be able to break
any value of short-circuit current up to the prescribed test voltage values.
For a.c., the circuit-breaker shall be capable of breaking a prospective current corresponding
to its rated short-circuit breaking capacity and the related power factor.
The rated short-circuit breaking capacities are stated as:
Rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity.
Rated service short-circuit breaking capacity.
79

Rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu)
The rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker is the value of ultimate
short-circuit breaking capacity assigned to that circuit breaker by the manufacturer for the
corresponding rated operational voltage, under the conditions specified in standards.
It is expressed as the value of the prospective breaking current, in kA (r.m.s. value of
the a.c. component in the case of a.c.).
Test sequence III : O - t CO
Rated service short-circuit breaking capacity (Ics)

The rated service short-circuit breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker is the value of service
short-circuit breaking capacity assigned to that circuit breaker by the manufacturer for the
corresponding rated operational voltage, under the conditions specified in standards. It is
expressed as a value of prospective breaking current, in kA, corresponding to one of the
specified percentages of the rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity.
It may be expressed as a % of Icu (for example Ics = 50 % Icu).
Test sequence II : O - t - CO - t CO
Rated short-time withstand current (Icw)

The rated short-time withstand current of a circuit breaker is the value of short-time withstand
current assigned to that circuit-breaker by the manufacturer under the test conditions specified
in standards.
For a.c., the value of this current is the r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of the prospective
short-circuit current, assumed constant during the short-time delay.
The short-time delay associated with the rated short time withstand current shall be at least
0.05 s, preferred values being as follows: 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 s
Common Terminologies Utilization Categories

Utilization categories
The utilization category of a circuit-breaker shall be stated with reference to whether or not
it is specifically intended for selectivity by means of an intentional time delay with respect to
other circuit-breakers in series on the load side, under short-circuit conditions.
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Tripping Characteristics
Overload Release "L"
Standard I2t
Optional I4t
Delayed Short circuit release "S"
Standard tsd
optional I2t
Instantaneous short circuit release"I"
Standard On
Optional Off
Ground Fault Release "G"
Standard t
Optional I2t
Neutral protection "N"
Standard 0 - 1 / 2
Optional Off
L = Long time, inverse-time delayed overload release

S = Short Time delayed Short Circuit release
I = Instantaneous short circuit release
G = Ground fault protection
81
9. Different Types of Single Line Diagram

Different Types of Single Line Diagrams
SLD of Different Busbar Systems
SLD of Single Section Busbar
SLD of Double Busbar System
82

SLD of Double bus single breaker
SLD of Double bus Double breaker
83

SLD of double bus with Bus coupler
SLD with Main bus & Transfer bus
84

SLD for PF improvement with capacitor bank
SLD of capacitor bank for Star-Delta
85

SLD of Power System
SLD of Power Distribution
86

SLD of CB, Isolator, Earth Switch
SLD of 132KV to 33KV Substation
87

SLD of Different Motor Starter
SLD of DOL
SLD of DOL
88

DOL with Power & Control Wiring
DOL with Forward & Reverse
89

Rotor Resistance Starter
Auto transformer starter
90

Star-Delta-Motor-Control-Power-Circuit
91
10. Introduction About SIMARIS

Introduction about SIMARIS
Dimensioning of electrical Networks with SIMARIS design Introduction
SIMARIS: Software for efficient dimensioning of power distribution systems
SIMARIS Software Tools:
The SIMARIS software tools provide efficient support for dimensioning an electric power
distribution system and determining the equipment and distribution boards for it.
SIMARIS design for network calculation and dimensioning.
SIMARIS project for determining the space requirements of distribution boards and
the budget, and for generating specifications (bills of quantities).
SIMARIS curves to display tripping characteristics, as well as cut-off current
characteristics and let-through energy curves.
The advantages of SIMARIS software tools:
Intuitive and easy handling with user-friendly documentation options for the planning
results.
End-to-end planning for all devices and systems from the medium-voltage level to the
power consumer.
Automatic selection of matching components and distribution board systems.
High degree of planning reliability plus flexibility in the planning and implementation
process.
SIMARIS Design:
SIMARIS design enables electric networks to be dimensioned on the basis of real products
ranging from the medium-voltage to the load level including automatic selection of suitable
equipment.
Busbar trunking systems for power transmission and distribution can also be integrated
into the planning concept.
Dimensioning is performed according to the accepted rules of good installation practice
and all applicable standards (VDE, IEC).
Network operating modes and switching states can be freely defined.
Short-circuit current, load flow, voltage drop and energy balance are calculated and
protection requirements such as personal, short-circuit and overload protection are
factored in.
Possibly required lightning and overvoltage protection can also be considered.
There are various output options to document results.
In addition, SIMARIS design professional offers the following options:
Mapping and calculation of parallel system operation different power sources (e.g.
transformers and generators) can be operated in the same network.
Automatic selectivity evaluation selectivity limits are shown automatically in
addition to the current-time characteristic and the corresponding envelope curves.
92
Project export for further processing in SIMARIS project, so that the space
requirements of the distribution boards can also be established and a budget calculation
basis is easily found.
Passive and active changeover in the emergency power supply can be mapped, owing
to the integration of general (= bidirectional) and unidirectional couplings (tie breakers)
into the network diagram also at the sub-distribution board level.
Distribution boards can be represented as equivalent impedances, acting as "dummies"
for parts of the network that cannot yet be precisely specified.
Project Definition
Create a project and familiarize with the workflow from project definition to network design
and project output.
After program start you have the following options:
Create a new project
Open an existing project
Open the demo project
93
When
you
select
"Create new project"
and click "Next" you
can then enter master
data for the project
And technical data for

the
medium-voltage
system
Then select the lowvoltage level.

To facilitate your
choice, some data input
fields have been pre-set
with default values that
can,
however,
be
changed at any time by
selecting appropriate
data from the dropdown boxes.
94
By
clicking
the
"Finish" button, you
get to the program step
"Network Design" and
can start planning the
network.
Clicking the program
steps on the navigation
bar allows you to go to
another step at any time
you choose, while you
are editing a project.
This means that you

can later view and
modify the entries you
made in the start
wizard, when you are
in the step "Project
definition".
95

Introduction to Network Design
In the "Network design" step, there are the following sections:
The Library (top left)

provides
all
elements
required for creating a
network diagram. You can
either rely on Favorites, or
integrate symbols into the
network diagram.
The network diagram is built

up in the graphics window
(on the right of the screen
display)
from
Library
elements and/or Favorites.
The tool bar above the graphics window contains all important functions for
editing the network diagram.
96

Hints and tips how to edit
the network, and the
Properties of the elements
marked on the graphics, i.e.
circuits and equipment, can
be found below the Library
on the left.
Thus you can easily and

quickly view the most
important information about
the
network
diagram
elements you are editing.
In the "Network design"

step, you build up the
network step by step with the
aid of elements from the
Library, this means
System infeeds
Couplings
Distribution boards
Final circuits.
Elements saved as Favorites

can also be used to build up
the network diagram.
97
It is also possible to add

graphic elements, symbols
and annotations to structure
the network diagram and add
suitable captions and labels.
Various editing options for the network diagram, which can be called up using the tool bar,
the menu, and sometimes the context menu (right mouse click) as well, support you in
creating and editing a network diagram.
Please also refer to the sections "How to create network elements" and "Working
in the network diagram" in Network Design.
In the "Network Design" step, the components shown on the network diagram are automatically
or manually dimensioned.
Network Design
Creating Network Elements:
System Infeed
This is an easy, fast, and safe way to build up your network:
To insert an element into the drawing please enable the desired icon in the Library on
the left by clicking on it. The enabled icon is marked by a yellow frame.
The meaning of the individual icons is explained in the tooltip, which can be displayed
by hovering the mouse over this icon for a moment.
98

At first, enable an icon in the Library, (yellow frame visible).
Then, you can place the first element, which always must be a system infeed, in the network
diagram that means it is created.
A dialog is immediately displayed where you can decide whether lightning and overvoltage
protection shall be taken into account.
After clicking "Finish", you will see another dialog where you can specify parameters for the
new element.
99

Result shown in the network diagram, when a transformer (without medium voltage) is created:
In principle, other types of infeed

components are created in the same way.
Parallel infeed using several power sources
can be mapped by placing more infeed
components at an insert point on the busbar
and specifying them in the dialog displayed
afterwards.
100
The result for linking infeed components is shown

here.
Note: A detailed description on how to create couplings can be found in the "Couplings"
section.
Distribution Board
Distribution boards are created in the same way:
At first enable an icon in the Library, e.g. for a sub-distribution board (yellow frame visible).
101

Possible insert points in the network diagram are marked by a yellow rectangle, when hovering
the mouse over it.
You can find insert points on the graphs representing distribution boards (blue lines) and
the busbar trunking systems (green lines).
To add elements, left-click such an insert point, keep the mouse key pressed and drag the
mouse away from the insert point at a right angle to the blue or green line.
After you release the mouse button, another dialog is automatically displayed, where you
can specify parameters of the element that was just placed.
102
Depending on the selected setting

regarding lightning and overvoltage
protection, more information is
required.
Result in the network diagram
In principle, other distribution boards

are created in the same way.
Note: A detailed description on how to add busbar trunking systems can be found in the
"Busbar systems and loads" section.
103

Load
Loads can be added in the same way and either connected directly to an infeed component or
a distribution board, this includes busbar trunking systems, too .
Here too, possible insert points in the network diagram are marked by a yellow rectangle
upon mouseover.
You can find insert points on the graphs representing distribution boards (blue lines) and
busbar trunking systems (green lines).
To add elements, left-click such an insert point, keep the mouse button pressed and drag
the mouse away from the insert point at a right angle to the blue or green line.
As soon as you release the left mouse button, a dialog for a detailed definition of the load
type is displayed.
To add a stationary load, you must

at first enable the corresponding icon
in the Library again.
104

Besides mapping simple standard motor protection, you can also select and
dimension motor starter combinations which are protected by circuit-breakers or
fuses.
If "Motor starter combination" was

selected, the next dialog (Starting
mode) allows to choose between
Direct-on-line starter
Starter for reversing mode Star-delta
starter
Soft starter.
Representation of a star-delta starter
on the network diagram:
105
Separate Network
SIMARIS design professional allows to create several separate networks on the network
diagram. The same medium-voltage specifications apply to these separate networks that were
already made in the project definition. Such isolated networks are either created within a
project
by building up individual networks separately,
Or by copying an existing network. To do so, place the mouse pointer on the main
distribution board, call up the context menu (right mouse button), select "Copy" and
then "Paste" in the context menu to place the network at the desired position on the
network diagram with a left mouse click.
106

Busbar Systems and Loads
SIMARIS design also helps you integrate busbar systems for power transmission and
distribution into your planning concept and displays them on the network diagram. First, enable
the "Busbar trunking system" icon in the Library,
Place the system at a suitable connection/insert point,
Specify the data that is still missing
Having selected the busbar trunking system and defined its length, you can graphically edit it
on the network diagram, e.g. by dragging the gripper with the mouse, thus elongating the busbar
in the diagram.
Attention: This elongation is just a graphical representation. The real busbar length, which is
to be considered in network design, can only be changed in the Properties.
107
108

More busbar properties, such as degree of protection and mounting type, can be modified at
any time. To do so, position the mouse pointer on the item of equipment to be edited, e.g. the
busbar, so that
You can either change the equipment properties directly which are displayed on screen
to the bottom left of the network diagram,
Or call up detailed properties using the context menu (right-click) and make the desired
changes in the dialog now displayed according to project requirements.
As required, you can also add more busbar sections of the same system by first dragging
the gripper vertically to the busbar which was drawn.
Then, the new busbar section can be aligned in the same direction as the original one by
dragging the mouse towards the elongated line of the first busbar while keeping the mouse
button pressed.
109

As soon as the new busbar section has been created and properly positioned on the diagram by
releasing the mouse button, the length of the new busbar section must be specified.
If you wish to change the type of a busbar system already drawn on the network diagram at a
later stage in the planning process, because requirements have changed in the meantime, you
can do so in the drop-down menu of the properties displayed at the bottom left on screen if you
have marked the respective busbar (yellow line) in the graphics window.
110
After you have added and specified busbar trunking systems, load circuits can be connected
to the busbars in the manner described above.
If you connect more than one load circuit, the distance of circuits from the starting point of
the busbar section must be defined for every load circuit.
The real distances are indicated in the graphics as busbar labels.
The properties of each element on the network diagram can be modified by marking the
element and adjusting its characteristics in the Properties section (bottom left screen area) by
appropriate selections or value input.
Another possibility is opening the "Properties" window by marking the element on the network
diagram and selecting "Properties" from the context menu (right mouse button).
This option is available both for switching devices and fuses, that also applies to busbars
and cables/wires, for examples.
This allows to choose a different specification for devices and items of equipment that
have already been specified in the automatic dimensioning process.
111

In SIMARIS design itself, you will find more useful information for familiarizing with
program. The menu item "Help" offers access to
The integrated help function
A link to this Interactive Tour on the SIMARIS Homepage
More information about SIMARIS design and the other tools of the SIMARIS family
SIMARIS project for determining the space requirements of distribution boards and the
budget, and for generating specifications (bills of quantities)
SIMARIS curves for displaying characteristic device curves and visualizing parameter
settings can be found at: www.siemens.com/simaris.
This website offers you a lot more information and interesting news about the SIMARIS
software tools as well as the contact data for your local point of contact.
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