BOOK 2 - Practical Pharmaceutical Analytical Techniques

PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
ASIF HUSAIN
DARSHAN PUBLISHERS
PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYTICAL

TECHNIQUES
Authored by
Dr. Asif Husain
Sr. Assistant Professor,
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Faculty of Pharmacy,
Hamdard University (Jamia Hamdard)
New Delhi-110062,
India
EDITION
Published By
Darshan Publishers,
Kakkaveri, Rasipuram,
Namakkal, Tamil Nadu,
India 637406.
www.darshanpublishers.com
e-mail:darshanpublishers12@gmail.com
First published in India in 2015
This edition published by Darshan publishers

http://www.darshanpublishers.com
2015 Dr Asif Husain. All rights reserved.
Apart from any use permitted under Indian copyright law, this publication may only be
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origin. Whilst the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the publisher can accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In particular, (but
without limiting the generality of the preceding disclaimer) every effort has been made to
check quantity of chemicals; however it is still possible that errors have been missed.
ISBN: 978-81-931973-1-8
Price: Rs: 300/-
Printed by: Sri Balaji offset, Rasipuram, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India
PREFACE
Practical Pharmaceutical Analytical Techniques book is meant for undergraduate and
postgraduate pharmacy and science students. Chemistry is a fascinating branch of
science. Practical aspects of chemistry are interesting due to colour reactions, synthesis of
drugs, analysis and observation of beautiful crystal development. The important aspects
involved in the practicals of pharmaceutical analytical chemistry have been
comprehensively covered in the book. I hope the students studying practical aspects of
pharmaceutical analysis would be benefitted from this book.
In the book, different pharmaceutical analytical techniques (PAT) have discussed with
their applications followed by general and specific safety notes in detail. Explanation of
some common laboratory processes are given followed by a number of equipments,
apparatuses and glass wares used in a pharmaceutical analytical chemistry lab. Limit tests
with explanation have been given. Basic concepts related to spectroscopic and
chromatographic techniques are discussed. Procedure to calibrate a UV spectrometer is
provided with concept. Preparation of calibration curve followed by assay method for
analysis of ciprofloxacin, metformin, and rifampicin are explained. Interpretation of IR
spectra of ethanol, acetone, formaldehyde and aspirin has been explained in simple
language. The working of HPLC instrument is given with its parts. Paracetamol`s assay
by HPLC is discussed.TLC experiments of amino acid, food dye pigments, and an OTC
drug are also furnished. Preparation of commonly used reagents has also been given.
I hope that this book will cater to the needs of the B. Pharm, M.Pharm and M.Sc. students
during their study as well as after completion of their course. Constructive comments on
the content and approach of the book from the readers will be highly appreciated. My
email address is drasifhusain@yahoo.com.
Dr. Asif Husain

New Delhi
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Asif Husain is Senior Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia
Hamdard (Hamdard University), New Delhi. He received his M.Pharm. and Ph.D.
degrees in 1996 and 2000, respectively, from Hamdard University, New Delhi and has
been involved in teaching and research for more than 15 years. He has more than 175
peer-reviewed research publications to his credit. Dr. Husain has attended several
national and international conferences in India and abroad including USA. He is a
recipient of several awards and honors including a visiting fellowship from Youngstown
State University, Ohio, USA, and his research has been funded by UGC, AICTE, DST
and AYUSH. He has collaboration with different research organizations like National
Institute of Health (NIH), National Cancer Institute (NCI), The National Institute of
Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), USA, etc. He has guided a number of M.
Pharm/Ph.D. students and authored several books in the field of pharmacy.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Teacheth man that which he knew not (Al-Quran)
First of all, I bow in reverence of Almighty Allah, the creator of this universe.
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents- my Ammi (mother)

Hajjan Shahjahan Begum and my father (Papa) Haji Rafiq Husain sahib, for their
constant encouragement, help, love, moral support and prayers. I am highly indebted to
my beloved son Ayaan for continuous moral support and keeping my spirits high.
Special thanks and love to my brother Aftab for his help, encouragement and respect.
Love showered upon me by Mysha, Arhaan and Arshaan is priceless.
It gives me great pleasure to extend my respect and profound gratitude to my mentor,

Late Prof. M.S.Y. Khan Sir, Jamia Hamdard for his help, guidance, motivation and
everlasting inspirations.
I am highly thankful to my friend Dr Mohammad Shaharyar for his valuable suggestions,

help and support. Sincere thanks are also due to my colleagues Dr M. Mumtaz Alam and
Dr. M. S. Zaman for their support and help.
Special thanks are due to my student Mohd Arif who has put in great efforts in
materializing this work through his inputs. I am thankful to my students Farah Iram and
Md Azhar Iqbal for their help in this endeavour.
I am also thankful to Dr. T. Sivakumar (Managing Director) of Darshan Publishers for

taking keen interest in publishing this book.
ASIF HUSAIN
iii
CONTENTS
S. No
Chapters
Pages
Preface
ii
About the author
ii
iii
Acknowledgements
iii
Introduction
2
3.
4.
Pharmaceutical analytical techniques (PAT)

Safety notes
Common laboratory processes
4
19
21
5.
Common laboratory apparatuses
28
6.
Limit tests
30
7.
Basic concepts of spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques
42
8.
Calibration of UV Spectrophotometer
60
9.
Preparation of calibration curve of ciprofloxacin
64
10.
Assay of ciprofloxacin capsule/tablet
66
11.
Preparation of calibration curve of metformin
67
12.
Assay of metformin tablet/capsule
68
13.
Assay of rifampicin tablet/capsule
69
14.
Interpretation of the IR spectra of ethanol, acetone and
71
15.
16.
formaldehyde
Interpretation of the IR spectra of aspirin
Study the working of HPLC instrument
73
75
17.
Assay of paracetamol by HPLC.
81
18.
TLC of amino acids
84
19.
20.
21.
22
TLC of food dye pigments

Analysis of a non-prescription medicine (OTC drug)
Preparation of some common reagents
References
87
89
91
107
iv
1. INTRODUCTION
The main aim of the pharmaceutical drugs is to serve the human to make them free from
potential illness or prevention of the disease. For the medicine to serve its intended
purpose they should be free from impurity or other interference which might harm
humans. Here, analytical chemistry plays vital role in achieving the goal of betterment of
human beings.
Chemistry is considered both basic and applied science. When teaching chemistry,
teachers should emphasize both theories and experiments; chemistry experiments play an
important role in teaching and serve as an ideal tool for combining theory and practice.
Therefore, chemistry experiments should focus on learning goals and developing
students laboratory skills, scientific reasoning skills, knowledge about experimental
design, and comprehensive ability. Instrumental analytical chemistry is a scientific field
which includes a huge amount of different techniques. These techniques are widely used
in different parts of the research, drug development, quality control, clinical diagnostics,
structural analysis and many more.
Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of

the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an
indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample, and quantitative
analysis determines the amount of certain components in the substance. The separation of
components is often performed prior to analysis.
There is an increased demand of analytical procedures during the drug research and
development process, drug synthesis, drug therapy, in the analysis of the structure and
concentration of different analytes in samples. Sophisticated procedures are required to
detect the analyte as it can be found in very low concentrations in the samples. For the
sake of this it is necessary the preparation of pure substances, the separation of the
analytes of interest from the impurities or the possible elimination of the unnecessary
matrix components. So nowadays the instrumental analysis involve not simply the
1
measurement itself, but also a complex process including sampling, sample preparation,
measurement and evaluation of the results as well. The increasing quality claim on the
market requires the analysis of a great number of samples in a short period of time. Thus,
improving progress can be observed in reducing the volume of samples, in the
development of high-through screening methods and in automation. In order to get
accurate and reliable results, it is necessary to know the applied techniques as well as the
information they provide, very well.
Analytical methods can be separated into classical and instrumental. Classical methods
(also known as wet chemistry methods) use separations such as precipitation, extraction,
and distillation and qualitative analysis by color, odor, or melting point. Classical
quantitative analysis is achieved by measurement of weight or volume. Instrumental
methods use an apparatus to measure physical quantities of the analyte such as light
absorption, fluorescence, or conductivity. The separation of materials is accomplished
using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation methods.
Analytical
chemistry
is
also
focused
on
improvements
in experimental
design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools to provide better
chemical information. Analytical chemistry has applications in forensics, bioanalysis,
clinical analysis, environmental analysis, and materials analysis.
Pharmaceutical analysis simply means analysis of a pharmaceutical(s). It encompasses

any examination of chemical material with the goal of eliciting information regarding its
constituents: their character (form, quality, or pattern of chemical bonding), quantity
(concentration, content), distribution (homogeneity, but also distribution with respect to
internal and external boundary surfaces), and structure (spatial arrangement of atoms or
molecules). This goal is pursued using an appropriate combination of chemical, physical,
and biological methods. From a strategic standpoint the challenge is to solve the
analytical problem in question as completely and reliably as possible with the available
methods, and then to interpret the results correctly. Sometimes it becomes apparent that
none of the methods at hand are in fact suitable, in which case it is the methods
themselves that must be improved, perhaps the most important rationale for intensive
2
basic research directed toward the increased effectiveness of problem-oriented analysis in

the future.
Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical

chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new
applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical
present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical
chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use
of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method.
Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared
over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA),
forensic and environmental applications.
Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry

where, aside from QA, it is used in discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical
applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are
critical.
The pharmaceutical and chemical industries today are the source of relatively small
fraction of the samples subject to analysis. Rocks, soils, water, air, and biological
matrices, not to mention mankind itself and a wide array of drugs & consumer goods,
together with raw materials and sources of energy constitute the broad spectrum of
analytical samples in the modern era.
2. PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES (PAT)

Modern analytical techniques have now become the soul of pharmaceutical sciences. All
the branches in pharmacy need to have thorough knowledge about it and so it is the
subject which is common to all the pharmacy disciplines. This subject basically involves
study about instrumental analysis that includes UV-Visible spectroscopy, infrared
spectroscopy, mass and chromatographic techniques, NMR spectroscopy, X-ray
diffraction methods, optical rotatry dispersion techniques, thermal method of analysis,
electrophoresis and radioimmunoassay techniques. Although modern pharmaceutical
analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical
chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional
techniques many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the
backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. There are two
types of analysis- qualitative and quantitative.
A qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but

not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure
quantity. There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid
test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood. Inorganic qualitative
analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain,
usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate
ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a confirming test.
Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern
instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and
in field work or other situations where accesses to state-of-the-art instruments are not
available or expedient.
Quantitative analysis refers to determine the quantity or amount of a particular compound

by applying analysis technique(s). There are several techniques for quantitative
estimation of pharmaceutical agents; some of them are outlined in the following pages.
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing

the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in
undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by
heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the
loss of water.
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some
equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of material in the solution being analyzed
may be determined. Origin of the titrimetric method of analysis goes back to the middle
of the 18th century. GayLussac invented the volumetric method which subsequently
leads to the origin of term titration. Although the assay method is very old yet there are
signs of some modernization, i.e., spreading of non-aqueous titration method, expanding
the field of application of titrimetric methods to very weak acids and bases as well as
potentiometric end point detection improving the precision of the methods.
With the development of functional group analysis procedures, titrimetric methods have
been shown to be beneficial in kinetic measurements which are in turn applied to
establish reaction rates. There are many advantages associated with these methods which
5
include saving time and labor, high precision and the fact that there is no need of using
reference standards. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary
education is the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many
other types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may use
different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point. In addition to its application
in drug estimation, titrimetry is still used for the estimation of degradation products of
some pharmaceuticals.
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES
Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation.

Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption
spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, X-ray,
fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarisation
interferometry, nuclear
magnetic
resonance
spectroscopy, Mass
spectrometry,
photoemission spectroscopy, Mssbauer spectroscopy and so on.
Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry is a group of methods which find an important place in

pharmacopoeias are spectrophotometric methods based on natural UV absorption and
chemical reactions. Spectrophotometry is the quantitative measurement of the reflection
or transmission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. The advantages of
these methods are low time and labor consumption. The precision of these methods is
also excellent. The use of UVVis spectrophotometry especially applied in the analysis
of pharmaceutical dosage form has increased rapidly over the last few years. The
colorimetric methods are usually based on complex-formation reaction, oxidationreduction process, and catalytic effect. Colorimetric methods are regularly used for the
assay of bulk materials. The colorimetric method is also exploited for the determination
of cardiac glycosides.
Several approaches using spectrophotometry for determination of active pharmaceutical

ingredients in bulk drug and formulations have been reported. Derivative spectroscopy
uses first or upper derivatives of absorbance with respect to wavelength for qualitative
investigation and estimation. The concept of derivatizing spectral data was first offered in
the 1950s, when it was shown to have many advantages. However, the technique received
little consideration primarily due to the complexity of generating derivative spectra using
early UVVisible spectrophotometers. The introduction of microcomputers in the late
1970s made it generally convincing to use mathematical methods to generate derivative
spectra quickly, easily and reproducibly. This significantly increased the use of the
derivative technique. The derivative method has found its applications not only in UVspectrophotometry but also in infrared, atomic absorption, fluorescence spectrometry, and
fluorimetry. The use of derivative spectrometry may be of advantage whenever
quantitative study of normal spectra is problematic.
Near Infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
NIRS is a rapid and non-destructive procedure that provides multi component analysis of
almost any matrix. Recently, NIR spectroscopy has gained a wide appreciation within the
pharmaceutical industry for raw material testing, product quality control and process
monitoring. The growing pharmaceutical interest in NIR spectroscopy is due to some
major advantages over other analytical techniques, e.g. an easy sample preparation
without any pretreatments, the probability of separating the sample measurement position
by use of fiber optic probes, and the expectation of chemical and physical sample
parameters from one single spectrum. NIRS in combination with multivariate data
analysis opens many interesting perceptions in pharmaceutical analysis, both qualitatively
and quantitatively.
Mass spectrometry (MS)
Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and

magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical
7
ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption

ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass
analyzers: magnetic-sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-offlight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on. Among the main branches of
contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry, the most widespread and universal are
optical and mass spectrometry. In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new
leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the
related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled
plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote
developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption
techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption path length
are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
NMR is an important technique to determine structure of drug molecules. During recent

years, a variety of state-of-the art approaches have been presented and found a
widespread application in both pharmaceutical and academic research. Recently NMR
finds its application in quantitative analysis in order to determine the impurity of the
drug, characterization of the composition of the drug products in pharmaceutical
formulations and biological fluids.
Fluorimetry and phosphorimetry
Scientists are continuously looking for the sensitive analytical techniques to analyze
micro samples. Fluorescence spectrometry is one of the techniques that serve the purpose
of high sensitivity without the loss of specificity or precision. Fluorimetry and
phosphorimetry are playing important role in quantitative analysis of various drugs in
dosage forms and in biological fluids.
ELECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Electroanalytical
methods
measure
the potential (volts)
and/or current (amps)
in
an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized

according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three
main
categories
arepotentiometry (the
difference
in
electrode
potentials
is
measured), coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the
cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). The application of
electrochemical techniques in the analysis of drugs and pharmaceuticals has increased
greatly over the last few years. The renewed interest in electrochemical techniques can be
attributed in part to more sophisticated instrumentation and to increase the understanding
of the technique themselves. Moreover, a large number of electro-analytical methods are
available for quantification of pharmaceuticals. The electrochemical behaviour of various
drugs is investigated using cyclic voltammetry, chrono-coulometry, electrochemical
impedence spectroscopy and adsorptive stripping differential pulse voltammetry.
THERMAL ANALYSIS
Thermal analysis refers to the variety of techniques developed and used in which any
physical property of a given system is continuously measured as a function of
temperature, though temperature and time may be related by the term called the heating
rate. Thermal analysis techniques are employed in virtually every area of modern science
and technology. The basic information that the variety of techniques can provide includes
crystallinity, specific heat, expansion and information on a variety of physical and
chemical transformations that can take place on the sample under inspection.
KINETIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Kinetic method of analysis has been developing since 1950s and yet in modern days it is
taking a major resurgence. The increased interest in the kinetic methods can be credited
to the advancements made in principles, in automated instrumentation, in understanding
9
the chemical and instrumentation, in data analysis methods and in the analytical
application. The kinetic approach to analytical chemistry has several advantages over
traditional equilibrium approach. Essentially, kinetic methods trust the measurements of
concentration changes (detected via signal changes) in a reactant (which may be the
analyte itself) with time after the sample and reagents have been mixed manually or
mechanically. Automatic techniques for the kinetic methods are generally based on open
systems, among the popular techniques are the stopped flow system and the continuous
addition of reagent (CAR) technique. Several drugs have been determined by using the
CAR technique with photometric and fluorimetric detection. The use of micellar media in
kinetic method is used to increase the rate of reaction. Multicomponent kinetic
estimations (differential rate methods) are also receiving wide acceptance in the field of
pharmaceutical research. Two new approaches i.e. kinetic wavelength pair method and
H-point standard addition method are applied for dealing with overlapping spectra of
components in binary mixtures.
CHROMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
There are several types of chromatographic techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis.
Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
TLC is an old technique yet it finds a lot of application in the field of pharmaceutical
analysis. In TLC, a solid phase, the adsorbent, is coated onto a solid support as a thin
layer usually on a glass, plastic, or aluminum support. Several factors determine the
efficiency of this type of chromatographic separation. First the adsorbent should show
extreme selectivity toward the substances being separated so as to the dissimilarities in
the rate of elution be large. For the separation of any given mixture, some adsorbents may
be too strongly adsorbing or too weakly adsorbing.
10
TLC is a popular technique for the analysis of a wide variety of organic and inorganic
materials, because of its distinctive advantages such as minimal sample clean-up, wide
choice of mobile phases, flexibility in sample distinction, high sample loading capacity
and low cost. TLC is a powerful tool for screening unknown materials in bulk drugs. It
provides a relatively high degree of assertion that all probable components of the drug are
separated. The high specificity of TLC has been exploited to quantitative analytical
purpose using spot elution followed by spectrophotometric measurement. TLC plays an
important role in the early stage of drug development when information about the
impurities and degradation products in drug substance and drug product is inadequate.
Various impurities of pharmaceuticals are also identified and determined by TLC.
High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)
HPTLC emerged as an important instrument in drug analysis with the advancement of the
TLC technique. HPTLC is a fast separation technique and flexible enough to analyze a
wide variety of samples. This technique is advantageous in many means as it is simple to
handle and requires a short analysis time to analyze the complex or the crude sample
cleanup. HPTLC evaluates the entire chromatogram with a variety of parameters without
time limits. Moreover, there is simultaneous but independent development of multiple
samples and standards on each plate, leading to an increased reliability of results. HPTLC
evaluates the entire chromatogram with a variety of parameters without time limits.
11
Moreover, there is simultaneous but independent development of multiple samples and

standards on each plate, leading to an increased reliability of results.
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

HPLC is an advanced form of liquid chromatography used in separating the complex
mixture of molecules encountered in chemical and biological systems. HPLC methods
appeared for the first time in 1980 for the assay of bulk drug materials. The specificity of
the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable.
However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision and accuracy are
attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried out before the HPLC
analysis. For the reason the expense to be paid for high specificity, precision and
accuracy is also high. HPLC has been the most widely used system among all the
chromatographic techniques in present days. In liquid chromatography the choice of
detection approach is critical to guarantee that all the components are detected. One of
the widely used detectors in HPLC is UV detector which is capable of monitoring several
wavelengths concurrently; this is possible only by applying a multiple wavelength
scanning program. If present in adequate quantity, UV detector assures all the UVabsorbing components are detected. When a variable wavelength detector (VWD) is used
a sample must be injected numerous times, with changing wavelength, to be sure that all
the peaks are detected. However, the limitations of HPLC include price of columns,
solvents and a lack of long term reproducibility due to the proprietary nature of column
packing.
12
Liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (LCMS) is considered as one

of the most important techniques of the last decade of 20th century. It became the
method-of-choice for analytical support in many stages of quality control and assurance
within the pharmaceutical industry.
Recently HPLC-MS has been used for assay of drugs and also to analyze the impurities
of the pharmaceuticals.
Gas Chromatography (GC)
GC is a powerful separation technique for detection of volatile organic compounds.

Combining separation and on-line detection allows accurate quantitative determination of
complex mixtures, including traces of compounds down to parts per trillions in some
specific cases. Gas liquid chromatography commands a substantial role in the analysis of
pharmaceutical product.
13
The creation of high-molecular mass products such as polypeptides, or thermally unstable

antibiotics confines the scope of this technique. Its main constraint rests in the
comparative non-volatility of the drug substances therefore, derivatization is virtually
compulsory. Gas chromatography is also an important tool for analysis of impurities of
pharmaceuticals. In recent years GC has been applied to estimate the process related
impurities of the pharmaceuticals. Residual solvents present as impurity in different
pharmaceuticals could also be analyzed by the GC.
ELECTROPHORESIS
Electrophoresis is another important instrumental method of analysis of pharmaceuticals.

One of the most popular electrophoresis techniques is capillary electrophoresis (CE). CE
is based on the separation of charged molecules through a small capillary under the
impact of an electric field. In this technique solutes are perceived as peaks as they pass
through the detector and the area of individual peak is proportional to their concentration,
which allows quantitative estimations. In addition to pharmaceutical studies it finds an
application in the analysis of biopolymer analysis and inorganic ions.
14
CE analysis is generally more effective, can be performed on a quicker time scale,

requires only a small amount, lesser up to Nano liter injection volumes and in most cases,
takes place under aqueous conditions.
These four characteristics of CE have proven to be beneficial to many pharmaceutical

applications including routine drug analysis.
FLOW INJECTION ANALYSIS
The basis of Flow injection analysis (FIA) is injection of a liquid sample into a moving,
non-segmented uninterrupted carrier stream of a suitable liquid. The injected sample
forms a zone, which is then transported toward a detector that uninterruptedly records the
15
changes in absorbance, electrode potential, or other physical parameter resulting from the
passage of the sample material through the flow cell. The FIA technique has lent a
significant contribution to the advancement of automation in pharmaceutical analysis.
The introduction of FIA has awakened the interest of the scientific community for
automation in the pharmaceutical area.
MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nanomaterials is
an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other
traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be
categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy,
and scanning probe microscopy.
Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the
computer and camera industries. Microscopic analyses are applied to a wide variety of
pharmaceuticals.
16
HYBRID TECHNIQUES
Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated"

technique. Hyphenated separation technique refers to a combination of two (or more)
techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Several examples are in
popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development, for example, gas
chromatography-mass
spectroscopy, liquid
chromatography-NMR
spectrometry
(GC-MS),
chromatography-mass
spectroscopy
gas
spectrometry
(LC-NMR),
liquid
chromatography-infrared
(LC-MS),
liquid
chromatography-infrared
spectroscopy, capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry and HPLC-MS/MS.
The determination of drugs in biological materials is an important step in drug discovery

and drug development. HPLC together with various types of detection such as ultraviolet,
fluorescence, and mass spectrometry has become the method of choice for bioanalytical
method development. Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionizationmass spectrometry
method is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of metabolites of some
drugs.
APPLICATIONS
Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, selectivity,

robustness, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation,
training, time, and space). Analytical chemistry has played critical roles in the
understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical
applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing,
forensic science and so on.
Great efforts are put in shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are
few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential
advantages
include
size/portability,
speed,
17
and
cost.
[micro Total
Analysis
System (TAS) or Lab-on-a-chip]. Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of

chemicals used.
Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly

expanding fields in this area are:
Genomics - DNA
sequencing and
its
related
research. Genetic
fingerprinting and DNA microarray are important tools and research fields.
Proteomics - the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially
in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the

body.
Metabolomics - similar to proteomics, but dealing with metabolites.
Transcriptomics - mRNA and its associated field
Lipidomics - lipids and its associated field
Peptidomics - peptides and its associated field
Metalomics - similar to proteomics and metabolomics, but dealing with metal
concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.
The recent developments of computer automation and information technologies
have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example,
automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis to complete human genome
projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing
by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics.
Analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development
of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and

scanning probe microscopes enables scientists to visualize atomic structures with
chemical characterizations.
18
3. SAFETY NOTES
While working in a chemistry laboratory, students should be very careful in doing
experiments, and keep in mind the following points
Many solvents like acetone, alcohols, phenols, and ethers are toxic, and all are
flammable.
Use these chemicals only in well-ventilated space. Keep away from flames and
other sources of ignition.
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive and can cause burns. Use great care to avoid
contact with skin, eyes, and clothing. In case of accidental contact, flood the affected area
with copious amounts of water. Spills should be diluted with water and cleaned up
immediately.
Elemental Na reacts violently and exothermically with water or oxygen,
producing strongly corrosive NaOH and H2 gas. The latter can ignite spontaneously in
this exothermic reaction. Therefore, never leave unprotected Na anywhere and avoid
allowing it to come in contact with water.
Bromine is corrosive and causes serious burns. Use great care to avoid contact
with skin, eyes, and clothing. In case of accidental contact, flood the affected area with
copious amounts of water and seek medical attention.
19
Chromium is highly toxic and the acid solution is extremely corrosive. Avoid
ingestion. Handle only with gloves. Use great care to avoid contact with skin, eyes, and
clothing. In case of accidental contact, flood the affected area with copious amounts of
water. In case of ingestion, seek medical attention immediately.
The zinc chloride/hydrogen chloride solution is corrosive and causes burns. Use
great care to avoid contact with skin, eyes, and clothing. In case of accidental contact,
flood the affected area with copious amounts of water. Spills should be diluted with water
and cleaned up immediately.
Smoking is not allowed in the laboratory.
Know the location of fire extinguishers and how to use them. Report all accidents
immediately to the instructor.
If any person has hair or clothing on fire, as a first step, lie down on the floor and
use a blanket, coat or anything available to smother the flames. Get help immediately.
Never taste any solid or liquid chemical. When smelling a substance do not hold
your face directly over the container.
Most organic substances are hazardous to health; so avoid breathing and skin
contact as much as possible. It is advisable to wear safety glasses in the laboratory.
In some cases a trap must be used to prevent hazardous gases from escaping into
the laboratory atmosphere.
If acids or corrosive chemicals are spilled on your skin, wash with plenty of cold
water then consult your instructor.
Do not point your test tube at your neighbor or yourself when heating substances.
Most organic solvents are flammable, so never heat a flammable substance with a
direct flame. A hot water bath is used instead.
Experiments should never be left unattended. Always wear a laboratory coat.
If acid or base is spilled on your clothing, bench or floor wash thoroughly with
water, then neutralize with dilute ammonium hydroxide or acetic acid respectively and
inform your instructor.
Always wash your hands with soap and water on leaving the laboratory.
Do not use cell-phone (mobile phone) in the laboratory.
20
4. COMMON LABORATORY PROCESSES

There are a number of laboratory processes or techniques. Some common laboratory
procedures are given below:
HEATING PROCESS
There are various heating devices in an analytical chemistry laboratory. The Bunsen
burner and water bath are the most commonly used. A limitation of the Bunsen burner is
that it should not be used directly for heating flammable solvents. Wire gauze is used
over the flame for heating conical flasks, beaker, etc. Flammable and volatile liquids are
heated in a water bath when temperatures under 100 C are required. If an electrical
steam bath is not available, a large beaker filled with water may be used instead. It is
heated to boiling with a Bunsen burner and the flame extinguished before heating the
flammable liquid in the bath. Bumping may be prevented by continuous stirring to ensure
homogenous and steady heating of the liquid or by the use of boiling stones which
achieve a similar effect through formation of bubbles.
21
The technique of refluxing is commonly used when it is necessary to heat a reaction in

order to bring it to completion in a reasonable time span. A reflux condenser is used to
minimize loss, through evaporation, of volatile reactants, products or solvent by allowing
the vapors to recondense and return to the reaction vessel
HANDLING OF GLASS WARES
Used glassware may be cleaned with soap and water using a brush. However, glassware
which has tough stains from organic substances requires soaking in the solution of
chromic acid. This mixture has to be used carefully as it is very corrosive. Glass tubing
with unpolished ends is a hazard since it can cause serious cuts when trying to insert it
into a cork. Therefore, only glass tubing with polished ends must be used. When forcing
glass tubing into a cork, grasp it as close as possible to the cork and be careful not to
break it. Quickfit glass joints should always be lubricated with a suitable lubricant
(grease). A thin film of grease is applied to the joints to provide an air-tight seal and to
prevent the joints from being stuck together. There should be no excess grease extending
inside the apparatus as it might contaminate the reaction mixture. It is also recommended
that old grease be wiped off with a piece of tissue paper before applying a new film.
FILTRATION
Filtration is a mechanical or physical process which is used for the separation of solids
from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can
pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate.
22
Oversize solids in the fluid are retained, but the separation is not complete; solids will be
contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the
pore size and filter thickness).
Filtration is used whenever an insoluble solid is to be separated from a liquid. Simple
gravity filtration (usually hot filtration) is employed to remove insoluble solid impurities
from a liquid, while suction filtration (usually cold filtration) is used to collect a desired
solid or crystalline product. Vaccum filtration is also used for speedy filtration.
Decolorization is the removal of colored impurities from a solution. This is achieved by

the addition of activated charcoal to the solution and mixing thoroughly. If charcoal is
added to a cold solution, the solution is first brought to a boil before hot filtration.
Whenever it is added to a hot solution, the flask should be removed from the heat source
before the addition, otherwise bumping will occur. Charcoal is finally removed by
filtration leaving an almost colorless solution.
23
DRYING
The process of drying, if applied to a solid substance is aimed to remove residual solvent
(organic or water) adhering to the solid particles/ crystals. This is usually done by air
drying (spreading over a sheet of paper/filter paper) and/or heating in an oven to enhance
evaporation of the solvent. Drying of an organic liquid, however, involves the removal of
traces of water (moisture) using chemical drying agents. Such cases are encountered in
extraction where the organic phase is in direct contact with the aqueous phase. After
separating the layers, traces of water in the organic phase are removed by the addition of
a suitable drying agent. Some common examples are: calcium chloride, magnesium
sulfate, sodium sulfate, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
MELTING POINT DETERMINATION
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which transition from solid to liquid
occurs at atmospheric pressure; or the temperature at which solid and liquid phases are in
equilibrium at a pressure of one atmosphere. A simple device for determining melting
points is used and it consists of a thermometer fitted through a cork and suspended into a
long-necked flask which is three quarters filled with a high boiling and stable liquid like
paraffin oil, di-butylphthalate or silicon oil. The thermometer bulb should be about 1 cm
above the bottom of the flask. The sample in the capillary tube is fastened to the
thermometer with a rubber band placed above the level of the oil. The capillary tube
should be close to and on a level with the thermometer bulb.
24
To determine the melting point of a solid, a small amount of the powdered substance is
introduced into a capillary tube which is then attached to a thermometer and placed in the
oil bath. The bath is heated rapidly to within 20 C of the expected melting point then
slowly, and at a constant rate of 2-3 degrees per minute, close to the melting point. The
temperature at which the solid begins to melt, and that at which it is completely liquid, is
recorded as the melting point range of that substance.
BOILING POINT DETERMINATION
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
the liquid equals the external pressure (usually 1 atmosphere). It is also defined as the
temperature at which vapor and liquid are in equilibrium at a given pressure. The boiling
point, like the melting point, is a physical constant and may be used to identify unknown
organic liquids. Distillation is the process of heating a liquid to its boiling point,
condensing the vapor by cooling, and collecting the liquid distillate. It is a technique for
the purification of liquids and for the separation of liquid mixtures. As the distillation
progresses, the mixture will gradually have less of the more volatile component and its
boiling point will gradually rise. Consequently the distillate will contain a continually
decreasing proportion of the more volatile component until finally all has been collected
and the less volatile component is left as a residue.
25
In practice, separation of a liquid mixture into its components by a single distillation

(simple distillation) is possible only when the boiling points of the components are 80
degrees or more apart. For mixtures of liquids having boiling points much less than 80
degrees apart, separation can be achieved only by fractional distillation. Such a
distillation is equivalent to several repeated simple distillations. It uses a fractionating
column which provides a large surface area for continuous heat exchange between the hot
ascending vapor and the cooler descending liquid, thus resulting in a series of
evaporations and condensations leading to separation of the two components. Vacuum
distillation is a technique for the distillation of high boiling liquids, and for compounds
that decompose at atmospheric pressure. At the low pressures employed, those
compounds distil at much lower temperatures.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is a technique that may be used to separate the components of a mixture
as well as to identify organic substances and examine their purity. Chromatography
encompasses several techniques such as column, thin-layer, paper, gas liquid, etc.
chromatography. Two principles are basically involved in chromatography: adsorption
(as in thin layer chromatography) and partition (as in paper chromatography), and certain
terms are common to both types of chromatography.
26
In adsorption chromatography, separation depends on the selective desorption of the

components of a mixture by the eluent (mobile phase) from the surface of a solid
adsorbent (stationary phase). The adsorbent may be packed in a column (column
chromatography) or spread as a thin layer on a glass plate as in thin-layer
chromatography.
In partition chromatography, separation depends on partition of the components of a

mixture between the stationary and mobile phases. The mobile phase may be a liquid
(liquid-liquid partition chromatography) or a gas (gas-liquid partition chromatography).
Modern pharmaceutical analytical chemistry lab has almost all types of instruments of
different chromatographic techniques. Students should handle these sophisticated
instruments with utmost care.
27
5. COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUSES
28
29
6. LIMIT TESTS
Definition
Limit = a value or amount that is likely to be present in a substance

Test = to examine or to investigate
Impurities = a foreign matter present in a compound
Every pharmaceutical substance contains some impurities varying in proportion. Indian
Pharmacopoeia (IP) has fixed a limit of these impurities. To see the limit, some official
tests are carried out, these tests are known as limit tests. Limit test is defined as
quantitative or semi quantitative test designed to identify and control small quantities of
impurity which is likely to be present in the substance.
Limit test is generally carried out to determine the inorganic impurities present in
compound. In short, limit test is nothing but to identify the impurities present in the
substance and compare it with standard.
Importance of Limit tests:
To find out the harmful amount of impurities
To find out the avoidable/unavoidable amount of impurities.
Limit tests involve the comparison of opalescence, turbidity or colour with the standard.
LIMIT TEST OF CHLORIDE
Principle:
Limit test of chloride is based on the reaction of soluble chloride with silver nitrate in
presence of dilute nitric acid to form silver chloride, which appears as solid particles
(Opalescence) in the solution.
30
Procedure:
Test sample
Standard
Specific weight of compound is dissolved
Take 1ml of 0.05845 % W/V solution of
in water or solution is prepared as
sodium chloride in Nessler cylinder
directed
in
the
pharmacopoeia
and
transferred in Nessler cylinder

Add 1ml of nitric acid
Add 1ml of nitric acid
Dilute to 50ml in Nessler cylinder
Dilute to 50ml in Nessler cylinder
Add 1ml of AgNO3 solution
Add 1ml of AgNO3 solution
Keep aside for 5 min
Observe the Opalescence/Turbidity
Observe the Opalescence/Turbidity
Observation:
The opalescence produced in sample solution should not be greater than standard
solution. If opalescence in sample solution is less than the standard solution, the sample
will pass the limit test of chloride and vice-versa.
Reasons:
Nitric acid is added in the limit test of chloride to make solution acidic and helps silver
chloride precipitate to make solution turbid at the end of process.
LIMIT TEST OF SULPHATE

Principle:
Limit test of sulphate is based on the reaction of soluble sulphate with barium chloride in
presence of dilute hydrochloric acid to form barium sulphate which appears as solid
particles (turbidity) in the solution.
31
Procedure:
Test sample
Standard
Specific weight of compound is dissolved
Take 1ml of 0.1089 % W/V solution of
in water or solution is prepared as
potassium sulphate in Nessler cylinder
directed
in
the
pharmacopoeia
and
transferred in Nessler cylinder

Add 2ml of dilute hydrochloric acid
Add 2ml of dilute hydrochloric acid
Dilute to 45 ml in Nessler cylinder
Dilute to 45 ml in Nessler cylinder
Add 5ml of barium sulphate reagent
Add 5ml of barium sulphate reagent
Observe the Turbidity
Observe the Turbidity
Barium sulphate reagent contains barium chloride, sulphate free alcohol and small
amount of potassium sulphate.
Observation:
The turbidity produce in sample solution should not be greater than standard solution. If
turbidity produces in sample solution is less than the standard solution, the sample will
pass the limit test of sulphate and vice versa.
Reasons:
Hydrochloric acid helps to make solution acidic.

Potassium sulphate is used to increase the sensitivity of the test by giving ionic
concentration in the reagent. Alcohol helps to prevent super saturation.
32
LIMIT TEST OF IRON
Principle:
Limit test of Iron is based on the reaction of iron in ammonical solution with thioglycollic
acid in presence of citric acid to form iron thioglycolate which is pale pink to deep
reddish purple in color.
Procedure:
Test sample
Standard
Sample is dissolved in specific amount of 2 ml of standard solution of iron diluted

water and then volume is made up to 40 with water upto 40ml
ml
Add 2 ml of 20 % w/v of citric acid (iron Add 2 ml of 20 % w/v of citric acid (iron
free)
free)
Add 2 drops of thioglycollic acid
Add 2 drops of thioglycollic acid
Add ammonia to make the solution Add ammonia to make the solution alkaline
alkaline and adjust the volume to 50 ml
and adjust the volume to 50 ml
Color developed is viewed vertically and Color developed is viewed vertically and
compared with standard solution
compared with standard solution
33
Earlier amonium thiocyanate reagent was used for the limit test of iron. Since
thioglycolic acid is more sensitive reagent, it has replaced ammonium thiocyanate in the
test.
Observation:
The purple color produce in sample solution should not be greater than standard solution.
If purple color produces in sample solution is less than the standard solution, the sample
will pass the limit test of iron and vice versa.
Reasons:
Citric acid helps precipitation of iron by ammonia by forming a complex with it.
Thioglycolic acid helps to oxidize iron (II) to iron (III). Ammonia to make solution
alkaline.
LIMIT TEST OF HEAVY METALS

Principle:
Limit test of heavy metals is based on the reaction of metallic impurities with hydrogen
sulfide in acidic medium to form brownish colour solution. Metals that response to this
test are lead, mercury, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, tin, cadmium, silver, copper, and
molybdenum. The metallic impurities in substances are expressed as parts of lead per
million parts of the substance. The usual limit as per Indian Pharmacopoeia is 20 ppm
Procedure:
The Indian Pharmacopoeia has adopted three methods for the limit test of heavy metals.
Method I: Use for the substance which gives clear colorless solution under the specific
condition.
Test sample
Solution
is
Standard
prepared
as
per
the
monograph and 25 ml is transferred in
Take 2 ml of standard lead solution and

dilute to 25 ml with water
Nesslers cylinder
34
Adjust the pH between 3 to 4 by adding
Adjust the pH between 3 to 4 by adding
dilute acetic acid Sp or dilute ammonia
dilute acetic acid Sp or dilute ammonia
solution Sp
solution Sp
Dilute with water to 35 ml
Add freshly prepared 10 ml of hydrogen
Add freshly prepared 10 ml of hydrogen
sulphide solution
sulphide solution
Allow to stand for five minutes
View downwards over a white surface
Observation:
The color produce in sample solution should not be greater than standard solution. If
color produces in sample solution is less than the standard solution, the sample will pass
the limit test of heavy metals and vice versa.
Method II: Use for the substance which do not give clear colorless solution under the
specific condition.
Test sample
Standard
Weigh specific quantity of test substance, Take 2 ml of standard lead solution

moisten with sulphuric acid and ignite on a low and dilute to 25 ml with water
flame
till
completely
charred
Add few drops of nitric acid and heat to 500 C

Allow to cool and add 4 ml of hydrochloric acid
and
evaporate
to
dryness
Moisten the residue with 10 ml of hydrochloric

acid
and
digest
for
two
minutes
Neutralize with ammonia solution and make just

acid with acetic acid
Adjust the pH between 3 to 4 and filter if Adjust the pH between 3 to 4 by
35
necessary
adding dilute acetic acid Sp or

dilute ammonia solution Sp
Add freshly prepared 10 ml of hydrogen Add freshly prepared 10 ml of

sulphide solution
hydrogen sulphide solution
View downwards over a white

surface
Observation:
Method III: Use for the substance which gives clear colorless solution in sodium
hydroxide solution.
Test sample
Solution
is
Standard
prepared
as
per
the
Take 2 ml of standard lead solution
monograph and 25 ml is transferred in

Nesslers cylinder or weigh specific
amount of substance and dissolve in 20
ml of water and add 5 ml of dilute sodium
hydroxide solution
Make up the volume to 50 ml with water
Add 5 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide

solution and make up the volume to 50 ml
with water
Add 5 drops of sodium sulphide solution
Add 5 drops of sodium sulphide solution
Mix and set aside for 5 min
Mix and set aside for 5 min
36
Observation:
LIMIT TEST OF LEAD
Lead is a most undesirable impurity in medical compounds and comes through use of
sulphuric acid, lead lined apparatus and glass bottles use for storage of chemicals.
Principle:
Limit test of lead is based on the reaction of lead and diphenyl thiocabazone (dithizone)
in alkaline solution to form lead dithizone complex which is read in color.
Dithizone is green in color in chloroform and lead-dithizone complex is violet in color, so
the resulting color at the end of process is red.
Procedure:
Test sample
Standard
A known quantity of sample solution is
A standard lead solution is prepared
transferred in a separating funnel
equivalent
to
permitted
in
the
the
amount
sample
of
lead
under
examination
Add 6ml of ammonium citrate
Add 6ml of ammonium citrate
Add 2 ml of potassium cyanide and 2 ml
Add 2 ml of potassium cyanide and 2 ml
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride
Add 2 drops of phenol red
Add 2 drops of phenol red
Make
solution
ammonia solution.
alkaline
by
adding
Make
solution
ammonia solution.
37
alkaline
by
adding
Extract with 5 ml of dithizone until it
Extract with 5 ml of dithizone until it
becomes green
becomes green
Combine dithizone extracts are shaken
Combine dithizone extracts are shaken for
for 30 mins with 30 ml of nitric acid and
30 mins with 30 ml of nitric acid and the
the chloroform layer is discarded
chloroform layer is discarded
To the acid solution add 5 ml of standard
To the acid solution add 5 ml of standard
dithizone solution
dithizone solution
Add 4 ml of ammonium cyanide
Add 4 ml of ammonium cyanide
Shake for 30 mins
Shake for 30 mins
Observe the color
Observe the color
Observation:
The intensity of the color of complex, is depends on the amount of lead in the solution.
the limit test of lead and vice versa.
Reasons:
Ammonium citrate, potassium cyanide, hydroxylamine hydrochloride is used to make pH
optimum so interference and influence of other impurities have been eliminated.
Phenol red is used as indicator to develop the color at the end of process
Lead present as an impurities in the substance, gets separated by extracting an alkaline
solution with a dithizone extraction solution.
LIMIT TEST OF ARSENIC
Principle:
Limit test of Arsenic is based on the reaction of arsenic gas with hydrogen ion to form
yellow stain on mercuric chloride paper in presence of reducing agents like potassium
38
iodide.
It
is
also
called
as
Gutzeit
test
and
requires
special
apparatus.
Arsenic, present as arsenic acid in the sample is reduced to arsenious acid by reducing
agents like potassium iodide, stannous acid, zinc, hydrochloric acid, etc. Arsenious acid
is further reduced to arsine (gas) by hydrogen and reacts with mercuric chloride paper to
give a yellow stain.
H3AsO4
H2SnO2
Arsenic acid
H3AsO3
H2SnO3
Arsenious acid
H3AsO3
3H2
Arsenious acid
AsH3 +
3H2O
Arsine
The depth of yellow stain on mercuric chloride paper will depend upon the quality of
arsenic present in the sample.
Procedure:
Test solution:
The test solution is prepared by dissolving specific amount in water and stannated HCl
(arsenic free) and kept in a wide mouthed bottle.
To this solution 1 gm of KI, 5 ml of stannous chloride acid solution and 10 gm of zinc is
added (all this reagents must be arsenic free).
Keep the solution aside for 40 min and stain obtained on mercuric chloride paper is
compared with standard solution.
Standard solution:
A known quantity of dilute arsenic solution is kept in wide mouthed bottle and rest
procedure is followed as described in test solution.
39
A approximately 60 ml generator bottle with 40 ml indicating line.

B glass tube with 6.5 mm inner diameter
C and D a ground joint glass tube with 6.5 mm inner diameter and 18 mm outer
diameter at the joint. Inner joint and the outer joint form a concentric circle.
E rubber stopper
F narrow part of the glass tube B. Glass wool is inserted up to this part.
G rubber board (Lead acetate cotton plug)
H clamp
Reasons:
Stannous
chloride
is
used
for
complete
evolution
of
arsine
Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent

40
Hydrochloric
acid
is
used
to
make
the
solution
acidic
Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide which may be
evolved along with arsine.
41
7. BASIC CONCEPTS OF SPECTROSCOPIC AND

CHROMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY (UV-Spectroscopy):
Molecular absorption spectroscopy in the ultraviolet and visible spectral regions is widely
used for the quantitative determination of a large number of inorganic, organic and
biological species. The molecular absorption is studied in the wavelength region of 190 to
800 nm. Ultraviolet and visible spectrometers have been in general use since long and
over this period have become the most important analytical instrument in the modern day
laboratory. In many applications other techniques could be employed but none rival UVVisible spectrometry for its simplicity, versatility, speed, accuracy and cost-effectiveness.
Principle:
Molecular absorption spectroscopy is based on the measurement of transmittance (T) or

the absorbance (A) of solutions contained in transparent cells having a path length of b
centimeters. Ordinarily, the concentration of an absorbing analyte is linearly related to
absorbance as given by Beer`s Law:
A=-logT=logp/logp=ebc
Where,
p = incident radiant power,
b = path length of sample,
c = concentration of absorber,
e = molar absorptivity
p = transmitted radiant power,
A = absorbance,
T = transmittance
Following photo is one of the UV-spectrometers available in the market-
42
Applications of UV Spectroscopy:
Although UV Spectroscopy is classical method of analysis, it is still efficiently applied

for a variety of procedures with success-
1. Detection of Impurities
UV absorption spectroscopy is one of the best methods for determination of impurities in

organic molecules. Additional peaks can be observed due to impurities in the sample and
it can be compared with that of standard raw material. Impurities can be detected by
measuring the absorbance at specific wavelength. Benzene appears as a common
impurity in cyclohexane. Its presence can be easily detected by its absorption at 255 nm.
2. Structure elucidation of organic compounds.
UV spectroscopy is useful in the structure elucidation of organic molecules, the presence

or absence of unsaturation, the presence of hetero atoms. From the location of peaks and
combination of peaks, it can be concluded that whether the compound is saturated or
unsaturated, hetero atoms are present or not, etc.
43
3. Qualitative analysis
UV absorption spectroscopy can characterize those types of compounds which absorbs

UV radiation. Identification is done by comparing the absorption spectrum with the
spectra of known compounds. UV absorption spectroscopy is generally used for
characterizing aromatic compounds and aromatic olefins.
4. Quantitative analysis
UV absorption spectroscopy can be used for the quantitative determination of compounds

that absorb UV radiation. This determination is based on Beers law. Other methods for
quantitative analysis are as follows.
a. calibration curve method
b. simultaneous multi component method
c. difference spectrophotometric method
d. derivative spectrophotometric method
5. Dissociation constants of acids and bases

pH = PKa + log [A-]/[HA]
From the above equation, the PKa value can be calculated if the ratio of [A -]/[HA] is
known at a particular pH. and the ratio of [A-]/[HA] can be determined
spectrophotometrically from the graph plotted between absorbance and wavelength at
different pH values.
6. Chemical kinetics
Kinetics of reaction can also be studied using UV spectroscopy. The UV radiation is

passed through the reaction cell and the absorbance changes can be observed.
44
7. Quantitative analysis of pharmaceutical substances
Many drugs are either in the form of raw material or in the form of formulation. They can
be assayed by making a suitable solution of the drug in a solvent and measuring the
absorbance at specific wavelength. Diazepam tablet can be analyzed by 0.5% H2SO4 in
methanol at the wavelength 284 nm.
8. Molecular weight determination
Molecular weights of compounds can be measured spectrophotometrically by preparing

the suitable derivatives of these compounds. For example, if we want to determine the
molecular weight of amine then it is converted in to amine picrate. Then known
concentration of amine picrate is dissolved in a litre of solution and its optical density is
measured at max 380 nm. After this the concentration of the solution in gm moles per
litre can be calculated by using the following formula.
9. As HPLC detector
A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for HPLC. The presence of an

analyte gives a response which can be assumed to be proportional to the concentration.
For more accurate results, the instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should
be compared with the response to a standard; as in the case of calibration curve.
INFRA RED SPECTROSCOPY (IR Spectroscopy):

The light our eyes see is a small part of a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the seemingly diverse collection of radiant energy,
from cosmic rays to X-rays to visible light to microwaves, each of which can be
considered as a wave or particle traveling at the speed of light. These waves differ from
each other in the length and frequency.
45
On the immediate high energy side of the visible spectrum lies the ultraviolet, and on the
low energy side is the infrared. The portion of the infrared region most useful for analysis
of organic compounds is adjacent to the visible spectrum. An important tool of the
organic chemist is Infrared Spectroscopy, or IR. IR spectra are acquired on a special
instrument, called an IR spectrometer. IR is used both to gather information about the
structure of a compound and as an analytical tool to assess the purity of a compound. IR
spectra are quick and easy to run.
Principle:
Infrared radiation is absorbed by organic molecules and converted into energy of
molecular vibration. In IR spectroscopy, an organic molecule is exposed to infrared
radiation. When the radiant energy matches the energy of a specific molecular vibration,
absorption occurs. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and
study chemicals. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer.
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three
regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum.
The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 140004000 cm1 (0.82.5 m wavelength)
can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000400
cm1 (2.525 m) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated
rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 40010 cm1 (251000
46
m), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for
rotational spectroscopy.
Most organic compounds have C-H bonds, a useful rule is that absorption in the 2850 to
3000 cm-1 is due to sp3C-H stretching; whereas, absorption above 3000 cm-1 is from
sp2 C-H stretching or sp C-H stretching if it is near 3300 cm-1.
Number of vibration modes
In order for a vibration mode in a molecule to be "IR active," it must be associated with
changes in the permanent dipole.
A molecule can vibrate in many ways, and each way is called a vibrational mode. Linear
molecules have 3N5 degrees of vibrational modes whereas nonlinear molecules have
3N6 degrees of vibrational modes (also called vibrational degrees of freedom). As an
example H2O, a non-linear molecule, will have 336 = 3 degrees of vibrational
freedom, or modes.
Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond and only one vibrational band. If the
molecule is symmetrical, e.g. N2, the band is not observed in the IR spectrum, but only in
the Raman spectrum. Unsymmetrical diatomic molecules, e.g. CO, absorb in the IR
spectrum. More complex molecules have many bonds, and their vibrational spectra are
47
correspondingly more complex, i.e. big molecules have many peaks in their IR spectra.
The atoms in a CH2 group, commonly found in organic compounds, can vibrate in six
different ways: symmetric and antisymmetric stretching, scissoring, rocking, wagging
and twisting.
Absorption bands
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a measurement technique that

allows one to record infrared spectra. Infrared light is guided through an interferometer
and then through the sample (or vice versa). A moving mirror inside the apparatus alters
the distribution of infrared light that passes through the interferometer. The signal
directly recorded, called an "interferogram", represents light output as a function of
mirror position. A data-processing technique called Fourier transform turns this raw data
into the desired result (the sample's spectrum): Light output as a function of infrared
48
wavelength (or equivalently, wave number). The sample's spectrum is always compared
to that of the spectrum of the reference.
APPLICATIONS:
Infrared spectroscopy is widely used in industry as well as in research. It is a simple and

reliable technique for measurement, quality control and dynamic measurement. It is also
employed in forensic analysis in civil and criminal analysis.
1. Identification of functional group and structure elucidation
Entire IR region is divided into group frequency region and fingerprint region. Range of
group frequency is 4000-1500 cm-1 while that of finger print region is 1500-400 cm-1. In
group frequency region, the peaks corresponding to different functional groups can be
observed. According to corresponding peaks, functional group can be determined. Each
atom of the molecule is connected by bond and each bond requires different IR region so
characteristic peaks are observed. This region of IR spectrum is called as finger print
region of the molecule. It can be determined by characteristic peaks.
2. Identification of substances
IR spectroscopy is used to establish whether a given sample of an organic substance is

identical with another or not. This is because large number of absorption bands is
observed in the IR spectra of organic molecules and the probability that any two
compounds will produce identical spectra is almost zero. So if two compounds have
identical IR spectra then both of them must be samples of the same substances.
3. Studying the progress of the reaction
Progress of chemical reaction can be determined by examining the small portion of the
reaction mixture withdrawn from time to time. The rate of disappearance of a
49
characteristic absorption band of the reactant group and/or the rate of appearance of the
characteristic absorption band of the product group due to formation of product is
observed.
4. Detection of impurities
IR spectrum of the test sample to be determined is compared with the standard

compound. If any additional peaks are observed in the IR spectrum, then it is due to
impurities present in the compound.
5. Quantitative analysis
The quantity of the substance can be determined either in pure form or as a mixture of
two or more compounds. In this, characteristic peak corresponding to the drug substance
is chosen and peaks for standard and test sample are compared rationally. This is called
base line technique to determine the quantity of a substance.
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY (NMR):
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy is a non-destructive analytical

technique that is used to probe the nature and characteristics of molecular structure. A
simple NMR experiment produces information in the form of a spectrum, which is able to
provide details about:
The types of atoms present in the sample
The relative amounts of atoms present in a sample
The specific environments of atoms within a molecule
The purity and composition of a sample
Structural
information
about
molecule,
conformational isomerization.
50
including
constitutional
and
There are a number of important characteristics of NMR spectroscopy which makes it

favourable to a wide array of industrial, commercial and research applications. There are
many nuclei which are NMR active. Some of the more common NMR active nuclei
include 1H, 2H, 13C, 11B, 15N, 19F, 31P and 195Pt. NMR spectroscopy is generally a nondestructive technique, meaning that samples can be recovered. Only a small quantity of
material is required for analysis; sample sizes of 5-20mg are generally sufficient for most
NMR experiments. Sample preparation is simple and minimal. Typically, samples are
simply dissolved in an appropriate solvent.
Today, NMR has become a sophisticated and powerful analytical technology that has
found a variety of applications in many disciplines of scientific research, medicine, and
various industries. Modern NMR spectroscopy has been emphasizing the application in
biomolecular systems and plays an important role in structural biology. With
developments in both methodology and instrumentation in the past two decades, NMR
has become one of the most powerful and versatile spectroscopic techniques for the
analysis of biomacromolecules, allowing characterization of biomacromolecules and their
complexes up to 100 kDa.
Together with X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy is one of the two leading
technologies for the structure determination of biomacromolecules at atomic resolution.
In addition, NMR provides unique and important molecular motional and interaction
profiles containing pivotal information on protein function. The information is also
critical in drug development.
Principle:
The principle behind NMR is that many nuclei have spin and all nuclei are electrically
charged. If an external magnetic field is applied, an energy transfer is possible between
the base energy to a higher energy level (generally a single energy gap). The energy
transfer takes place at a wavelength that corresponds to radio frequencies and when the
spin returns to its base level, energy is emitted at the same frequency. The signal that
51
matches this transfer is measured in many ways and processed in order to yield an NMR
spectrum for the nucleus concerned.
Nuclear magnetic resonance provides detailed information about the structure, dynamics,
reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules.
APPLICATIONS:
NMR Spectroscopy is a technique used by most modern chemical laboratories. It has
applications in a wide range of disciplines, and development of new applied methods for
NMR is an active area of research. Methods in NMR spectroscopy have particular
relevance to the following disciplines:
Chemical research and development: organic, inorganic and physical chemistry
Chemical manufacturing industry
Biological and biochemical research
Food industry
Pharmaceutical development and production
52
Agrochemical development and production

Polymer industry
Common applications of NMR Spectroscopy include:
Structure elucidation
Chemical composition determination
Formulations investigation
Raw materials fingerprinting
Mixture analysis
Sample purity determination
Quality assurance and control
Quantitative analysis
Compound identification and confirmation
Analysis of inter- and intramolecular exchange processes
Molecular characterisation
Reaction kinetics examination
Hydrogen bonding
Reaction mechanism investigation
MASS SPECTROSCOPY (MS):
Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique used to quantify known materials,

to identify unknown compounds within a sample, and to elucidate the structure and
chemical properties of different molecules. The complete process involves the conversion
of the sample into gaseous ions, with or without fragmentation, which are then
characterized by their mass to charge ratios (m/z) and relative abundances.
This technique basically studies the effect of ionizing energy on molecules. It depends
upon chemical reactions in the gas phase in which sample molecules are consumed
during the formation of ionic and neutral species.
53
Principle:
A mass spectrometer generates multiple ions from the sample under investigation, it then
separates them according to their specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), and then records
the relative abundance of each ion type.
The first step in the mass spectrometric analysis of compounds is the production of gas
phase ions of the compound, basically by electron ionization. This molecular ion
undergoes fragmentation. Each primary product ion derived from the molecular ion, in
turn, undergoes fragmentation, and so on. The ions are separated in the mass
spectrometer according to their mass-to-charge ratio, and are detected in proportion to
their abundance.
A mass spectrum of the molecule is thus produced. It displays the result in the form of a
plot of ion abundance versus mass-to-charge ratio. Ions provide information concerning
the nature and the structure of their precursor molecule. In the spectrum of a pure
compound, the molecular ion, if present, appears at the highest value of m/z (followed by
ions containing heavier isotopes) and gives the molecular mass of the compound.
54
MS is an analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of a sample or

molecule, and for elucidating the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and
other chemical compounds. MS works by ionizing chemical compounds to generate
charged molecules or molecule fragments and measuring their mass-to-charge ratios. In a
typical MS procedure:
A sample is loaded onto the mass spectrometer, and undergoes vaporization. The
components of the sample are ionized by one of a variety of methods (e.g., by impacting
them with an electron beam), which results in the formation of charged particles (ions)
The ions are separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio in an analyzer by
electromagnetic fields. The ions are detected, usually by a quantitative method. The ion
signal is processed into mass spectra. The different components of a Mass Spectrometer
are given in the following diagram-
55
APPLICATIONS:
Mass spectrometry is fast becoming an indispensable field for analyzing drugs, chemical
compounds and biomolecules. The development of desorption ionization methods based
on the emission of pre-existing ions such as plasma desorption (PD), fast atom
bombardment (FAB) or laser desorption (LD), allowed the application of mass
spectrometry for analyzing complex biomolecules.
1. Analysis of Glycans
Oligosaccharides are molecules formed by the association of several monosaccharides

linked through glycosidic bonds. The determination of the complete structure of
oligosaccharides is more complex than that of proteins or oligonucleotides. It involves
the determination of additional components as a consequence of the isomeric nature of
monosaccharides and their capacity to form linear or branched oligosaccharides.
Knowing the structure of an oligosaccharide requires not only the determination of its
monosaccharide sequence and its branching pattern, but also the isomer position and the
anomeric configuration of each of its glycosidic bonds.
Advances in glycobiology involves a comprehensive study of structure, bio-synthesis,

and biology of sugars and saccharides. Mass spectrometry (MS) is emerging as an
enabling technology in the field of glycomics and glycobiology.
2. Analysis of Lipids
Lipids are made up of many classes of different molecules which are soluble in organic
solvents. Lipidomics, a major part of metabolomics, constitutes the detailed analysis and
global characterization, both spatial and temporal, of the structure and function of lipids
(the lipidome) within a living system.
56
Many new strategies for mass-spectrometry-based analyses of lipids have been

developed. The most popular lipidomics methodologies involve electrospray ionization
(ESI) sources and triple quadrupole analyzers. Using mass spectrometry, it is possible to
determine the molecular weight, elemental composition, the position of branching and
nature of substituents in the lipid structure.
3. Analysis of Proteins and Peptides
Proteins and peptides are linear polymers made up of combinations of the 20 amino acids
linked by peptide bonds. Proteins undergo several post translational modifications,
extending the range of their function via such modifications.
The term Proteomics refers to the analysis of complete protein content in a living system,
including co- and post-translationally modied proteins and alternatively spliced variants.
Mass Spectrometry has now become a crucial technique for almost all proteomics
experiments. It allows precise determination of the molecular mass of peptides as well as
their sequences. This information can very well be used for protein identification, de
novo sequencing, and identification of post-translational modifications.
4. Analysis of Oligonucleotides
Oligonucleotides (DNA or RNA), are linear polymers of nucleotides. These are

composed of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar and a phosphate group. Oligonucleotides
may undergo several natural covalent modifications which are commonly present in
tRNA and rRNA, or unnatural ones resulting from reactions with exogenous compounds.
Mass spectrometry plays an important role in identifying these modifications and
determining their structure as well as their position in the oligonucleotide. It not only
allows determination of the molecular weight of oligonucleotides, but also in a direct or
indirect manner, the determination of their sequences.
57
CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Chromatography is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the
separation of mixtures. The mixture is dissolved in a fluid called the mobile phase, which
carries it through a structure holding another material called the stationary phase. The
various constituents of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.
The separation is based on differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary
phases. Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential
retention on the stationary phase and thus changing the separation.
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC): is a chromatography technique used to

separate mixtures. Thin layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of glass, plastic, or
aluminum foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel,
aluminium oxide, or cellulose (blotter paper). This layer of adsorbent is known as the
stationary phase.
COULMN CHROMATOGRAPHY:
It is a method used to purify individual chemical compounds from mixtures of

compounds. It is often used for preparative applications on scales from micrograms up to
58
kilograms. The main advantage of column chromatography is the relatively low cost and
disposability of the stationary phase used in the process. The latter prevents crosscontamination and stationary phase degradation due to recycling.
The classical preparative chromatography column, is a glass tube with a diameter from 5
mm to 50 mm and a height of 5 cm to 1 m with a tap and some kind of a filter (a glass frit
or glass wool plug to prevent the loss of the stationary phase) at the bottom. Two
methods are generally used to prepare a column: the dry method, and the wet method.
59
8. CALIBRATION OF UV-SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Molecular absorption spectroscopy in the ultraviolet and visible spectral regions is widely
used for the quantitative determination of a large number of inorganic, organic, and
biological species.
The molecular absorption is studied in the wavelength region of 190 to 800 nm of
electromagnetic spectrum. The following diagram shows the visible range in
electromagnetic spectrum-
Violet:
400 - 420 nm
Indigo:
420 - 440 nm
Blue:
440 - 490 nm
Green:
490 - 570 nm
Yellow:
570 - 585 nm
Orange:
585 - 620 nm
Red:
620 - 780 nm
Principle:
Molecular absorption spectroscopy is based on the measurement of transmittance T or the

absorbance A of solutions contained in transparent cells having a path length of b
centimeters. Ordinarily, the concentration of an absorbing analyte is linearly related to
absorbance as given by Beers Law:
60
A = -logT = log p/log p = ebc
Where, p = incident radiant power, b = path length of sample, c = concentration of

absorber, e = molar absorptivity, p = transmitted radiant power, A = absorbance, T =
transmittance.
Beer-Lambert Law:
The beer Lambert Law states that the concentration of a substance in solution is directly
proportional to the absorbance A of the solution.
A= Constant x concentration x cell length
The law is only true for monochromatic light that is light of a single wave length or
narrow band of wave length, and provided that the physical or chemical state of the
substance does not change with the concentration.
When monochromatic radiation passes through a homogeneous solution in a cell, the

intensity of the emitted radiation depends upon the thickness l and the concentration C
of the solution.
A= log10 Io/I
Io is the intensity of incident radiation and I is the intensity of transmitted radiation. The
ratio I/Io is called transmittance. This is sometimes expressed as a percentage and
referred to as percentage transmittance.
Following diagram shows different component of an UV spectrometer-
61
Procedure:
Preparation of solution of potassium dichromate UV: Prepare potassium dichromate

solution previously dried to a constant weight at 130 C (6.006 For the control of the
absorbance at 235 nm, 257 nm, 313 mg/100 ml in 0.005 N sulphuric acid). It exhibits
characteristic spectral graph having minimum (valley) at 235 and 313 nm and maxima at
257 and 350 nm. Potassium dichromate is a notorious oxidizing agent resulting in very
poor stability of the solution in addition to resulting process errors that arise from making
up the solution.
Absorbance
accuracy
of
UVvisible
spectrophotometers
dichromate solution in 0.005 N sulphuric acid.
Wavelength (nm)
Absorbance
235 nm( minima/valley)
0.748 (0.740-0.756)
257 nm (maxima)
0.865 (0.856-0.894)
313 nm (Minima/valley)
0292 (0.289-0.295)
350 nm (maxima)
0.640 (0.6340.646)
62
using
potassium
Limit of stray light: Stray light may be detected at a given wavelength with suitable
filters or solutions; for example, absorbance of a 1.2% w/v solution of potassium chloride
in a 1 cm cell should be greater than 2.0 at about 200 nm when compared with water as
reference liquid.
Preparation of 0.005 M sulphuric acid: 0.03 ml of sulphuric acid is dissolved in 1000

ml distilled water.
63
9. PREPARATION OF CALIBRATION CURVE OF

CIPROFLOXACIN
Ciprofloxacin is an antibiotic in a group of drugs called fluoroquinolones. Ciprofloxacin
fights bacteria in the body. Ciprofloxacin is used to treat different types of bacterial
infections. It is a faintly yellowish to light yellow crystalline substance with a molecular
weight of 385.8. It is used orally, 250 to 750 mg twice daily, by intravenous infusion, 100
mg to 200 mg twice daily.
Molecular formula:
C17H18FN3O3
1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-7-(piperazin-1-yl)quinoline-3-carboxylic acid
Ciprofloxacin
is
1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-7-(1-piperazinyl)-3-
quinolinecarboxylic acid. Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride is the monohydrochloride

monohydrate salt of ciprofloxacin. It is a faintly yellowish to light yellow crystalline
substance.
Validation of the method:
1. Reproducibility:
Reproducibility of the method is studied by analyzing six individually weighed samples

of ciprofloxacin HCl. The present relative standard deviation (RSD) of the determination
is found to be less than 1.0%.
64
2. Interference Study:
The interference in the method by the Indion 414, Indion 254, stearic acid, PEG 1500 and
other materials used in the present investigation is studied by testing their effects
individually. Accurately weighed amounts of ciprofloxacin HCl and Indion 414, Indion
254, stearic acid, PEG 1500 and other materials in 1:1 ratio are mixed thoroughly. From
each mixture, an accurately weighed powder equivalent to 100 mg of ciprofloxacin HCl
is assayed using UV-spectrophotometer. The ciprofloxacin HCl contents are calculated
using the calibration curve.
Solubility: Sparingly soluble in 0.1M hydrochloric acid and in glacial acetic acid.
Procedure:
Preparation of standard solution:
Weigh accurately about 100 mg ciprofloxacin in a 100 ml volumetric flask. Dissolve it in

60-70 ml of 0.1N hydrochloric acid, shake for 10 min and make up to 100 ml. Pipette out
1ml of this standard stock solution to a 10 ml volumetric flask and make up the volume to
the mark with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
From this stock solution, take 5.0 ml in a 50 ml volumetric flask, add 1 ml of freshly
prepared 1% w/v ferric chloride solution and make up the volume to the mark with 0.1N
hydrochloric acid, and prepare 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mcg solution and measure the absorption of
the solution at a maximum (max) at about 438 nm against reagent blank (1 ml of ferric
chloride solution diluted to 50 ml with acid).
65
10. ASSAY OF CIPROFLOXACIN TABLET/CAPSULE

Assay of ciprofloxacin tablet/capsule is done by UV-visible spectrophotometery. Other
methods are also applied but UV-method is easy and cheaper.
The structure and theory involved in the assay is provided in the previous experiment.
Procedure:
a) Preparation of standard solution:
Weigh accurately about 250 mg ciprofloxacin in a 250 ml volumetric flask. Dissolved it

in 60-70 ml of 0.1N hydrochloric acid and make the volume upto the mark. Pipette out 1
ml of this standard stock solution to a 10 ml volumetric flask and make the volume upto
the mark by 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
b) Preparation of sample solution:
Weigh accurately powdered sample equivalent to 250 mg of the substance

(Ciprofloxacin), added 60-70 ml of 0.1N hydrochloric acid, shake for 10 minutes and
made upto 250 ml with the 0.1N hydrochloric acid.
From this solution, take 1.0 ml in a 10 ml volumetric flask. To it add 0.2 ml freshly
prepared 1% w/v ferric chloride solution and make the volume up to the mark with 0.1N
hydrochloric acid and measure the absorption of the solution at a maximum (max) at
about 438nm on a UV-spectrometer against reagent blank (1 ml of ferric chloride
solution diluted to 50ml with acid) .
% assay = Abs of sample

Abs of standard
Avg. Wt. of 20 Tablet

x Wt. of Std x Dillution Factor x
X 100
Label claim
Dillution Factor Wt. of sample
66
11. PREPARATION OF CALIBRATION CURVE OF METFORMIN

Metformin hydrochloride is a biguanide class of antidiabetic drug, chemically is N,Ndimethyl-imido-dicarbonimidic diamide hydrochloride. The anti-diabetic Metformin
hydrochloride indicated for the relief of signs and symptoms of Type-2 diabetes mellitus
or non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), and hyperglycemia. It is also used
in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome.
Metformin
Molecular formula: C4H11N5
Procedure:
Weigh accurately about 50 mg Metformin HCl in a 50 ml volumetric flask and make upto
the mark. With distill water and prepare 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mcg solution by stock solution and
take absorption at 232 nm (max) on a UV-spectrometer. Plot graph absorption vs
concentration, this is standard plot. By extrapolating the prepared graph with the
absorption of sample, the concentration may be calculated.
67
12. ASSAY OF METFORMIN TABLET/CAPSULE

The
assay
of
Metformin
tablet/capsule
is
performed
using
UV-visible
spectrophotometery.
The structure and theory involved in the assay is provided in the previous experiment.
Procedure:
Weigh accurately about 50 mg Metformin in a 50 ml volumetric flask and dissolved in

dist. water. From this stock solution prepare 5 mcg test solution.
b) Preparation of sample solution:
Weigh accurately powdered sample equivalent to 50mg of the substance (Metformin)

Metformin in a 50ml volumetric flask and dissolved in dist. water. From this stock
solution prepare 5 mcg test solution and determine absorption at 232 nm (max) on a
UV-spectrometer.

Abs of standard

X 100
Label claim
68
13. ASSAY OF RIFAMPICIN TABLET/CAPSULE

Rifampicin, also known as rifampin, is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial
infections. This includes tuberculosis, leprosy, and legionella, etc. Often it is used along
with other antibiotics. It is also used to prevent Haemophilus influenzae type b and
meningococcal infections.
Rifampicin
Assay of rifampicin tablet/capsule is done by UV-visible spectrophotometery. Other

methods are also applied but UV-method is easy and cheaper.
Procedure:
a) Preparation of standard solution: Prepare 1 mg/ml of Rifampicin in methanol as a

standard solution of rifampicin.
b) Preparation of sample solution: Weigh accurately the sample equivalent to about

100 mg of the rifampicin, add 50 ml of methyl alcohol, shake and make the volume up to
100 ml with methanol.
69
Procedure:
Method 1:
Take 5 ml each of potassium dichromate solution and buffer solution in two flasks. Add 2
ml each of sample and standard solutions. Stir well and after 1 minute, extract with two
10 ml portions of methyl isobutyl ketone. Make up the volume to 25 ml with the solvent.
Measure the absorption of resulting solution at about 540 nm (max) against reagent
blank. Deduce the results by comparison.
Method 2:
Prepare solution of sample in methanol (1mg/ml). further dilution is done with pH 7.4
buffer (prepared as per IP 1996) to get final concentration of 20 mcg/ml. measure the
extinction at about 475nm (max) and calculate the taking 187 as the value of A 1%,1cm
at 475nm (max).
Phosphate buffer (pH 7.4): Weight about 2.38 gm of Na2HPO4, 8.0 gm of NaCl and 0.19
gm of KH2PO4. Dissolve in 250 ml of water and dilute upto 1.0 L with water. Maintain
the pH to 7.4.
Preparation of phosphate buffer: Weigh 6.804 g of potassium dihydrogen phosphate with

195.5ml of 0.2M sodium hydroxide and volume is made upto 1000 ml with distilled
water.

Abs of standard

X 100
Label claim
70
14. INTERPRETATION OF THE IR SPECTRA OF ETHANOL,

ACETONE AND FORMALDEHYDE
Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the spectroscopy that deals with the infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be
used to identify and study chemicals. A common laboratory instrument that uses this
technique is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer.
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three
regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum.
The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 140004000 cm1 (0.82.5 m wavelength)
can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000400
cm1 (2.525 m) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated
rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 40010 cm1 (251000
m), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for
rotational spectroscopy.
Procedure:
1. Take dry potassium bromide (KBr), or dry it at 100-120 oC to make it free from
moisture.
2. Prepare KBr pellet using manual or automatic hydraulic press (KBr press).
3. Mix KBr with the standard compound/drug properly in a ratio of 99:1, and prepare
pellets by KBr press.
4. Record standard spectrum by FTIR.
5. Mix KBr with the given sample compound/drug in a ratio of 99:1 and prepare pellets
by KBr Press.
6. Record spectrum by FTIR and compare it with standard and interpret.
Following peaks should be obtained in the spectra of ethanol, acetone and formaldehyde-
71
Standard spectrum of ethanol C2H5OH:
S. No.
Peak (signal)
Vibration
1.
3342 cm-1
O-H Stretch
2.
1330 cm-1
O-H in plane bend
3.
1050 cm-1
C-C-O asymmetric strech
4.
881 cm-1
C-C-O symmetric stretch
5.
667 cm-1
O-H out of plane bend
Standard spectrum of Acetone CH3COCH3:
S. No.
Peak (signal)
Vibration
1.
1715 cm-1
C=O Stretch
2.
1222 cm-1
C-C-C Stretch
Standard spectrum of Formaldehyde HCHO:
S. No.
Peak (signal)
Vibration
1.
1735 cm-1
Saturated C=O Stretch
2.
1785 cm-1
Aromatic C=O stretch
3.
1390 cm-1
C-H bend
4.
2850-2700cm-1
(1
or
2 Aldehydic C-H stretch, general
bands)
5.
2730 cm-1
6.
-1
Aldehydic C-H stretch, unbranched

carbon
2715 cm
Aldehydic C-H stretch, branched

carbon
72
15. INTERPRETATION OF THE IR SPECTRA OF ASPIRIN

Asprin (acetyl salicylic acid), C6H8O4
Aspirin is used as analgesic, antipyritic, anti-inflammatory, blood thinning agent, etc. It
may be identified by its IR spectrum.
The theory, principle and applications have been discussed earlier.
Aspirin
Procedure:
1. Take dry potassium bromide (KBr), or dry it at 100-120 oC to make it free from
moisture.
2. Prepare KBr pellet using manual or automatic hydraulic press (KBr press).
3. Mix KBr with the standard aspirin drug properly in a ratio of 99:1, and prepare pellets
by KBr press.
4. Record standard spectrum by FTIR.
5. Mix KBr with the given sample of aspirin in a ratio of 99:1 and prepare pellets by KBr
Press.
6. Record spectrum by FTIR and compare it with standard and interpret.
Following peaks should be obtained in the spectra of aspirin-
73
Standard spectrum of aspirin:
S. No. Peak (signal)
Vibration
1.
3500-2500 cm-1
Acid O-H stretch
2.
3064 cm-1
Aromatic C-H stretch
3.
1753 cm-1
C=O stretch (saturated)
4.
1691 cm-1
C=O stretch (Aromatic)
5.
1604,1595 cm-1
Aromatic ring modes
6.
1418 cm-1
Acid in plane O-H bends
7.
1369 cm
-1
8.
1305 cm-1
Acid C-O stretch
9.
1188 cm-1
Saturated ester C-C-O
10.
1094 cm-1
Saturated ester O-C-C
11.
917 cm-1
Acid out of plane OH- Bend
12.
755 cm-1
Aromatic out of plane C-H bend
Methyl Umbrella mode
74
16. STUDY OF WORKING OF HPLC INSTRUMENT

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a separation technique that can be
used for the analysis of organic molecules and ion. HPLC is based on mechanism of
adsorption, partition, ion exchange or size exclusion, depending on the type of stationary
phase used. HPLC involve a solid stationary phase, normally packed inside a stainless
steel column, and a liquid mobile phase. Separation of the component of a solution results
from the difference in the relative distribution ratios of the solutes between the two
phases.
HPLC can be used to access the purity and/or and determine the content of many
pharmaceutical substances. It can also be used to determine enantiomeric composition,
using suitably modified mobile phase or chiral stationary phases. Individual separation
mechanism of adsorption, partition, ion exchange and size exclusion rarely occur in
isolation, since several principle act to a certain degree simultaneously.
INSTRUMENTATION:
The apparatus consist of a pumping system, an injector, a chromatographic column,
stationary and mobile phases, connecting tubing and fittings, a detector, and a data
collecting device (computer, integrator or recorder).
75
Pumping system
HPLC pumping systems are required to deliver metered amount of mobile phase at a
constant flow rate. Pumping system that deliver solvent from one or more reservoir are
available. Pressure fluctuation can be minimized e.g. by passing the pressurized solvent
through a pulse-dampening device. Tubing and connection should be capable of
withstanding the pressure developed by the pumping system. Many HPLC pumps are
fitted with a facility for bleeding the system of entrapped air bubbles.
Injector
The sample solution is usually introduced into the following mobile phase at or near the
head of the column using an injector system based on an injection valve design which can
operate at high pressure. Such an injector system has a fixed loop or a variable volume
device which can be operated manually or by an auto-sampler. Partial filling of a loop
may lead to poorer injection volume precision.
76
Chromatographic column
Columns are usually made of polished stainless steel, are between 50 and 300mm long,
and have an internal diameter of between 2 and 5mm. they are commonly filled with a
stationary phase with a particle size of 5-10m. columns with internal diameter of less
than 2mm are often referred to as micropore columns. Ideally, the temperature of the
mobile phase and the column should be kept constant during an analysis. Most separation
are performed at ambient temperature but column may be heated using, for instance,
Normally, column should not be heated above 60 C because of the potential for
stationary phase degradation or change occurring to the composition of the mobile phase.
Stationary phase
Separation of pharmaceuticals is usually achieved by partition of compounds in the test

solution between the mobile and the stationary phase. HPLC system consisting of polar
stationary phase and non polar mobile phase are described as normal phase
chromatography; those with nonpolar stationary phase and polar mobile phases are called
reverse-phase chromatography.
There are many types of stationary phases including:
- Unmodified silica, alumina, or porous graphite, used in normal-phase chromatography,

when separation is based on differences in absorption;
- A variety of chemically modified supports prepared from polymers, silica, or porous
graphite, used in reverse-phase HPLC. Where separation is based principally on partition
of the molecule between the mobile phase and the stationary phase; - Resin or polymer
77
with acidic or basic group, used in ion-exchange chromatography, where separation is

based on competition between the ion to be separated and those in the mobile phase;
- Porous silica or polymer, used in size-exclusion chromatography, where separation is
based on the relative molecular mass of the molecules.
Most separations are based on partition mechanism using chemically modified silica as
the stationary phase and polar solvent as the mobile phase (reverse-phase HPLC). The
surface of the support, e.g. the silanol group of silica, is reacted with various silane
reagents to produce covalently bonded silyl derivative covering a varying number of
active sites on the surface of the support. The nature of the bonded phase is an important
parameter for determining the separation properties of the chromatographic system.
Commonly used bonded phase are as followsOctyl
Si-(CH2)7-CH3
C8
Octadecyl
Si-(CH2)17-CH3
C18
Phenyl
Si-(CH2)3-C6H5
C6H5
Cyanopropyl
Si-(CH2)3-CN
CN
Aminopropyl
Si-(CH2)3-NH2
NH2
Diol
Si-(CH2)3-OCH(OH)-CH2-OH
Mobile phase
The choice of mobile phase is based on the desired retention behaviour and the
physiochemical properties of the analyte.
For normal-phase HPLC using unmodified stationary phase, lipophilic solvent should be
employed. The presence of water in the mobile phase must be avoided as this will reduce
the efficacy of the stationary phase. In reverse-phase HPLC aqueous mobile phases with
and without organic modifiers, are used.
78
The mobile phase should be filtered through suitable membrabe0type filters with a
porosity of 0.45m to remove mechanical particles. The solvent may be delivered by the
individual pumps or proportioning valves of the liquid chromatograph and mixed
according to the desired proportion. Solvents are normally degassed by sparging with
helium or by sonification before pumping to avoid the creation of gas bubbles in the
detector cell.
If an ultraviolet detector is employed, the solvent used for the preparation of the mobile
phase should be free of stabilizer and transparent at the wavelength of detection. Mobile
phase may contain other components, e.g. a counter-ion for ion pair chromatography or a
chiral sector for chiral chromatography using an achiral stationary phase.
Connecting tubing and fittings
The potential efficiency of an analytical column may never be achieved because of the
design limitations of injector and detector. The connection between injector/column,
column/detector, and/or detector/detector may compromise the overall efficiency of the
system and any fitting should be the zero dead volume (ZDV) type. It is recommended
that minimum length of capillary tubing with a maximum internal diameter of 0.25 mm
be used for these fittings to minimize band spreading.
Detectors
Ultraviolet/visible (UV/vis) absorption spectrometers are the most commonly used

detector for pharmaceutical analysis. In specific cases, fluorescence spectrophotometers,
differential refrectrometer, electro chemical detector, light-scattering detectors, mass
spectrophotometers, or other special detector may be used. Where an analyte possesses a
chromophoric group that absorbs UV/vis radiation, the UV/vis detector is the most
appropriate because of its sensitivity and stability. Such a detector is not suitable for
detecting analytes with very weak chromophores.
79
Enhanced sensitivity may be activated in certain cases by using pre-column or postcolumn derivatization techniques.
Data collection devices
Signal from the detector may be collected on chart recorder or electronic integrators that
very in complexity and in their ability to process, store, and reprocess chromatographic
data. The data storage capacity of these devices is usually limited.
80
17. ASSAY OF PARACETAMOL BY HPLC

Paracetamol is a common analgesic and antipyretic drug that is used for the relief of
fever, headaches, and other minor aches and pains. Paracetamol is chemically 4hydroxyacetanilide is a centrally and peripherally acting non-opioid analgesic and
antipyretic.
Paracetamol lacks many of the side effects of aspirin, unlike other common analgesics
such as aspirin and ibuprofen, and has no anti-inflammatory properties, and so it is not a
member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or
NSAIDs. Paracetamol does not irritate the lining of the stomach or affect blood
coagulation as compared to aspirin. At normal therapeutic doses, paracetamol is
metabolized very fast and completely by undergoing glucuronidation and sulphonation to
inactive metabolites that are eliminated in the urine.
Paracetamol
in
formulations
may
be
analyzed
by
high-performance
liquid
chromatography (HPLC).
HPLC is a chromatographic technique that can separate a mixture of compounds and is

used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to identify, quantify and purify the
individual components of the mixture. HPLC typically utilizes different types of
stationary phase (hydrophobic) saturated carbon chains, a pump that moves the mobile
phase(s) and analyte through the column, and a detector that provides a characteristic
retention time for the analyte. The detector may also provide other characteristic
information (i.e. UV/Vis spectroscopic data for analyte if so equipped). Analyte retention
81
time varies depending on the strength of its interactions with the stationary phase, the
ratio/composition of solvent(s) used, and the flow rate of the mobile phase.
With HPLC, a pump (rather than gravity) provides the higher pressure required to propel
the mobile phase and analyte through the densely packed column. The increased density
arises from smaller particle sizes. This allows for a better separation on columns of
shorter length when compared to ordinary column chromatography. Linear absorbance is
directly proportional to the increasing concentration. UV detectors are useful for analysis
in HPLC systems. Above a certain concentration the linearity curves down, and loses
direct proportionality due to molecular associations at higher concentrations. It must
demonstrate linearity in validating response in an analytical procedure.
Procedure:
Sample preparation: Powder the sample equivalent to 50 mg of Paracetamol and

suspend in 50 ml of methanol. Sonicate it for 10 min and dilute to 100 ml with methanol.
Filter, dilute further and prepare 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 mcg solution with mobile phase
and prepare calibration graph, and determine the concentration of unknown sample.
HPLC system:
There are number of HPLC instruments are available in the market. Following system
may be used for paracetamol analysis-
Instrument:
Waters 2487
Column:
Reverse Phase C-18 (5 m) column, 250 x 4.6 mm

82
Chromatographic conditions:
1.
Composition of mobile phase and its Ph: The mobile phase for paracetamol
estimation is prepared by taking- Methanol : Water : o-Phosphoric acid (75 : 24.7 : 0.3
v/v).
2.
Flow rate (Isocratic) : 1ml/min
3.
Volume of injection : 20 l
4.
Type of detector, detector mode and Wavelength (max): UV-264 nm
5.
Retention time for Paracetamol; 2.15 min.
The following formula may be used for calculating % of paracetamol-
Wt. of Std x Dillution Factor Avg. Wt. of 20 Tablet

X 100
% assay = Area of sample x
x
Area of standard
Label claim
83
18. TLC OF AMINO ACIDS

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is an easy, convenient and inexpensive way to
determine how many components are in a mixture and, in many instances, can be used to
identify the components as well. In todays experiments, you will gain experience with
both paper and thin layer chromatography, you will work with a variety of developing
solvents, and you will use several different techniques to visualize the spots of a
chromatogram.
Paper chromatography, which is used to separate amino acids, is a form of partition

chromatography. Water, a component of the developing solvent, forms hydrogen bonds
with the fibers of the paper and serves as the stationary phase. The organic liquids that
are also present in the developing solvent serve as the mobile phase. The components of
the mixture are drawn up the paper to different heights, depending on their solubility in
the mobile phase. The compounds that are more soluble in the organic liquid remain
dissolved in the mobile phase longer than those that are less soluble and thus travel
further up the paper.
Proteins, large molecules found in all living organisms, serve a variety of functions in
metabolism, such as catalysis, transport, storage, control of growth and immune
protection. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Every amino acid has an
amino group, a carboxyl group and a distinctive side-chain. Nature uses twenty different
amino acids to synthesize proteins.
Generally four amino acids (alanine, leucine, lysine, and valine) are separated in an
UG/PG lab by paper chromatography are.
Amino acids are colorless compounds. In order to see the spots on the chromatogram, a
solution of ninhydrin is applied to the paper. Ninhydrin reacts with the amino acid to
produce a purple compound.
84
Silica gel serves as the stationary phase in the thin layer chromatography procedures.
Finding a solvent or mixture of solvents that serves as an effective mobile phase is the
most difficult part of TLC. Often several different combinations of solvents are tested
before one is found that will separate the compounds of interest successfully. Different
solvent systems affect the separation of the compounds.
The spots are illuminated when viewed under short-wave ultraviolet light. Some of the
spots change color when exposed to iodine vapors.
Procedures:
Obtain a sheet of 13 x 18.5 cm Whatman no. 1 chromatography paper. Hold it only on

one of the long (18.5 cm) sides, which is considered the top of the sheet. The amino
acids from student`s fingers will contaminate the paper and lead to erroneous results if it
is touched on the bottom. Lay the sheet of chromatography paper on a piece of
notebook paper, and draw a line in pencil, not pen, 1.5 cm above the bottom. Make small
marks along the line using the dimensions. Use the small capillary tubes provided to
make four spots, one of each amino acid (alanine, leucine, lysine and valine), along the
pencil line. Follow the labels written at the top of the sheet. unknown sample contains
one or more of these four amino acids. Spot this solution on the paper as well. For
making every spot, touch the capillary to the surface of the paper quickly and lightly so
that the spot is approximately 2-3 mm in diameter. Allow the spot to dry, then re-apply
the solution at the exact same place, again touching the paper quickly and lightly. Allow
the spot to dry, and repeat one more time. After all six solutions have been applied to the
paper in this manner, allow the spots to dry for five minutes. Roll the paper into a
cylinder with the spots on the outside, then staple it so that the edges do not overlap or
touch.
Pour 50 mL of the amino acid developing solution into a 1000 mL beaker. The
developing solvent is comprised of a four-to-one mixture of 1-butanol and glacial acetic
acid that has been saturated with water. Position the cylinder inside the beaker with the
85
bottom edge immersed in the solvent. Make sure the paper does not touch the glass. Place
a piece of aluminum foil over the mouth of the beaker. Allow the chromatogram to
develop undisturbed for 60 to 75 minutes.
Do not move the beaker while the chromatogram is developing!
While removing the paper from the beaker, mark the solvent front with a pencil. Set the
cylinder on notebook paper, and allow it to dry. When the chromatogram is completely
dry, remove the staples, and hang it from the clips in the fume hood. Wearing gloves
evenly coat the paper using the ninhydrin spray. Do not allow the paper to become
dripping wet. Place the chromatogram in an oven set at 80 for about 5 minutes. Circle
the spots with a pencil. Measure the distance from the origin to the center of each spot
and the distance from the origin to the solvent front.
86
19. TLC OF FOOD DYE PIGMENTS

Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that
imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of
liquids, powders, gels, and pastes. Food coloring is used both in commercial food
production and in domestic cooking. Due to its safety and general availability, food
coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, home craft projects and medical devices
Procedures:
Obtain two TLC plates with the dimensions of 5 cm x 6.7 cm. Draw a line in pencil, not
pen, 1 cm from the bottom along the short (5 cm) side of each plate. Be careful not to
disturb the silica gel as these lines are drawn!. Use the small capillary tube provided to
spot four spots, one of each color, along the line drawn on each of the plates. When
spotting a TLC plate, touch the capillary to the surface of the plate quickly and lightly so
the spot is very small.
The spots will be highly colored since the food dye solutions are quite concentrated.
Often times it is necessary to re-apply a dilute solution to the spot (allowing the spot to
dry in between applications) until the spots are highly colored, however this will not be
necessary in this case. Line a 250 mL beaker with a piece of filter paper. Place a small
amount of the 3:1 isopropanol: concentrated ammonia developing solvent in the beaker.
The liquid should cover the bottom of the beaker to a depth of about 0.5 cm; however, the
level of the liquid must be below the line when the plate is placed in the jar (that is, less
than 1 cm in depth). The filter paper lining will saturate the atmosphere within the beaker
with solvent fumes. Fit a piece of aluminum foil over the mouth of the beaker. Place one
of the plates that you have spotted in the beaker, cover it with the foil and allow the
solvent front to move up the plate until it is approximately 1 cm from the top (one hour
maximum).
87
Do not disturb the beaker while the chromatogram is developing!
Remove the plate and mark the solvent front with a pencil. Allow the plate to dry for a
few minutes, then circle any visible spots with a pencil.
Into a filter paper lined 400 mL beaker, pour either pure isopropanol or 1:1 isopropanol:
concentrated ammonia to a depth of about 0.5 cm. Develop the second plate in the same
manner as the first using the chosen solvent. Mark the solvent front and circle the spots.
Observe the chromatogram of the other solvent for the second plate.
Sketch diagrams of all three chromatograms in a notebook. Measure the distance from the
origin to the center of each spot and the distance from the origin to the solvent front for
each of the three chromatograms.
88
20. ANALYSIS OF A NON-PRESCRIPTION MEDICINE

(OTC DRUG)
Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines sold directly to a consumer without a
prescription, from a healthcare professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which
may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription, e.g. Zantac,
Acetoaminophen, Disprin, Ibuprofen, etc.
Students may get in analysis practical exam to analyze an OTC drug with the help of
TLC. Generally they get commonly used OTC drugs like acetylsalicyclic acid (aspirin),
acetoaminophen (paracetamol), ibuprofen, caffeine and diphenhydramine.
Procedure:
Obtain a silica gel TLC plate with the dimensions of 6 cm x 6.7 cm. Draw a line in pencil
1 cm from the bottom along the short (6 cm) side of the plate. Be careful not to disturb
the silica gel as you draw the line! Use the small capillary tube provided to spot 4 spots,
one of each active ingredient solution (acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen, caffeine and
diphenhydramine), along the line. Leave room for a fifth spot for the unknown sample
drug.
Spot your TLC plate with the supernatant from a mixture of this crushed tablet and
methanol. When applying these solutions to the plate, touch the capillary to the surface of
the silica gel quickly and lightly so the spot is very small. In each case, reapply the spot,
allowing it to dry in between applications, two more times. Place a small amount of the
ethyl acetate developing solvent in a 400 mL beaker. The liquid should cover the bottom
of the beaker to a depth of about 0.5 cm. Line the beaker with a piece of filter paper to
saturate the atmosphere within. Fit a piece of aluminum foil over the mouth of the beaker.
Place the plate that you have spotted in the beaker, cover it with the foil, and allow the
solvent front to move up the plate until it is approximately 1 cm from the top.
89
Do not disturb the beaker while the chromatogram is developing!
The solvent will travel up the silica gel plate very quickly and will reach the top in two to
three minutes. Remove the plate and mark the solvent front with a pencil. Allow the plate
to dry for a few minutes, then observe it under short-wave ultra-violet light. With a
pencil, circle any spots that are illuminated.
Place the plate in an iodine chamber in such a way so that the silica gel surface is
completely exposed to the iodine vapors and is not covered by other plates in the
chamber. Leave it there for 5-10 minutes. After removing the plate from the chamber,
record in the notebook whether or not any colored spots appeared as a result of exposure
to the iodine vapors. If new spots appear, circle them with a pencil. Sketch a diagram of
the chromatogram in the notebook. Measure the distance from the origin to the center of
each spot and the distance from the origin to the solvent. The spot of the sample will
match with any one of the four spots. This way unknown drug is identified.
90
21. PREPARATION OF SOME COMMON REAGENTS

The chemical reagents play an important role in the correctness of an experiment. If the
composition of reagent is not correct, it often leads to errors in the observations and
results. While preparing the chemistry reagents in a laboratory, correct proportion of
chemicals and /or solvents as well as procedure is very crucial.
Safety is also very important, as Chemistry Labs are highly prone to accidents. While
preparing reagents, one should be aware of correct handling, procedure, storage and
safety hazards. One of the most common accidents which happen is while opening the
bromine capsule to prepare bromine solution. However, with adequate knowledge and
care, accidents can be avoided in the chemistry lab.
It is important to note that although most reagents can be prepared and stored, a few need
to be freshly prepared. The commonly used formulas for calculation are:
1. Preparation of solutions using chemicals and dissolving them in appropriate solvents:

Amount (g) x 1000
Normality =
Equivalent wt x Volume (ml)
2. Preparation of solutions/reagents of different strengths using concentrated

solutions/reagents
N1V1 = N2V2
Aluminon (qualitative test for aluminum). Aluminon is a trade name for the
ammonium salt of aurintricarboxylic acid. Dissolve 1 gm of the salt in 1 L of distilled
water. Shake the solution well to insure thorough mixing.
Bangs reagent. Dissolve 100 gm of K2CO3, 66 gm of KCl and 160 gm of KHCO3 in the
order given in about 700 mL of water at 30C. Add 4.4 gm of CuSO4 and dilute to 1 L
after the CO2 is evolved. This solution should be shaken only in such a manner as not to
91
allow entry of air. After 24 hours 300 mL are diluted to 1 L with saturated KCl solution,
shaken gently and used after 24 hours; 50 mL is equivalent to 10 mg glucose.
Barfoeds reagent. See Cupric acetate.
Benedicts solution (qualitative reagent for glucose). With the aid of heat, dissolve 173
gm of sodium citrate and 100 gm of Na2CO3 in 800 mL of water. Filter, if necessary, and
dilute to 850 mL. Dissolve 17.3 gm of CuSO45H2O in 100 mL of water. Pour the latter
solution, with constant stirring, into the carbonate-citrate solution, and dilute to 1 L.
Benzidine hydrochloride solution (for sulfite determination).

Make a paste of 8 gm of benzidine hydrochloride (C12H8(NH3)22HCl) and 20 mL of
water, add 20 mL of HCl (sp.gr. 1.12) and dilute to 1 L with water. Each mL of this
solution is equivalent to 0.00357 gm of H2SO4.
Bertrands reagent. Consists of the following solutions:
1. Dissolve 200 gm of Rochelle salt and 150 g of NaOH in sufficient water to make 1 L
of solution.
2. Dissolve 40 gm of CuSO4 in enough water to make 1 L of solution.
3. Dissolve 50 gm of Fe2(SO4)3 and 200 gm of H2SO4 (sp. gr. 1.84) in sufficient water to
make 1 L of solution.
4. Dissolve 5 gm of KMnO4 in sufficient water to make 1 L of solution.
Bials reagent (for pentose). Dissolve 1 gm of orcinol (5-methyl-1,3-benzenediol) in
500 mL of 30% HCl to which 30 drops of a 10% solution of FeCl3 has been added.
Boutron Boudet soap solution:

1. Dissolve 100 gm of pure castile soap in about 2.5 L of 56% ethanol.
2. Dissolve 0.59 gm of Ba(NO3)2 in 1 L of water.
92
Adjust the castile soap solution so that 2.4 mL of it will give a permanent lather with 40
mL of solution (b). When adjusted, 2.4 mL of soap solution is equivalent to 220 parts per
million of hardness (as CaCO3) for a 40 mL sample. See also Soap solution.
Bruckes reagent (protein precipitation). See Potassium iodidemercuric iodide.
Clarkes soap solution (estimation of hardness in water).

1. Dissolve 100 gm of pure powdered castile soap in 1 L of 80% ethanol and allow to
stand overnight.
2. Prepare a solution of CaCl2 by dissolving 0.5 gm of CaCO3 in HCl (sp. gr. 1.19),
neutralize with NH4OH and make slightly alkaline to litmus, and dilute to 500 mL. One
mL is equivalent to 1 mg of CaCO3. Titrate (1) against (2) and dilute (1) with 80%
ethanol until 1 mL of the resulting solution is equivalent to 1 mL of (2) after making
allowance for the lather factor (the amount of standard soap solution required to produce
a permanent lather in 50 mL of distilled water). One mL of the adjusted solution after
subtracting the lather factor is equivalent to 1 mg of CaCO3. See also Soap solution.
Cobalticyanide paper (Rinnmanns test for Zn). Dissolve 4 gm of K3Co(CN)6 and 1
gm of KClO3 in 100 mL of water. Soak filter paper in solution and dry at 100C. Apply
drop of zinc solution and burn in an evaporating dish. A green disk is obtained if zinc is
present.
Cochineal. Extract 1 gm of cochineal for 4 days with 20 mL of alcohol and 60 mL of

distilled water. Filter.
Congo red. Dissolve 0.5 gm of Congo red in 90 mL of distilled water and 10 mL of

alcohol.
Cupferron (Baudischs reagent for iron analysis). Dissolve 6 gm of the ammonium

salt of N-hydroxy-N-nitrosoaniline (cupferron) in 100 mL of H2O. Reagent good for 1
week only and must be kept in the dark.
93
Cupric acetate (Barfoeds reagent). Dissolve 66 gm of cupric acetate and 10 mL of

glacial acetic acid in water and dilute to 1 L.
Cupric oxide, ammoniacal; Schweitzers reagent (dissolves cotton, linen, and silk,
but not wool).
1. Dissolve 5 gm of cupric sulfate in 100 mL of boiling water, and add sodium hydroxide
until precipitation is complete. Wash the precipitate well, and dissolve it in a minimum
quantity of ammonium hydroxide.
2. Bubble a slow stream of air through 300 mL of strong ammonium hydroxide
containing 50 gm of fine copper turnings. Continue for 1 hour.
Cupric sulfate in glycerin-potassium hydroxide (reagent for silk). Dissolve 10 gm of

cupric sulfate, CuSO45H2O, in 100 mL of water and add 5 gm of glycerol. Add KOH
solution slowly until a deep blue solution is obtained.
Cupron (precipitates copper). Dissolve 5 g of benzoinoxime in 100 mL of 95% ethanol.
Cuprous chloride, acidic (reagent for CO in gas analysis).
1. Cover the bottom of a 2-L flask with a layer of cupric oxide about 0.5 inch deep,
suspend a coil of copper wire so as to reach from the bottom to the top of the solution,
and fill the flask with hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.10). Shake occasionally. When the
solution becomes nearly colorless, transfer to reagent bottles, which should also contain
copper wire. The stock bottle may be refilled with dilute hydrochloric acid until either the
cupric oxide or the copper wire is used up. Copper sulfate may be substituted for copper
oxide in the above procedure.
2. Dissolve 340 gm of CuCl22H2O in 600 mL of conc. HCl and reduce the cupric
chloride by adding 190 mL of a saturated solution of stannous chloride or until the
solution is colorless. The stannous chloride is prepared by treating 300 gm of metallic tin
in a 500 mL flask with conc. HCl until no more tin goes into solution.
94
3. (Winkler method). Add a mixture of 86 gm of CuO and 17gm of finely divided

metallic Cu, made by the reduction of CuO with hydrogen, to a solution of HCl, made by
diluting 650 mL of conc. HCl with 325 mL of water. After the mixture has been added
slowly and with frequent stirring, a spiral of copper wire is suspended in the bottle,
reaching all the way to the bottom. Shake occasionally, and when the solution becomes
colorless, it is ready for use.
Cuprous chloride, ammoniacal (reagent for CO in gas analysis).
1. The acid solution of cuprous chloride as prepared above is neutralized with ammonium
hydroxide until an ammonia odor persists. An excess of metallic copper must be kept in
the solution.
2. Pour 800 mL of acidic cuprous chloride, prepared by the Winkler method, into about 4
L of water. Transfer the precipitate to a 250 mL graduate. After several hours, siphon off
the liquid above the 50 mL mark and refill with 7.5% NH4OH solution which may be
prepared by diluting 50 mL of conc. NH4OH with 150 mL of water. The solution is well
shaken and allowed to stand for several hours. It should have a faint odor of ammonia.
Dichlorofluorescein indicator. Dissolve 1 gm in 1 L of 70% alcohol or 1 gm of the

sodium salt in 1 L of water.
Dimethyglyoxime, 0.01 N. Dissolve 0.6 gm of dimethylglyoxime (2,3-butanedione

oxime) in 500 mL of 95% ethanol. This is an especially sensitive test for nickel, a very
definite crimson color being produced
Diphenylamine (reagent for rayon). Dissolve 0.2 gm in 100 mL of concentrated

sulfuric acid.
Diphenylamine sulfonate (for titration of iron with K2Cr2O7). Dissolve 0.32 gm of the
barium salt of diphenylamine sulfonic acid in 100 mL of water, add 0.5 gm of sodium
sulfate and filter off the precipitate of BaSO4.
95
Diphenylcarbazide. Dissolve 0.2 gm of diphenylcarbazide in 10 mL of glacial acetic

acid and dilute to 100 mL with 95% ethanol.
Esbachs reagent (estimation of protein). To a water solution of 10 gm of picric acid

and 20 gm of citric acid, add sufficient water to make 1 L of solution.
Eschkas compound. Two parts of calcined (light) magnesia are thoroughly mixed
with 1 part of anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Fehlings solution (reagent for reducing sugars.)
1. Copper sulfate solution. Dissolve 34.66 gm of CuSO45H2O in water and dilute to 500
mL.
2. Alkaline tartrate solution. Dissolve 173 gm of potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle salt,
KNaC4H4O64H2O) and 50 gm of NaOH in water and dilute when cold to 500 mL. Mix
equal volumes of the two solutions at the time of using.
Ferric-alum indicator. Dissolve 140 gm of ferric ammonium sulfate crystals in 400 mL

of hot water. When cool, filter, and make up to a volume of 500 mL with dilute nitric
acid.
Folins mixture (for uric acid). To 650 mL of water add 500 gm of (NH4)2SO4, 5 gm of
uranium acetate, and 6 gm of glacial acetic acid. Dilute to 1 L.
Formaldehyde sulfuric acid (Marquis reagent for alkaloids). Add 10 mL of

formaldehyde solution to 50 mL of sulfuric acid.
Froehdes reagent. See Sulfomolybdic acid.
Fuchsin (reagent for linen). Dissolve 1 gm of fuchsin in 100 mL of alcohol.
96
Fuchsin sulfurous acid (Schiffs reagent for aldehydes). Dissolve 0.5 gm of fuchsin
and 9 gm of sodium bisulfite in 500 mL of water, and add 10 mL of HCl. Keep in wellstoppered bottles and protect from light.
Gunzbergs reagent (detection of HCl in gastric juice). Prepare as needed a solution

containing 4 gm of phloroglucinol (1,3,5-benzenetriol) and 2 gm of vanillin in 100 mL of
absolute ethanol.
Hagers reagent. See Picric acid.
Hanus solution (for iodine number). Dissolve 13.2 gm of resublimed iodine in 1 L of

glacial acetic acid which will pass the dichromate test for reducible matter. Add sufficient
bromine to double the halogen content, determined by titration (3 mL is about the proper
amount). The iodine may be dissolved by the aid of heat, but the solution should be cold
when the bromine is added.
Iodine (Tincture of Iodine). To 50 mL of water add 70 gm of I2 and 50 gm of KI. Dilute

to 1 L with alcohol.
Iodo-potassium iodide (Wagners reagent for alkaloids). Dissolve 2 gm of iodine and

6 gm of KI in 100 mL of water.
Litmus (indicator). Extract litmus powder three times with boiling alcohol, each
treatment consuming an hour. Reject the alcoholic extract. Treat residue with an equal
weight of cold water and filter; then exhaust with five times its weight of boiling water,
cool and filter. Combine the aqueous extracts.
Magnesia mixture (reagent for phosphates and arsenates). Dissolve 55 gm of

magnesium chloride and 105 gm of ammonium chloride in water, barely acidify with
hydrochloric acid, and dilute to 1 L. The ammonium hydroxide may be omitted until just
97
previous to use. The reagent, if completely mixed and stored for any period of time,
becomes turbid.
Magnesium uranyl acetate. Dissolve 100 gm of UO2(C2H3O2)22H2O in 60 mL of

glacial acetic acid and dilute to 500 mL. Dissolve 330 gm of Mg(C2H3O2)24H2O in 60
mL of glacial acetic acid and dilute to 200 mL. Heat solutions to the boiling point until
clear, pour the magnesium solution into the uranyl solution, cool and dilute to 1 L. Let
stand over night and filter if necessary.
Marmes reagent. See Potassium-cadmium iodide.
Marquis reagent. See Formaldehyde-sulfuric acid.
Mayers reagent (white precipitate with most alkaloids in slightly acid solutions).
Dissolve 1.358 gm of HgCl2 in 60 mL of water and pour into a solution of 5 gm of KI in
10 mL of H2O. Add sufficient water to make 100 mL.
Methyl orange indicator. Dissolve 1 gm of methyl orange in 1 L of water. Filter, if
necessary.
Methyl orange, modified. Dissolve 2 gm of methyl orange and 2.8 gm of xylene cyanole
in 1 L of 50% alcohol.
Methyl red indicator. Dissolve 1 gm of methyl red in 600 mL of alcohol and dilute with
400 mL of water.
Methyl red, modified. Dissolve 0.50 gm of methyl red and 1.25 gm of xylene cyanole in
1 L of 90% alcohol. Or, dissolve 1.25 gm of methyl red and 0.825 gm of methylene blue
in 1 L of 90% alcohol.
98
Millons reagent (for albumins and phenols). Dissolve 1 part of mercury in 1 part of
cold fuming nitric acid. Dilute with twice the volume of water and decant the clear
solution after several hours.
Molischs reagent. See 1-Naphthol.
1-Naphthol (Molischs reagent for wool). Dissolve 15 gm of 1-naphthol in 100 mL of

alcohol or chloroform.
Nesslers reagent (for ammonia). Dissolve 50 gm of KI in the smallest possible quantity

of cold water (50 mL). Add a saturated solution of mercuric chloride (about 22 gm in 350
mL of water will be needed) until an excess is indicated by the formation of a precipitate.
Then add 200 mL of 5 N NaOH and dilute to 1 L. Let settle, and draw off the clear liquid.
Nickel oxide, ammoniacal (reagent for silk). Dissolve 5 gm of nickel sulfate in 100 mL
of water, and add sodium hydroxide solution until nickel hydroxide is completely
precipitated. Wash the precipitate well and dissolve in 25 mL of concentrated
ammonium hydroxide and 25 mL of water.
Nitron (detection of nitrate radical). Dissolve 10 gm of nitron (1,4-diphenyl-3(phenylamino)-1,2,4-triazolium hydroxide) in 5 mL of glacial acetic acid and 95 mL of
water. The solution may be filtered with slight suction through an alumdum crucible and
kept in a dark bottle.
1-Nitroso-2-naphthol. Make a saturated solution in 50% acetic acid (1 part of glacial

acetic acid with 1 part of water).
Nylanders solution (carbohydrates). Dissolve 20 gm of bismuth subnitrate and 40 gm

of Rochelle salt in 1 L of 8% NaOH solution. Cool and filter.
99
Obermayers reagent (for indoxyl in urine). Dissolve 4 gm of FeCl3 in 1 L of HCl (sp.

gr. 1.19).
Oxine. Dissolve 14 gm of 8-hydroxyquinoline in 30 mL of glacial acetic acid. Warm

slightly, if necessary. Dilute to 1 L.
Oxygen absorbent. Dissolve 300 gm of ammonium chloride in 1 L of water and add 1 L

of concentrated ammonium hydroxide solution. Shake the solution thoroughly. For use as
an oxygen absorbent, a bottle half full of copper turnings is filled nearly full with the
NH4Cl-NH4OH solution and the gas passed through.
Pasteurs salt solution. To 1 L of distilled water add 2.5 gm of potassium phosphate,
0.25 gm of calcium phosphate, 0.25 gm of magnesium sulfate, and 12.00 gm of
ammonium tartrate.
Pavys solution (glucose reagent). To 120 mL of Fehlings solution, add 300 mL of

NH4OH (sp. gr. 0.88) and dilute to 1 L with water.
Phenanthroline ferrous ion indicator. Dissolve 1.485 gm of 1,10-phenanthroline
monohydrate in 100 mL of 0.025 M ferrous sulfate solution.
Phenolphthalein. Dissolve 1 gm of phenolphthalein in 50 mL of alcohol and add 50 mL

of water.
Phenolsulfonic acid (determination of nitrogen as nitrate). Dissolve 25 gm of phenol

in 150 mL of conc. H2SO4, add 75 mL of fuming H2SO4 (15% SO3), stir well and heat for
2 hours at 100C.
Phloroglucinol solution (pentosans). Make a 3% phloroglucinol (1,3,5-benzenetriol)

solution in alcohol. Keep in a dark bottle.
100
Phosphomolybdic acid (Sonnenscheins reagent for alkaloids).

1. Prepare ammonium phosphomolybdate and after washing with water, boil with nitric
acid and expel NH3; evaporate to dryness and dissolve in 2 M nitric acid.
2. Dissolve ammonium molybdate in HNO3 and treat with phosphoric acid. Filter, wash
the precipitate, and boil with aqua regia until the ammonium salt is decomposed.
Evaporate to dryness. The residue dissolved in 10% HNO3 constitutes Sonnenscheins
reagent.
Phosphoric acid sulfuric acid mixture. Dilute 150 mL of conc. H2SO4 and 100 mL
of conc. H3PO4 (85%) with water to a volume of 1 L.
Phosphotungstic acid (Schcibicrs reagent for alkaloids).

1. Dissolve 20 gm of sodium tungstate and 15 gm of sodium phosphate in 100 mL of
water containing a little nitric acid.
2. The reagent is a 10% solution of phosphotungstic acid in water. Thc.phosphotungstic
acid is prepared by evaporating a mixture of 10 gm of sodium tungstate dissolved in 5 gm
of phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1.13) and enough boiling water to effect solution. Crystals of
phosphotungstic acid separate.
Picric acid (Hagers reagent for alkaloids, wool and silk). Dissolve 1 g of picric acid
in 100 mL of water.
Potassium antimonate (reagent for sodium). Boil 22 gm of potassium antimonate with

1 L of water until nearly all of the salt has dissolved, cool quickly, and add 35 mL of 10%
potassium hydroxide. Filter after standing overnight.
Potassium-cadmium iodide (Marmes reagent for alkaloids).

Add 2 gm of CdI2 to a boiling solution of 4 gm of KI in 12 mL of water, and then mix
with 12 mL of saturated KI solution.
101
Potassium hydroxide (for CO2 absorption). Dissolve 360 gm of KOH in water and
dilute to 1 L.
Potassium iodidemercuric iodide (Bruckes reagent for proteins).

Dissolve 50 gm of KI in 500 mL of water, and saturate with mercuric iodide (about 120
g). Dilute to 1 L.
Potassium pyrogallate (for oxygen absorption). For mixtures of gases containing less
than 28% oxygen, add 100 mL of KOH solution (50 g of KOH to 100 mL of water) to 5
gm of pyrogallol. For mixtures containing more than 28% oxygen the KOH solution
should contain 120 gm of KOH to 100 mL of water.
Pyrogallol, alkaline.
1. Dissolve 75 g of pyrogallic acid in 75 mL of water.
2. Dissolve 500 gm of KOH in 250 mL of water. When cool, adjust until sp. gr. is 1.55.
For use, add 270 mL of solution (2) to 30 mL of solution (1).
Rosolic acid (indicator). Dissolve 1 gm of rosolic acid in 10 mL of alcohol and add 100
mL of water.
Scheiblers reagent. See Phosphotungstic acid.
Schiffs reagent. See Fuchsin-sulfurous acid.
Schweitzers reagent. See Cupric oxide, ammoniacal.
Soap solution (reagent for hardness in water). Dissolve 100 gm of dry castile soap in 1
L of 80% alcohol (5 parts alcohol to 1 part water). Allow to stand several days and dilute
with 70% to 80% alcohol until 6.4 mL produces a permanent lather with 20 mL of
standard calcium solution. The latter solution is made by dissolving 0.2 gm of CaCO3 in a
small amount of dilute HCl, evaporating to dryness and making up to 1 L.
102
Sodium bismuthate (oxidation of manganese). Heat 20 parts of NaOH nearly to

redness in an iron or nickel crucible and add slowly 10 parts of basic bismuth nitrate
which has been previously dried. Add 2 parts of sodium peroxide, and pour the brownishyellow fused mass onto an iron plate to cool. When cold, break up in a mortar, extract
with water, and collect on an asbestos filter.
Sodium hydroxide (for CO2 absorption). Dissolve 330 gm of NaOH in water and dilute
to 1 L.
Sodium nitroprusside (reagent for hydrogen sulfide and wool). Use a freshly prepared
solution of 1 gm of sodium nitroferricyanide in 10 mL of water.
Sodium oxalate (primary standard). Dissolve 30 gm of the commercial salt in 1 L of

water, make slightly alkaline with sodium hydroxide, and let stand until perfectly clear.
Filter and evaporate the filtrate to 100 mL. Cool and filter. Pulverize the residue and
wash it several times with small volumes of water. The procedure is repeated until the
mother liquor is free from sulfate and is neutral to phenolphthalein.
Sodium plumbite (reagent for wool). Dissolve 5 gm of sodium hydroxide in 100 mL of

water. Add 5 gm of litharge (PbO) and boil until dissolved.
Sodium polysulfide. Dissolve 480 gm of Na2S9H2O in 500 mL of water, add 40 gm of

NaOH and 18 gm of sulfur. Stir thoroughly and dilute to 1 L with water.
Sonnenscheins reagent. See Phosphomolybdic acid.
Starch solution.
1. Make a paste with 2 gm of soluble starch and 0.01 gm of HgI2 with a small amount of
water. Add the mixture slowly to 1 L of boiling water and boil for a few minutes. Keep in
103
a glass stoppered bottle. If other than soluble starch is used, the solution will not clear on
boiling; it should be allowed to stand and the clear liquid decanted.
2. A solution of starch which keeps indefinitely is made as follows: Mix 500 mL of
saturated NaCl solution (filtered), 80 mL of glacial acetic acid, 20 mL of water and 3 gm
of starch. Bring slowly to a boil and boil for 2 minutes.
3. Make a paste with 1 gm of soluble starch and 5 mg of HgI2, using as little cold water as
possible. Then pour about 200 mL of boiling water on the paste and stir immediately.
This will give a clear solution if the paste is prepared correctly and the water actually
boiling. Cool and add 4 gm of KI. Starch solution decomposes on standing due to
bacterial action, but this solution will keep well if stored under a layer of toluene.
Stokes reagent. Dissolve 30 g of FeSO4 and 20 gm of tartaric acid in water and dilute to
1 L. Just before using, add concentrated NH4OH until the precipitate first formed is
redissolved.
Sulfanilic acid (reagent for nitrites). Dissolve 0.5 gm of sulfanilic acid in a mixture of
15 mL of glacial acetic acid and 135 mL of recently boiled water.
Sulfomolybdic acid (Froehdes reagent for alkaloids and glucosides). Dissolve 10 gm

of molybdic acid or sodium molybdate in 100 mL of conc. H2SO4.
Tannic acid (reagent for albumin, alkaloids, and gelatin). Dissolve 10 gm of tannic
acid in 10 mL of alcohol and dilute with water to 100 mL.
Titration mixture (residual chlorine in water analyasis). Prepare 1 L of dilute HCl

(100 mL of HCl (sp. gr. 1.19) in sufficient water to make 1 L). Dissolve 1 g of o-tolidine
in 100 mL of the dilute HCl and dilute to 1 L with dilute HCl solution.
Trinitrophenol solution. See Picric acid.
104
Turmeric tincture (reagent for borates). Digest ground turmeric root with several
quantities of water which are discarded. Dry the residue and digest it several days with
six times its weight of alcohol. Filter.
Uffelmanns reagent (turns yellow in presence of lactic acid). To a 2% solution of

pure phenol in water, add a water solution of FeCl3 until the phenol solution becomes
violet in color.
Wagners reagent. See Iodo-potassium iodide.
Wagners solution (used in phosphate rock analysis to prevent precipitation of iron

and aluminum). Dissolve 25 gm of citric acid and 1 gm of salicylic acid in water and
dilute to 1 L. Use 50 mL of the reagent.
Wijs iodine monochloride solution (for iodine number). Dissolve 13 gm of

resublimed iodine in 1 L of glacial acetic acid which will pass the dichromate test for
reducible matter. Set aside 25 mL of this solution. Pass into the remainder of the solution
dry chlorine gas [dried and washed by passing through H2SO4 (sp. gr. 1.84)] until the
characteristic color of free iodine has been discharged. Now add the iodine solution
which was reserved, until all free chlorine has been destroyed. A slight excess of iodine
does little or no harm, but an excess of chlorine must be avoided. Preserve in well
stoppered, amber colored bottles. Avoid use of solutions which have been prepared for
more than 30 days.
Wijs special solution (for iodine number). To 200 mL of glacial acetic acid that will
pass the dichromate test for reducible matter, add 12 g of dichloramine T (N,N-dichloro4-methylbenzenesulfonamide), and 16.6 gm of dry KI (in small quantities with continual
shaking until all the KI has dissolved). Make up to 1 L with the same quality of acetic
acid used above and preserve in a dark colored bottle.
105
Zimmermann-Reinhardt reagent (determination of iron). Dissolve 70 g of

MnSO44H2O in 500 mL of water, add 125 mL of conc. H2SO4 and 125 mL of 85%
H3P04, and dilute to 1 L.
Zinc amalgam. Add about 10 gm of granulated zinc to 20 mL mercury, to produce a
liquid amalgam on cooling, and heat to 150 C with stirringuntil the zinc is dissolved.
Zinc amalgated (Jones Reductor). The zinc is amalgated by immersing it in a solution

of mercuric chloride in hydrochloric acid. A quantity of 250 gm of 20 mesh zinc is
covered with water in a 1 liter flask, and a solution of 11 gm of mercuric chloride in 100
mL of hydrochloric acid is poured into the flask. The system is slowly mixed and shaken
for about 2 min. The solution is poured off, and the amalgam is washed thoroughly with
hot tap water, then distilled water.
Zinc chloride solution, basic (reagent for silk). Dissolve 1000 g of zinc chloride in 850
mL of water, and add 40 g of zinc oxide. Heat until solution is complete.
Zinc uranyl acetate (reagent for sodium). Dissolve 10 g of UO2(C2H3O2)22H2O in 6 g

of 30% acetic acid with heat, if necessary, and dilute to 50 mL. Dissolve 30 g of
Zn(C2H3O2)2H2O in 3 g of 30% acetic acid and dilute to 50 mL. Mix the two solutions,
add 50 mg of NaCl, allow to stand overnight and filter.
106
22. REFERENCES
BANWELL COLIN and MC CASH ELAINE, Fundamentals of Molecular Spectroscopy,
Mc Graw-Hill, 1994.
CAREY F.A. and SUNDBERG R.A., Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed, Springer,
2007.
DUXBURY G., Infrared Vibration-Rotation Spectroscopy, From Free Radicals to the
Infrared Sky, Wiley, 1999.
HARGIS L.G., Analytical Chemistry: Principles and Techniques, 1988.
HOLLAND J. G. and S. D. TANNER, Plasma Source Mass spectrometry- New
Developments and Applications, 1999.
IP 1996.
JACKSON K. W., Electrothermal Atomization for Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 1999.
JENKINS R., X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry - New Developments and Applications,
1999.
KHOO S.B.(ed.), Analytical Chemistry, 1989.
KENNEDY J.H., Analytical Chemistry: principles, 2d ed., 1990.
KOLTHOFF I.M. and ELVING P.J., Treatise on analytical chemistry, 2d ed., vols.1-4,
1978-1984, vol.5, 1982, vol.6, 1988, vol.7, 1981, vol.8, pt.1, 1988, vol.12, 1983.
LINDON John C., Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry, Academic Press,
1999.
RUBINSON K.A., Chemical analysis, 1987.
SKOOG D.A., WEST D.M and HOLLER F.J, Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry,
6th ed., 1992.
VOGEL A.I., Vogel`s Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., Prentice Hall,
USA, 1996
WILLIAMS P.A. and Dyer A., Advances in Ion Exchange for Industry and
Research, 1999.
WINEFORDNER J.D., Treatise on Analytical Chemistry, 2nd ed., vol.13, 1993.
107

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What analytical techniques are discussed in the book?

PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL

PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYTICAL

First published in India in 2015

This edition published by Darshan publishers

2015 Dr Asif Husain. All rights reserved.

Price: Rs: 300/-

Dr. Asif Husain

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents- my Ammi (mother)

It gives me great pleasure to extend my respect and profound gratitude to my mentor,

I am highly thankful to my friend Dr Mohammad Shaharyar for his valuable suggestions,

I am also thankful to Dr. T. Sivakumar (Managing Director) of Darshan Publishers for

About the author

Pharmaceutical analytical techniques (PAT)

Common laboratory apparatuses

Basic concepts of spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques

Preparation of calibration curve of ciprofloxacin

Assay of ciprofloxacin capsule/tablet

Preparation of calibration curve of metformin

Assay of metformin tablet/capsule

Assay of rifampicin tablet/capsule

Interpretation of the IR spectra of ethanol, acetone and

Assay of paracetamol by HPLC.

TLC of amino acids

TLC of food dye pigments

Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of

Pharmaceutical analysis simply means analysis of a pharmaceutical(s). It encompasses

basic research directed toward the increased effectiveness of problem-oriented analysis in

Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical

Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry

2. PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES (PAT)

A qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but

Quantitative analysis refers to determine the quantity or amount of a particular compound

Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing

Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation.

photoemission spectroscopy, Mssbauer spectroscopy and so on.

Spectrophotometry is a group of methods which find an important place in

Several approaches using spectrophotometry for determination of active pharmaceutical

Near Infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)

Mass spectrometry (MS)

Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and

ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)

NMR is an important technique to determine structure of drug molecules. During recent

Fluorimetry and phosphorimetry

the potential (volts)

and/or current (amps)

an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized

KINETIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS

There are several types of chromatographic techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)

Moreover, there is simultaneous but independent development of multiple samples and

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (LCMS) is considered as one