Arctic tern

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about a bird. For the aircraft named after it, see Arctic Aircraft Arctic Tern.

The Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) is a seabird of the tern family Sternidae. This bird has
a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and
North America (as far south as Brittany and Massachusetts). The species is stronglymigratory,
seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding
grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later.
Recent studies have shown average annual roundtrip lengths of about 70,900 km (44,100 mi) for
birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland[3] and c. 90,000 km (56,000 mi) for birds nesting in
theNetherlands.[4] These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic
tern flies as well as glides through the air, performing almost all of its tasks in the air. It nests once
every one to three years (depending on its mating cycle); once it has finished nesting it takes to the
sky for another long southern migration.
Arctic terns are medium-sized birds. They have a length of 2839 cm (1115 in) and a wingspan of
6575 cm (2630 in).[5] They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red/orangish beak and feet,
white forehead, a black nape and crown (streaked white), and white cheeks. The grey mantle is
305 mm, and the scapulae are fringed brown, some tipped white. The upper wing is grey with a
white leading edge, and the collar is completely white, as is the rump. The deeply forked tail is
whitish, with grey outer webs.
Arctic terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age. They eat mainly
fish and small marine invertebrates. The species is abundant, with an estimated one million
individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known,
exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its range.
The Arctic tern was known as sea swallow describing their slender shape as they swoop over the
water.

Distribution and migration[edit]

The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution; there are no
recognized subspecies. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of North
America and Eurasia during the northern summer. While wintering during the southernsummer, it
can be found at sea, reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice. [12]
The Arctic tern is famous for its migration; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and
back again each year, the shortest distance between these areas being 19,000 km (12,000 mi). The
long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other
creature on the planet.[13] One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves
an Arctic tern ringed as an unfledged chick on the Farne Islands, Northumberland, UK, in the
northern summer of 1982, which in October 1982, just three months from fledging,
reached Melbourne, Australia. Assuming a direct route of flight, the distance covered would have
been more than 22,000 km (14,000 mi).[14] Another example is that of a chick ringed
in Labrador, Canada, on 23 July 1928. It was found in South Africa four months later.[15]

A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not
unusual for the species. In fact, it turned out, previous research had seriously underestimated the
annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern. Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered
70,900 km (44,100 mi) on average in a year, with a maximum of 81,600 km (50,700 mi). The
difference from previous estimates is due to the birds' taking meandering courses rather than
following a straight route as was previously assumed. The birds follow a somewhat convoluted
course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds. [3] The average Arctic tern lives about thirty
years, and will, based on the above research, travel some 2.4 million km (1.5 million mi) during its
ifetime.
A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the Netherlands[4] shows average
annual migrations of c. 90,000 km (56,000 mi). On their way south, these birds roughly followed the
coastlines of Europe and Africa.[16] Having rounded the southern tip of Africa, they then turned east,
some flying approximately halfway to Australia before again turning south to eventually reach Wilkes
Land in the north-eastern Antarctic. One bird flew several hundred kilometres along the south coast
of Australia before turning south for the Antarctic, while one flew along the entire south coast
of Australia, passing between Australia and Tasmania. Having reached the Melbourne area, it turned
south and flew in an arc to Wilkes Land in the north-east Antarctic, passing the south-western tip
of New Zealand's South Island en route. Once back in the Netherlands, this bird had journeyed c.
91,000 km (57,000 mi), the longest migration yet recorded for any animal.
Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the
breeding season.[17]

Description and taxonomy[edit]

An Arctic tern in Finland

The Arctic tern is a medium-sized bird around 3336 cm (1314 in) from the tip of its beak to the tip
of its tail. The wingspan is 7685 cm (3033 in).[17] The weight is 86127 g (3.04.5 oz). The beak is
dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic tern has high aspect ratio
wings and a tail with a deep fork.[17]
The adult plumage is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings
are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts
pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is
whiter and the bills are darker.[17]

An Arctic tern in flight with wings spread

Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark
feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers.[17] During their first summer, juveniles also
have a whiter forecrown.[18]
The species has a variety of calls; the two most common being the alarm call, made when possible
predators (such as humans or other mammals) enter the colonies, and the advertising call.[19] The
advertising call is social in nature, made when returning to the colony and during aggressive
encounters between individuals. It is unique to each individual tern and as such it serves a similar
role to the bird song of passerines, identifying individuals. Eight other calls have been described,
from begging callsmade by females during mating to attack calls made while swooping at intruders.
While the Arctic tern is similar to the common and roseate terns, its colouring, profile, and call are
slightly different. Compared to the common tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the
main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic tern's
call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the
roseate.[20]
This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the South American (Sterna
hirundinacea), Kerguelen (S. virgata), and Antarctic (S. vittata) terns.[21] On the wintering grounds, the
Arctic tern can be distinguished from these relatives; the six-month difference in moult is the best
clue here, with Arctic terns being in winter plumage during the southern summer. The southern
species also do not show darker wingtips in flight.
The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species, Sterna
portlandica and Sterna pikei.[22]

Ecology and behaviour[edit]

In flight near Arnarstapi

The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually carnivorous. In most
cases, it eats small fish or marine crustaceans.[12][17] Fish species comprise the most important part of
the diet, and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food. Prey species are
immature (12-year old) shoaling species such as herring, cod, sandlances, andcapelin.[13] Among

the marine crustaceans eaten are amphipods, crabs and krill. Sometimes, these birds also
eat molluscs, marine worms, or berries, and on their northern breeding grounds,insects.[26]
Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They
may also chase insects in the air when breeding. [26] It is also thought that Arctic terns may, in spite of
their small size, occasionally engage in kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them
into releasing their catches.[26] Several species are targetedconspecifics, other terns (like the
common tern), and some auk and grebe species.[19]
While nesting, Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals. [12] Besides being a
competitor for nesting sites, the larger herring gull steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs
help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites.[28] While feeding, skuas, gulls, and other tern species
will often harass the birds and steal their food.[32] They often form mixed colonies with other terns,
such as common andSandwich terns.

Reproduction[edit]
A nesting Arctic tern with an egg in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.

Chick camouflaged in creek bed (centre of picture), Coppermine River,Nunavut

Artic terns flock on Patagonia

Breeding begins around the third or fourth year.[23] Arctic terns mate for life and, in most cases, return
to the same colony each year.[24]Courtship is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time.
[25]

Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high

altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer
fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings.
After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.[25]

An Arctic tern chick on the Farne Islands, Northumberland, England

Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male
continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this. [25] Breeding takes place in colonies on
coasts, islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water. It often forms mixed flocks with
the common tern. It lays from one to three eggs per clutch, most often two.[17]

Canada goose
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the outerwear manufacturer, see Canada Goose (clothing).

The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is a large wild goose species with a black head and neck,
white patches on the face, and a brown body. Native to arctic and temperate regions of North
America, its migration occasionally reaches northern Europe. It has been introduced to the United

Kingdom, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands.[2] Like most geese, the Canada
goose is primarily herbivorous and normally migratory; it tends to be found on or close to fresh water.
Extremely successful at living in human-altered areas, Canada geese have proven able to establish
breeding colonies in urban and cultivated areas, which provide food and few natural predators, and
are well known as a common park species. Their success has led to them often being considered
a pest species because of their depredation of crops and issues with their noise, droppings,
aggressive territorial behavior, and habit of begging for food, especially in their introduced range.
Canada geese are also among the most commonly hunted waterfowl in North America.

Taxonomy and etymology[edit]

The Canada goose was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century
work Systema Naturae.[3] It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which contains species with
largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey species of theAnser genus.
Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgs, "burnt (black) goose" and the specific
epithet canadensis is a New Latin word meaning "from Canada".[4] According to the Oxford English
Dictionary, the first citation for the 'Canada goose' dates back to 1772.[5][6][7] The Canada goose is also
colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose". [8]
The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or a subspecies of the Canada
goose, but in July 2004, theAmerican Ornithologists' Union's Committee on Classification and
Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the
scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists' Union followed suit in June 2005.[9]
The AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. The subspecies of the Canada
goose were listed as:

Atlantic Canada goose, B. c. canadensis

Interior Canada goose, B. c. interior

Giant Canada goose, B. c. maxima

Moffitt's Canada goose, B. c. moffitti

Vancouver Canada goose, B. c. fulva

Dusky Canada goose, B. c. occidentalis

Lesser Canada goose, B. c. parvipes

The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This
has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of
cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada goose" was believed to be a partly hybrid population, with
the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis, and B. c.
parvipes. In addition, the barnacle goose has been determined to be a derivative of the cackling
goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose is derived from the Canada goose.

Description[edit]

Yellow plumage of gosling

The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap" distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose
species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a
black breast and gray rather than brownish body plumage). [10]
The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable
as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose,
which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of
Richardson's cackling goose, B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling
goose, B. h. minima, is scarcely larger than a mallard. In addition to the size difference, cackling
geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese
comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese" (i.e. the generaAnser or Branta),
the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are
geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier such as the spurwinged goose and Cape Barren goose.
Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm (30 to 43 in) in length and has a 127185 cm (50
73 in) wingspan.[11] Among standard measurements, the wing chord can range from 39 to 55 cm (15
to 22 in), the tarsus can range from 6.9 to 10.6 cm (2.7 to 4.2 in) and the bill can range from 4.1 to
6.8 cm (1.6 to 2.7 in). The largest subspecies is the B. c. maxima, or the giant Canada goose, and
the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) is B. c. parvipes, or the lesser Canada
goose.[12] An exceptionally large male of race B. c. maxima, which rarely exceed 8 kg (18 lb),
weighed 10.9 kg (24 lb) and had a wingspan of 2.24 m (7.3 ft). This specimen is the largest wild
goose ever recorded of any species.[13]

The male Canada goose usually weighs 2.66.5 kg (5.714.3 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies
3.9 kg (8.6 lb). The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at 2.45.5 kg (5.312.1 lb),
averaging amongst all subspecies 3.6 kg (7.9 lb), and generally 10% smaller in linear dimensions
than the male counterparts.[14] The female also possesses a different, and less sonorous, honk than
the male.

Migration[edit]
Resting in a pond during spring migration, Ottawa, Ontario

Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting
areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the
beginning of November.[citation needed] The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops
and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops.
Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising
them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the
East Coast.
Canada geese fly in a distinctive V-shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,000 feet) for
migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been
reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).[28]

MENU
0:00

Low flyover by five Canada geese

Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated
since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more
quickly than the summer grounds. Elevated thyroid hormones, such as T3 and T4, have been
measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in
migration the thyroid gland sends out more T4 which help the body cope with the longer journey. The
increased T4 levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast
muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T 4 to
help the goose's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the
temperature at which the muscles work.[29] Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such
as corticosterone rise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.[30]

American golden plover

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The American golden plover (Pluvialis dominica) is a medium-sized plover. The genus name
is Latin and means relating to rain, frompluvia, "rain". It was believed that golden plovers flocked
when rain was imminent. The species name dominica refers to Santo Domingo, now Hispaniola in
the West Indies.[2]

American golden plover taking flight.

Note dusky back and axillaries.

Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Feeding and breeding

3Status

4Footnotes

5References

6External links

Description[edit]
Adults are spotted gold and black on the crown, back and wings. Their face and neck are black with
a white border; they have a black breast and a dark rump. The legs are black.
It is similar to two other golden plovers, European and Pacific. The American golden plover is
smaller, slimmer and relatively longer-legged than European golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria) which
also has white axillary (armpit) feathers. It is more similar to Pacific golden plover(Pluvialis fulva)
with which it was once considered conspecific under the name "lesser golden plover".[3] The Pacific
golden plover is slimmer than the American species, has a shorter primary projection, and longer
legs, and is usually yellower on the back.

Feeding and breeding[edit]

These birds forage for food on tundra, fields, beaches and tidal flats, usually by sight. They
eat insects and crustaceans, also berries.

Scrape nest with four eggs

The breeding habitat of American golden plover is Arctic tundra from northern Canada and Alaska.
They nest on the ground in a dry open area. They are migratory and winter in southern South
America. They follow an elliptical migration path; northbound birds pass through Central
Americaabout JanuaryApril[4][5] and stage in great numbers in places like Illinois before their final
push north. In fall, they take a more easterly route, flying mostly over the
western Atlantic and Caribbean Sea to the wintering grounds in Patagonia. The bird has one of the
longest known migratory routes of over 40,000 km (25,000 mi). Of this, 3,900 km (2,400 mi) is over
open ocean where it cannot stop to feed or drink. It does this from body fat stores that it stocks up on
prior to the flight. It is a regular vagrant to western Europe.
A comparison of dates and migratory patterns leads to the conclusion that Eskimo curlews and
American golden plovers were the most likely shore birds to have attracted the attention
of Christopher Columbus to nearby America in early October 1492, after 65 days at sea out of sight
of land.[6]

Cool Facts

The American Golden-Plover has a long, circular migration route. In the fall it
flies offshore from the East Coast of North America nonstop to South America. On
the return in the spring it passes primarily through the middle of North America to
reach its Arctic breeding grounds.
Adult American Golden-Plovers leave their Arctic breeding grounds in early

summer, but juveniles usually linger until late summer or fall. Some adults arrive on
the wintering grounds in southern South America before the last juveniles have left
the Arctic.
The oldest American Golden-Plover was at least 13 years old, when it was

recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in Alaska.

Habitat
Breeds on Arctic tundra, especially in low vegetation on rocky slopes. Winters in
grazed grasslands. On migration found in prairie, pastures, tilled farmland, golf
courses, airports, mudflats, shorelines, and beaches.
Back to Top

Food

Invertebrates, berries, leaves, and seeds.

Belted kingfisher
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon) is a large, conspicuous water kingfisher, the only
member of that group commonly found in the northern United States and Canada. It is depicted on
the 1986 series Canadian $5 note. All kingfishers were formerly placed in one family, Alcedinidae,
but recent research suggests that this should be divided into three subfamilies.
Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Taxonomy and systematics

3Distribution and habitat

4Ecology and behaviour

5References

6External links

Description[edit]
The belted kingfisher is a stocky, medium-sized bird that measures between 2835 cm (1114 in) in
length with a wingspan of between 4858 cm (1923 in). This kingfisher can weigh from 113 to 178 g
(4.0 to 6.3 oz).[2][3] The adult female averages slightly larger than the adult male.
This species has a large head with a shaggy crest. Its long, heavy bill is black with a grey base.
These features are common in many kingfisher species. This kingfisher shows sexual dimorphism,
with the female more brightly coloured than the male. Both sexes have a slate blue head, large white
collar, a large blue band on the breast, and white underparts. The back and wings are slate blue with
black feather tips with little white dots. The female features a rufous band across the upper belly that
extends down the flanks. Juveniles of this species are similar to adults, but both sexes feature the
rufous band on the upper belly. Juvenile males will have a rufous band that is somewhat mottled
while the band on females will be much thinner than that on adult females. [4]

Taxonomy and systematics[edit]

Megaceryle is from the Ancient Greek megas, "great", and the existing genus Ceryle. The
specific alcyon is Latin for "kingfisher".[5]
The Megaceryle large green kingfishers were formerly placed in Ceryle with the pied kingfisher, but
the latter is closer to the ChloroceryleAmerican green kingfishers. The belted kingfisher's closest
living relative is the ringed kingfisher (M. torquata), and these two in all probability originated from
an African Megaceryle which colonized the Americas.[6]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

This bird's breeding habitat is near inland bodies of waters or coasts across most of
Canada, Alaska and the United States. They migratefrom the northern parts of its range to the
southern United States, Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies in winter. It is a rare visitor to
the northern areas of Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas.[7][8][9] During migration it may stray far
from land; the species is recorded as an accidental visitor on several Pacific islands, such as Cocos
Island, Malpelo Island, Hawaii, the Azores,[10] Clarion Island,[11]and has occurred as an extremely rare
vagrant in Ecuador,[10] Greenland, Ireland, Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom.[1] The
southernmost records of M. alcyon are from the Galapagos Archipelago, insular Ecuador, where it
occurs as a migrant in small numbers but apparently not every year.[12][13][14]
It leaves northern parts of its range when the water freezes; in warmer areas it is a permanent
resident. A few individuals may linger in the north even in the coldest winters except in the Arctic, if
there are remaining open bodies of water.[15]

Ecology and behaviour[edit]

Female with prey

Call

0:00

Problems playing this file?

See media help.

The belted kingfisher is often seen perched prominently on trees, posts, or other suitable
"watchpoints" close to water before plunging in head first after its fish prey. They also eat
amphibians, small crustaceans, insects, small mammals and reptiles.
This bird nests in a horizontal tunnel made in a river bank or sand bank and excavated by both
parents. The female lays five to eight eggs and both adults incubate the eggs and feed the young.
The nest of the belted kingfisher is a long tunnel and often slopes uphill. One possible reason for the
uphill slope is that, in case of flooding, the chicks will be able to survive in the air pocket formed by
the elevated end of the tunnel.[16]

Cool Facts

The breeding distribution of the Belted Kingfisher is limited in some areas by

the availability of suitable nesting sites. Human activity, such as road building and
digging gravel pits, has created banks where kingfishers can nest and allowed the
expansion of the breeding range.

The Belted Kingfisher is one of the few bird species in which the female is more
brightly colored than the male. Among the nearly 100 species of kingfishers, the
sexes often look alike. In some species the male is more colorful, and in others the
female is.

During breeding season the Belted Kingfisher pair defends a territory against
other kingfishers. A territory along a stream includes just the streambed and the
vegetation along it, and averages 0.6 mile long. The nest burrow is usually in a dirt
bank near water. The tunnel slopes upward from the entrance, perhaps to keep
water from entering the nest. Tunnel length ranges from 1 to 8 feet.

As nestlings, Belted Kingfishers have acidic stomachs that help them digest
bones, fish scales, and arthropod shells. But by the time they leave the nest, their
stomach chemistry apparently changes, and they begin regurgitating pellets which
accumulate on the ground around fishing and roosting perches. Scientists can
dissect these pellets to learn about the kingfishers diet without harming or even
observing any wild birds.

Belted Kingfishers wander widely, sometimes showing up in the Galapagos

Islands, Hawaii, the British Isles, the Azores, Iceland, Greenland, and the
Netherlands.

Pleistocene fossils of Belted Kingfishers (to 600,000 years old) have been
unearthed in Florida, Virginia, Tennessee, and Texas. The oldest known fossil in the
kingfisher genus is 2 million years old, found in Alachua County, Florida.

Bald eagle

The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus, from

Greek hali "sea", aitos "eagle", leuco "white", cephalos "head") is a bird of prey found in North
America. A sea eagle, it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the whitetailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of
the contiguous United States, and northern Mexico. It is found near large bodies of open water
with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.
The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish, which it swoops down
and snatches from the water with its talons. It builds the largest nest of any North American
bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species, up to 4 m (13 ft) deep,
2.5 m (8.2 ft) wide, and 1 metric ton (1.1 short tons) in weight.[2] Sexual maturity is attained at
the age of four to five years.
Bald eagles are not actually bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, "white
headed". The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical
in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males. The beak is large and
hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown.
The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States of America.
The bald eagle appears on its seal. In the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in
the contiguous United States. Populations have since recovered and the species was removed

from the U.S. government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995 and transferred to the
list of threatened species. It was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
in the Lower 48 States on June 28, 2007.

Description
The plumage of an adult bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head and tail. The tail is
moderately long and slightly wedge-shaped. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration,
but sexual dimorphism is evident in the species, in that females are 25% larger than males. [2] The
beak, feet and irises are bright yellow. The legs are feather-free, and the toes are short and powerful
with large talons. The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey
while it is held immobile by the front toes.[3] The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere.[4] The
adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range. The closely related African fish eagle (H. vocifer)
(from far outside the bald eagle's range) also has a brown body, white head and tail, but differs from
the bald in having a white chest and black tip to the bill.[5]
The plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth
(rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.[2][3] Immature bald eagles are
distinguishable from the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the only other very large, non-vulturine
bird in North America, in that the former has a larger, more protruding head with a larger beak,
straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat and
feathers which do not completely cover the legs. When seen well, the golden eagle is distinctive in
plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle, with a reddish-golden
patch to its nape and (in immature birds) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing.
[6]

Another distinguishing feature of the immature bald eagle over the mature bird is its black, yellow-

tipped beak; the mature eagle has a fully yellow beak.

The bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor (accipitrid) in North America.
The only larger species of raptor-like bird is the California condor(Gymnogyps californianus), a New
World vulture which today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids. [7] However,
the golden eagle, averaging 4.18 kg (9.2 lb) and 63 cm (25 in) in wing chord length in its American
race (A. c. canadensis), is merely 455 g (1.003 lb) lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald
eagle in mean wing chord length by around 3 cm (1.2 in).[5][8] Additionally, the bald eagle's close
cousins, the relatively longer-winged but shorter-tailed white-tailed eagle and the overall
largerSteller's sea eagle (H. pelagicus), may, rarely, wander to coastal Alaska from Asia.[5]

Problems playing this file?

See media help.

The bald eagle has a body length of 70102 cm (2840 in). Typical wingspan is between 1.8 and
2.3 m (5.9 and 7.5 ft) and mass is normally between 3 and 6.3 kg (6.6 and 13.9 lb).[5] Females are
about 25% larger than males, averaging 5.6 kg (12 lb), and against the males' average weight of
4.1 kg (9.0 lb).[2][9][10][11] The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds
with Bergmann's rule, since the species increases in size further away from the Equator and the
tropics. For example, eagles from South Carolina average 3.27 kg (7.2 lb) in mass and 1.88 m
(6.2 ft) in wingspan, smaller than their northern counterparts.[12] The largest eagles are from Alaska,
where large females may weigh up to 7.5 kg (17 lb) and span 2.44 m (8.0 ft) across the wings.[4][13] A
survey of adult weights in Alaska showed that females weighed on average 6.3 kg (14 lb) and males
weighed 4.3 kg (9.5 lb).[14]Among standard linear measurements, the wing chord is 51.569 cm
(20.327.2 in), the tail is 2337 cm (9.114.6 in) long, and the tarsus is 8 to 11 cm (3.1 to 4.3 in).[5]
[15]

Theculmen reportedly ranges from 3 to 7.5 cm (1.2 to 3.0 in), while the measurement from

the gape to the tip of the bill is 79 cm (2.83.5 in).[15][16]

The call consists of weak staccato, chirping whistles, kleek kik ik ik ik, somewhat similar in cadence
to a gull's call. The calls of young birds tend to be more harsh and shrill than those of adults. [5][6]

Bald Eagle Migration

Not all eagles migrate; those that do have complex migratory patterns. While migrating,
eagles ride columns of rising air calledthermals and can average speeds of 30 mph (50
kilometers). Effortlessly, an eagle can circle in a strong thermal to a high altitude, and then
glide long distances in the direction of its migration until it finds the next column of rising
air. Generally, eagles follow seasonalfood supplies; as lakes and streams freeze over, bald
eagles must go south to find open fresh water or head to the coast.
Adult bald eagles, such as this one, do not migrate with juveniles. Newly fledged eagles
migrate before their parents; no one knows how young birds know when and where to
travel.
Some fledgling eagles wander in a wide range their first few years. Some return to their
origin, while others do not. Only the young eagle knows if this is a conscious decision or if it
simply loses its way.
Adult bald eagles begin fall migration when the northern lakes and rivers freeze over.
Depending on location, they usually migrate to the coast or large rivers near dams, where
the water remains open. Wind currents play a large role in determining their flight pattern.
Many eagles in Florida do not migrate, but remain year-round. Most bald eagles migrate
south in the fall to areas with sufficient food, and return north in the spring to nest. In the
spring, eagles migrate quickly; during the fall they migrate rather slow, sometimes
remaining in an area for a week or so before continuing on.
Navigation - Migrating birds acquire directional information from landscape features and
wind direction which can be influenced by major land forms, scents, the stars and sun as

well as Earth's magnetic field (increasing evidence indicates that birds collect magnetic field
information through specialized eye receptors).
Migrating eagles fly during the day at speeds averaging 30 miles per hour. To help them
soar, eagles use thermals, which are rising currents of warm air and up-drafts generated by
terrain, such as valley edges or mountain slopes. Soaring is accomplished with very little
wing-flapping, enabling them to conserve energy. Long-distance migration flights are
accomplished by climbing high in a thermal, then gliding downward to catch the next
thermal, where the process is repeated.
Bald eagles tend to migrate in groups. A "stream" of migrating bald eagles can be twenty
to thirty miles long, with birds spread out about a half mile apart.

The information and photos on this website may be used for student projects as long as
neither are placed on other web sites. The photographs are copyrighted by Hope Rutledge,
the owner and author of the American Bald Eagle Information web site, and are NOT
available for other web sites, photo galleries or commercial use of any kind.