PROJECTILE MOTION

The motion of object in two dimensions is explained by two main principles that are kinematic principles
and Newton's laws of motion. The motion in two dimensions is called the motion of projectiles. The
projectile object is one on which is moved under the force of gravity. Some examples of projectiles are like
an object is dropped from its rest condition on which there is no effect of air resistance. An object is
thrown from vertical under negligible effect of air resistance an object and if it is thrown in up direction at a
horizontal angle is considered in a projectile motion.
So, we can say that a projectile is any object which is projected continues in motion under its inertia and
force of gravity.

PROJECTILE MOTIONCAUSED BY
Projectile motion is caused by the gravitational force of earth.
There could be different projectile motions,

An object thrown from a hill to the downward direction, considering that initially the object was at
rest, is a projectile motion. We are not considering the effect of the air resistance here. Object will
fall down towards the center of the earth due to the force of the gravity.

An object thrown from the ground towards the sky or in the upward direction, follows the projectile
motion. Initially a force is applied to the object and its initial velocity is not zero. We are not
considering the effect of air resistance here.

An object, thrown towards the sky but by making some angle with horizontal surface, follows the
curved path and also the projectile motion. Here also we are neglecting the effect of air
resistance.

Projectile Motion with Air Resistance

So far, in the study of projectile motion, we have not considered the effect of air resistance on the
projectile. The only force considered is the gravity force.
In case of solving the projectile motion equations, the drag provided by the air resistance is also
considered.

Projectile Motion Simulator

Projectile motion simulators are the type of softwares which are used to study the projectile motion of the
different objects depending on the various conditions of :

Initial velocity given to the projectile or initial force applied to the projectile.

Studying the trajectory followed by the projectile considering different sources of resistance, e.g.,
air resistance.

To study the projectile behavior of various objects.

To analyze and find how much force should be applied to the projectile for a particular desired
trajectory.

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

What is momentum?
Momentum is a word that we hear used colloquially in everyday
life. We are often told that sports teams and political candidates
have "a lot of momentum". In this context, the speaker usually
means to imply that the team or candidate has had a lot of recent
success and that it would be difficult for an opponent to change
their trajectory. This is also the essence of the meaning in physics,
though in physics we need to be much more precise.
Momentum is a measurement of mass in motion: how much
mass is in how much motion. It is usually given the
symbol \mathbf{p}p.
By definition, p=mv.
Where mmm is the mass and \mathbf{v}v is the velocity. The
standard units for momentum are \mathrm{kg \cdot m/s}kgm/s,
and momentum is always a vector quantity. This simple
relationship means that doubling either the mass or velocity of an
object will simply double the momentum.
The useful thing about momentum is its relationship to force. You
might recall from the kinematic equations that change in
velocity \Delta vvdelta, v can also be written as a\cdot \Delta
tata, dot, delta, t.
[Explain, please.]
a=\dfrac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}a, equals, start fraction, delta, v,
divided by, delta, t, end fraction

\Delta tdelta, t
a\Delta t=\Delta va, delta, t, equals, delta, v
We can then see that any change in momentum following an
acceleration can be written as
\begin{aligned} \Delta \mathbf{p} &= m\cdot \Delta v\\ &=
m\cdot \mathbf{a}\cdot \Delta t \\ &= \mathbf{F}\cdot \Delta
t\end{aligned}p=mv=mat=Ft
What is impulse?
Impulse is a term that quantifies the overall effect of a force
acting over time. It is conventionally given the
symbol \text{J}JJ and expressed in Newton-seconds.
For a constant force, \mathbf{J} = \mathbf{F} \cdot \Delta
tJ=Ft.
As we saw earlier, this is exactly equivalent to a change in
momentum \Delta \mathbf{p}p. This equivalence is known as
the impulse-momentum theorem. Because of the impulsemomentum theorem, we can make a direct connection between
how a force acts on an object over time and the motion of the
object.
One of the reasons why impulse is important and useful is that in
the real world, forces are often not constant. Forces due to things
like people and engines tend to build up from zero over time and
may vary depending on many factors. Working out the overall
effect of all these forces directly would be quite difficult.

When we calculate impulse, we are multiplying force by time. This

is equivalent to finding the area under a force-time curve. This is
useful because the area can just as easily be found for a
complicated shapevariable forceas for a simple rectangle
constant force. It is only the overall net impulse that matters for
understanding the motion of an object following an impulse.
The concept of impulse that is both external and internal to a
system is also fundamental to understanding conservation of
momentum.

COLLISION
A collision or crash is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other for a
relatively short time. Although the most common colloquial use of the word "collision" refers
to incidents in which two or more objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision"
implies nothing about the magnitude of the force.
Collision is short-duration interaction between two bodies or more than two bodies simultaneously
causing change in motion of bodies involved due to internal forces acted between them during this.
Collisions involve forces (there is a change in velocity). The magnitude of the velocity difference at
impact is called the closing speed. All collisions conserve momentum. What distinguishes different
types of collisions is whether they also conserve kinetic energy. Line of impact It is the line which is
common normal for surfaces are closest or in contact during impact. This is the line along which
internal force of collision acts during impact and Newton's coefficient of restitution is defined only
along this line.
Specifically, collisions can either be elastic, meaning they conserve both momentum and kinetic
energy, or inelastic, meaning they conserve momentum but not kinetic energy. An inelastic collision
is sometimes also called a plastic collision.
A perfectly inelastic collision (also called a "perfectly plastic" collision) is a limiting case of inelastic
collision in which the two bodies stick together after impact.

The degree to which a collision is elastic or inelastic is quantified by the coefficient of restitution, a
value that generally ranges between zero and one. A perfectly elastic collision has a coefficient of
restitution of one; a perfectly inelastic collision has a coefficient of restitution of zero.

Types of collisions[
There are two types of collisions between two bodies - 1) Head-on collisions or one-dimensional
collisions - where the velocity of each body just before impact is along the line of impact, and 2) Nonhead-on collisions, oblique collisions or two-dimensional collisions - where the velocity of each body
just before impact is not along the line of impact.
According to the coefficient of restitution, there are two special cases of any collision as written
below:
1. A perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which there is no loss of kinetic energy in the
collision. In reality, any macroscopic collision between objects will convert some kinetic
energy to internal energy and other forms of energy, so no large-scale impacts are perfectly
elastic. However, some problems are sufficiently close to perfectly elastic that they can be
approximated as such. In this case, the coefficient of restitution equals one.
2. An inelastic collision is one in which part of the kinetic energy is changed to some other form
of energy in the collision. Momentum is conserved in inelastic collisions (as it is for elastic
collisions), but one cannot track the kinetic energy through the collision since some of it is
converted to other forms of energy. In this case, coefficient of restitution does not equal one.
In any type of collision there is a phase when for a moment colliding bodies have the same
velocity along the line of impact.Then the kinetic energy of bodies reduces to its minimum
during this phase and may be called a maximum deformation phase for which momentarily
the coefficient of restitution becomes one.
Collisions in ideal gases approach perfectly elastic collisions, as do scattering interactions
of sub-atomic particles which are deflected by the electromagnetic force. Some large-scale
interactions like the slingshot type gravitational interactions between satellites and planets
are perfectly elastic.
Collisions between hard spheres may be nearly elastic, so it is useful to calculate the limiting
case of an elastic collision. The assumption of conservation of momentum as well as the
conservation of kinetic energy makes possible the calculation of the final velocities in twobody collisions.