A Clean Energy Action Plan For The United States

AP PHOTO/REED SAXON
A Clean Energy Action Plan

for the United States
By Luke H. Bassett, Myriam Alexander-Kearns, and Jerusalem Demsas
September 2016
W W W.AMERICANPROGRESS.ORG
A Clean Energy Action Plan

for the United States
By Luke H. Bassett, Myriam Alexander-Kearns, and Jerusalem Demsas
September 2016
Contents
1 Introduction and summary

3 Building on eight years of clean energy growth
6 Shaping a strategy for the next four years
that seizes current opportunities
11 Policy recommendations for the next
administration and Congress
32 Thinking beyond 2030: Clean energy
RD&D and deployment
35 Conclusion: Summary of recommendations
38 About the authors & Acknowledgments
39 Endnotes
Introduction and summary

After years of concerted effort to advance climate and clean energy policies, the
United States has started on the path to a low-carbon economy. Several developments have fundamentally shifted the nations energy outlook: falling technology
costs; forward-leaning policies enacted by federal, state, local, and tribal governments; investments in new infrastructure; advances in energy efficiency and
renewable energy research and development; and a newly minted international
agreement to tackle climate change. The projected trajectory of U.S. greenhouse
gas emissions has flattened, demonstrating to the United States and the world that
pollution can be cut in the context of economic growth. To achieve a low-carbon
economy, however, the United States must stay on this pathway for decades to
come, something that can be assured only through continued effort.
The next president and Congress must build on this foundational set of policies and
capitalize on the available suite of clean energy technologies. Investments made in
energy infrastructure today will have carbon consequences tomorrow. If care is not
taken to foster low-carbon options, support them financially, and remove barriers
to their deployment, future policymakers might have even bigger challenges than
they do now. These considerations call for a policymaking strategy that continues to
advance the United States on the path toward deep emissions reductions by midcentury. The political and business case for deploying energy efficiency and renewable
energy technologies has gained traction across the country.1
This report proposes policy recommendations that promote the three elements
of decarbonizationenergy efficiency, low-carbon electricity generation, and
the electrification of end usesand that address their integration, financing,
and implementation at the federal level.2 It examines specific policy actions
that a new administration and Congress can take in the short term to expedite
deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies. This is
just one part of an overall climate mitigation strategy U.S. leaders will need
to employ to meet the nations long-term carbon pollution reduction targets.
1 Center for American Progress | A Clean Energy Action Plan for the United States
By instituting these recommendations, the next president and Congress will

accelerate the transformation of the electric power sector into the low-carbon
engine of the U.S. economy. Because the deployment and integration of energy
efficiency and renewable energy technologies in electricity generation and end
uses create the foundation for further carbon emissions reductions in other sectors, the electric power sector is a crucial area in which policymaking can guide
current momentum forward.3
Indeed, the risks posed by inaction on climate change have never been clearer, and
the momentum to act has never been greater. These factors provide the next president and Congress with advantages no previous U.S. government has had: a clear
need to act, bolstered by international agreement and demonstrated tools for successful action. But the next president and Congress will also face unprecedented
pressures. With a proven scientific need for more ambitious pollution reductions,
strengthening but still emerging clean energy supply chains, and greater domestic
action necessary to lead the international community, U.S. policy leaders will need
to act quickly and decisively. The next president and Congress should consider the
recommendations in this report to champion a Clean Energy Action Plan that utilizes federal authorities and funding while encouraging states to act constructively
and ambitiously. By moving forward with such a plan, the next president and
Congress can transform current clean energy trends into realized pathways toward
a low-carbon economy in the United States.
Building on eight years

of clean energy growth
Over the past eight years, the United States has made significant progress in
addressing climate change. Domestic greenhouse gas emissions trends have
declined while the U.S. economy has grown.4 (see Figure 1) The costs of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologiessuch as wind turbines, solar photovoltaic, or PV, systems, LED bulbs, and electric vehicle, or EV, batterieshave
fallen, and deployment rates for those technologies have risen.5 Global investment
in energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies has continued to grow
in the face of low fossil fuel prices, with 2015 claiming a record $285.9 billion in
investment, up 5 percent from 2014.6 Public concern for climate change has also
grown, with 38 percent of Americans perceiving that global warming is currently
harming people in the United States, up 6 percentage points in the past year.7
These metrics are among many that indicate that decades of scientific research,
policymaking, and investments in the low-carbon economy and the fight against
climate change are shifting the course for the better.
FIGURE 1
The U.S. economy has grown while carbon emissions have fallen
U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and GDP from 2005 to 2014,
by million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent and billion dollars
1.50
1.35
GDP, in billions of 2016 dollars
1.20
1.05
0.90
Net emissions: Sources and sinks
0.75
0.60
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Sources: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2014 (2016), available at
https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/usinventoryreport.html; Bureau of Economic Analysis, Current Dollar and 'Real'
Gross Domestic Product (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2016), available at http://bea.gov/national/xls/gdplev.xls.
The effects of a changing climate have also appeared with increasing frequency
and intensity, at times in devastating ways.8 In 2015 alone, 10 U.S. weather and climate events exceeded $1 billion in losses, and the trend of record-breaking global
high temperatures has continued.9 The body of science about the changing climate
and its potential effects on society and ecosystems continues to grow, and consensus among the scientific community regarding its human causes has solidified.10
Against this backdrop of increasing risks, public concern, and scientific clarity,
President Barack Obama has taken strong actions to tackle climate change: He
instituted a broad set of executive actions in his Climate Action Plan, invested
more than $90 billion in clean energy and related technologies through the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, introduced the first-ever
standards for carbon pollution from existing power plants, and worked with
other world leaders to forge the Paris Agreement.11 These actions have charted a
new path toward the Paris Agreement commitments to keep the global average
temperature from increasing more than 2 degrees Celsius, including President
Obamas emissions reduction targets of 17 percent by 2020 and 26 percent to 28
percent by 2025 below 2005 levels.12
FIGURE 2
Emissions milestones on the U.S. pathway to deep decarbonization

U.S. historic and projected greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 to 2050,
by million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent
2005 baseline
7,000
6,000
5,000
26% below 2005
2014 emission levels

17% below 2005
4,000
80% below 2005
28% below 2005

3,000
2,000
1,000
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Sources: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2014 (2016), available at
https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/usinventoryreport.html; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
Cover Note INDC and Accompanying Information, available at http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published Documents/
United States of America/1/U.S. Cover Note INDC and Accompanying Information.pdf (last accessed July 2016).
At the end of President Obamas second term, some of the key initiatives in
the Climate Action Plan will require further action. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agencys, or EPAs, Clean Power Plan will remain in the courts, and
the next president will have to act to bring the 2020 and 2025 international goals
to fruition.13 At the same time, if every nation meets their pledges under the Paris
Agreement, global warming will still exceed the agreed-upon goal of 2 degrees
Celsius.14 Therefore, the next president will need to continue efforts begun under
the Obama administration and take additional actions in order to reduce emissions further beyond 2025.15 (see Figure 2)
Shaping a strategy for the next

four years that seizes current
opportunities
Clean energy and emissions trends over the past eight years indicate that the
United States has moved onto a low-carbon pathway, but these trends illustrate
only the beginning of the journey. Despite record growth in renewable energy, for
example, it makes up only about 10 percent of overall U.S. electricity generation
capacity.16 The next four years will shape whether and how the nation continues
on its low-carbon pathway.
Taking pathways to a low-carbon economy

The U.S. energy system is made up of a continent-spanning network of diverse
energy resources, infrastructure, and end-use technologies that, together, currently
rely on burning fossil fuels.17 Several energy system scenariosdeveloped by a range
of nonprofit organizations, research universities, government research agencies, and
international agenciesillustrate the roles that different technologies could play
in reaching long-term U.S. emissions reduction goals. They also depict the mix of
technologies needed, from greatly increased renewable energy generation to investment in carbon capture and sequestration and/or nuclear energy. Each scenarios
technology mix indicates the technological, economic, and policy tradeoffs that any
particular pathway entails. More importantly, the commonalities of these scenarios
point to the need for bold and immediate improvement of energy efficiency and the
deployment of renewable energy technologies at aggressive rates, similar to those
seen in the past build-out of the existing global energy system.18
Decision-makers should use these decarbonization pathways as tools to weigh the
long-term benefits and risks of investment and policy decisionsparticularly the
risk of paying for new infrastructure, which commits to a certain level of emissions
for years to come.19 The options within these pathways may enable more flexibility as continued research, development, and demonstration projects, or RD&D,
further lower the costs of key technologies. They may also yield more adaptive
regional policy responses.20 Additionally, building a low-carbon economy requires
recognizing the energy system benefits, costs, and interdependencies beyond
the power sectorincluding transportation and industrial emissions, water and
land use, and the application of information and communication technologies.21
Factoring long-term thinking and decarbonization goals into decision-making
across sectors is paramount.
Investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy

Each part of the U.S. energy system has benefited from public and private investment and federal, state, local, and tribal policymaking at various stages. Federal
investment in RD&D has advanced energy efficiency and renewable energy
technologies for several decades.22 More recently, the U.S. Department of Energy,
or DOE, and other federal agencies have addressed finance gaps in pilot and
demonstration projects and encouraged technology deployment through procurement, grants, challenges, and other resources.23 These investments have yielded
increasingly cost-competitive commercial products such as onshore wind turbines
and solar PV systems, among others. However, financial, policy, technical, and
consumer barriers may continue to hinder deployment.24 Frequently with energy
technologies, the high capital costs and longer times required to innovate or see
return on investments lower investors risk tolerance. As a result, the different
phases of RD&D and commercialization attract very different investor types
from government-supported basic research to private-sector-backed loans or
equity for more proven technologies entering the market.25
Similarly, RD&D and deployment stages call for different policy interventions,
a factor further complicated by differences among jurisdictions governing the
energy system. The deployment costs for these technologies often include socalled soft costs such as permitting, construction, installation, or other costs that
inhibit or slow down decision-making, business development, or other aspects
of turning on energy efficiency or renewable energy installations.26 The next
president and Congress will have a role in supporting policy interventions and
government investments that connect these stages and deploy energy efficiency
and renewable energy technologies more quickly and with greater rates of adoption.27 Fortunately, recent gains made in RD&D, technology cost reduction,
policy implementation, and political consensus provide the next president and
Congress a strong foundation for action.
Investing in clean energy as existing infrastructure is retired

In recent years, the costs of several energy efficiency and renewable energy
technologies have become competitive with conventional technologies in many
U.S. markets. According to the DOE, onshore wind generation; utility-scale and
distributed solar PV generation; LEDs; and EV batteries have all experienced dramatic cost declines. In each case, direct RD&D investments and loan guarantees,
policy incentives such as tax credits, and policy goals such as renewable portfolio
standards have attracted industries and consumers to install these alternatives.28
New records for low renewable energy prices are appearing more and more
frequently. In 2015, for example, Nevada utility NV Energy signed a record-low
$0.0387 per kilowatt-hour rate for electricity generated by a First Solar utilityscale solar PV installation. This is down nearly 72 percent from the utilitys 2014
average electricity purchase rate.29 The increasingly competitive prices for renewable energy technologies and the electricity they generate represent encouraging
shifts in the U.S. electric power sector.
In the coming decade, utilities, investors, and policymakers will have important
opportunities to replace components of the U.S. electric power sector as they age
and are retired. In the past century, coal-burning power plants constructed more
than 35 years ago made up the majority of U.S. fossil fuel power capacity, but due
to the dramatic decline in natural gas prices in the past decade, that trend has
shifted to building new natural gas-fired capacity.30 As utilities, regulators, and others plan for systemic changes to infrastructure investment, operation, and integration over the next several years, the falling costs of renewable generation and the
increasing importance of energy efficiency will provide attractive alternatives to
new fossil fuel generation. Indeed, over the past five-year period, more renewable energy generationwind and solar togetherhas been deployed than new
natural gas-fired generation.31
Energy infrastructure turnover

Unlike infrastructure constructed largely by public
TABLE 1
investmentsuch as interstate highwaysenergy
Turnover rates for electricity technologies
infrastructure is often deployed through private
Estimated lifespan, by years
investment, spurred by regulatory clarity and encour-
Generation infrastructure
Estimated lifespan
aged by government incentives. Sufficient private
Coal
40
capital is available to deploy the next generation of
Natural gas combined cycle
20
Nuclear
40
Wind
20
Rooftop solar PV
20
Utility-scale solar PV
30
Geothermal
25
energy infrastructure as long as there are clear signals

that the nation will, from a policy standpoint, stay
on a low-carbon pathway. The importance of these
policy signals and incentives cannot be overstated.
Despite the encouraging signs of falling costs, barriers
to clean energy deployment remain, including the
End-use infrastructure
relatively long lifetime of energy infrastructurea
Residential buildings
70
sizable time constraint given the considerably shorter
Large office buildings
65
timeframe needed to decarbonize the economy. This
Central forced-air furnaces
25
requires careful consideration of new infrastructures
Central air conditioners
21
committed emissions, or the estimated cumulative
Gas water heaters
14
carbon emissions from energy infrastructure over
Electric water heaters
22
the course of its lifetime.32 The lifetimes of infrastruc-
Clothes dryers
20
turefrom power plants to houses or office build-
Refrigerators
26
ingswill likely turn over only once between now

and 2050. (see Table 1) Thus, each new investment
and policy decision must consider the committed
emissions of new energy infrastructure.
Passenger cars and light trucks
11.4
Incandescent light bulbs
0.23
Compact fluorescent light, or CFL, bulbs
1.14
LEDs
5.71
Sources: Authors data on coal, natural gas combined cycle, nuclear, wind, rooftop solar PV, utility scale solar PV, geothermal from Lazard, Lazards Levelized Cost of Energy AnalysisVersion 9.0 (2015),
available at https://www.lazard.com/media/2390/lazards-levelized-cost-of-energy-analysis-90.pdf; data on residential buildings from U.S. Department of Energy, Windows and Building Envelope Research
and Development: Roadmap for Emerging Technologies (2014), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/02/f8/BTO_windows_and_envelope_report_3.pdf; Data on large office buildings
from Energy Information Administration, Commercial Demand Module (U.S. Department of Energy, 2015), available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/pdf/commercial.pdf; Data on
central forced-air furnaces, central air conditioners, gas water heaters, electric water heaters, clothes dryers, and refrigerators from Energy Information Administration,Residential Demand Module (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2015), available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/pdf/residential.pdf; Data on passenger cars and light trucks from U.S. Department of Transportation, Table
1-26: Average Age of Automobiles and Trucks in Operation in the United States, available at http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/
table_01_26.html_mfd (last accessed August 2016); Data on lighting from U.S. Department of Energy, Lifetime of White LEDs (2009),available at https://betterbuildingssolutioncenter.energy.gov/sites/
default/files/attachments/lifetime_white_leds.pdf.
Cementing the health benefits and business

opportunities that clean energy provides
The move toward a lower-carbon electricity sector provides significant health
and economic benefits for American families and businesses. Expanding clean
electricity generation will protect the country from the worsening effects of climate change and air pollutionwhich disproportionately affect children, elders,
low-income communities, and individuals with heart disease or lung disease.33
Increased asthma attacks are just one of the projected health effects of climate
change.34 The EPA estimates that its Clean Power Plan will prevent 90,000 asthma
attacks in children and avoid 1,500 to 3,600 premature deaths in 2030 by lowering
emissions from existing fossil fuel generation.35
Growth in the clean energy sector is also creating jobs. In the second quarter of
2015, nearly 1.9 million Americans worked in jobs directly related to energy efficiency technologies, primarily heating and cooling, lighting, appliances, and other
building materials and systems.36 According to the DOE, in the same quarter, U.S.
wind generation firms employed 77,000 people.37 In 2015for the third consecutive yearthe U.S. solar industry grew more than 20 percent, increasing to nearly
209,000 workers.38 The DOE also reports that, in 2015, the U.S. solar industry
employed significant numbers of women, at 24 percent; minorities, at 26 percent;
and veterans, at 8 percent. Storage and smart grid technology firms in the United
States employed approximately 40,000 workers in the second quarter of 2015.39
Whether in whole numbers, trends, or broken down by demographic, clean
energy jobs are a vital and growing part of the U.S. economy.
Policy recommendations for the

next administration and Congress
The next president and Congress should seize current opportunities for energy
efficiency and renewable energy growth and the health and economic benefits
they deliver by launching a Clean Energy Action Plan. This plan should build
on current climate policies and successful investments by incorporating energy
efficiency into planning and policymaking as a step to achieve cost savings for all
Americans; increasing deployment of energy efficiency and renewable energy
technologies, especially in states with currently low adoption rates; strengthening
efforts to integrate these new technologies into the U.S. energy system; and creating incentives for electrification. The plan also points to the need to consider and
implement solutions for financing to aid the deployment of energy efficiency and
renewable energy technologies, as well as to strengthen leadership and coordination from the White House and federal government to achieve these goals.
Strengthening energy efficiency as a foundation for action

The Clean Energy Action Plan should strive to increase the nations energy efficiency across the board. Increasing energy efficiency enables households, businesses, and industries to use less energy from products such as furnaces and light
bulbs while obtaining the same services such as space heating or lighting; in doing
so, efficiency can reduce consumers electricity bills and cut carbon emissions.
Current energy use in residential and commercial buildings makes up more than
38 percent of all U.S. energy use and related carbon emissions, with the majority
of that energy going to space conditioning, lighting, water heating, and refrigeration.40 On a national scale, such improvements add up greatlyas evidenced in
the 58 percent growth of U.S. energy productivity, defined as economic output
per unit of energy, from 1990 to 2015.41 The nonprofit American Council for an
Energy-Efficient Economy, or ACEEE, estimates that efficiency was responsible
for 60 percent of this energy productivity increase from 1980 to 2014 , saving
approximately $2,500 per person in 2014.42 Because of its contribution to economic growth and energy savings for all Americans, energy efficiency should be a
central piece of the low-carbon agenda of the next president and Congress.
Appliance efficiency standards and building codes have proven critically

important to boosting energy efficiency for American families and businesses.
Appliance efficiency standards cover individual product categories as diverse
as commercial refrigeration units, electric motors, and fluorescent lamps, while
model building energy codes set minimum standards and incorporate more
comprehensively the best construction practices and technologies for homes
and businesses.43 By saving American families and businesses money and
decreasing carbon emissions, both programs make a strong argument for their
continuation and strengthening in the next four years.
Appliance standards
Energy efficiency standards issued in recent years will save Americans $540 billion
cumulatively through 2030, and the additional standards planned for 2016 will
put the United States on track to avoid 3 billion metric tons of carbon emissions
over the same time period.44 Many of these standardsincluding the largest-ever
standard, which covers commercial air conditioners and furnaces and will save
businesses $167 billion over its lifetimeresult from negotiated rulemaking
processes that bring together industry, labor and environmental groups, and DOE
experts to reach consensus on the best measures.45
A recent report by the ACEEE and the Appliance Standards Awareness Project, or
ASAP, projected that under the next president and within existing authority, the
DOE can continue this tremendous progress and potentially save the equivalent
of 762 terawatt-hours in 2035, or equal current annual energy consumption of all
the homes in Texas and Ohio combined.46 But the impressive potential cumulative carbon savings outlined in the report3.5 billion metric tons by 2050is not
inevitable, and achieving these savings will require the next president to champion
the appliance efficiency standards program against attempts to stall or weaken it.47
The ASAP/ACEEE report recommends that the DOE takes several actions to
update and improve product testing and analysis; add product categoriesincluding, potentially, televisions and computers; facilitate system savings; and address
products connected by information and communication technologies, such as
smart controls, thermostats, and other new products.48 The next president should
adopt these actions to expand the appliance efficiency standards program and work
with Congress to increase its funding and provide more tools for enforcement and
compliance efforts, including a greater ability to perform spot testing in the field and
increased civil penalties for noncompliance proportional to the products value.49
Additionally, the next president and Congress should address at least two major gaps
in the program: the potential for increased energy efficiency from connected devices
and the growing proportion of energy use from a diverse range of products often
categorized as other uses in the residential and commercial sectors.50 This other
use category refers to productssuch as heating elements and exterior lightsthat
individually do not meet the statutory threshold required for the DOE to consider
new rulemakings. The U.S. Energy Information Administration, or EIA, projects
that its energy use will grow from 19 percent to 28 percent of the residential market
and from 35 percent to 48 percent of the commercial market from 2014 to 2050.51
The next president should work with Congress to lower the regulatory threshold
of energy use for new product determinations from the current threshold of 150
kilowatt-hours per household per year. This metric has limitations for commercial and industrial end uses, and adopting a more adaptable metric would enable
the DOE to set energy efficiency standards for a broader array of products that
individually are less energy-intensive but together constitute a rising source of
energy demand.52 Congress should also consider enabling performance-based
standards, which focus on the time an appliance is used or cover specific aspects
of its energy use profilesuch as network standby requirementsin order to
increase energy efficiency across a broader category of other use appliances and
equipment without regulating them individually.53
Building energy codes

The success of building energy codes, which set minimum standards for the
energy efficiency of residential and commercial buildings, lies with state, local,
and tribal governments, which adopt and enforce them. The DOE contributes
to model code development for commercial and residential buildings through
consultative processes and estimates that codes from both sectors will yield 4
billion metric tons in cumulative carbon emissions savings through 2040.54 In
terms of consumer savings on energy bills, the DOE estimates that 2015 updates
to the model residential building code will achieve 32 percent greater savings
over the 2006 model code, or an average of $500 in annual savings for homeowners.55 Building energy codes serve a vital purpose by achieving integrated energy
savings for consumers, but the adoption and enforcement of updated codes often
lags behind development in related technologies and products.56 In some cases,
states also draft alternative, more aggressive building energy codes that bring more
energy efficient building technologies into the market more quickly. For example,
Massachusetts adopted and has subsequently updated an opt-in stretch code for
municipalities that links buildings to performance standards rather than minimum standards, a more aggressive path for cities to encourage or mandate highly
efficient buildings.57
The next president should direct and fund the DOE to develop stretch codes
alongside the regular base code updating process and to provide states with
technical assistance when deciding whether and how to adopt and implement
stretch codes. The next president and Congress should also incentivize states
to update their existing building energy codes by increasing federal funding for
state building code offices and inspectors when states adopt the most recent
model codes or enact stretch codes. As of July 2016, the DOE reported that only
14 states had adopted or exceeded either of the two most recent model residential building energy codes. Similarly, only 24 states had adopted or exceeded
either of the two most recent model commercial codes.58 Providing incentives
for the adoption and enforcement of the most recent codes will achieve significant energy and carbon emissions savings.
Energy data, connected devices, and cybersecurity risks

The U.S. energy system is one of the most data-rich systems in the global economy;
trade flows, commodity prices, electrical properties, and carbon emissions are but a
few of the data types it uses, often in real-time monitoring and analysis. The different sectors that make up the energy system are becoming increasingly connected,
interdependent, and communicative, and this connectivity underlies the ability of
the existing system to integrate more energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies effectively.59 They are also more dependent on higher-quality and greater
quantities of data and face increased threats from physical attacks, extreme weather,
and cyber attacks.60 Enhancing the quality and quantity of energy data available to
the government, research institutions, and the public would aid in policymaking,
the design and implementation of preventive security measures, achieving market
efficiencies, and responding to emergencies quickly and appropriately.
Cybersecurity threats may define the future of the U.S. electricity grid: As new technologies across the transmission and distribution systems enter service, potential
vulnerabilities in the operational technologies used to manage the grid, the information technologies that consumers use, and the interaction of these technologies may
disrupt service or compromise data. Although cybersecurity extends beyond enduse technologies, addressing such risks is central to the success of connected devices
in increasing energy efficiency and distributed generation.
Energy efficiency stands out as a challenging area that would benefit from better data quality and quantity. The evaluation, measurement, and verification, or
EM&V, process can be challenging for public officials, energy service companies,
or interested consumers due to the quantity, diversity, and quality of available data
and the lag time between interventions such as installing insulation and realizing
savings on an electric bill.61 As end-use technologiesfrom phones to thermostats to vehiclesbecome more connected, the data they generate and consume
is rapidly reshaping how consumers, utilities, and third parties access and control
equipment, make or save energy and money, and prevent or respond to cybersecurity threats.62 The United States 5.6 million commercial buildings and 120 million
households are a significant resource for increasing energy efficiency, managing
the electricity system, and growing renewable energy resources, but the interoperability of these buildings depends on setting shared and safe standards that allow
innovators to tap into their energy resource potential without exposing businesses
and households to cyber risks.63 In this growing but still nascent sector, it will
become increasingly important to develop open interoperability standards that
balance energy services with cybersecurity safeguards while concurrently establishing uniform methods of calculating the energy savings they achieve.
By keeping energy efficiency and the reduction of cybersecurity vulnerabilities
at the forefront, the next president can address energy data, cybersecurity, and
connected device efficiency in an integrated way. First, he or she should direct
the Department of Energy, the Department of Homeland Security, and other
federal agencies to work with utilities, state regulators, and other stakeholders to set distribution system standards to protect critical infrastructure and
encourage the growing market of connected devices. Second, championing the
Green Button programan initiative sponsored by electric utilities that enables
customers to access their energy data securelywill make more high-quality
energy data available to utility customers. The next presidential administration should work with utilities and third-party energy efficiency and renewable
energy service providers to expand the program.64 Lastly, the next president
should request a road map for near-term open standards, platforms, and EM&V
methods to optimize energy efficiency and cybersecurity protections that builds
on the DOEs existing research on building interoperability in coordination with
the DOEs Uniform Methods Project and the White Houses Commission on
Enhancing National Cybersecurity.65
Enabling renewable energy deployment and integration

Renewable generation capacityboth distributed and utility-scalehas grown
rapidly but unevenly in the United States, transforming the electricity system and
its technical, economic, and environmental character. Between 2008 and 2015,
U.S. renewable generation capacity grew at dramatic rates. (see Figure 3) This
additional capacity reflects falling technology costs and federal, state, local, and
tribal policy incentives, from net energy metering and renewable portfolio standards to federal tax credits. The growth rates for these technologies differ considerably from state to state, however, often reflecting differences among policy and
regulatory structures rather than renewable resource potential.66
FIGURE 3
Growth of selected U.S. renewable energy technologies

Cumulative generation capacity from 2008 to 2015, in gigawatts
80
70
60
50
Wind
40
Solar (PV and CSP)
30
20
10
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Sources: Data on wind energy from U.S. Department of Energy, 2015 Wind Technologies Market Report (2015), available at
http://energy.gov/eere/wind/downloads/2015-wind-technologies-market-report; Data on solar energy from U.S. Department of
Energy, Utility-Scale Solar 2015: An Empirical Analysis of Project Cost, Performance, and Pricing Trends in the United States (2016), available
at https://emp.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/lbnl-1006037_report.pdf.
After several years of uncertainty regarding extensions, a schedule for the wind
production tax credit and solar investment tax credits was enacted in December
2015.67 It established steps down from initial tax credit amounts to either lower
amounts or complete phase-out through 2019 for wind and starting in 2019
for solar.68 Beyond enhancing market certainty, the extensions are projected to
increase renewable energy deploymentin both high and low natural gas price
scenariosand bridge what might otherwise be a slowdown between now and
2022, when the Clean Power Plan comes into force.69 (see text box)
Regulatory avenues to drive deployment of clean energy and energy efficiency technologies
The Clean Air Act offers federal policymakers an important tool to
cut carbon emissions from the electric power and industrial sectors
through deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency
technologies.
Section 111 of the Clean Air Act authorizes the EPA to set standards
of performance for any stationary source category that causes, or
contributes significantly to, air pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.70
Under section 111, the EPA has set carbon pollution limits for new
and existing power plants. In August 2015, the EPA finalized the
Clean Power Plan, which, when fully implemented, will reduce
carbon pollution from the power sector by 32 percent.71 The EIA
predicts that the Clean Power Plan will accelerate clean energy
deployment in the United States.72 On February 9, 2016, the U.S.
Supreme Court stayed implementation of the Clean Power Plan
pending further judicial review.73 Assuming the plan is implemented, the EPA could use its authority under section 111 to review
and, if appropriate, strengthen the carbon pollution limits to reflect

advancements in the best system of emissions reduction.74
Section 111 also gives the EPA the authority to set performance standards for greenhouse gases from other industrial source categories,
such as petroleum refineries and industrial, commercial, and institutional boilers. Energy efficiency would likely form the core of these
standards to minimize energy use and, therefore, emissions.
Unlike the industry-specific approach of section 111, section 115
of the Clean Air Act offers an economy-wide approach. Section 115
authorizes the EPA to require states to reduce emissions that contribute to the endangerment of health or welfare in other countries,
if those countries provide reciprocity to the United States.75 The
EPA would set an overall carbon pollution budget for each state but
offer them the flexibility to decide where and how to achieve the reductions, such as renewable energy requirements, energy efficiency
standards, or even a statewide carbon pricing program.
With some overarching federal policy drivers in place, the renewable energy
market has great potential, but several actions are needed to promote the installation and integration of these new, low-carbon resources into the electricity system.
From accounting for their costs and benefits in reasonable electric rates to balancing new power sources with storage, the integration of renewable energy will
reduce emissions and provide additional economic and system benefits.
Electric rates and valuation

State, local, and tribal policies and programs complement federal policies by offering additional incentivessuch as tax creditsor setting other requirements for
low-carbon energy generation, as in the case of renewable portfolio standards.76
The diversity of regulations and policies governing the electricity system reflects
its planning, construction, and management design under the Federal Power Act
of 1935, which created separate federal and state jurisdictions. The federal government, through the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, or FERC, regulates
wholesale sales and interstate transmission, and each state public utility commission, or PUC, regulates retail sales of electricity and transmission within its borders.77 This diverse regulatory and policy landscape has fostered an equally diverse
set of electric utilitiesfrom investor-owned utilities to federal power marketing
administrations to rural cooperatives, among others.78
In this context, state PUCs regulate retail electric rates and approve electric utilities rate cases, or legal proceedings before PUCs in which utilities propose and
argue for changes to the price they charge customers for electricity. The electricity systems rapid and significant changes are forcing PUCs to adapt their roles
as new generation, distribution, and end-use technologies enter the market and
transform the customer demands and the ability of utilities to meet policy goals
and recuperate investments.79 In setting regulations and determining rate cases,
PUCs have an ever-growing set of costs and benefits to consider: traditional
accounting for utilities capital expenditures on power plants and transmission
and distribution infrastructure; the value of services provided by the grid and
distributed resources, such as energy storage; and how to capture and quantify the
societal and environmental benefits of renewable generation. These include, for
example, electricity generated on customer rooftops rather than at a centralized
power station.80 Valuing these costs and benefits accurately can inform electric
rate-setting and promote clean energy growth, or it can halt that growth entirely.81
For example, a utility may justify a rate increase proposal to build centralized fossil fuel generation by only comparing traditional costs such as construction and
operations without analyzing the additional benefits that distributed renewable
generation provides, such as avoided costs for pollution control equipment.82
Although the discussion of retail electricity rates and many other aspects of energy
policy occurs at the state level, the federal government can play an important role
by providing or facilitating technical assistance to state PUCs and other decisionmakers.83 Much of this technical assistance, often performed in partnership with
the DOEs National Laboratories, focuses on policy analysis and support through
national membership groups; direct education of officials, including PUC staff;
and funding of projects designed to advance state, local, or tribal energy policies.84
Given the DOEs expertise in analyzing the climate, health, and economic benefits of
clean energy, more emphasis should be placed on making its work directly available
to states. In recent years, technical experts at the DOE and National Laboratories
have been invited to provide expert analysis to inform PUCs decisions, and third
parties have often cited DOE-supported analysis in their own comments and testimony.85 Drawing on the DOEs and National Laboratories expertise and analytical
capabilities would provide objective insight into the many issues that PUCs contemplate, including retail rate design. The next president should charge the DOE
with developing a team of technical expertsin partnership with relevant national
groups such as the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissionersto
support states, particularly state PUCs and other officials, as they request technical
expertise to inform considerations of incorporating clean energy into their resource
mix, including energy efficiency and distributed energy resources.
Infrastructure for renewable energy deployment

Recent news celebrated the construction of the first offshore wind farm in U.S.
waters, a 30-megawatt, five-turbine operation near Block Island, Rhode Island.86
The developers use of a Norwegian vessel, supported by an American vessel, to
install the turbines illustrates one challenge common to renewable energy deployment across different technologies: Non-energy infrastructure that enables the
installation or operation of energy infrastructure, such as roads or ports, often
inhibits access to energy resources, slows the installation of energy infrastructure,
or does not exist.87 The potential for growth in the offshore wind market is staggering: The DOE estimates 22 gigawatts of capacity in 2030 and 86 gigawatts by
2050. Yet the enabling infrastructure for offshore installations currently relies on
foreign vessels.88 Some U.S. shipbuilding industry facilities are able to build ships
similar to those used for offshore wind turbine installation, having delivered more
than 50 offshore service vessels in 2014.89 Through its Federal Ship Financing
Program, the U.S. Maritime Administration currently allocates $42 million for
loan guarantees for advanced shipbuilding.90
The 2015 Quadrennial Energy Review identified similar constraints on shared
infrastructure, including weight limits for roads and highways over which heavy
installation equipment or renewable energy components such as turbine nacelles
or blades travel. It recommended a DOE-led assessment of current routes and
their capacity to accommodate relevant heavy or oversized shipments.91 The next
president should charge the DOE to work in partnership with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Department of Transportation, to go further by identifying
key regions for renewable generation development, analyzing the transportation infrastructure needed to move heavy or oversized freight through those
regions, and setting new standards for relevant infrastructure. The next president
and Congress should then increase funding for needed projects to encourage
the development of shared or enabling infrastructure, including the Maritime
Administrations Federal Ship Financing Program.
Transmission
Renewable generation resourcesparticularly high-quality onshore and offshore wind, hydroelectric, and solar resourcesare located in North American
regions at a distance from demand centers and thus require the construction
and interconnection of high voltage transmission lines. The 2015 Quadrennial
Energy Review projected increased transmission investments to address aging
infrastructure and system congestion and to connect these renewable resources
with demand centers.92 Projections by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
indicate that the high penetrations of wind needed to increase low-carbon generation in the eastern United States would require transmission construction or result
in curtailment of wind projects.93 Permitting, siting, and financing transmission
projects have presented challenges to linking these resources.
The recent passage of the Fixing Americas Surface Transportation Act established a
unified dashboard through which federal agencies report performance schedules
varying by scope and project type but held to standardized deadlinesin order
to increase transparency, create common metrics, track environmental review and
stakeholder input, and expedite review processes.94 The new dashboard represents
President Obamas latest move to prioritize infrastructure development and remove
bureaucratic barriers where appropriate; another pending action includes the finalization of rules regarding a pre-application process aligning federal authorizations
across several agencies for electric transmission lines.95 Once finalized, these new
features will aid the development of transmission lines bringing renewable energy
from high-quality resource areas to demand centers. The long-term development
of transmission projectswhich command significant lead time due to siting and
regulatory processes, especially when multiple states are involvedwill require the
next president to increase funding for federal agency infrastructure review officers in
order to keep agencies on track under the new performance standards.
The next president and Congress should create incentives for transmission infrastructure projects by adding qualified transmission projects to the investment tax
credit scheme under section 48 of the Internal Revenue Code.96 The investment
tax credit was initially established by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 in order to
incentivize the production of solar technology.97 The investment tax credit gives
a direct tax rebate of a certain percentage of an investment for qualifying assets.
These assets are optimal for projects that require a large upfront investment, and
many companies prefer them because they can be sold for cash value to institutional investors.98 A transmission investment tax credit would aid investment
in infrastructure, as it has done for solar, which is projected to double in capacity from 2016 to 2020 due to the recent solar investment tax credit extension.99
Setting project qualifications above a voltage level and/or limiting the investment
tax credit to direct current lines would further promote transmission projects
related to renewable energy development.
Collaboration with North American neighbors

Energy trade in North America reached $65 billion between the
United States and Mexico in 2012 and $140 billion between the
United States and Canada in 2013, reflecting increasing energy system integration across both borders.100 Cross-border electricity trade
between the United States and Canada is nearly as old as the grid
itself, dating to an interconnection near Niagara Falls in 1901. Since
that time, total average daily electricity trade between the United
States and its bordering neighbors has grown to upwards of 218 gigawatt-hours per dayenough to power 20,000 homes daily.101 These
trade activities aid each country by promoting access to clean energy
resourcesfrom Canadian hydropower to Mexican windwhile also
enhancing grid reliability in times of need.102
In recent years, the United States, Canada, and Mexico have each
been advancing climate and clean energy policies across North
America. While President Obama continues to advance his domestic
climate agenda, the Canadian premiers have begun to develop a
pan-Canadian plan to accelerate emissions reductions, and Mexico
has implemented its Energy Transition Law to drive clean energy
development.103 In addition, collaboration among the three nations
has grown tremendously, as seen in the U.S.-Canada Joint Statement on Climate, Energy, and Arctic Leadership released in March
2016; the North American Leaders Summit held in June 2016; and
the U.S.-Mexico state visit in July 2016. In each of these, climate and
energy were a primary pillar of collaboration.104 It is notable that
each country has committed to increase RD&D funding commitments, promote common industrial energy management standards,
work jointly on green government activities such as clean energy
procurement, and achieve 50 percent clean power generation
across the continent by 2025.105
The next president should charge relevant federal agencies with work
with its counterparts in Canada and Mexico to:
Implement the commitments of the 2016 North American Leaders
Summit, sustain the trilateral climate and energy engagement, and
promote new, stronger commitments in the future
Harness the benefits of collaborative RD&D through the Mission
Innovation initiative and other enterprises
Complete the North America renewable integration study recommended by the 2015 Quadrennial Energy Review and use it to
identify, incentivize, and remove barriers to clean energy project
development, including cross-border transmission projects, over
the next 10 years106
Continue collaborative efforts on energy data collection, scrubbing,
and coordination with the goal of informing continent-wide energy
modeling in future clean energy studies107
Expand EV integration initiatives to appropriate Canadian and Mexican regions and trade routes
Identify opportunities to strengthen deployment of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies through coordination
and trade with Canada and Mexico, particularly when considering
setting new goals or designing new policies and programs, while
promoting similar partnerships at the regional level among states,
provinces, cities, and tribes108
Ensure that regulatory and infrastructure investment decisions in
North America reflect the need to reduce carbon emissions
Energy storage
Another enabling infrastructure for renewable generation is energy storage.
One of the technical obstacles to greater deployment and integration of renewable technologies is their variable and intermittent generation output. Energy
storage technologies balance these characteristics by reducing the curtailment
of excess generation, meeting peak demand, and assisting power quality regulation.109 Across the variety of storage technologiesincluding batteries, pumped
hydroelectric storage, flywheels, and other systemscosts are an ongoing
barrier to adoption.110 With continued investment, storage costs are expected to
decline. For example, the capital cost of lithium-ion batteries is expected to fall
50 percent from 2015 to 2020.111
Many states and utilities are already expanding their use of energy storage. Since
2014, California, Oregon, and Massachusetts have announced storage requirements for their electricity systems. Californias storage mandate calls for 1.3
gigawatts of capacity by 2022; in response, one utilitySouthern California
Edisonpurchased more than 250 megawatts of capacity in 2014, five times its
quota.112 While promising, these mandates can only be fulfilled if the regulatory
environment for storage is clarified and storage-friendly policies are implemented.
While recent attention has focused on advanced technology for energy storage
such as batteries and flywheels, the DOE estimates that there is major potential to
develop pumped-storage hydropower, or PSH, resources. A PSH project provides
for water to be pumped to elevation when electricity is plentiful and then to be
subsequently run through a turbine to generate electricity when needed. While
the DOE has modeled as much as 36 gigawatts of additional PSH capacity by
2050 under a combination of technology and finance scenarios,113 every PSH
project would have to be carefully evaluated for environmental consequences,
costs, and other effects to determine its appropriateness.
The next president should recommend that Congress expand the investment tax
credit to explicitly include energy storage technologies. Because storage technologies do not produce energy, a storage investment tax credit would likely be based
on the amount of energy that each unit could store. Similar to the transmission
investment tax credit proposal, a storage investment tax credit would attract
investors to install storage technologies, driving further integration of renewable
generation into the electric grid while also enhancing its reliability.
Additionally, the next president should call for the DOE to complete a study on
the carbon benefits of storage. The benefits that energy storage provides to renewable generation have been documented, but a comprehensive assessment of the
emissions reduction potential for broader uses of storage is needed.114 Storages
ancillary servicessuch as regulating the physical properties of electricitysupport electric power transmission and distribution systems, and under FERC
Order 890, energy storage and other demand resources must be considered as
alternatives to new transmission.115 When serving as a demand response or outage
recovery tool, energy storage often serves as a substitute for fast-response fossil
fuel power plants, providing those services at lower costs.116 Energy storage provides value by avoiding the costs of new infrastructure investments and performing services less expensively than fossil fuel generation, but the broader effect of
energy storage on carbon emissions is less understood.
Energy storage currently occupies a gray area in the wholesale and retail electricity markets, potentially classified as either a transmission or generation asset.
The multiple services that storage provides make the case for its classification as
an asset in more than one category and affect which entities regulate it and how
utilities incorporate investment costs into their electric rate structures. To date,
the FERC has decided to classify energy storage on a case-by-case basis, as seen
in its decision to side with the Midcontinent Independent System Operator in
classifying an Indiana battery facility as a generation asset in a 2016 interconnection dispute.117 In 2016, the FERC issued a formal data request regarding energy
storage and wholesale electric markets.118 The next president should recommend
to the FERC that it set clear and flexible standards for the classification of different storage technologies by size and services provided to clarify the regulatory
landscape and encourage the deployment of these technologies.
Electric vehicles
EVs are often considered a clean energy or carbon emissions solution due to
their potential role in reducing emissions from the transportation sector. As
a result, state and federal policymakers have implemented regulatory and tax
incentive programs to drive new EV deployment. Between 2011 and 2015,
cumulative U.S. sales reached more than 400,000 plug-in vehicles, manufactured by 13 different automakers. As of 2015, approximately 30,000 EV charging stations operate in the United States.119 When considered in the context of
the electric power sector, however, EVs play an additional role as a new source
of demand and potentially as a purveyor of grid services.120 To that end, the

DOE and Edison Electric Institute, which represents U.S. investor-owned utilities, launched a utility partnership that includes augmenting the Workplace
Charging Challenge and other charging infrastructure deployment programs.
This year, the White House also announced several initiatives and partnerships
aimed at financing and planning EV charging infrastructure.121
Charging availability near economic activity, residences, and commercial or government vehicle fleet parking sites will drive electricity demand growth on the
distribution system, providing potential grid services but also posing challenges
to the distribution system.122 When connected to the grid, EVs may provide services such as frequency regulation, demand response and peak reduction, and
others, with a broad range of potential value to utilities depending on time of
connection and region.123 Partnerships among the federal government, utilities,
automakers, and other stakeholders create benefits by utilizing the technical and
policy analysis capabilities of the DOE and National Laboratories to identify
and maximize EV benefits to the grid as well as economic benefits for consumers and manufacturers.
Siting charging infrastructure appropriately is key to capturing the potential
value of EVs to the grid and drivers simultaneously. Utilities must address the
addition of EV charging infrastructure near parking, whether at businesses or
parking garages in the daytime or residences at night, by managing new demand
and/or new services the EVs may provide.124 In residential neighborhoods,
particularly in urban areas, existing municipal streetlights offer a potential entry
point for utilities to connect concentrated populations of EVs with existing
infrastructure they often manage or own. Currently, the DOE Better Buildings
Outdoor Lighting Accelerator works with local governments, utilities, and other
stakeholders to increase LED replacement of the United States approximately
44 million streetlight fixtures, among other outdoor lighting installations, more
than 60 percent of which are owned by utilities.125 As municipalities move to
implement LED streetlight conversion to achieve energy efficiency goals, utilities may consider adding on-street charging infrastructure at streetlight fixtures
as a way to circumvent loss of revenue and provide additional distribution
grid services. The next president should call on the DOE to work with states,
municipalities, utilities, and other stakeholders to install charging infrastructure
when retrofitting streetlights with LED bulbs as a combined second phase to its
Workplace Charging Challenge and Outdoor Lighting Accelerator.
In July 2016, the Obama administration announced actions that the federal
government and private sector will take to increase access to EV charging and promote EV adoption, including by designating a network of EV charging stations as
part of zero-emission corridors, strategic locations for alternative fueling stations
and related infrastructure along highways or other roadways to improve mobility
for vehicles using such technologies.126 In fall 2016, the White House will convene
state and local governments, utilities, automakers, charging companies, and other
stakeholders to identify needs for a nationwide network for fast-charging stations,
which are high-power chargers that can charge an EV battery in 20 to 30 minutes. The next president should use this needs assessment to identify and implement policy changes, procurement actions, and financing mechanisms to further
develop zero-emission vehicle corridors and greater EV adoption. Additionally,
to broaden the effects of this endeavor, the next president should charge the DOE
and other relevant agencies with following this initial meeting with outreach to
government and industry stakeholders in Mexico and Canada to identify crossborder corridors for zero-emission vehicles and charging infrastructure.
Advancing state, local, and tribal energy policies

State, local, and tribal governments significantly shape the energy
policies of their respective jurisdictions and, considered together, of
the United States as a whole. Their energy resources, policies, and
needs are diverse and location-specific, and the policy levers useful
to decision-makers at each level vary greatly. Technical assistance,
policy solutions, and funding needs differ as well. Because of the
historic role of state, local, and tribal governments in energy policy
and regulation, the next president and Congress should seek to enlist
their constructive engagement in ensuring that the nation remains
on a pathway to a low-carbon future. This initiative can take the
form of coordinated state, local, and tribal clean energy engagement
initiatives, as appropriate to each level, and can bring a focus to the
implementation of select recommendations in this report:
Award additional funding to state building code programs when

states significantly enhance their building energy efficiency efforts
Renewable energy deployment and integration
Develop a DOE-led team of experts to support state, local, and tribal

decision-makers, including PUCs, with targeted technical assistance
on clean energy options
Work with border states to identify opportunities to strengthen the
deployment of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies through coordination and trade with neighboring Canadian
and Mexican counterparts
Launch an EV charging infrastructure and streetlight retrofit challenge with states, municipalities, utilities, and others to advance
grid integration and energy efficiency at the same time
Energy efficiency
Direct the DOE to develop stretch building energy codes and

provide technical assistance to states in order to increase their
implementation
Energy finance
Work with the federal energy finance director to identify and apply
for financing at different federal agencies appropriate for state, local, and tribal stakeholders
Reshaping the federal role in energy

From the 1970s through today, the federal government has reduced its energy use
through building and fleet energy efficiency improvements and increased its renewable energy use through onsite installations and power purchasing.127 By setting
and meetingbenchmarks for energy efficiency, carbon emissions, water use, and
other metrics, these efforts have set an example outside the federal government.128
Even with significant progress toward President Obamas federal energy use and
emissions reduction goals, the next president and Congress will need to set an ambitious agenda, communicate it clearly throughout the federal government, and give
agencies the tools they need to achieve energy and emissions savings.
Place climate and clean energy at the top of the executive branch agenda
President Obamas commitment to addressing climate change has prioritized
the issue throughout the executive branchsecuring it as a top agenda item for
relevant Cabinet officials, the presidents senior adviser, the White House Council
on Environmental Quality, the Domestic Policy Councils Energy and Climate
Change team, and several other White House offices. This has included elevating
it in each years budget and through public speaking and championing legislative action on climate and clean energy. Each White House office has devoted its
resourceswhether expertise, skills, budget, or relationships with relevant federal
agencies and members of Congressto this effort. As described in this report,
the increasing complexity of energy policymaking requires strong leadership and
coordination within the White House, across the executive branch, and in working with Congress. The next president should prioritize climate and clean energy
in the structure and staffing of his or her White House policy offices.
Established under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, the CEQ exists
as an advisory body to the president and as the coordinator of federal interagency environmental policy development and implementation of the act.129 As
a statutorily derived body, CEQs mission captures the intertwined character of
environmental, energy, climate, economic, and social policy deliberation.130 The
expertise, resources, and personnel needed to execute the next presidents climate
and energy agenda may continue to dwell in several White House offices, but this
agendas urgency and complexity call for improvements to this arrangement.
With that in mind, the next president should combine the Domestic Policy
Councils Energy and Climate Change team and other climate, energy, and
environmental posts into the CEQ and charge it with an integrative policymaking
approach as the White House and interagency lead on climate, clean energy, and
environmental issues. The next president should name a senior adviser focusing
on climate and clean energy or nominate a high-profile individual as chair of the
CEQ, elevating that role to the Cabinet level.
The beginning of a new term is a moment for the president to clarify his or her
agenda to the public by reorganizing internal White House structures and processes
where possible and appropriate. Centralizing interagency coordination, decisionmaking, communications with outside stakeholders, and policy formulation on
climate, energy, and environmental issues within the CEQ will better strengthen the
White Houses ability to lead high-priority, cross-cutting issues and clearly communicate the next presidents agenda across agencies and to the American people.
Improve federal energy use

Since the 1970s, efforts to reduce federal energy use have gained bipartisan support as a means to save taxpayer dollars, reduce dependence on foreign oil, and
demonstrate leadership on sustainability. As the single largest consumer of energy
in the United States, the federal government has demonstrated strong leadership on energy efficiency in its buildings and fleets and by developing renewable
energy projects to meet its energy needs.131 In 2015, the EIA announced that
federal energy use had reached its lowest point since recordkeeping began in
1975, owing to falling jet fuel use and a 40 percent increase in facility energy efficiency.132 President Obama signed two executive orders setting and subsequently
updating ambitious energy efficiency and renewable energy deployment goals for
the next decade, including a goal of 30 percent renewable energy by 2025.133
The next president will enter office with well-coordinated interagency efforts
underway to achieve these ambitious targets, but opportunities remain to streamline processes in order to achieve or go beyond those goals and to build the
foundation for even greater energy savings and carbon emissions reductions. To aid
the achievement of near-term goals, the next president should elevate the agenda
of federal energy use and sustainability by making his or her Cabinet members
accountable for the metrics outlined in current executive orders and, by extension,
making it their own priority, thereby setting the stage for even more ambitious
targets for energy efficiency, renewable electricity, and other sustainability metrics.
One way to prioritize this agenda includes Cabinet officials naming a full-time
chief sustainability officer for their agencies, similar to each agencys chief financial
officer or chief information officer. Agencies currently assign energy efficiency
and sustainability roles on top of the existing responsibilities of senior officials,
rather than dedicating an employee to the core functions performed by energy,
water, resilience, land use, and other environmental services.134 Additionally, the
next president should task the federal chief sustainability officer with establishing
a policy working group made up of each federal agencys chief sustainability officer
and general counsel, or other relevant staff attorneys, in order to standardize guidance for contracting, procurement, and appropriations language across relevant
energy efficiency and renewable energy regulations.
The U.S. Department of Defense and military services have forged a path for
renewable energy generation on federal lands, providing renewable energy to those
facilities and, at times, to their surrounding communities. For example, the U.S.
Navy worked with the Western Area Power Administration to sign a power purchase agreement with Sempra U.S. Gas & Power, securing electricity for 14 Navy
and Marine Corps installations in California from a 210 megawatt solar PV plant
that will also help meet Californias renewable portfolio standard goal.135 Civilian
federal agencies are currently limited to 10-year power purchase agreements and
to retaining ownership of generation equipment when procuring power through
performance contracting; both contract stipulations make it difficult to finance
renewable energy installations.136 The next Congress should pass legislation enabling
civilian federal agencies to sign, at a minimum, 20-year power purchase agreements
to continue the success illustrated by the Department of Defense. The next president
should also direct the Office of Management and Budget to issue guidance enabling
the option to purchase generation equipment during or after the term of a performance contract rather than requiring ownership outright.
Elevating energy finance

In the past decade, the federal government has sought to overcome financial
barriers to energy efficiency and renewable energy deployment across technologies, development stages, business models, and jurisdictions. Building on historic
investments in clean energy through the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act of 2009, this federal support has taken several forms: the DOEs Advanced
Research Projects Agency-Energy supports companies developing early-stage
technologies considered too early for private sector investment; the DOE Loan
Programs Offices direct loan and loan guarantee authorities finance demonstration stage technologies; and its applied energy offices help states create markets
for deployment through ongoing technical assistance, grants, and research.137 (see
Figure 4) The most significant recent incentives to promote clean energy deployment endeavors came in the 2015 extension of the solar and wind tax credits.138
FIGURE 4
The clean energy innovation ecosystem

Public and private sector investment in clean energy technologies and innovation
Stages:
Federal
investment
& policy
Private
investment
Illustrative
technologies
BASIC & APPLIED RESEARCH
DEMONSTRATION
COMMERCIAL VIABILITY
ECONOMIC VIABILITY
Government research grants,

ARPA-E, R&D tax credits
Entrepreneur & angel investors
Wave and tidal power, vacuum-based

window insulation, flow batteries
Loan guarantees, applied energy grants,

& technology commercialization grants
Venture capital
Private equity
& debt financing
Offshore wind power, geothermal power,

some building sensors and controls, flywheels
Technical assistance,
investment and
production tax credits
Investment banks
& stock owners
Solar PV, onshore wind, LED

bulbs, lithium-ion batteries
Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Quadrennial Technology Review: An Assessment of Energy Technologies and Research Opportunities (2015), available at http://energy.gov/under-secretary-science-and-energy/quadrennial-technology-review; L.M. Murphy and P.L. Edwards, "Bridging the Valley of Death: Transitioning from Public to Private Sector Financing" (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2003), available
at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy03/34036.pdf; Jesse Jenkins and Sara Mansur, "Bridging the Clean Energy Valleys of Death" (Oakland, CA: Breakthrough Institute, 2011), available at http://thebreakthrough.org/blog/Valleys_of_Death.pdf; Philip E. Auerswald and Lewis M. Branscomb, "Valleys of Death and Darwinian Seas: Financing the Invention to Innovation Transition in the United States," Journal of
Technology Transfer 28 (3) (2003): 227239, available at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1024980525678.
From an economy-wide perspective, these policies and investments have encouraged the private sector to follow suit, and in 2015, new U.S. investment in renewable energy reached $44 billion, with global investment totaling a record $285.9
billion.139 Given the current fiscal and political realities in the United States, and in
many other countries as well, the federal government is an unlikely source for this
level of direct investment. Instead, lowering barriers to private sector financing
and unlocking federal government financial incentives at key points in technology
development and deployment has become critical.
Kick-start working capital for federal energy financing awardees

Energy efficiency and renewable energy projects funded through the federal
governments existing financing mechanisms undergo due diligence processes to
better understand and mitigate risks. Upon receiving funding or financing, projects work to meet a schedule of milestones set by the financing agency, but new
companies focused on attracting private investment and market adoption often
face significant, albeit low-cost, challenges in covering the expenses of business
operations or funding for so-called working capital. Working capital costs are one
expenditure that companies seek to cover with funds from venture capital investments, but early stage and/or capital intensive energy projects that require longer
periods for return on investment do not always attract venture capital interest.140
In 2015, Vice President Joseph Biden launched the DOEs Clean Energy
Investment Center, a clearinghouse for information on energy finance across
federal agencies and a source for technical assistance.141 Establishing a revolving
loan fund for clean energy working capital at the Clean Energy Investment Center
would enable young companies to receive small sum loans to cover business
operations and other working capital costs outside the bounds of larger loan guarantee, grant, and other federal or private sector assistance. The next president and
Congress should create a revolving loan fund able to make loans using existing due
diligence processes and award recipients of larger DOE grants or loans additional
small loansup to $500,000tied to the milestones of the initial grant or loan.
Elevate energy finance within the next administration

and new infrastructure bank proposals
Significant existing federal financing mechanisms remain underutilized, untapped,
or lack coordination among offices within agencies, across agencies, or with
private-sector investors. The Department of Energy has published a catalogue of
federal finance programs for clean energy to assist different market segments
from multifamily housing to large manufacturers.142 The scale of investment
neededboth globally and domesticallyand the challenges in identifying
federal financial mechanisms suited to specific project types and in coordinating
across agencies call for elevating the role of clean energy investment.
The Center for American Progress recently proposed a national infrastructure

investment authority, calling on Congress to grant it authority to make loans,
structure repayment to match infrastructure payback periods and revenues, and
group projects as needed.143 Given the importance of energy infrastructure to
meeting climate, economic, and other goals in the national interest, the next president and Congress should make financing energy infrastructure projects a key
feature of any infrastructure bank or other investment authority. This also means
drawing on existing expertise and tools to maximize the effectiveness of clean
energy finance up and down the RD&D and deployment pipeline and to build
and financecoalitions and regional efforts to support clean energy infrastructure projects that benefit multiple jurisdictions.
The next president should also name a federal energy finance director, elevate that
position to the Council on Environmental Quality, and empower that individual
to coordinate interagency policymaking and decision-making. The new federal
energy finance director would identify new financing opportunities and partnerships and convene stakeholders in the energy and financial industries to pursue
clean energy investment goals. Current clean energy finance policy coordination
occurs among several Cabinet agencies and White House offices, but no single
White House official or office has led coordination among relevant agencies for
clean energy project development.
Thinking beyond 2030: Clean

energy RD&D and deployment
The policies outlined in this report focus on accelerating deployment of energy
efficiency and renewable energy technologies to meet current goals and set a
path toward decarbonizing the U.S. energy system. Most of the proposals will
come to fruition in the next few years, but in the longer term, the United States
will need to identify and implement additional measures, new energy technologies, and increased investments in the low-carbon economy. The decarbonization scenarios discussed earlier in this report describe some pathways to those
long-term goals, and there remains a clear role for clean energy RD&D going
forward: driving down the costs of key energy efficiency, renewable energy, and
storage technologies.
The 2015 Quadrennial Technology Review provides technology assessments
of each major clean energy technology and outlines current and future research
goals. In each case, the improvement of a broad range of characteristicssuch
as design, manufacturing, physical or communications integration with the
electric power system, and othersreduces the cost of the technology, enabling
it to become more competitive with incumbents.144 The DOE and National
Laboratories RD&D activities result in a steady stream of exciting discoveries
across the clean energy landscape, including advances in solar PV materials and
more efficient motors.145 As the federal governments RD&D agency, the DOE
also sets and periodically updates cost achievement goals to orient its RD&D
efforts and justify budget expenditures.146 The recent cost reductions in solar
PV cell and module manufacturing illustrate the relationship between costs
and technical efficiencies and the effects ofand argument forgoal-oriented
RD&D funding.147 The DOEs Fiscal Year 2017 Budget Request sets goals for
continuing cost declines in several clean energy technologies that extend these
recent trends. (see Figure 5)
FIGURE 5
An example of falling costs and federal cost goals

U.S. median installed prices of solar PV systems from 1998 to 2015, by dollars per Watt
$15
Residential solar PV
Nonresidential solar PV, less
than or equal to 500 kilowatts
$12
$9
$6
Nonresidential solar PV,
greater than 500 kilowatts
$3
Utility-scale solar PV
$0
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
20152020:
DOE Goal
Note: Price data availability reflects the appearance of significant capacity in the U.S. market of each technology. For example, the first
solar PV project greater than 5 megawatts was intsalled in 2007. Cumulative solar electricity generation capacity was approximately 1.2
gigawatts in 2007, including only 35 megawatts of utility-scale solar PV. (See Figure 4)
Source: Authors' data on residential and nonresidential solar PV from Galen L. Barbose and Nam R. Darghouth, Tracking the Sun IX: The
Installed Price of Residential and Non-residential Photovalic Systems in the United States (U.S. Department of Energy, 2016), available at
https://emp.lbl.gov/publications/tracking-sun-ix-installed-price; data on utility-scale solar PV from Mark Bolinger and Joachim Seel,
Utility-Scale Solar 2015: An Empirical Analysis of Project Cost, Performance, and Pricing Trends in the United States (U.S. Department of Energy,
2016), available at https://emp.lbl.gov/publications/utility-scale-solar-2015-empirical; U.S. Department of Energy, On the Path to Sunshot:
Executive Summary (2016), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/05/f31/OTPSS%20-%20Executive%20Summary-508.pdf.
In 2015, President Obama announced Mission Innovation, an effort to double

public sector investment in clean energy RD&D among 20 countries that represent
75 percent of global carbon emissions and more than 80 percent of current investment.148 He outlined several Mission Innovation items in his fiscal year 2017 budget
proposal, and Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz led the first Mission Innovation
Ministerial to continue building its international collaborative measures.149 The next
president should support Mission Innovation by proposing additional clean energy
RD&D funding in his or her first budget for fiscal year 2018.
That additional funding request should complement current RD&D funding
across federal agencies by addressing the most challenging long-term carbon
emissions reductions needs and the technologies that show promise in addressing them. As the electric power sector continues to evolve and decarbonize its
generation units over time, carbon emissions from the transportation, industrial,
and end-use sectors will increase in importance. As an example, the Energy
Information Administration recently indicated that U.S. transportation emissions have overtaken power sector emissions.150 This recent shift in emissions
share indicates the totality of addressing climate change: Reducing emissions in
only one sector of the economy will not achieve the goal. Taking into account the
differences in technologies, policy approaches, and RD&D agendas used in the
industrial and transportation sectors, the next president should increase funding
through Mission Innovation to match appropriately the need for innovation and
long-term solutions in these sectors.
Conclusion: Summary
of recommendations
Strengthening energy efficiency as a foundation for action
Appliance efficiency standards
Adopt ASAP/ACEEE recommendations to strengthen the DOEs appliance
efficiency standards program and increase its funding
Address the energy efficiency of other use technologies by lowering the energy
threshold requirements for the DOE to designate new product categories and
make that threshold applicable to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors
Enable the DOE to set performance-based standards for new product categories to allow more flexibility for the DOE and manufacturers to achieve greater
energy savings
Building codes
Direct the DOE to develop stretch building energy codes and provide technical
assistance to states in order to increase their implementation
Fund state building code programs when states significantly enhance their
building energy efficiency efforts
Energy data, connected devices, and cybersecurity risks
Direct relevant federal agencies to develop and set cybersecurity standards for
the distribution system that also encourage the growth and energy efficiency of
the distributed energy device market
Champion the Green Button program to provide higher quantity and quality
energy data to utility customers and third-party service providers
Request a road map for interoperability and cybersecurity standards and EM&V
methods to optimize building energy efficiency
Enabling renewable energy deployment and integration

Electric rates and valuation
Develop a DOE-led team of experts to support state decision-makers, including
PUCs, with targeted technical assistance on clean energy options
Infrastructure for renewable energy deployment
Set regionally appropriate standards for shared infrastructuresuch as
port facilities or highwaysto aid the deployment of renewable energy
infrastructure
Increase funding for financing mechanisms that support enabling infrastructure
projects relevant to clean energy deployment
Transmission
Create an investment tax credit for qualified transmission projects
Collaboration with Mexico and Canada
Foster continued collaboration and ambition among North American leaders
on climate change and clean energy
Strengthen collaborative, cross-border efforts on clean energy RD&D, renewable energy integration, energy data, and clean energy trade
Energy storage
Create a separate investment tax credit for energy storage technologies
Direct the DOE to complete a study of the carbon benefits of energy storage
Recommend to the FERC that it set clear and flexible standards for consideration of energy storage as an asset to the grid
Electric vehicles
Launch an electric vehicle charging infrastructure and streetlight retrofit challenge with states, municipalities, utilities, and others to advance grid integration
and energy efficiency at the same time
Expand EV integration initiatives to appropriate Canadian and Mexican regions
and trade routes
Reshaping the federal role in energy

Climate and clean energy: The top of the agenda
Make climate and clean energy a priority for the executive branch
Elevate the role of the Council on Environmental Quality as the lead coordinating body for climate, energy, and environmental issues within the White House
and interagency and combine additional related White House offices under the
CEQ, where possible
Name a senior adviser to the president focused on climate and clean energy
Improve federal energy use
Hold the Cabinet accountable for their agencies energy use and metrics
Request that Cabinet officials name a full-time chief sustainability officer
Charge the CEQ and federal agencies with standardizing guidance for contracting, procurement, and appropriations language interpretation for energy
efficiency and renewable energy installations
Pass legislation authorizing at least 20-year minimum power purchase agreements for civilian agencies to procure clean energy
Direct the Office of Management and Budget to allow agencies to purchase
generation equipment during or after performance contracting terms
Energy finance
Create a revolving loan fund to assist federal energy financing awardees with
their business operation costs and aid them in reaching performance milestones
Make clean energy infrastructure financing central to any national infrastructure
bank proposal
Name a federal energy finance director to the CEQ to coordinate interagency
energy financing policy and assist stakeholders in finding resources across
agencies
Thinking beyond 2030: Clean energy RD&D and deployment

Increase clean energy RD&D funding by supporting Mission Innovation in the
first budget proposal
Match that funding to long-term, low-carbon solutions across the energy sector
About the authors

Luke H. Bassett is the Associate Director of Domestic Energy Policy at the Center
for American Progress, where he works on U.S. climate and energy policy, including renewable energy and energy efficiency policies.
Myriam Alexander-Kearns is the Research Associate for the Energy Policy team at
the Center for American Progress and contributed to the electric vehicle section
of this report.
Jerusalem Demsas is a former intern with the Energy Policy team at the Center
and contributed to the energy storage section of this report.
Acknowledgments
Several staff at the Center for American Progress contributed to this report,
including Greg Dotson, Alison Cassady, Pete Ogden, Gwynne Taraska, and Erin
Auel. Additionally, this report draws on the expert analysis of numerous colleagues at the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Laboratories, and several
nonprofit, academic, and private sector leaders.
Endnotes
1 Public opinion regarding climate change has shifted
in recent years toward greater recognition of climate
science, anthropogenic causes, and a need for climate
action. Anthony Leiserowitz and others, Climate
Change in the American Mind: March 2016 (New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, 2016), available at http://climatecommunication.
yale.edu/publications/climate-change-americanmind-march-2016. Additionally, business leaders are
increasingly discussing climate change and making
commitments to increase energy efficiency and renewable energy use. For more information, see RE100, a
coalition of businesses committing to 100 percent
renewable power. RE100, About RE100, available at
http://there100.org/re100 (last accessed September
2016); Jeff McMahon, How Business Leapfrogged
Government on Climate Action, Forbes, December
8, 2015, available at http://www.forbes.com/sites/
jeffmcmahon/2015/12/08/how-business-leapfroggedgovernment-on-climate-action; Kevin Moss, Business
and Climate Action: The Times They Are A-Changin,
World Resources Institute, December 2, 2015, available
at http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/12/business-andclimate-action-times-they-are-changin.
2 James H. Williams, Benjamin Haley, and Ryan Jones,
Policy Implications of Deep Decarbonization in
the United States (San Francisco; Paris: Energy and
Environmental Economics, Inc.; Deep Decarbonization
Pathways Project, 2015), available at http://deepdecarbonization.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/
US_Deep_Decarbonization_Policy_Report.pdf.
3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 19902014 (2016),
available at https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/
Downloads/ghgemissions/US-GHG-Inventory2016-Main-Text.pdf; Williams, Haley, and Jones, Policy
Implications of Deep Decarbonization in the United
States.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks; U.S. Department of
Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis, Current Dollar and Real Gross Domestic Product (2016), available
at http://bea.gov/national/xls/gdplev.xls.
5 U.S. Department of Energy, Revolution . . . Now: The
Future Arrives for Five Clean Energy Technologies 2015
Update (2015), available at http://energy.gov/sites/
prod/files/2015/11/f27/Revolution-Now-11132015.pdf.
6 These figures exclude large hydropower projects.
Frankfurt School-United Nations Environment
Programme Collaborating Centre for Climate and Sustainable Energy Finance, Global Trends in Renewable
Energy Investment 2016 (2016), available at http://
fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/publications/globaltrendsinrenewableenergyinvestment2016lowres_0.
pdf.
7 Leiserowitz and others, Climate Change in the American Mind.
8 For information on climate change impacts to the United States, see U.S. Global Change Research Program,
U.S. National Climate Assessment (2014), available at
http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report. For information on global effects, see Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability (2014), available at https://
www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2.
9 National Centers for Environmental Information,

Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Overview, available at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions
(last accessed July 2016); U.S. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for
Space Studies, 2016 Climate Trends Continue to Break
Records, July 19, 2016, available at http://www.giss.
nasa.gov/research/news/20160719. See also National
Centers for Environmental Information, State of the
Climate: Global Analysis May 2016 (2016), available at
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201605.
10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate
Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (2014),
available at https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1;
John Cook and others, Consensus on Consensus: A
Synthesis of Consensus Estimates on Human-Caused
Global Warming, Environmental Research Letters 11
(2016): 17, available at http://iopscience.iop.org/
article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002/meta.
11 Executive Office of the President, The Presidents Climate
Action Plan (2013), available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/image/president27sclimateactionplan.pdf. For President Obamas full record
on climate, energy, and environmental issues, see The
White House, A Historic Commitment to Protecting the
Environment and Reversing Climate Change, available
at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-record/climate
(last accessed August 2016); Executive Office of the
President, A Retrospective Assessment of Clean Energy
Investments in the Recovery Act (2016), available at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/page/
files/20160225_cea_final_clean_energy_report.pdf;
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Power
Plan for Existing Power Plants, available at https://
www.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/clean-power-planexisting-power-plants (last accessed August 2016); U.N.
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Adoption
of the Paris Agreement (2015), available at https://
unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09.pdf.
12 U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, U.S.
Cover Note, INDC and Accompanying Information
(2015), available at http://www4.unfccc.int/Submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/United%20
States%20of%20America/1/U.S.%20Cover%20Note%20
INDC%20and%20Accompanying%20Information.pdf;
U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Adoption of the Paris Agreement.
13 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Power
Plan for Existing Power Plants; Adam Liptak and Coral
Davenport, Supreme Court Deals Blow to Obamas
Efforts to Regulate Coal Emissions, The New York Times,
February 9, 2016, available at http://www.nytimes.
com/2016/02/10/us/politics/supreme-court-blocksobama-epa-coal-emissions-regulations.html.
14 U.N. Environment Programme, The Emissions Gap
Report 2015 (2015), available at http://web.unep.org/
emissionsgapreport2015.
15 U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Adoption of the Paris Agreement.
16 This calculation excludes conventional hydroelectric

power and biomass generation. U.S. Department
of Energy, Revolution . . . Now; U.S. Energy Information Administration, Solar, Natural Gas, Wind Make
Up Most 2016 Generation Additions, March 1, 2016,
available at http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.
cfm?id=25172; U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Electricity Monthly Update: June 2016 (U.S. Department
of Energy, 2016), Table 6.1, available at http://www.
eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.
cfm?t=epmt_6_01.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks.
18 The U.S Energy Information Administration defines
energy intensity as a ratio of energy consumption
to another metric, typically national gross domestic
product in the case of a countrys energy intensity. U.S
Energy Information Administration, Glossary, available
at https://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/index.cfm?id=e
(last accessed August 2016). See also Peter J. Loftus and
others A Critical Review of Global Decarbonization Scenarios: What Do They Tell Us About Feasibility? WIREs
Climate Change 6 (1) (2015): 93112, available at http://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcc.324/abstract;
Williams, Haley, and Jones, Policy Implications of Deep
Decarbonization in the United States.
19 Williams, Haley, and Jones, Policy Implications of Deep
Decarbonization in the United States.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Fred Sissine, Renewable Energy R&D Funding History:
A Comparison With Funding for Nuclear Energy, Fossil
Energy, and Energy Efficiency R&D (Washington: Congressional Research Service, 2014), available at https://
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22858.pdf; Terrence
R. Fehner and Jack M. Hall, Department of Energy
19771994: A Summary History (Washington: U.S.
Department of Energy, 1994), available at http://energy.
gov/sites/prod/files/edg/media/Summary_History.pdf.
23 Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy, ARPA-E
History, available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpae-site-page/arpa-e-history (last accessed August 2016);
U.S. Department of Energy Loan Programs Office,
About Us, available at http://energy.gov/lpo/aboutus-home (last accessed August 2016); U.S. Department
of Energy, Funding and Financing, available at http://
energy.gov/public-services/funding-financing (last
accessed August 2016).
24 U.S. Department of Energy, Revolution . . . Now.
25 U.S. Department of Energy, Quadrennial Technology
Review: An Assessment of Energy Technologies and Research Opportunities (2015), available at http://energy.
gov/under-secretary-science-and-energy/quadrennialtechnology-review.
26 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, Soft Costs, available at http://
energy.gov/eere/sunshot/soft-costs (last accessed
August 2016).
and Renewable Energy, 20162020 Strategic Plan and
Implementing Framework (2015), available at http://
energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/12/f27/EERE_Strategic_Plan_12.16.15.pdf. See also L. M. Murphy and P. L.
Edwards, Bridging the Valley of Death: Transitioning
From Public to Private Sector Financing (Golden, CO:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2003), available
at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy03/34036.pdf;
Philip E. Auerswald and Lewis M. Branscomb, Valleys
of Death and Darwinian Seas: Financing the Invention
to Innovation Transition in the United States, Journal of
Technology Transfer 28 (2003): 227239.
28 U.S. Department of Energy, Revolution . . . Now.

29 Herman K. Trabish, NV Energy Buys Utility-Scale Solar
at Record Low Price Under 4 Cents/kWh, Utility Dive,
July 9, 2015, available at http://www.utilitydive.com/
news/nv-energy-buys-utility-scale-solar-at-record-lowprice-under-4-centskwh/401989.
30 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Age of Electric
Power Generators Varies Widely, June 16, 2011, available at https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.
cfm?id=1830.
31 This compares wind, solar, and geothermal net summer
capacity additions to natural gas net summer capacity
additions from 20112015. U.S. Energy Information
Administration, Electric Power Monthly: With Data for
December 2015 (2016), available at http://www.eia.
gov/electricity/monthly/current_year/february2016.
pdf; U.S. Energy Information Administration, Electric
Power Annual 2014 (U.S. Department of Energy, 2016),
available at http://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/
archive/03482014.pdf; U.S. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 2013 (U.S. Department
of Energy, 2015), available at http://www.eia.gov/
electricity/annual/archive/03482013.pdf; U.S. Energy
Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 2012
(U.S. Department of Energy, 2013), available at http://
www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/archive/03482012.
pdf; U.S. Energy Information Administration, Electric
Power Annual 2011 (U.S. Department of Energy, 2013),
available at http://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/
archive/03482011.pdf; see also U.S. Energy Information
Administration, Wind Adds the Most Electric Generation Capacity in 2015, Followed by Natural Gas and
Solar, March 23, 2016, available at http://www.eia.gov/
todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=25492.
32 Steven J. Davis and Robert H. Socolow, Commitment
Accounting of CO2 Emissions, Environmental Research
Letters 9 (2014): 19, available at http://iopscience.iop.
org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/9/8/084018/pdf.
33 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Learn About
Carbon Pollution From Power Plants, available at https://
www.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/learn-about-carbonpollution-power-plants (last accessed August 2016).
34 U.S. Global Change Research Program, The Impacts
of Climate Change on Human Health in the United
States: A Scientific Assessment (2016), available at
https://s3.amazonaws.com/climatehealth2016/high/
ClimateHealth2016_FullReport.pdf; G. Luber and others, Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The
Third National Climate Assessment, Chapter 9: Human
Health (Washington: U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2014), available at http://nca2014.globalchange.
gov/system/files_force/downloads/low/NCA3_Full_Report_09_Human_Health_LowRes.pdf.
35 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fact Sheet: Clean
Power Plan by the Numbers (2015), available at https://
www.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/fact-sheet-clean-power-plan-numbers.
36 U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Energy and Employment Report (2016), available at http://www.energy.
gov/sites/prod/files/2016/03/f30/U.S.%20Energy%20
and%20Employment%20Report.pdf.
37 Ibid.
38 The Solar Foundation, National Jobs Solar Census
(2015), available at http://www.thesolarfoundation.org/
wp-content/uploads/2016/01/TSF-2015-National-SolarJobs-Census.pdf.
39 U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Energy and Employment
Report.
Review.
41 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Global

Energy Intensity Continues to Decline, July 12, 2016,
cfm?id=27032; see also U.S. Department of Energy,
Accelerate Energy Productivity 2030 (2015), available at
http://www.energy2030.org/roadmap.
42 Steven Nadel, 35 Years of Energy Efficiency Progress, 35
More Years of Energy Efficiency Opportunity, American
Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, June 30, 2015,
available at http://aceee.org/blog/2015/06/35-yearsenergy-efficiency-progress.
and Renewable Energy, Standards and Test Procedures, available at http://energy.gov/eere/buildings/
standards-and-test-procedures (last accessed August
2016); U.S. Department of Energy, Saving Energy and
Money With Building Energy Codes in the United States
(2016), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/
files/2016/08/f33/Codes%20Fact%20Sheet%208-25-16.
pdf.
44 U.S. Department of Energy, Saving Energy and Money
With Appliance and Equipment Standards in the United
States (2016), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/
files/2016/02/f29/Appliance%20Standards%20Fact%20
Sheet%20-%202-17-2016.pdf.
45 Chris Mooney, Obama Just Released the Biggest
Energy Efficiency Rule in U.S. History, The Washington
Post, December 17, 2015, available at https://www.
washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/
wp/2015/12/17/meet-the-biggest-energy-efficiencyrule-the-u-s-has-ever-released.
46 Andrew deLaski and others, Next Generation Standards: How the National Energy Efficiency Standards
Program Can Continue to Drive Energy, Economic, and
Environmental Benefits (Washington: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 2016), available
at http://aceee.org/research-report/a1604; American
Physical Society, Energy Units, available at https://
www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/energy/
units.cfm (last accessed September 2016).
47 deLaski and others, Next Generation Standards.
48 Ibid.
49 Current certification, compliance, and enforcement
mechanisms available to the DOE include data submission, certification, and publication; some field spot
testing; and authority to bring enforcement actions
resulting in fines. See deLaski and others, Next Generation Standards; U.S. Department of Energy Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Implementation, Certification and Enforcement, available at http://
energy.gov/eere/buildings/implementation-certification-and-enforcement (last accessed August 2016).
51 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy
Outlook 2015: With Projections to 2040 (U.S. Department
of Energy, 2015), available at http://www.eia.gov/
forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2015).pdf.
52 42 U.S.C. 6295(l), available at https://www.law.cornell.
edu/uscode/text/42/6295.
With Building Energy Codes in the United States.
55 Ibid.
56 Ellen Vaughan and Jim Turner, The Value and Impact

of Building Codes (Washington: Environmental and
Energy Study Institute, 2013), available at http://www.
eesi.org/papers/view/the-value-and-impact-of-building-codes.
57 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Summary of the
Massachusetts Stretch Energy Code (2011), available
at http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/doer/greencommunities/grant-program/stretch-code-summaryjun20-2011.pdf. Massachusetts, Building Energy
Codes (2016), available at http://www.mass.gov/eea/
energy-utilities-clean-tech/energy-efficiency/policiesregs-for-ee/building-energy-codes.html (last accessed
August 2016).
With Building Energy Codes in the United States.
59 U.S. Department of Energy, The National Opportunity for
Interoperability and Its Benefits for a Reliable, Robust, and
Future Grid Realized Through Buildings (2016), available
at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/03/f30/
Interoperability%20and%20National%20Benefits%20
Through%20Buildings-031616.pdf.
60 The 2015 Quadrennial Energy Review outlined the uses
and need for data across the liquid fuel, natural gas,
and electricity sectors and recommended several policy
changes with regard to its use in transmission, storage,
and distribution infrastructure. U.S. Department of
Energy, Quadrennial Energy Review: Energy Transmission,
Storage, and Distribution Infrastructure (2015), available
QER%20Full%20Report_TS%26D%20April%202015_0.
pdf.
61 Stephen Lacey, Lies, Damned Lies and Modeling:
Energy Efficiencys Problem With Tracking Savings,
Greentech Media, June 3, 2015, available at http://
www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/OvercomingEnergy-Efficiencys-Problem-With-Tracking-Savings.
Review.
63 U.S. Department of Energy, The National Opportunity for
Interoperability and Its Benefits for a Reliable, Robust, and
Future Grid Realized Through Buildings.
64 U.S. Department of Energy, Green Button, available
at http://energy.gov/data/green-button (last accessed
August 2016).
65 Dave B. Hardin and others, Buildings Interoperability
Landscape (Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, 2015), available at http://energy.gov/sites/
prod/files/2016/01/f28/BuildingLandscapeReport.pdf;
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, About the Uniform Methods
Project, available at http://energy.gov/eere/about-us/
about-ump (last accessed August 2016); The White
House, Fact Sheet: Cybersecurity National Action Plan,
Press release, February 9, 2016, available at https://
www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/09/
fact-sheet-cybersecurity-national-action-plan.
66 As an example, as of July 2016, 41 states had enacted
net energy metering, a financing policy that incentivizes distributed solar PV installations, but the U.S. solar
resource potential covers more territory than the states
with net energy metering policies. Database of State
Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency, Detailed
Summary Maps: Net Metering Policies, available at
http://www.dsireusa.org/resources/detailed-summarymaps (last accessed August 2016); National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, & Analysis
Tools, available at http://www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html
(last accessed August 2016).
67 Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016, Public Law

114-113, 114th Cong., 1st sess. (January 16, 2015),
available at https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS114hr2029enr/pdf/BILLS-114hr2029enr.pdf.
83 U.S. Department of Energy, State, Local and Tribal

Technical Assistance Gateway, available at http://energy.gov/ta/state-local-and-tribal-technical-assistancegateway (last accessed August 2016).
68 Ibid.; Trieu Mai and others, Impacts of Federal Tax

Credit Extensions on Renewable Deployment and
Power Sector Emissions (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016), available at http://www.
nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65571.pdf.
84 Relevant national membership groups include the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners,
the National Association of State Energy Officers, and
others. See, U.S. Department of Energy, State, Local
and Tribal Technical Assistance Gateway.
69 Mai and others, Impacts of Federal Tax Credit Extensions on Renewable Deployment and Power Sector
Emissions.
85 For direct remarks, see,Michael Li, Remarks Before the

Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission, November 19,
2009, available at https://www.puc.state.pa.us/general/
RegulatoryInfo/pdf/ARRA_Testimony-DOE.pdf. As a
citation by a third party, see letter from Bob Keefe to
Joel H. Peck, SCC Case No. PUE-2016-00022 - Evaluating the Establishment of Protocols, a Methodology, and
a Formula to Measure the Impact of Energy Efficiency
Measures - Objective and Cost-Effectiveness - Evaluation, Measurement, and Verification (EM&V), May 25,
2016, available at http://www.scc.virginia.gov/docketsearch/DOCS/393001!.PDF.
70 42 U.S. Code 7411(b)(1)(A).

71 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Carbon
Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary
Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units; Final Rule,
Federal Register 80 (2015): 6466164964.
72 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Clean Power
Plan Accelerates the Growth of Renewable Generation
Throughout United States, June 17, 2016, available at http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.
cfm?id=26712.
73 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Power Plan
for Existing Power Plants.
74 42 U.S. Code 7411(b)(1)(B).
75 42 U.S. Code 7415.
76 For more information on state, local, or tribal energy
efficiency and renewable energy policies, see Database
for State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency,
Home, available at http://www.dsireusa.org.
77 U.S. Department of Energy, Quadrennial Energy Review.
78 Ibid.
79 For more information on one key policy in this debate,
see Luke H. Bassett, Net Energy Metering: Growth and
Accountability in the Distributed Solar Market (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2016), available
at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/
report/2016/07/14/141336/net-energy-metering.
80 Ryan Hledik and Jim Lazar, Distribution System
Pricing With Distributed Energy Resources (Berkeley,
CA: Berkeley Lab, 2016), available at https://emp.lbl.
gov/sites/all/files/feur_4_20160518_fin-links2.pdf;
Mark Muro and Devashree Saha, Rooftop Solar: Net
Metering is a Net Benefit (Washington: The Brookings
Institution, 2016), available at https://www.brookings.
edu/research/rooftop-solar-net-metering-is-a-netbenefit; Lisa Wood, Value of the Grid to DC Customers
(Washington: Edison Foundation Institute for Electric
Innovation, 2013), available at http://www.edisonfoundation.net/iee/Documents/IEE_ValueofGridtoDGCustomers_Sept2013.pdf.
81 The consideration of costs and benefits yielded a PUC
decision in Nevada that resulted in distributed solar
companies halting their activities in the state in 2016.
Sean Whaley and Alex Corey, Utility Regulators OK
Phased-In Rate Hikes for Rooftop-Solar Customers, Las
Vegas Review-Journal, February 12, 2016, available at
http://www.reviewjournal.com/business/energy/utilityregulators-ok-phased-rate-hikes-rooftop-solar-customers; Nichola Groom, Future of U.S. Solar Threatened
in Nationwide Fight Over Incentives, Reuters, March 4,
2016, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/ussolar-policy-statesinsight-idUSKCN0W35CN.
82 Muro and Saha, Rooftop Solar.
86 Justin Gillis, Americas First Offshore Wind Farm

May Power Up a New Industry, The New York Times,
August 22, 2016, available at http://www.nytimes.
com/2016/08/23/science/americas-first-offshore-windfarm-may-power-up-a-new-industry.html; Deepwater
Wind, Block Island Wind Farm: Americas First Offshore
Wind Farm, available at http://dwwind.com/project/
block-island-wind-farm (last accessed August 2016).
87 Gillis, Americas First Offshore Wind Farm May Power
Up a New Industry.
88 U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Vision: A New Era
for Wind Power in the United States (2015), available
at http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/WindVision_Report_final.pdf.
89 U.S. Maritime Administration, The Economic Importance
of the U.S. Shipbuilding and Repairing Industry (U.S.
Department of Transportation, 2015), available at
https://www.marad.dot.gov/wp-content/uploads/
pdf/MARAD_Econ_Study_Final_Report_2015.pdf. For
examples of offshore service vessels, see also Edison
Chouest Offshore, Highly Specialized Vessels Designed
for Specific Tasks, available at http://www.chouest.
com/vessels.html (last accessed August 2016); DNV GL,
Offshore Service Vessels (OSV), available at https://
www.dnvgl.com/maritime/Offshore/vessels/osv.html
90 U.S. Maritime Administration, Federal Ship Financing
Program (Title XI), available at https://www.marad.dot.
gov/ships-and-shipping/federal-ship-financing-titlexi-program-homepage (last accessed August 2016);
U.S. Maritime Administration, Subsidy Available and
Budget Request, available at https://www.marad.dot.
gov/ships-and-shipping/federal-ship-financing-titlexi-program-homepage/subsidy-available-and-budgetrequest (last accessed August 2016).
92 Ibid.
93 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Eastern Wind
Integration and Transmission Study (2011), available at
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/47078.pdf.
94 Fixing Americas Surface Transportation Act, Public Law
114-94, 114th Cong., 1st sess. (January 6, 2015), available at https://www.congress.gov/114/bills/hr22/BILLS114hr22enr.pdf; U.S. Permitting Dashboard, About the
Federal Infrastructure Permitting Dashboard, available
at https://www.permits.performance.gov/about (last
accessed August 2016).
95 The White House Office of Information and Regulatory

Affairs, Coordination of the Pre-Application Process for
Federal Authorizations for Electric Transmission Facilities
(2016), available at http://www.reginfo.gov/public/do/
eAgendaViewRule?pubId=201604&RIN=1901-AB36; U.S.
Department of Energy, Proposed Rules, Federal Register
81 (21) (2016): 53835395, available at https://www.gpo.
gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-02-02/pdf/2016-01641.pdf.
96 26 U.S.C. 48, available at https://www.law.cornell.edu/
uscode/text/26/48.
Emissions.
98 Greg Pfahl, ITC or PTC for Your Renewable Energy
Project? Renewable Energy World, July 19, 2010,
available at http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
articles/2010/07/itc-or-ptc-for-your-renewable-energyproject.html.
Emissions.
101 J. C. Molburg, J. A. Kavicky, and K. C. Picel, The Design,
Construction, and Operation of Long-Distance HighVoltage Electricity Transmission Technologies (Chicago:
Argonne National Laboratory, 2007), available at http://
solareis.anl.gov/documents/docs/APT_61117_EVS_
TM_08_4.pdf; U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Table 2.13: Electric Power Industry - U.S. Electricity
Imports from and Electricity Exports to Canada and
Mexico, 2004-2014 (Megawatthours), available at http://
www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_02_13.html
(last accessed September 2016); U.S. Energy Information
Administration, How Much Electricity Does an American
Home Use? October 21, 2015, available at https://www.
eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=97&t=3.
103 Government of Mexico, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (2015), available at http://www4.
unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published Documents/
Mexico/1/MEXICO INDC 03.30.2015.pdf; Canada,
Canadas INDC Submission to the UNFCCC (2015),
available at http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/
Published%20Documents/Canada/1/INDC%20-%20
Canada%20-%20English.pdf; U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, U.S. Cover Note, INDC and
Accompanying Information.
104 The White House, U.S.-Canada Joint Statement on Climate, Energy, and Arctic Leadership, Press release, March
10, 2016, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/
the-press-office/2016/03/10/us-canada-joint-statementclimate-energy-and-arctic-leadership; The White House,
Fact Sheet: United States Key Deliverables for the 2016
North American Leaders Summit, Press release, June
29, 2016, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/thepress-office/2016/06/29/fact-sheet-united-states-keydeliverables-2016-north-american-leaders; The White
House, Fact Sheet: United States-Mexico Relations,
Press release, July 22, 2016, available at https://www.
whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/07/22/fact-sheetunited-states-mexico-relations.
105 U.S. Department of Energy, Canada, Mexico and the
United States Show Progress on North American
Energy Collaboration, Press release, June 3, 2016, available at http://energy.gov/articles/canada-mexico-andunited-states-show-progress-north-american-energycollaboration; The White House, Fact Sheet: United
States Key Deliverables for the 2016 North American
Leaders Summit; Mission Innovation, Member Participation, available at http://mission-innovation.net/
countries (last accessed July 2016).
106 The White House, North American Climate, Clean

Energy, and Environment Partnership Action Plan,
Press release, June 29, 2016, available at https://www.
whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/29/northamerican-climate-clean-energy-and-environmentpartnership-action.
107 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Canada,
Mexico, United States Launch North American Cooperation on Energy Information Site, February 16, 2016,
cfm?id=24972.
108 See, Gwynne Taraska and others, Proposals for a
North American Climate Strategy (Washington:
Center for American Progress, 2016), available at
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/
report/2016/06/22/139747/proposals-for-a-northamerican-climate-strategy.
109 Paul Denholm and others, The Role of Energy Storage
With Renewable Electricity Generation (Golden, CO:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2010), available
at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47187.pdf.
110 Lazard, Lazards Levelized Cost of Storage Analysis
Version 1.0 (2015), available at https://www.lazard.
com/media/2391/lazards-levelized-cost-of-storageanalysis-10.pdf.
111 Lazard, Lazards Levelized Cost of Storage Analysis;
Becky Beetz, Li-Ion Battery Costs to Fall 50% in Next 5
Years, Driven by Renewables, PV Magazine, November
19, 2015, available at http://www.pv-magazine.com/
news/details/beitrag/li-ion-battery-costs-to-fall-50-innext-5-years--driven-by-renewables_100022051/#axzz
4H9CWEsTS.
112 Herman K. Trabish, Oregon Saddles Up to Implement
Trailblazing Energy Storage Mandate, Utility Dive,
November 17, 2015, available at http://www.utilitydive.
com/news/oregon-saddles-up-to-implement-trailblazing-energy-storage-mandate/409222; Glenn Meyers,
Massachusetts Passes 3rd US Energy Storage Mandate,
Clean Technica August 12, 2016, available at http://
cleantechnica.com/2016/08/12/massachusetts-passes3rd-us-energy-storage-mandate; Gavin Bade, Inside
Southern California Edisons Energy Storage Strategy,
Utility DIVE, September 22, 2015, available at http://
www.utilitydive.com/news/inside-southern-californiaedisons-energy-storage-strategy/406044.
113 U.S. Department of Energy, Hydropower Vision: A New
Chapter for Americans 1st Renewable Electricity Source:
Executive Summary (2016), available at http://energy.
gov/sites/prod/files/2016/07/f33/Hydropower-VisionExecutive-Summary.pdf.
114 Denholm and others, The Role of Energy Storage With
Renewable Electricity Generation.
115 U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Order
890 (2007), available at http://www.ferc.gov/whatsnew/comm-meet/2007/021507/E-1.pdf; Energy
Storage Association, Grid Operations Benefits (2016),
available at http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/
energy-storage-benefits/benefit-categories/gridoperations-benefits.
116 Jeff St. John, How Energy Storage Can Cut Peaker-Plant
Carbon for the Clean Power Plan, Greentech Media,
September 14, 2015, available at http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-energy-storage-cancut-peaker-plant-carbon-for-the-clean-power-plan;
Ookie Ma and Kerry Cheung, Demand Response and
Energy Storage Integration Study, (Washington: U.S.
Department of Energy, 2016), available at http://energy.
gov/sites/prod/files/2016/03/f30/DOE-EE-1282.pdf.
117 U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Order

Accepting Generator Interconnection Agreement
Subject to Condition, May 31, 2016, available at
http://www.ferc.gov/CalendarFiles/20160531161259ER16-1211-001.pdf; Peter Maloney, MISO: FERC Approves First Storage Interconnection Agreement, Utility
Dive, June 8, 2016, available at http://www.utilitydive.
com/news/miso-ferc-approves-first-storage-interconnection-agreement/420513.
118 U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Open
Commission Meeting Staff Presentation: Item A-4, April
21, 2016, available at http://www.ferc.gov/industries/
electric/indus-act/rto/A-4-Presentation.pdf.
119 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2015 Vehicle Technologies Market Report (2016), available at http://cta.ornl.
gov/vtmarketreport/index.shtml.
120 Tony Markel and others, Multi-Lab EV Smart Grid
Integration Requirements Study: Providing Guidance
on Technology Development and Demonstration
(Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
2015), available at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy15osti/63963.pdf; Bryan Palmintier and others, On the
Path to SunShot: Emerging Issues and Challenges in
Integrating Solar With the Distribution System (Golden,
CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016),
available at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65331.
pdf; Nancy E. Ryan and Luke Lavin, Engaging Utilities
and Regulators on Transportation Electrification (San
Francisco: Energy and Environmental Economics, 2015),
available at https://www.ethree.com/documents/E3NRDC_EVs_Paper_Final_20150129.pdf.
121 Edison Electric Institute and U.S. Department of Energy,
Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Energy and Edison Electric Institute, June 8,
2015, available at http://www.eei.org/resourcesandmedia/newsroom/Documents/MOU.pdf; The White
House, Fact Sheet: Obama Administration Announces
Federal and Private Sector Actions to Accelerate Electric
Vehicle Adoption in the United States, Press release,
July 21, 2016, available at https://www.whitehouse.
gov/the-press-office/2016/07/21/fact-sheet-obamaadministration-announces-federal-and-private-sector.
122 Garrett Fitzgerald, Chris Nelder, and James Newcomb,
Electric Vehicles as Distributed Energy Resources
(Basalt, CO: Rocky Mountain Institute, 2016), available
at http://www.rmi.org/Content/Files/RMI_Electric_Vehicles_as_DERs_Final_V2.pdf.
123 Markel and others, Multi-Lab EV Smart Grid Integration
Requirements Study.
124 Fitzgerald, Nelder, and Newcomb, Electric Vehicles as
Distributed Energy Resources.
125 U.S. Department of Energy, Outdoor Lighting Challenges
and Solution Pathways (2016), available at https://betterbuildingssolutioncenter.energy.gov/sites/default/
files/attachments/Outdoor%20Lighting%20Challenges%20and%20Solutions%20Pathways%20Paper.pdf.
126 The White House, Fact Sheet: Obama Administration
Announces Federal and Private Sector Actions to Accelerate Electric Vehicle Adoption in the United States.
127 U.S. Department of Energy, Facilitating Sound, CostEffective Federal Energy Management (2016), available
femp_overview.pdf.
129 Council on Environmental Quality, The Council on

Environmental Quality - About, available at https://
www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ceq/about
(last accessed August 2016). See also 42 U.S.C. 4321.
130 Ibid.
and Renewable Energy, About the Federal Energy Management Program, available at http://energy.gov/eere/
femp/about-federal-energy-management-program
132 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Energy Consumption by U.S. Government at Lowest Level Since
1975, February 4, 2015, available at http://www.eia.
gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=19851.
133 The White House, Executive OrderPlanning for
Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade, Press release,
March 19, 2015, available at https://www.whitehouse.
gov/the-press-office/2015/03/19/executive-order-planning-federal-sustainability-next-decade. See also The
White House, Executive Order: Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance,(2009),
available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/assets/
documents/2009fedleader_eo_rel.pdf.
134 Office of Federal Sustainability, List of Agency Senior
Sustainability Officers Under E.O. 13514, July 18, 2014,
available at https://www.sustainability.gov/sso.asp.
135 U.S. Department of the Navy, Navy Signs Agreement
for Largest Purchase of Renewable Energy by Federal
Entity, Press release, August 20, 2015, available at
http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_
id=90684.
and Renewable Energy, Financing and Contracting
Decisions for Solar Projects on Federal Sites, available
at http://energy.gov/eere/sunshot/financing-andcontracting-decisions-solar-projects-federal-sites (last
accessed August 2016); Letter from Jeffrey D. Zients to
heads of executive departments and agencies, Addendum to OMB Memorandum M-98-13 on Federal Use
of Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs) and
Utility Energy Service Contracts (UESCs), September 28,
2012, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/omb/memoranda/2012/m-12-21.pdf.
137 The White House, Fact Sheet: The Recovery Act Made
the Largest Single Investment in Clean Energy in History, Driving the Deployment of Clean Energy, Promoting Energy Efficiency, and Supporting Manufacturing,
Press release, February 25, 2016, available at https://
www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/25/
fact-sheet-recovery-act-made-largest-single-investment-clean-energy; Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy, FY 2017 Congressional Budget Justification (2016), available at http://arpa-e.energy.gov/sites/
default/files/ARPA-E%20FY17%20Budget%20Request.
pdf; U.S. Department of Energy Loan Programs Office,
Mission, available at http://energy.gov/lpo/mission
(last accessed August 2016); U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Pay
for Clean Energy, available at http://energy.gov/eere/
slsc/pay-clean-energy?Assistance_Area=Pay%20for%20
Clean%20Energy (last accessed August 2016).
Emissions.
128 Chris Tremper, Federal Progress Toward Energy/Sustainability Goals (Washington: U.S. Department of Energy, 2016), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/
files/2016/09/f33/fy15_facility_sustainability_goals.pdf.
139 To put this in context, the International Energy Agency

projects global renewable energy investment reaching $400 billion annually by 2025 and $470 billion
afterward in order to meet a low-carbon scenario
target. Frankfurt School-United Nations Environment
Programme Centre for Climate and Sustainable Energy
Finance, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2016; For projected global investment, see International Energy Agency, Energy and Climate Change:
World Energy Outlook Special Report (2015), available
at http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/WEO2015SpecialReportonEnergyandClimateChange.pdf.

Review.
140 Nanette Byrnes, At a Time of Plenty, Some Technologies Are Shut Out, MIT Technology Review, November
23, 2015, available at https://www.technologyreview.
com/s/543351/at-a-time-of-plenty-some-technologiesare-shut-out/?set=543346; Benjamin Gaddy, Varun
Sivaram, and Francis OSullivan, Venture Capital and
Cleantech: The Wrong Model for Clean Energy Innovation. Working Paper 2016-06 (MIT Energy Initiative,
2016), available at http://energy.mit.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2016/07/MITEI-WP-2016-06.pdf.
146 U.S. Department of Energy, Department of Energy FY

2017 Congressional Budget Request (2016), available
at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/02/f29/FY2017BudgetVolume3_2.pdf.
141 The White House, Fact Sheet: Obama Administration

Announces More Than $4 Billion in Private Sector
Commitments and Executive Actions to Scale Up
Investment in Clean Energy Innovation, Press release,
June 16, 2015, available at https://www.whitehouse.
gov/the-press-office/2015/06/16/fact-sheet-obamaadministration-announces-more-4-billion-privatesector; U.S. Department of Energy Office of Technology
Transitions, U.S. Department of Energys Clean Energy
Investment Center, available at http://energy.gov/
technologytransitions/us-department-energys-cleanenergy-investment-center (last accessed August 2016).
148 Paul Bodnar and Dave Turk, Announcing: Mission

Innovation, The White House Blog, November 29,
2015, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/
blog/2015/11/29/announcing-mission-innovation.
142 U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Financing Programs

for Clean Energy (2016), available at http://energy.gov/
sites/prod/files/2016/05/f32/Federal%20Financing%20
Programs%20for%20Clean%20Energy.pdf.
143 Kevin DeGood, Christian E. Weller, and Andrew Schwartz,
An Infrastructure Plan for America: How Investing in
Infrastructure Will Lay the Foundation for Prosperity,
Advance Environmental Goals, and Rebuild the Middle
Class (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2016),
available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
economy/report/2016/07/14/141157/an-infrastructureplan-for-america.
145 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL Technique Leads to Improved Perovskite Solar Cells, Press
release, August 1, 2016, available at http://www.nrel.
gov/news/press/2016/36714; U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
EERE Success StoryRevolutionary Refrigeration Motor Slashes Supermarket Energy Usage, June 7, 2016,
available at http://energy.gov/eere/success-stories/
articles/eere-success-story-revolutionary-refrigerationmotor-slashes.
147 Michael Woodhouse and others, On the Path to SunShot: The Role of Advancements in Solar Photovoltaic
Efficiency, Reliability, and Costs (Boulder, CO: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016), available at
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65872.pdf.
149 The White House, The Presidents Budget for Fiscal

Year 2017, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/
omb/budget (last accessed August 2016); Mission
Innovation, Inaugural Mission Innovation Ministerial
Pledges Unprecedented Support for Clean Energy Research and Development, Press release, June 2, 2016,
available at http://mission-innovation.net/2016/06/02/
inaugural-mission-innovation-ministerial-pledgesunprecedented-support-for-clean-energy-researchand-development.
150 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy
Review: July 2016 (2016), available at https://www.eia.
gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/archive/00351607.pdf.
Our Mission
Our Values
Our Approach
The Center for American

Progress is an independent,
nonpartisan policy institute
that is dedicated to improving
the lives of all Americans,
through bold, progressive
ideas, as well as strong
leadership and concerted
action. Our aim is not just to
change the conversation, but
to change the country.
As progressives, we believe
America should be a land of
boundless opportunity, where
people can climb the ladder
of economic mobility. We
believe we owe it to future
generations to protect the
planet and promote peace
and shared global prosperity.
We develop new policy ideas,

challenge the media to cover
the issues that truly matter,
and shape the national debate.
With policy teams in major
issue areas, American Progress
can think creatively at the
cross-section of traditional
boundaries to develop ideas
for policymakers that lead to
real change. By employing an
extensive communications
and outreach effort that we
adapt to a rapidly changing
media landscape, we move
our ideas aggressively in the
national policy debate.
And we believe an effective

government can earn the
trust of the American people,
champion the common
good over narrow self-interest,
and harness the strength of
our diversity.
1333 H STREET, NW, 10TH FLOOR, WASHINGTON, DC 20005 TEL: 202-682-1611 FAX: 202-682-1867 WWW.AMERICANPROGRESS.ORG

A Clean Energy Action Plan For The United States

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Clean Energy Action Plan For The United States

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Clean Energy Action Plan For The United States

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AP PHOTO/REED SAXON

A Clean Energy Action Plan

A Clean Energy Action Plan

1 Introduction and summary

Introduction and summary

By instituting these recommendations, the next president and Congress will

Building on eight years

GDP, in billions of 2016 dollars

Net emissions: Sources and sinks

Emissions milestones on the U.S. pathway to deep decarbonization

26% below 2005

2014 emission levels

80% below 2005

28% below 2005

Shaping a strategy for the next

Taking pathways to a low-carbon economy

Investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy

Investing in clean energy as existing infrastructure is retired

Energy infrastructure turnover

investmentsuch as interstate highwaysenergy

Turnover rates for electricity technologies

infrastructure is often deployed through private

Estimated lifespan, by years

investment, spurred by regulatory clarity and encour-

aged by government incentives. Sufficient private

capital is available to deploy the next generation of

Natural gas combined cycle

energy infrastructure as long as there are clear signals

relatively long lifetime of energy infrastructurea

sizable time constraint given the considerably shorter

Large office buildings

timeframe needed to decarbonize the economy. This

Central forced-air furnaces

requires careful consideration of new infrastructures

Central air conditioners

committed emissions, or the estimated cumulative

Gas water heaters

carbon emissions from energy infrastructure over

Electric water heaters

the course of its lifetime.32 The lifetimes of infrastruc-

turefrom power plants to houses or office build-

ingswill likely turn over only once between now

Passenger cars and light trucks

Incandescent light bulbs

Compact fluorescent light, or CFL, bulbs

Cementing the health benefits and business

Policy recommendations for the

Strengthening energy efficiency as a foundation for action

Appliance efficiency standards and building codes have proven critically

Building energy codes

Energy data, connected devices, and cybersecurity risks

Enabling renewable energy deployment and integration

Growth of selected U.S. renewable energy technologies

Solar (PV and CSP)

and, if appropriate, strengthen the carbon pollution limits to reflect

Electric rates and valuation

Infrastructure for renewable energy deployment

Collaboration with North American neighbors

of demand and potentially as a purveyor of grid services.120 To that end, the