Unit III

Vapor and Gas Power Cycles

Properties of pure substance-Property diagram for phase-change processes-Carnot vapour
cycle-Rankine cycle-Methods for improving the efficiency of Rankine cycle-Ideal Reheat and
Regenerative cycles-Binary vapor cycles-Combined gas-vapor power cycles-Analysis of power
cycles-Carnot cycle-Air standard assumptions-Otto cycle-Diesel and Dual cycles-Brayton cycleStirling and Ericsson cycles
________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
2. Pure substance
A pure substance is a substance of one fixed chemical composition throughout its mass. It may
exists one or more phases.
P-v diagram for a pure substance

Fig. Heating of H2O at constant pressure of 1 atm

151

Fig. Changes in the volume of water during heating at constant pressure

152

p-v diagram of water, whose volume decreases on melting

p-v diagram of pure substance other than water, whose volume increases on melting

153

154

Saturation curve on p-v diagram

155

156

P-T diagram for a pure substance

Phase equilibrium diagram on p-T coordinates

157

P-V-T- surface

158

p-v-T surface and projections for a substance that expands on freezing (a) three dimensional
view (b) phase diagram (c) p-v diagram (water)

p-v-T surface and projections for a substance that contracts on freezing (a) three dimensional
view (b) phase diagram (c) p-v- diagram

159

Fig. 2 P-V-T surface of (a) water and (b) pure substance other than water

Fig. Orthographic views from isometric view of properties

T-s diagram for a pure substance

160

161

Isobars on T-s plots

Phase equilibrium diagram on T-s coordinates

162

Saturation (or vapor) dome for water

h-s diagram or Mollier diagram for a pure substance
From the first and second laws of thermodynamics, the following property relation was
obtained.
Tds = dh vdp

h
=T
s P
This equation forms the basis of the h-s diagram of a pure substance, also called the Mollier
diagram. The slope of an isobar on the h-s coordinates is equal to the absolute saturation
temperature (tsat + 273) at that pressure. If the temperature remains constant the slope will
remain constant. If the temperature increases, the slope of the isobar will increase.
Consider the heating of a system of ice at -5 C to steam at 250 C, the pressure being
maintained constant at 1 atm. The slope of the isobar of 1 atm on the h-s coordinates (Figure)
first increases as the temperature of the ice increases from -5 C to 0 C (1-2). Its slope then
remains constant as ice melts into water at the constant temperature of 0 C (2-3). The slope
of the isobar again increases as the temperature of water rises from 0 C to 100 C (3-4). The
slope again remains constant as water vaporizes into stream at the constant temperature of
100 C (4-5). Finally, the slope of the isobar continuous to increase as the temperature of
steam increases to 250 C (5-6) and beyond. Similarly, the isobars of different pressures can be
drawn on the h-s diagram as shown in Figure. States 2, 3, 4 and 5 are saturation states.

163

As the pressure increases the saturation temperature increases and so the slope of the isobar
also increases. Hence the constant pressure lines diverge from one another, and the critical
isobar is a tangent at the critical point. In the vapor region, the states of equal slopes at various
pressures are joined by lines as shown, which are the constant temperature lines. Al though the
slope of an isobar remains continuous beyond the saturated vapor line, the isotherm bends
towards the right and its slope decreases asymptotically to zero, because in the ideal gas region
it becomes horizontal and the constant enthalpy implies constant temperature.

Fig. Isobars on h-s plot

164

3500
Mollier Chart

Enthalpy, kJ/kg

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

6
Entropy, kJ/kg K

Phase equilibrium diagram on h-s coordinates (Mollier diagram)

165

Enthalpy-entropy diagram of water

166

167

168

169

170

171

(b) Constant property lines on Millier diagram

172

It is observed that at atmospheric pressure, on heating ice from state 1 to 2 temperature and
volume increasing. From 2-3 ice melts at 0 C and there is a decrease in volume which is a
peculiar property of water. From 3-4 temperture increases from 0 C to 100 C and volume also
increases. From 4-5 water starts boiling at 100 C and there is a phase change from liquid to
vapor. From 5-6 there is a increase in both temperature and volume.
The saturation liquid line and saturation vapor line meet at a critical state. Critical point is the
state at which the liquid and vapor phases exists in equilibrium, on heating the liquid directly
converts into vapor without any intermediate phase. Triple point is a line on P-V diagram, where
all the three phases solid, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium. At a pressure below the triple
point line, the substance cannot exist in the liquid phase, and on heating solid transforms to
vapor known as sublimation.
For water
Triple point pressure = 4.587 mm of Hg = 0.00611 bar
Triple point temperature = 0.01 C = 273.16 K
Critical pressure = 221.2 bar
Critical temperature = 374.15 C = 647.15 K
Critical volume = 0.00317 m3/kg

Vapor processes
Constant pressure process
Constant volume process
Adiabatic (reversible and irreversible) process
Isothermal process
Hyberbolic process (PV=C)
Polytropic process
Throttling process

Basic Cycle
The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an operating fluid is
continuously evaporated and condensed. The selection of operating fluid depends mainly on the available

173

temperature range. Figure 1shows the idealized Rankine cycle.

The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) and temperature-entropy (T-s) diagrams of this cycle are given in Figure 2.
The Rankine cycle operates in the following steps:
1-2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer. High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump (1) and is
heated to the saturation temperature (2). Further addition of energy causes evaporation of the liquid
until it is fully converted to saturated steam (3).
3-4 Isentropic Expansion. The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work which may be
converted to electricity. In practice, the expansion is limited by the temperature of the cooling
medium and by the erosion of the turbine blades by liquid entrainment in the vapor stream as the
process moves further into the two-phase region. Exit vapor qualities should be greater than 90%.
4-5 Isobaric Heat Rejection. The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine (4) is condensed at low
pressure, usually in a surface condenser using cooling water. In well designed and maintained
condensers, the pressure of the vapor is well below atmospheric pressure, approaching the saturation
pressure of the operating fluid at the cooling water temperature.
5-1 Isentropic Compression. The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump. Because
of the low specific volume of liquids, the pump work is relatively small and often neglected in
thermodynamic calculations.

Figure 1. Rankine cycle.

174

Figure 2. T-s and p-h diagrams.

The efficiency of power cycles is defined as
(1)

Values of heat and work can be determined by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to each step.
The steam quality x at the turbine outlet is determined from the assumption of isentropic expansion, i.e.,
(2)

where

is the entropy of vapor and Si* the entropy of liquid.

Inefficiencies of Real Rankine Cycles

The efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle as described in the previous section is close to the Carnot
efficiency (see Carnot Cycle). In real plants, each stage of the Rankine cycle is associated with
irreversible processes, reducing the overall efficiency. Turbine and pump irreversibilities can be included
in the calculation of the overall cycle efficiency by defining a turbine efficiency according to Figure 3
(3)

where subscript act indicates actual values and subscript is indicates isentropic values and a pump
efficiency
(4)

175

Figure 3. Turbine efficiency.

If t and p are known, the actual enthalpy after the compression and expansion steps can be determined
from the values for the isentropic processes. The turbine efficiency directly reduces the work produced in
the turbine and, therefore the overall efficiency. The inefficiency of the pump increases the enthalpy of
the liquid leaving the pump and, therefore, reduces the amount of energy required to evaporate the
liquid. However, the energy to drive the pump is usually more expensive than the energy to feed the
boiler.

Figure 4. Rankine cycle with vapor superheating.

Even the most sophisticated boilers transform only 40% of the fuel energy into useable steam
energy. There are two main reasons for this wastage:
The combustion gas temperatures are between 1000C and 2000C, which is considerably higher
than the highest vapor temperatures. The transfer of heat across a large temperature difference
increases the entropy.
Combustion (oxidation) at technically feasible temperatures is highly irreversible.
Since the heat transfer surface in the condenser has a finite value, the condensation will occur at a
temperature higher than the temperature of the cooling medium. Again, heat transfer occurs across
a temperature difference, causing the generation of entropy. The deposition of dirt in condensers
during operation with cooling water reduces the efficiency.
Increasing the Efficiency of Rankine Cycles

176

Pressure difference
The net work produced in the Rankine cycle is represented by the area of the cycle process
in Figure 2. Obviously, this area can be increased by increasing the pressure in the boiler and
reducing the pressure in the condenser.

Figure 5. Regenerative feed liquid heating.

Superheating and reheating
The irreversibility of any process is reduced if it is performed as close as possible to the temperatures of
the high temperature and low temperature reservoirs. This is achieved by operating the condenser at
subatmospheric pressure. The temperature in the boiler is limited by the saturation pressure. Further
increase in temperature is possible by superheating the saturated vapor, see Figure 4.
This has the additional advantage that the vapor quality after the turbine is increased and, therefore the
erosion of the turbine blades is reduced. It is quite common to reheat the vapor after expansion in the
high pressure turbine and expand the reheated vapor in a second, low pressure turbine.
Feed water preheating
The cold liquid leaving the feed pump is mixed with the saturated liquid in the boiler and/or re-heated to
the boiling temperature. The resulting irreversibility reduces the efficiency of the boiler. According to the
Carnot process, the highest efficiency is reached if heat transfer occurs isothermally. To preheat the feed
liquid to its saturation temperature, bleed vapor from various positions of the turbine is passed through
external heat exchangers (regenerators), as shown inFigure 5.
Ideally, the temperature of the bleed steam should be as close as possible to the temperature of the feed
liquid.

177

178

179

Steam power plant

180

(a) Components of a simple vapor power plant

181

(b) Simple steam power plant

182

Steam power plant bulk energy converter from fuel to electricity

183

184

A simple steam plant representing Rankine cycle

185

Fig. Rankine cycle on p-v, T-s and h-s coordinates (a, b and c)

186

Fraction of total heat transfer absorbed in the economizer, evaporator and superheater

Rankine cycle with supercritical boiler pressure

187

Supercritical cycle with double reheat

Internally Irreversible Rankine cycle

188

Internally irreversible Rankine cycle

Externally irreversible Rankine cycle

189

External irreversibility with Rakine cycle

Carnot cycle

190

Mean Temperature of heat addition

Mean temperature heat addition

191

Effect of superheat

Effect of superheat on the mean temperature of heat addition

192

Superheat may not be practical with hot pressurized water as heat source as in a PWR

Effect of inlet pressure

193

Effect of increase of pressure on Rankine cycle, Fixing of maximum steam pressure at turbine
inlet
Effect of variation of steam condition on thermal efficiency of steam power plant

194

Effect of inlet steam pressure and condenser pressure on Rakine efficiency with constant steam
temperature of 470 C

195

Reheating of steam

196

Reheat cycle

197

198

Effect of reheat to initial pressure ratio on cycle efficiency, h.p. turbine exit temperature and l.p.
turbine exhaust quality with initial steam at 172 bar, 538 C and steam reheat to 538 C
Regeneration

Ideal regenerative cycle

199

Ideal regenerative cycle

200

Regenerative feedwater heating

201

Regenerative cycle with two direct contact feedwater heaters

202

203

Regenerative cycle for unit mass of fluid

Feedwater heaters

204

Single open feedwater heater

205

Regenerative feedwater heating with two closed heaters

206

207

Temperature-length diagram for l.p. and h.p. feedwater heaters

208

Binary vapor cycles

209

Flow diagram of mercury-steam binary cycle

210

T-s diagram of mercury-steam binary cycle

211

Air standard Cycles

The working fluid in gas power cycle is assumed as air in air standard cycles for easy
thermodynamics evaluation. The following are the assumptions in air standard cycles.
1. The working fluid is air thought the cycle and assumed as ideal gas.
2. The specific heats of air dont vary with temperature.
3. The mass of air in the cycle remains fixed.
4. All the processes are reversible.
5. Combustion process is replaced by an equivalent heat addition process.
6. Since there is no exhaust process, it is replaced by an equivalent heat rejection process.
7. The working fluid is homogeneous throughout at all time and no chemical reaction takes
place.
Otto cycle
Nikolaus A Otto (1832-1891) developed a technically feasible four-stroke engine and hence it
was named after him as the Otto engine. The Otto engine uses gasoline as fuel. The Otto cycle
is shown in Fig. It consists of the following processes.
0-1, Intake process: The piston executes an intake stroke (top dead centre to bottom dead
centre) and a fresh mixture of fuel-air is drawn into the cylinder at constant pressure.
1-2, Isentropic compression: the piston executes an upward (bottom dead centre to top dead
centre) and the fuel-air mixture is isentropically compressed. At the end of the compression
stroke, the fuel-air mixture is at high temperature and pressure.
2-3, Combustion: At state 2, the fuel-lair mixture is ignited by introducing an electric spark.
Since the gasoline-air mixture at sufficiently high temperature is highly combustible, the
combustion is assumed to be instantaneous. There is not enough time for the piston to move
backward during combustion and hence, the combustion process is replaced by energy addition
at constant volume.
3-4, Isentropic expansion: During the power stroke, the piston executes a downward stroke and
the combustion produces undergo isentropic expansion.
4-1, Blow down: The exhaust valve opens and the combustion products leave the cylinder. The
pressure in the cylinder reduces. However, the cylinder is still full of combustion products at low
pressure.
1-0, Exhaust: The piston executes a upward stroke and pushes the combustion products out of
the cylinder at constant pressure, while the exhaust valve is still open.

212

T
Q1

WE
Pv = C

4
Wc

WE

Q1

Pv = C

Wc

Q2

Q2

(a)

(b)

Fig. Otto cycle (a) P-v diagram and (b) T-s diagram

Heat supplied = Q1 = Q2-3 = mcv(T3 T2)

Heat rejected = Q2 = Q4-1 = mcv(T4 T1)
Thermal efficiency, Otto = 1

volume at the begining of the compression v1 v 4

=
=
v 2 v3
volume at the end of the compression

Compression ratio, rk =
1

P
T3 = T2 3
P2

= T2 rp = T1 rk 1 rp

v
T4 = T3 4
v3

v
= T3 3
v4

v
T2 = T1 2
v1

v
= T1 1
v2

T T
mcv (T4 T1 )
Q2
= 1
= 1 4 1
Q1
mcv (T3 T2 )
T3 T2

= T1 rk 1

1
= T3
rk

1
1

= T1 rk

1
rp
rk

= T1 rp

Substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4 in equation,

213

 Otto = 1

T1 rp T1
T1 (rp 1)
T4 T1
1
1
= 1
=

= 1 1
1
1
1
T3 T2
T1 rk rp T1 rk
T1 rk (rp 1)
rk

Otto = 1

1
1

rk

Since >1, the efficiency of Otto cycle increases with increase in compression ratio.
However, in an actual engine the compression ratio cannot be increased indefinitely
since higher compression ratios give higher temperatures of the gas after compression,
and high temperature results in auto-ignition and uncontrolled combustion of the fuel.
In the Otto cycle, the compression ratio is usually limited to 8.

Otto

rk

Fig. Effect of compression ratio on efficiency of Otto cycle

Mean effective pressure

Though the performance of an engine is expressed in terms of thermal efficiency,

sometimes it is convenient to express it in terms of mean effective pressure.
Pm =

Wnet
Q Q2 cv ((T3 T2 ) (T4 T1 ) )
=
= 1
v1 v 2
v1 v 2
displacement vol

v RT
1 RT (r 1) cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
=
v1 v 2 = v1 1 2 = 1 1 = 1 k
P1 rk
P1
rk
P1 rk
v1
Substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4

214

m.e. p. =

cv ((T1 rk 1 rp T1 rk 1 ) (T1 rp T1 ) ) T1 P1 rk ((rk 1 (rp 1) (rp 1) )

=
cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
( 1)(rk 1)T1
P1 rk
m.e. p. =

P1 rk (rp 1) (rk 1 1)

( 1)(rk 1)

Diesel cycle
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel received his technical education in Munish under Linde who devised
the famous Linde cycle for the liquefaction of air. Diesel thought that he could eliminate the
need for electrically producing spark in Otto cycle engine by compressing the air to a point
where its temperature would be high enough to ignite the fuels by itself. He also realized that a
higher molecular mass fuel such as kerosene and diesel (named after him). Diesel tested his
first engine in 1893 in which he compressed air to a pressure of 80 atm.
The air standard Diesel cycle forms the basis of compression-ignition engines such as diesel
engines. In Diesel cycle, the heat addition takes place at constant pressure instead of constant
volume. The four nonflow processes of the cycle as shown in figure are as follows.

3
T

WE

Q1

Pv = C

WE

Pv = C
2
4

Wc

Q2

0
(a)

Wc
1

Q2

(b)

Fig. Diesel cycle (a) P-v diagram and (b) T-s diagram
0-1, Intake:
The air valve is open. The piston moves out admitting air into the cylinder at constant pressure.
1-2, Isentropic compression
The air is compressed by the piston to the minimum volume with the valves closed.
2-3, Fuel injection and combustion:
The fuel valve is open, fuel is sprayed into the hot air and the combustion takes place at
constant pressure

215

3-4, Isentropic expansion

The combustion products expand during work on the piston which moves out to the maximum
volume.
4-1, Blow down:
The exhaust valve opens and the pressure drops to the initial pressure. Heat is rejected at
constant volume process.
1-0, Exhaust:
With the exhaust valve opens, the piston moves towards the cylinder cover during away the
combustion products from the cylinder at constant pressure.
Heat supplied = Q1 = Q2-3 = mcp(T3 T2)
Heat rejected = Q2 = Q4-1 = mcv(T4 T1)
Thermal efficiency, Diesel = 1

mcv (T4 T1 )
Q2
1 T T1

= 1
= 1 4
T3 T2
Q1
mc p (T3 T2 )

The efficiency may be expressed in terms of any two of the following three
v
v
Compression ratio, rk = 1 = 4
v2 v2
v
v
Expansion ratio, re = 4 = 1
v3 v3
v
Cut-off ratio, rc = 3
v2
v
v v
rk = 1 = 1 . 3 = re rc
v 2 v3 v 2
1

v
= T1 1
v2

v
T2 = T1 2
v1

v
T3 = T2 3
v2

= T2 rc = T1 rk 1 rc

v
T4 = T3 4
v3

v
= T3 3
v4

= T1 rk 1

1
= T3
re

r
= T3 c
rk

1
1

= T1 rk

r
rc c
rk

= T1 rc

Substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4 in equation,

Diesel

T1 rc T1
1 T4 T1
1
1 T1 (rc 1)
1 (rc 1)
= 1
= 1 1
= 1
= 1
T3 T2
T1 rk rc T1 rk 1
T1 rk 1 (rc 1)
rk 1 (rc 1)

Diesel = 1

1 (rc 1)
rk 1 (rc 1)

216

1 (rc 1)
For rc > 1, Diesel = 1
>1
rk 1 (rc 1)
Therefore for the same compression ratio, rk, Otto > Diesel

rc = 1
rc = 2
rc = 3

Diesel

rk
Fig. Effect of compression ratio and cut-off ratio on efficiency of Diesel cycle

Pm =

Wnet
Q Q2 c p (T3 T2 ) cv (T4 T1 )
=
= 1
v1 v 2
v1 v 2
displacement vol

v RT
1 RT (r 1) cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
=
v1 v 2 = v1 1 2 = 1 1 = 1 k
P1 rk
P1
rk
P1 rk
v1
Substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4

c p (T1 rk 1 rc T1 rk 1 ) cv (T1 rc T1 ) T1 P1 rk ((cv rk 1 rc rk 1 ) cv (rc 1) )

=
m.e. p. =
cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
P1 rk
m.e. p =

P1 rk (rk 1 ( c 1) (rc 1) )
( 1)(rk 1)

217

Dual cycle (limited pressure cycle)

Since it is difficult to achieve either constant volume or constant pressure heat addition in actual
spark ignition or compression ignition engines, due to appreciable amount of time required for
the completion of combustion process, therefore a dual cycle has been proposed. This special
cycle combines the features of the theoretical Otto and Diesel cycle. In dual cycle part of heat
addition takes place at constant volume and rest at constant pressure.

Q1

4
T

WE

Q1
3

WE

Pv = C
2

Wc

Q2
Pv = C

(a)

Wc
Q2

(b)

Fig. Dual cycle (a) P-v diagram and (b) T-s diagram
Heat supplied = Q1 = Q2-3-4 = mcv(T3 T2) + mcp(T4 T3)
Heat rejected = Q2 = Q4-1 = mcv(T5 T1)
Thermal efficiency, Dual = 1

mcv (T5 T1 )
(T5 T1 )
Q2
= 1
= 1
Q1
mcv (T3 T2 ) + mc p (T4 T3 )
(T3 T2 ) + (T4 T3 )

The efficiency of the Dual cycle may be expressed interms of any three of the following
ratios
v
v
1. Compression ratio, rk = 1 = 1
v 2 v3
v
v
2. Expansion ratio, re = 5 = 1
v4 v4
v
v
3. Cut-off ratio, rc = 4 = 4
v3 v 2
v
v v
rk = 1 = 1 . 4 = re rc
v2 v4 v2

218

4. Constant volume, pressure ratio, rp =

1

v
T2 = T1 2
v1

P
T3 = T2 3
P2

= T2 rp = T1 rk 1 rp

v
T4 = T3 4
v3

= T3 rc = T1 rk 1 rp rc

v
T5 = T4 5
v4

v
= T1 1
v2

v
= T4 4
v5

P3
P2

= T1 rk 1

1
= T4
re

r
= T4 c
rk

1
1

= T1 rk

r
rp rc c
rk

= T1 rp rc

Substituting the values of T2, T3, T4 and T5 in equation,

Dual

T1 rp rc T1

= 1
(T r 1 r T r 1 ) + (T r 1 r r T r 1 r )
1 k
1 k
1 k
p c
p
1k p

Dual = 1

rp rc 1
1

1
rk (rp 1) + rp (rc 1)
1 rp 1
1
= 1 1
rk rp 1
rk
1 rc 1
1 1 rc 1
1

= 1 1
rk (rc 1) rk 1 rc 1

For Otto cycle, rc = 1, Otto = 1

For Diesel cycle, rp = 1, Diesel

Mean effective pressure

Wnet
Q Q2 cv (T3 T2 ) + c p (T4 T3 ) cv (T5 T1 )
Pm =
=
= 1
v1 v 2
v1 v 2
displacement vol
v RT
1 RT (r 1) cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
=
v1 v 2 = v1 1 2 = 1 1 = 1 k
P1 rk
P1
rk
P1 rk
v1
Substituting the values of T2, T3, T4 and T5

219

m.e. p. =

m.e. p. =

cv (T1 rk 1 rp T1 rk 1 ) + c p (T1 rk 1 rp rc T1 rk 1 rp ) cv (T1 rp rc T1 )

cv ( 1)(rk 1)T1
P1 rk

P1 rk rk 1 (rp 1) + p rk 1 (rp 1) (rp rc 1)

( 1)(rk 1)

220

221

222

223

224

Stirling cycle

225

Regenerative Stirling cycle with reversible heat transfer between processes 1-2 and 3-4

226

Unit III
Vapor and Gas Power Cycles
Properties of pure substance-Property diagram for phase-change processes-Carnot vapour
cycle-Rankine cycle-Methods for improving the efficiency of Rankine cycle-Ideal Reheat and
Regenerative cycles-Binary vapour cycles-Combined gas-vapour power cycles-Analysis of power
cycles-Carnot cycle-Air standard assumptions-Otto cycle-Diesel and Dual cycles-Brayton cycleStirling and Ericsson cycles
________________________________________________________________________
Properties of pure substance
1. Find the saturation temperature, the changes in specific volume and entropy during
evaporation and the latent heat of vaporization of steam at 1 MPa.

2. Saturated steam has an entropy of 6.76 kJ/kg K. What are its pressure, temperature, specific
volume and enthalpy?

3. Find the enthalpy and entropy of steam when the pressure is 2 MPa and the specific volume
is 0.09 m3/kg.

227

Find the enthalpy, entropy and volume of steam at 1.4 MPa, 380 C.

A vessel of volume 0.04 m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a
temperature of 250 C. The mass of the liquid present is 9 kg. Find the pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy, the entropy, and the internal energy.

228

Steam initially at 0.3 MPa, 250 C is cooled at constant volume. (a) At what temperature will
the steam become saturated vapor? (b) What is the quality at 80 C? What is the heat
transferred per kg of steam in cooling from 250 C to 80 C?

229

230

Steam initially at 1.5 MPa, 300 C expands reversibly and adiabatically in a steam turbine to 40
C. Determine the ideal work output of the turbine per kg of steam.

231

Steam at 0.8 MPa, 250 C and flowing at the rate of 1 kg/s passes into a pipe carrying we
steam at 0.8 MPa, 0.95 dry. After adiabatic mixing the flow rate is 2.3 kg/s. Determine the
condition of steam after mixing. The mixture is now expanded in a frictionless nozzle
isentropically to a pressure of 0.4 MPa. Determine the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzle.
Neglect the velocity of steam in the pipeline.

232

The following data were obtained with a separating and throttling calorimeter

233

A steam boiler initially contains 5 m3 of steam and 5 m3 of water at 1 MPa. Steam is taken out
at constant pressure until 4 m3 of water is left. What is the heat transferred during the process?

234

A 280 mm diameter cylinder fitted with a frictionless leakproof piston contains 0.02 kg of steam
at a pressure of 0.6 MPa and a temperature of 200 C. As the piston moves slowly outwards
through a distance of 305 mm, the steam undergoes a fully resisted expansion during which the
steam pressure p and the steam volume V are related by Pvn = constant, where n is a constant.
The final pressure of the steam is 0.12 MPa. Determine (a) the value of n (b) the work done by
steam and (c) the magnitude and sign of heat transfer.

235

236

A large insulated vessel is divided into two chambers, one containing 5 kg of dry saturated
steam at 0.2 MPa and the other 10 kg of steam 0.8 quality at 0.5 MPa. If the partition between
the chambers is removed and the steam is mixed thoroughly and allowed to settle, find the final
pressure, steam quality, and entropy change in the process.

237

238

A small geothermal well in a remote desert area produces 50 kg/h of saturated steam vapor at
150 C. The environment temperature is 45 C. This geothermal steam will be suitably used to
produce cooling for homes at 23 C. The steam will emerge from this system as saturated liquid
at 1 atm. Estimate the maximum cooling rate that could be provided by such a system.

239

240

A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90 C. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid form and the
rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank and (b) the volume of the tank

241

An 80 L vessel contains 4 kg of refrigerant 134a at a pressure of 160 kPa. Determine (a) the
temperature (b) the quality (c) the enthalpy of the refrigerant and (d) the volume occupied by
the vapor phase.

242

243

Vapor power cycles

For the following steam cycles find (a) WT in kJ/kg (b) WP in kJ/kg (c) Q1 in kJ/kg (d) cycle
efficiency (e) steam rate in kg/kWh and (f) moisture at the end of the turbine process. Show
the results in tabular form with your comments.

244

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249

250

251

In a reheat cycle, steam at 500 C expands in a h.p. turbine till it is saturated vapor. It is
reheated at constant pressure to 400 C and then expands in a l.p. turbine to 40 C. If the
maximum moisture content at the turbine exhaust is limited to 15%, find (a) the reheat
pressure (b) the pressure of steam at the inlet to the h.p. turbine (c) the net specific work
output (d) the cycle efficiency and (e) the steam rate. Assume all ideal processes. What would
have been the quality, the work output and the cycle efficiency without the reheating of steam?
Assume that the other conditions remain the same.

252

A regenerative cycle operates with steam supplied at 30 bar and 300 C and condenser
pressure of 0.08 bar. The extraction points for two heaters (one closed and one open) are 3.5
bar and 0.7 bar respectively. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the plant, neglecting the pump
work.
Solution

The net power output of the turbine in an ideal reheat regenerative cycle is 100 MW. Steam
enters the high-pressure (HP) turbine at 90 bar, 550 C. After expansion to 7 bar, some of the
steam goes to an open heater and the balance is reheated to 400 C, after which it expands to
0.07 bar. (a) What is the steam flow rate to HP turbine? (b) What is the total pump work? (c)
Calculate the cycle efficiency (d) If there is a 10 C rise in the temperature of the cooling water,
what is the rate of flow of the cooling water in the condenser? (e) If the velocity of the steam
flowing from the turbine to the condenser is limited to a maximum of 130 m/s, find the
diameter of the connecting pipe.
Solution.

253

A 50 MW steam plant built in 1935 operates with steam at the inlet at 60 bar, 450 C and
exhausts at 0.1 bar, with 80% turbine efficiency. It is proposed to scrap the old boiler and put
in a new boiler and a topping turbine of efficiency 85% operating with inlet steam at 180 bar,
500 C. The exhaust from the topping turbine at 60 bar is reheated to 450 C and admitted to
the old turbine. The flow rate is just sufficient to produce the rated output from the old turbine.
254

Find the improvement in efficiency with the new set up. What is the additional power
developed?
Solution

255

256

257

The new power output of an ideal regenerative-reheat steam cycle is 80 MW. Steam enters the
hp turbine at 80 bar, 500 C and expands till it become saturated vapor. Some of the steam
then goes to an open feedwater heater and the balance is reheated to 400 C, after which it
expands in the lp turbine to 0.07 bar. Compute (a) the reheat pressure (b) the steam flow rate
to the hp turbine and (c) the cycle efficiency. Neglect pump work.

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261

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266

267

268

269

Steam is generated at 70 bar, 500 C and expands in a turbine to 30 bar with an isentropic
efficiency of 77%. At this condition it is mixed with twice its mass of steam at 30 bar, 400 C.
The mixture then expands with an isentropic efficiency of 80% to 0.06 bar. At a point in the
expansion where me pressure is 5 bar, steam is bled for feedwater heating in a direct contact
heater, which raises the feed water to the saturation temperature of the bled steam. Calculate
the mass of steam bled per kg of high pressure steam and the cycle efficiency. Assume that the
lp expansion condition line is straight.

270

An ideal steam power plant operates between 70 bar, 550 C and 0.075 bar. It has seven feed
water heaters. Find the optimum pressure and temperature at which each of the heaters
operate.

271

272

273

274

275

A cyclic steam power plant is to be designed for a steam temperature at turbine inlet of 360 C
and exhaust pressure of 0.08 bar. After isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine, the
moisture content at the turbine exhaust is not to exceed 15%. Determine the maximum
allowable steam pressure at the turbine inlet, and calculate the Rankine cycle efficiency for
these steam conditions. Estimate also the mean temperature of heat addition.

276

1. In a steam turbine steam at 20 bar, 360C is expanded to 0.08 bar. It then enters a
condenser, where it is condensed to saturated liquid water. The pump feeds back the water into
the boiler. Assume ideal processes, find per kg of steam the net work and the cycle efficiency.

2. The net power output of an ideal regenerative-reheat steam cycle is 80 MW. Steam enters
the high pressure turbine at 80 bar, 500C and expands till it becomes saturated vapour. Some
of the steam then goes to an open feedwater heater and the balance is reheated to 400C,
after which it expands in the low pressure turbine to 0.07 bar. Compute (a) the reheat
pressure, (b) the steam flow rate to the high pressure turbine (c) the cycle efficiency. Neglect

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pump work.
Solution

3. The following data refer to a steam turbine power plant employing one stage of regenerative
feed heating.
State of steam entering high pressure stage: 100 MPa, 600C.
State of steam entering low pressure state: 2 MPa, 400C.
State of steam entering condenser: 0.01 MPa, 0.9 dryness fraction.
A certain amount of steam is bleed for feed heating at exit from the high pressure stage.
Calculate mass of steam bleed per kg of steam passing through the high pressure stage and the
amount of heat supplied in the boiler per second for an output of 10 MW. Neglect pump work.

solution

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4. A steam turbine discharges 5000 kg of steam per hour at 40C and 0.85 dryness.
The estimated air leakage is 15 kg/hr. The temperature at the suction of the air pump is 32C
and the temperature of the condensate is 35C. Calculate (a) the vacuum gauge reading, (b)
capacity of air pump and (c) loss of condensate in kg per hour.

280

5. A steam turbine gets its supply of steam at 70 bar and 450 C. After expanding to 25 bar in
high pressure stages, it is reheated to 420 C at the constant pressure. Next it is expanded in
intermediate pressure stages to an appropriate minimum pressure such that part of the steam
bleed at this pressure heats the feedwater to a temperature of 180C. The remaining steam
expands from this pressure to a condenser pressure of 0.07 bar in the low pressure state. The
isentropic efficiency of the h.p. stage is 78.5 % while that of the intermediate and l.p. stages is
83 % each. From the above data (i) determine the minimum pressure at which bleeding is
necessary and sketch a line diagram of the arrangement of the plant, (ii) sketch on the T-s
diagram of all the processes, (iii) determine the quantity of steam bleed per kg of flow at the
turbine inlet, and (iv) calculate the cycle efficiency. Neglect pump work.
Solution

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282

6. The following data relate to a regenerative steam power plant generating 22500 kW energy,
the alternator directly coupled to steam turbine: Condition of steam supplied to the steam
turbine = 60 bar, 450C, condenser vacuum = 707.5 mm, Pressure at which steam is bled from
the steam turbine = 3 bar, Turbine efficiency of each portion of expansion = 87 %, boiler
efficiency = 86 %, alternator efficiency = 94 %, mechanical efficiency from turbine to generator
= 97 %. Neglecting the pump work in calculating the input to the boiler, determine:
(i)
The steam bled per kg of steam supplied to the turbine.
(ii)
The steam generated per hour if the 9 % of the generator output is used to
run the pumps.
(iii)
The over all efficiency of the plant.

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7. In a single-heater regenerative cycle the steam enters the turbine at 30 bar, 400C and the
exhaust pressure is 0.10 bar. The feed water heater is a direct contact type which operates at 5
bar. Find:
(i)
The efficiency and the steam rate of the cycle.

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(ii)

The increase in mean temperature of heat addition, efficiency and steam rate
as compared to the Rankine cycle (without regeneration).
Pump work may be neglected.
Solution: Fig. shows the flow, T-s and h-s diagram

285

8. A steam power plant of 110 MW capacity is equipped with regenerative as well as reheat
arrangement. The steam is supplied at 80 bar and 55C of superheat. The steam is extracted at
7 bar for feed heating and remaining steam is reheated to 350C, and then expanded to 0.4 bar
in the L.P. state. Assume indirect type of feed heaters. Determine:
(i)
The ratio of steam bled to steam generated,
(ii)
The boiler generating capacity in tones of steam /hour, and
(iii)
Thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assume no losses and ideal processes of expansion.
Solution:
The schematic arrangement of the plant is shown in Fig. (a) and the processes are represented
on h-s chart in Fig. (b).
Given: Capacity of plant = 110 MW;

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287

9. A steam power plant with inlet steam to the h.p. turbine at 90 bar and 500 C, and
condensation at 40C produces 500 MW. It has one stage of reheat optimally placed which
raises the steam temperature back to 500C. One closed feedwater heater with drains cascaded
back to the condenser receives bled steam at the reheat pressure, and the remaining steam is
reheated and then expanded in the l.p. turbine. The h.p. and l.p. turbines have isentropic
efficiencies of 92% and 90%, respectively. The isentropic efficiency of the pump is 75%.
Calculate (a) the mass flow rate of steam at turbine inlet in kg/s, (b) the cycle efficiency, and
(c) the cycle work ratio. Use TTD = -1.6C.

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289

10. A steam generator comprises a boiler, a superheater, an economizer and an air preheater.
The feedwater enters the economizer at 140C and leaves as saturated liquid. Air is preheated
from a temperature of 25C to 250C. Steam leaves the boiler drum at 60 bar, 0.98 dry and
leaves the superheater at 450C. When using coal with a calorific value of 25.2 MJ/kg, the rate
of evaporation is 8.5 kg steam per kg coal and the air fuel ratio is 15:1 by mass. Neglecting
heat losses and pressure drops, estimate the heat transfer per kg fuel in each component and
the efficiency of the steam generator. What are the percentages of the total heat absorption
taking place in the economizer, boiler and the superheater, respectively? Assume cp of air and
water as 1.005 and 4.2 kJ/kg K respectively.

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Gas power cycles

In a Stirling cycle the volume varies between 0.03 and 0.06 m3, the maximum pressure is 0.2
MPa and the temperature varies between 540 C and 270 C. The working fluid is air (an ideal
gas). (a) Find the efficiency and the work done per cycle for the simple cycle. (b) Find the
efficiency and the work done per cycle for the cycle for the cycle with an ideal regenerator and
compare with the Carnot cycle having the same isothermal heat supply process and the same
temperature range.

291

An Ericsson cycle operating with an ideal regenerator works between 1100 K and 288 K. The
pressure at the beginning of isothermal compression is 1.013 bar. Determine (a) the
compressor and turbine work per kg of air and (b) the cycle efficiency.

An engine equipped with a cylinder having a bore of 15 cm and a stroke of 45 cm operates on

an Otto cycle. If the clearance volume is 2000 cm3, compute the air standard efficiency.

292

Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles with the following data: Maximum
temperature 1400 K, exhaust temperature 700 K. State of air at the beginning of compression
0.1 MPa, 300 K. Estimate the compression ratios, the maximum pressures, efficiencies, and rate
of work outputs (for 1 kg/min of air) of the respective cycles.

293

294

An air standard limited pressure cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and compression begins at
0.1 MPa, 40 C. The maximum pressure is limited to 6 MPa and the heat added is 1,675 MJ/kg.
Compute (a) the heat supplied at constant volume per kg of air, (b) the heat supplied at
constant pressure per kg of air, (c) the work done per kg of air, (d) the cycle efficiency, (e) the
temperature at the end of the constant volume heating process, (f) the cut-off ratio and (g) the
m.e.p of the cycle.

295

Show that the air standard efficiency for a cycle comprising two constant pressure process and
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two isothermal processes (all reversible) is given by

(T1 T2 ) ln rp( 1) /

T1 1 + ln rp( 1) / T

were T1 and T2 are the maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle and rp is the prossure
ratio.

297

Obtain an expression for the specific work done by an engine working on the Otto cycle in
terms of the maximum and minimum temperature of the cycle, the compression ratio rk and
constants of the working fluid (assumed to be an ideal gas). Hence show that the compression
ratio for maximum specific work output is given by

T
rk = min
Tmax

1 / 2 (1 )

298

A dual combustion cycle operates with a volumetric compression ratio rk = 12 and with a cut-off
ratio 1.615. The maximum pressure given by Pmax = 54 P1 where P1 is the pressure before
compression. Assuming indices of compression and expansion of 1.35, show that the m.e.p. of
the cycle Pm = 10 P1. Hence evaluate (a) temperatures at cardinal points with T1 335 K and
(b) cycle efficiency.

299

Recalculate (a) the temperatures at the cardinal points, (b) the m.e.p. and (c) the cycle
efficiency when the cycle of above problem is a Diesel cycle with the same compression ratio
and a cut-off ratio such as to give an expansion curve coincident with the lower part of that of
the dual cycle of problem.

300

In a gas turbine plant working on the Brayton cycle the air at the inlet is at 27 C, 0.1 MPa. The
pressure ratio is 6.25 and the maximum temperature is 800 C. The turbine and compressor
efficiencies are each 80%. Find (a) the compressor work per kg of air (b) the turbine work per
kg of air (c) the heat supplied per kg of air (d) the cycle efficiency and (e) the turbine exhaust
temperature.

301

302

A simple gas turbine plant operating on the Brayton cycle has air inlet temperature 27 C,
pressure ratio 9 and maximum cycle temperature 727 C. What will be the improvement in
cycle efficiency and output if the turbine process is divided into two stages each of pressure
ratio 3 with intermediate reheating to 727 C.

303

Obtain an expression for the specific work output of a gas turbine unit in terms of pressure
ratio, isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine and the maximum and minimum
temperature T3 and T1. Hence show that the pressure ratio rp for the maximum power is given
by

T
rp = T C 3
T1

/ 2 ( 1)

If T3 = 1073 K, T1 = 300 K, c = 0.8, T = 0.8 and = 1.4 compute the optimum value of
304

pressure ratio, the maximum net work output per kg of air and corresponding cycle efficnecy.

305

306

A gas turbine plant draws in air at 1.013 bar, 10 C and has a pressure ratio of 5.5. The
maximum temperature in the cycle is limited to 750 C. Compression is conducted in an un
cooled rotary compressor having an isentropic efficiency of 82% and expansion takes place in a
turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 85%. A heat exchanger with an efficiency of 70% is
fitted between the compressor outlet and combustion chamber. For an air flow of 40 kg/s find
(a) the overall cycle efficiency (b) the turbine output and (c) the air fuel ratio if the calorific
value of the fuel used is 45.22 MJ/kg

307

308

A gas turbine for use as an automotive engine is shown in figure. In the first turbine, the gas
expands to just a low enough pressure P5 for the turbine to drive the compressor. The gas is
then expanded through a second turbine connected to the drive wheels. Consider air as the
working fluid, and assume that all processes are ideal. Determine (a) pressure P5 (b) the net
work per kg and mass flow rate (c) temperature T3 and cycle thermal efficiency and (d) the T-s
diagram for the cycle.

Solution

Solution
An ideal air cycle consists of isentropic compression, constant volume heat transfer, isothermal

309

expansion to the original pressure, and constant pressure heat transfer to the original
temperature. Deduce an expression for the cycle efficiency in terms of volumetric compression
ratio, rk, and isothermal expansion ratio. In such a cycle the pressure and temperature at the
start of compression are 1 bar and 40 C the compression ratio is 8 and the maximum pressure
is 100 bar. Determine the cycle efficiency and the m.e.p.

310

311

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313

A gas turbine plant operates on the Brayton cycle using an optimum pressure ratio for
maximum net work output and a regenerator of 100% effectiveness. Derive expression for net
work output per kg of air and corresponding efficiency of the cycle in terms of the maximum
and the minimum temperatures. If the maximum and minimum temperatures are 800 C and
30 C respectively compute the optimum value of pressure ratio, the maximum net work output
per kg and the corresponding cycle efficiency.

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315

316

Helium is used as the working fluid in an ideal Brayton cycle. Gas enters the compressor at 27
C and 20 bar and is discharged at 60 bar. The gas is heated to 1000 C before entering the
turbine. The cooler returns the hot turbine exhaust to the temperature of the compressor inlet.
Determine (a) the temperatures at the end of compression and expansion (b) the heat supplied
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the heat rejected and the net work per kg of He and (c) the cycle efficiency and the heat rate.
Take cp = 5.1926 kJ/kg K.

318

An air standard cycle for a gas turbine jet propulsion unit, the pressure and temperature
entering the compressor are 100 kPa and 290 K respectively. The pressure ratio across the
compressor is 6 to 1 and the temperature at the turbine inlet is 1400 K. On leaving the turbine
the air enters the nozzle and expands to 100 kPa. Assuming that the efficiency of the
compressor and turbine are both 85% and that the nozzle efficiency is 95%, determine the
pressure at the nozzle inlet and the velocity of the air leaving the nozzle.

319

A stationary gas turbine power plant operates on the Brayton cycle and delivers 20 MW to an
electric generator. The maximum temperature is 1200 K and the minimum temperture is 290 K.
The minimum pressure is 95 kW and the maximum pressure is 380 kPa. If the isentropic
efficiencies of the turbine and compressor are 0.85 and 0.80 respectively find (a) the mass flow
rte of air to the compressor (b) the volume flow rate of air to the compressor (c) the fraction of
the turbine work output needed to drive the compressor (d) the cycle efficiency.
If a regenerator of 75% effectiveness is added to the plant, what would be the changes in the
cycle efficiency and the net work output?

320

321

In an air standard Otto engine, the minimum temperature T1 is governed by the ambient
atmosphere and the maximum temperature T3 is dictated by the material of construction of the
piston and cylinder. For fixed values of T1 and T3 determine the compression ratio, rk for
obtaining maximum net work per unit mass of air undergoing the cyclic change.

322

In a Brayton cycle the ambient conditions limit the minimum temperature T1 and the
metallurgical limit for the turbine blades dictates the maximum temperature T3. For fixed values
of T1 and T3 determine the optimum pressure ratio rp which gives the maximum work in a
Brayton cycle.

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Short answer Questions

1. When does reheating of steam become necessary? Explain the effect of reheat on cycle
output and efficiency.
2. How is the optimum reheat pressure arrived at?
3. Why are more than two reheats not used in practice?
4. Why is the ideal regenerative cycle not practicable?
5. The use of regenerative feedwater heating increases the capital cost but reduces the
operating cost of a steam power plant. Explain.
6. Give a comparative estimate of open and closed feedwater heaters.
7. Why is one of the feedwater heaters always an open heater? What is it called?
8. Explain the function of the deaerator. Why is deaertor installed at a large height from
the basement?
9. Why do we usually neglect the feed pump work in the Rankine Cycle?
10. What is the most ideal steam power plant cycle? Why is it so?
11. What are the impracticable parts of Carnot cycle in a steam power plant cycle?
12. What processes are involved when a steam power plant is working on the Rankine
cycle?
13. The reheat pressure is generally kept within 20% of the initial pressure of the steam.
Why?
14. Why is the reheat cycle preferred only for high capacity plants, 50 MW and above?
15. Why is the reheat cycle not preferred for low capacity plants?
16. What is regenerative heating? Why it is carried out?
17. What is the chief disadvantage of direct contact feed heaters?
18. What the advantages are of reheat cycle over simple Rankine cycle?
19. What are the advantages of regenerative cycle?
20. Draw the layout of thermal power plant and explain the functions of each component in
it?
21. A cyclic steam power plant is to be designed for a steam temperature at turbine inlet of
360C and an exhaust pressure of 0.08 bar. After isentropic expansion of steam in the
turbine, the moisture content at the turbine exhaust is not to exceed 15%. Determine
the maximum allowable steam pressure at the turbine inlet, and calculate the Rankine
cycle efficiency for these steam conditions. Estimate also the mean temperature of heat
addition.
22. A steam power station uses the following cycle: Steam at boiler outlet: 150 bar, 550C.
Condenser at 0.1 bar. Assuming ideal processes find (a) the quality at turbine exhaust,
(b) the cycle efficiency, and (c) the steam rate.
23. In a single- heater regenerative cycle the steam enters the turbine at 30 bar, 400C and
the exhaust pressure is 0.10 bar. The feedwater heater is a direct contact type which
324

operate at 5 bar. Find (a) the efficiency and the steam rate of the cycle, and (b) the
increase in mean temperature of heat addition, efficiency and steam rate, as compared
to the Rankine cycle (without regeneration). Neglect pump work.
24. In a reheat cycle, the initial steam pressure and the maximum temperature are 150 bar
and 550C respectively. If the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar and the moisture at the
condenser inlet is 15%, and assuming ideal processes, determine (a) the reheat
pressure, (b) the cycle efficiency, and (c) the steam rate.
25. Steam is supplied to the turbine at 30 bar and 350C. The turbine exhaust pressure is
0.08 bar. The main condensate is heated regeneratively in two stages of open feed
water heater by steam bleed from the turbine at 5 bar and 1.0 bar respectively. Plot the
cycle on T-s diagram and calculate masses for steam bleed off at each pressure per kg
of steam entering the turbine and the theoretical thermal efficiency of the cycle.
26. Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat-regenerative Rankine
cycle with one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater, and one reheater.
Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and 600C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Some stam is extracted from the turbine at 4 MPa for the closed
feedwater heater, and the remaining steam is reheated at the samae pressure to 600C.
The extracted steam is completely condensed in the heater and is pumped to 15 MPa
before it mixes with the feedwaer at the same pressure. Steam for the open feedwaer
heater is extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a pressure of 0.5 MPa. Determine
the fractions of steam extracted from the turbine as well as the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
27. The steam at 35 bar and 300C is supplied to a steam turbine. The exhaust pressure of
the turbine is 0.1 bar. A single bleed is taken between the high pressure and low
pressure of turbine at 1.5 bar for regenerative feed heating. The isentropic efficiency of
both sections of the turbine is 80%. The temperature of the bleed condensate coming
out of heat exchanger is 10C lower than the temperature of the bleed steam. Find (a)
bleed steam per kg of steam supplied to the steam turbine and (b) the thermal
efficiency of the plant. Neglect the losses and pump work.

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Nicolaus Otto (1832-1891)

One of the most important landmarks in engine design comes from Nicolaus Otto who in 1876
invented an effective gas motor engine. Nicolaus Otto built the first practical four-stroke internal
combustion engine called the "Otto Cycle Engine," and when he completed his engine, he built
it into a motorcycle.
Nicolaus Otto was born on June 14, 1832 in Holzhausen, Germany. Otto's first occupation was
as a traveling salesman selling tea, coffee, and sugar. He soon developed an interest in the new
technologies of the day and began experimenting with building four-stroke engines (inspired by
Lenoir's two-stroke gas-driven internal combustion engine). After meeting Eugen Langen, a
technician and owner of a sugar factory, Otto quit his job, and in 1864, the duo started the
world's first engine manufacturing company N.A. Otto & Cie (now DEUTZ AG, Kln). In 1867,
the pair were awarded a Gold Medal at the Paris World Exhibition for their atmospheric gas
engine built a year earlier.
In May 1876, Nicolaus Otto built the first practical four-stroke piston cycle internal combustion
engine. He continued to develop his four-stroke engine after 1876 and he considered his work
finished after his invention of the first magneto ignition system for low voltage ignition in 1884.
Otto's patent (see drawing below) was overturned in 1886 in favor of the patent granted
to Alphonse Beau de Roaches for his four-stroke engine. However, Otto built a working engine
while Roaches' design stayed on paper. On October 23, 1877, another patent for a gas-motor
engine was issued to Nicolaus Otto, and Francis and William Crossley.
Nicolaus Otto died at age 59, on January 26, 1891, in Cologne.

326