SUSTAINABLE

COASTAL TOURISM
HANDBOOK for the
PHILIPPINEs
Carsten M. Httche
Alan T. White
Ma. Monina M. Flores

Coastal Resource Management Project

of the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

supported by the

United States Agency for International Development

in collaboration with the

Department of Tourism
Cebu City, Philippines
2002

SUSTAINABLE COASTAL TOURISM HANDBOOK for the PHILIPPINES

by
Carsten M. Httche
Alan T. White
Ma. Monina M. Flores
2002
Printed in Cebu City, Philippines
Carsten M. Httche is Principal/Managing Consultant at Environmental Professionals
(ENVIRO PRO/Singapore). He has an MSc in Biology major in Tropical Ecology from Freie
Universitt, Berlin, Germany. E-mail: carstenh@pacific.net.sg or
enviropro@magix.com.sg
Alan T. White is Deputy Chief of Party, Coastal Resource Management Project. He has
a Ph.D. in Geography from the University of Hawaii. He is also President of the Coastal
Conservation and Education Foundation, Inc. E-mail: awhite@mozcom.com
Ma. Monina M. Flores developed the Olango Birds and Seascape Tour that won the
Environmental Experience Award in the 2001 British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow
Awards and a 2000 Conservation International Excellence in Ecotourism Award. She is
founding chairperson of the Environment and Community Ventures Foundation, Inc.
E-mail: mamoninaflores@hotmail.com
Citation:
Httche, C.M., A.T. White and M.M.M. Flores. 2002. Sustainable Coastal Tourism Handbook
for the Philippines. Coastal Resource Management Project of the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources and the Department of Tourism, Cebu City, Philippines, 144 p.
This publication was made possible through support provided by the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) under the terms and conditions of Contract No. AID-492C-00-96-00028-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the USAID. This publication may be reproduced or quoted in
other publications as long as proper reference is made to the source.
Photos by Alan T. White unless noted otherwise.
Graphics and layout by Ysolde Collantes; copyediting by Leticia Dizon.
CRMP Document No. 03-CRM/2002
ISBN 971-92290-3-9

CONTENTS
List of Tables

List of Figures

vii

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

Acknowledgments

xii

Preface

xiii

C HAPTER 11.. IntroductionTourism and Coastal Ecosystems

C HAPTER 2
2.. Integrated Coastal Management: Context for
Tourism Planning

12

Coastal tourism in the Philippines

Philippine coasts and resources at stake
Summary

Proven approaches and policies for coastal management

National legal and policy framework for coastal management
Coastal management as a basic service of local government
Essential support processes and strategies in coastal management
Sustaining coastal management through multisectoral and inter-LGU
collaboration
Summary

1
5
11

13
14
15
25

27
28

CHAPTER 3. Legal Framework for Managing Coastal

Tourism Development

29

CHAPTER 4. Planning for Sustainable Tourism

33

C HAPTER 5. Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism

Venture

49

Summary

What is sustainable tourism

Planning tool I: Physical carrying capacity
Planning tool II: Limits of acceptable change
Planning tool III: Integrated master planning
Case study: Palawan
Case study: Provincial and municipal planning in Palawan
Summary

What is ecotourism?
Knowing the market

32

33
36
40
45
47
47
48

49
52

iii

Developing an ecotour
Case study: The ecotour development process
Summary

C HAPTER 6. Environmental Impact Assessment

62

CHAPTER 7. Site Use and Design

78

C HAPTER 8. Construction Activities

101

C HAPTER 9. Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater

Management

109

CHAPTER 10. Solid Waste Disposal

128

C HAPTER 11. Environmental Control and Auditing

130

C HAPTER 12. The Future: Building Capacity for

Sustainable Tourism

137

References

140

Guidelines for the EIS System from the DENR

Feasibility of EIA process for small-scale resorts
Case study: Malaysia and Batangas
Case study: Pulau Redang, Malaysia and Nasugbu, Batangas
Minimizing environmental impacts in protected areas
Summary
Selecting suitable sites with environmental considerations in mind
Consider local land uses and traditions
Sustainable building design
Marinas and shoreline protection structures
Case study: Mactan Island
Case study: The changed rocky and sandy coast of Mactan Island
Landscaping design
Summary
Building materials and standards for construction
Summary

Philippine standards
Case study: Boracay Island and Maribago, Mactan Island
Southeast Asian standards for wastewater discharge from resorts
Sustainable solutions for sewage and wastewater disposal
Stormwater and surface runoff
Summary
Summary

Who monitors?
Environmental audits
Case study: Bintan Resorts, Bintan Island, Indonesia
Summary

Summary

iv

53
54
61
64
75
76
76
76
77

78
87
88
92
94
94
97
100
102
108

110
113
113
114
124
127
129

130
133
136
136

139

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1

Potential environmental impacts from coastal tourist

development activities

10

Table 2

New paradigms for coastal management in the Philippines

13

Table 3

Granting of jurisdiction over municipal waters as defined in the

Fisheries Code

15

Table 4

Coastal management phases and steps as a basic local government

service and the roles of various sectors

17

Table 5

Specific roles of government and nongovernment groups in

coastal management

22

Table 6

Coastal resource management plan checklist

27

Table 7

Reference guide to coastal tourism development and legislation

in the Philippines

30

Table 8

Tourist carrying capacity of a given area

37

Table 9

Selected common planning standards to determine carrying

capacities of coastal areas

40

Table 10 Resident and tourist perceptions of Boracay regarding changes

in 1997
Table 11

Possible indicators for physical coastal resource and social

conditions for limits of acceptable change process

Table 12 Integrated master planning process

Table 13

Guidelines for tourism-oriented establishments in Palawan

relevant to coastal areas

42

44
45
48

Table 14 Checklist to differentiate ecotourism from nature-based mass

tourism

51

Table 15 Visitor expectations in different target markets

52

Table 16

53

Results of visitor survey in Port Barton, Palawan

Table 17 Matching visitor groups and resources or attractions

57

Table 18 Sample itinerary for Olango Birds and Seascape Tour

59

Table 19 Costing and pricing for an ecotour

60

Table 20 ECAs requiring an ECC before development can occur

62

Table 21 Contents of an EIS

66

Table 22 Checklist for good-practice EIS

71

Table 23 An overview of often-cited environmental impacts in the context

of coastal tourism and mitigation measures

72

Table 24 Activities allowed or restricted in the Turtle Island Heritage

Protected Area

77

Table 25 Guide for the classification of natural resources in zones of impacts 82

Table 26 Coastal tourism development criteria for Maldives

87

Table 27 Installed renewable energy generating capacity in Southeast Asia

in 1998

89

Table 28 Tourism relevant coastal and seawater quality classes

110

Table 29 Water quality criteria for conventional pollutants and toxic

substances for coastal and marine waters

111

Table 30 Effluent standards for conventional pollutants and toxic

substances for protected coastal and marine waters

112

Table 31

vi

Regional quality standards for wastewater/sewage discharge

into coastal waters

114

Table 32 Performance of an engineered wetland (180 m2) at a coastal

resort in Indonesia using reed-rock filter system

121

Table 33 Minimum microbiological water quality requirements for the

use of treated wastewater for irrigation

123

Table 34 Objectives for stormwater management

124

Table 35 Proposed environmental monitoring responsibilities for coastal

tourism in the Philippines

131

Table 36 Sample environmental monitoring form for weekly monitoring

132

Table 37 Sample self-audit form for hotels and resorts

133

Table 38 Energy and water conservation benchmarks for hotels in tropical

countries

135

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1

Popular and emerging coastal tourism destinations in the Philippines 2

Figure 2

Trends in tourist arrivals from 1995 to 2001 for the Philippines

and Cebu

Figure 3

Mutual contributions of tropical coastal habitats

Figure 4

Tourist area life cycle with four stages of development

Figure 5

Extension of airport runway interferes with sand movement,

Dumaguete City

Figure 6

Examples of beach erosion caused by the construction of a groin

or a boat passage

Figure 7

Mangroves and their ecological and economic benefits

Figure 8

The hydrologic cycle

10

Figure 9

Cyclical integrated coastal management data collection,

planning, implementation and monitoring process

16

Figure 10 The coastal management planning process being adapted for

Philippine local government
Figure 11

Illustrative zoning and resource use plan for the coastal area and
municipal waters

Figure 12 Coastal zone and agencies with primary responsibility in

management
Figure 13

Physical carrying capacity of the coastal zone environment in

relation to tourism

16
25
29
39

Figure 14 The limits of acceptable change planning system

41

Figure 15 The relationship between tourist resident relations and carrying

capacity

43

Figure 16

46

Planning process for private sector tourism projects

Figure 17 Necessary steps and components for the ecotourism product

development process

54

Figure 18 Ecotourism product development steps

55

Figure 19 Frequent environmental impacts of tourism activities on the

coastal zone

64

vii

Figure 20 Types of impacts that should be considered in the EIA

65

Figure 21 Overview of national EIS System

68

Figure 22 Steps and timetable for review of Environmentally Critical Projects 68

Figure 23 Example of how environmental mitigation measures and
management plans can be graphically enhanced to assist with
implementation

72

Figure 24 Example of a coastal tourism impact network with direct and

indirect impacts

74

Figure 25 Classification of beach resort sites based on coastal features

80

Figure 26 Zoning scheme used for minimizing resort impacts to

sensitive areas

81

Figure 27 Effects of locating building too close to the shoreline

83

Figure 28 Coastal shoreline setback required by law in the Philippines and

zones

84

Figure 29 Setback along a beach front from edge of vegetation as stipulated

by DOT

84

Figure 30 Placement of septic systems for sewage treatment in relation to

topography and soil structure

85

Figure 31

Septic systems must be sited with knowledge of groundwater

tables during the monsoon season

86

Figure 32 Staggered building form

86

Figure 33 Building design options for natural ventilation

88

Figure 34 Components for a solar photovoltaic system with possible receivers 89

viii

Figure 35 Typical wind generator system components

90

Figure 36 Example of a mini-hydro plant for electricity generation

91

Figure 37 Undermining of a seawall built on a high energy coastline

92

Figure 38 Effects of placing groins, jetties or breakwaters along a shoreline

93

Figure 39 Beach resort location on the southeastern coast of Mactan Island

95

Figure 40 Modification of the rock coast for resorts along the Mactan
Island shore

96

Figure 41 Services provided by trees and vegetation that enhance the

environmental and aesthetic quality of a coastal tourism facility

97

Figure 42 Mangroves are attractive landscape features due to their diverse

adaptation to inundation with a mix of seawater and freshwater

99

Figure 43 Mangroves can be made accessible via elevated boardwalks

connected to other resort facilities

99

Figure 44 Methods of clearing

104

Figure 45 Fencing and vegetative buffers protect streams and seas from the
effects of soil runoff from construction sites

106

Figure 46 Geotextile fencing details

107

Figure 47 Sequence of geotextile silt fences placed in the direction of flow

to filter runoff

108

Figure 48 Schematic layout for a wastewater treatment and recycling system

with engineered wetlands
115
Figure 49 Standard septic system design

116

Figure 50 Placement of septic tank in relation to topography and

freshwater well

117

Figure 51 Side elevation of a typical brick or concrete anaerobic digester

117

Figure 52 Reed root system acts as a biological pump transporting oxygen

into the root zone

119

Figure 53 Cross-section of an engineered wetland cell for sewage and

wastewater treatment

119

Figure 54 Tropical engineered wetlands used for the treatment of domestic

wastewater from hotels and residences

120

Figure 55 Combination of anaerobic digester and engineered wetland

120

Figure 56 Wastewater and sewage disposal options for small and

medium-scale coastal resorts and hotels

122

Figure 57 Wastewater and sewage disposal options for large-scale coastal

resorts and hotels

122

Figure 58 A dry retention basin is one option for collecting stormwater

125

Figure 59 A wet retention pond is another option for stormwater storage

in which stormwater is held and discharged at a rate determined
by the size of the outflow pipe

125

Figure 60 Several landscaping techniques that help to minimize stormwater

runoff damage

126

Figure 61

128

Possible methods of solid waste disposal in a hotel

ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AND ACRONYMS

AO

Administrative Order

BBIR

Bintan Beach International Resort

BFAR

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

BOD

biochemical oxygen demand

BRM

Bintan Resort Management

CBFMA

Community-based Forest Management Agreement

CENRO

Community Environment and Natural Resources Office(r)

COD

chemical oxygen demand

CRM

coastal resource management

DA

Department of Agriculture

DAO

Department Administrative Order

DDT

dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane

DENR

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

DILG

Department of the Interior and Local Government

DO

dissolved oxygen

DOT

Department of Tourism

ECA

Environmentally Critical Area

ECAN

Environmentally Critical Areas Network

ECC

Environmental Compliance Certificate

ECP

Environmentally Critical Project

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment

EIARC

Environmental Impact Assessment Review Committee

EIS

Environmental Impact Statement

EMB

Environmental Management Bureau

EMF

Environmental Monitoring Fund

EMP

Environmental Management Plan

FARMC

Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council

FLA

Fishpond Lease Agreement

ICM

integrated coastal management

IEC

information, education and communication

IEE

Initial Environmental Examination

kW

Kilowatt

kWh

Kilowatt-hours

LAC

limits of acceptable change

LGU

local government unit

MARINA

Maritime Industry Authority

MBAS

methylene blue active substances

MIIMPS

Mactan Island Integrated Master Plan Study

MMT

Multi-Partite Monitoring Team

MPN

most probable number

NEDC

National Ecotourism Development Council

NGA

national government agency

NGO

nongovernment organization

NIPAS

National Integrated Protected Areas System

PAMB

Protected Area Management Board

PAWB

Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau

PCB

polychlorinated biphenyl

PCG

Philippine Coast Guard

PCSD

Palawan Council for Sustainable Development

PD

Presidential Decree

PENRO

Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office(r)

PNP

Philippine National Police

PO

peoples organization

PPA

Philippine Ports Authority

PTA

Philippine Tourism Authority

PV

photovoltaic

REC

Regional Ecotourism Committee

RED

Regional Executive Director

SEP

Strategic Environmental Plan

SIA

Social Impact Assessment

STP

sewage treatment plant

TDS

total dissolved solids

TSS

total suspended solids

xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book has been endorsed by the Department of Tourism and the Department
of Environment and Natural Resources. Their cooperation in the development of
this handbook is much appreciated.
Those persons who have reviewed and assisted with the formulation of contents
or editing include:
Verna Buensuceso, Chief, Product Research Division, Department of Tourism
Priscilla N. Calimag, Chief, Environmental Management Specialist/Ecotourism
Technical Working Group/Protected Areas and Wildlife BureauDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources and Project
Coordinator, Department of Tourism
Mary Gleason, Ph.D., Tetra Tech EM Inc.
Carlos Libosada, Instructor, Asian Institute of Tourism
Dolores Madrid, Officer-in-charge, Planning and Design Division, Philippine
Tourism Authority
Victorino Mendoza, Officer-in-charge, Nature Recreation and Extension
Division/Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau-Department of Environment
and Natural Resources
Marc Miller, Professor, School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington
Noel Padilla, Policy Studies Division, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources
Annabelle Trinidad, Policy Advisor, Coastal Resource Management Project
The authors also acknowledge the staff of Environmental Professionals
(ENVIRO PRO/Singapore) for their support; and the Project Team of the Olango
Coral Farm, Cebu, Philippines.
This book depends on many excellent information sources from the
Philippines and elsewhere concerning the development and management of
tourism. These references are listed at the end. Much of the material is derived from
the various publications of the Coastal Resource Management Project of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources and supported by the United
States Agency for International Development.

xii

PREFACE
This handbook provides guidance to the tourism industry through practical
tools and strategies to avoid unnecessary environmental and social problems
associated with tourism development. Its audience includes tourism developers and
operators of small to large tourism projects, coastal communities, local government
units and national government agencies. The book promotes the goals of
government and the private sector to restore a tarnished coastal environment back
to clean beaches and crystal-clear waters for long-term business and environmental
viability.
The Philippines is plagued with unplanned coastal development. In the past
when coastal areas were sparsely populated and coastal resources plentiful,
haphazard development and resource exploitation were not major concerns to
people. Now, the situation is very different and the carrying capacity of many
coastal areas has been surpassed. Population density in the Philippine coastal zone is
among the highest in the world and the obvious lack of development planning and
mitigation is taking its toll in degradation of beaches, coral reefs, seagrass beds and
water quality in shoreline and nearshore areas.
The tourism industry depends on a clean and healthy environment. Indeed,
travel industry trends are shifting towards more demand for destinations that offer
pristine environments, experiences with nature and at least a lack of pollution and
civil society problems. Philippine coastal areas could lose their attraction if issues of
pollution, overcrowding and unplanned development are not addressed. The
tourism industry has an opportunity in improving the situation by identifying
creative means to assist and guide development with an eye for environmental
preservationknowing that well-managed coastal areas will attract more visitors.
Tourism players can look at smart and appropriate solutions for waste treatment
and for shoreline land use. They can become more proactive in guiding tourism
development so that it contributes to coastal management and resource
conservation. Indeed, this handbook points to practical, robust and cost-efficient
systems for environmental protection and management that can be easily operated
and maintained.
This handbook contains a wealth of information to help guide tourism
developers, local governments, nongovernment organizations and the many other
stakeholders concerned with tourism in the Philippines. It provides guidance at both
the policy and field levels. It can help with site plans and organizing environment
sensitive recreation uses of coastal areas. It can answer many questions that need to
be asked about how to better maintain our coastal areas for tourism and other uses.
Lets read and make use of its guidance on Philippine coasts!

xiii

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Tourism and
IntroductionTourism
Coastal Ecosystems
Tourism is now the largest industry in the world.
Although it can bring substantial economic benefits,
it has many pitfalls that can easily erode the gains.
COASTAL TOURISM

IN THE

PHILIPPINES

Coastal tourism brings up popular images of resorts at the seaside with white
sandy beaches lined with coconut palms and crystal-clear waters. Advertisements and
travel trade literature have helped to promote this image of the three Ss that coastal
resorts usually offersun, sea and sand.
A fourth S, for sex in the form of flourishing prostitution, has created social and
cultural problems in many popular coastal tourist playgrounds around the world, especially
in developing countries. And finally, a fifth S has found its way recently into news
headlines and, more disturbingly, into the coastal waters in front of beach resorts: sewage.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide tourism developers and operators of
small to large tourism projects, coastal communities and local government units (LGUs)
with practical tools and guidance to avoid unnecessary environmental and social problems
from tourism development. The ultimate goal of government and private sector is to
restore a tarnished coastal environment back to clean beaches and crystal-clear waters
for long-term business and environmental viability.
Tropical coastal areas have major advantages compared with the coasts in the
temperate climate zones. They are better suited to offer the combination of sun, sea and
sand to tourists year-round. The Philippines tropical climate and diverse 18,000-kilometer
coastline on more than 7,000 islands have made it an important area for coastal tourism
development. Important coastal tourism destinations in the Philippines are shown in
Figure 1.

Batanes Islands

LUZON SEA
PHILIPPINE SEA

San Fernando, La Union

LUZON
Mabini/Tingloy,
Batangas

Donsol, Sorsogon

Subic Bay
Puerto Galera,
Mindoro

Batangas
Mactan and Olango Islands,
Cebu

SOUTH CHINA SEA

Apo Reef

Masbate

Boracay Island

VISAYAS
Northern Palawan
Islands and Bays

Leyte

Surigao and
Siargao coasts

Cebu
Bohol

Moalboal, Cebu
Negros
Oriental

Negros Oriental,
Siquijor and Apo Islands

Surigao

Panglao Island,
Bohol and vicinity

Camiguin

AW
A

Camiguin Island
PA
L

MINDANAO
Davao
Oriental

Tubbataha Reefs

Samal Island,
Davao Gulf
Davao
del Sur

SULU SEA
Sarangani
Bay
Turtle Islands

MINDANAO SEA

Figure 1: Popular and emerging coastal tourism destinations

in the Philippines

Coastal tourism deals with two complex systemsthe tourism system and the coastal
system. The former is primarily a human system and the latter, an environmental one.
Naturally, there are close interactions between these two systems, for instance, the impact
of tides, storms, wave action and other natural phenomena on coastal tourism. Of the
same importance are the impacts of tourism on the
environment and social settings of a coastal system. These
include accelerated beach erosion, deteriorating coastal
water quality, dumping of solid waste on beaches or in
near-beach areas, coral reef degradation through inadequate
anchorage and landing facilities, salt-water intrusion,
increasing traffic noise and congestion. The list could
continue.
There are many examples in Asia of severe negative
impacts on the environment from coastal tourism. The
Unplanned and unregulated development along the
well-known examples of Pattaya Beach, Thailand and shoreline results in environmental degradation and
Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka are indicative of what can happen resource use conflicts.
with over-development without consideration for carrying capacity or the balance between
development and nature (Wong 1991, 1993). In the Philippines, development typically
consists of small resorts which are somewhat integrated into the local culture and
environment. But, even here, most coastal resorts are poorly planned with respect to the
protection of those resources, namely coral reefs, nearshore water quality and clean
beaches. Larger players such as international resort chains have only recently begun to
implement more stringent environmental practices on their
properties. There is room for significant improvement of
environmental practices on both smaller, integrated resorts
and larger, international resorts.
The negative impact of coastal tourism development
in the Philippines reached the minds of the general public
not long ago through media coverage of one nearenvironmental disaster. In July 1997, the headline: Boracay
Water Unsafe for Bathing shocked tourists, developers
and operators of one of Philippines most famous resort
Proper development setbacks on beaches allow for
destinations, once voted the worlds most beautiful beach natural cycles of sand movement and storm surge that
(Trousdale 1997). Boracay waters were allegedly unsafe prevent property damage. Public access can also be
maintained in the foreshore area.
for swimming and other recreational activities due to high
levels of coliform bacteria, indicating the presence of other microbes more harmful to
human health. These organisms can cause illnesses such as cholera, typhoid fever and
skin disorders.
The contamination of Boracay was the result of untreated or insufficiently treated
wastewater from the countless small-scale septic tanks seeping into the water table or
being flushed directly into the sea via beaches or streams. With its skyrocketing popularity
as the major beach destination in the Philippines, the discharge of wastewater had
soared to unmanageable levels during peak seasons.

Introduction
Tourism and Coastal Ecosystems
IntroductionTourism

Boracays tourism industry and the provincial government had to learn the hard
way: sensational newspaper headlines almost ruined the local tourism industry. The
Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) is now working on Boracays water system, aided
by the Japans Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund. The project includes setting up
a system to transport fresh water from the mainland to Boracay, as well as the installation
of a sewage treatment plant.

ROSS

If proper planning and effective environmental management practices were in place

in Boracay, the risk of losing important coastal tourism business would have been avoided.
If proper sewage and solid waste systems are installed, and the coastal environment is
protected in these areas, high tourist arrivals can be accommodated, and sustainable
economic benefits can be achieved. True, these measures
cost money, but it is an investment for the future that protects
other higher investments for tourism buildings and
infrastructure in the long term.
Tourism players should look at smart and appropriate
solutions for waste treatment. They must find practical,
robust and cost-efficient systems for environmental
protection that can be easily operated and maintained.
An associated problem in implementing environmental
guidelines for coastal resources is that there is no tax
collected for use of coastal resources. Developers generally
assume free access and do not charge tourists for access to
beaches or nearby coral reefs. Yet, special efforts are almost always required to maintain
these resources and their benefits in good condition. Thus, the opportunity cost of
access to healthy natural resources is not being recovered through the present tourism
economic structure. Charging access fees to beaches is an effective way to finance the
conservation of coastal resources (White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998). One example is Port
Barton, Palawan, where divers are willing to pay an average of PhP120-150 (US$2-3)
per person for marine protection measures (Arquiza 1999). Another is the Gilutongan
Marine Sanctuary near Cebu, where a user fee levied for divers and visitors is generating
US$300-500 per month to maintain the sanctuary (White et al. 2001).

All pollutants generated in the watershed from agriculture,

industry, logging and other activities eventually reach the
sea through surface water runoff or groundwater
movement.

There are examples of small-scale coastal tourism projects that are environmentally
sustainable. Various beach resorts encourage coastal conservation activities. Local
communities, who benefit from low-impact visitors who want to snorkel, scuba dive or
birdwatch, realize the need to protect these resources such as at Olango Island, Cebu or
Apo Island, Negros Oriental (White 1988a, 1988b; White et al. 2001).
In other cases, larger resorts keep their guests happy by creating man-made enclaves
with artificial beaches and lagoons, simulating beautiful, unspoiled coastal environments.
These projects may contribute little to direct protection of coastal resources in the
specific area. However, positive trends are developing in the Philippines, that link high

volume coastal tourism destinations with satellite ecotourism sites where coastal
communities are stakeholders.
A possible model for sustainable coastal tourism may be to concentrate tourists in
better-managed large hotels and resorts outside sensitive coastal areas so their impact on
resources can be more easily controlled and mitigated. These coastal tourism centers
may provide the platform to stage short journeys to coastal protected zones in the vicinity
that, if carrying capacities are observed, can provide economic benefits to communities
and protect coastal environments. The so-called off-site residence of tourists could
also be seen as an initial phase in the process of sustainable coastal tourism development.
The number of visitors to the Philippines is quite high and their interest is increasingly
oriented toward natural destinations (Figure 2). An opportunity thus exists for the country
to build on this trend and use tourism as a means to enhance coastal and marine
conservation through revenues generated and through the values of tourists who like
clean and green experiences in their travels.
Visitor arrivals in the Philippines
International arrivals in Mactan Island, Cebu
Domestic arrivals in Mactan Island, Cebu

Number of tourists

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0
1995

1996

1997

1998
Year

1999

2000

2001

Figure 2: Trends in tourist arrivals from 1995 to 2001 for the

Philippines and Cebu

PHILIPPINE COASTS

AND

RESOURCES

AT

STAKE

The Philippines has a diverse coastal environment with a variety of ecosystems and
an extremely rich biodiversity and productivity. Sandy beaches, coral reefs, rocky
headlands, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, lagoons and seagrasses are typical. Each
ecosystem plays a critical role in maintaining the health of the coastal zone as well as in
maintaining the health of each other. This interdependence makes the coastal zone one

Introduction
Tourism and Coastal Ecosystems
IntroductionTourism

of the most sensitive geographic areas. Damage

to a coral reef, for example, will allow greater
wave action on shore, causing beach loss.
Alteration of one feature of the coastal zone usually
causes damage to another feature, either directly
or indirectly (Figure 3). A detailed analysis of the
Philippine coastal ecosystems is presented in
Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series
No. 5: Managing Coastal Habitats and Marine
Protected Areas (DENR et al. 2001) and in
Philippine Coral Reefs: A Natural History Guide
(White 2001).

Beaches are a prime attraction for coastal tourists and must

remain clean and open.

Protecting coastal
ecosystems safeguards
financial investments in
tourism development over
the long term

Mangrove ecosystem

Physical protection
Nutrient sharing
Particulate organic
matter
Animal migrations

Coral reef ecosystem

Seagrass ecosystem

Figure 3: Mutual contributions of tropical coastal habitats

(Sullivan et al. 1995)

Maintenance of coastal ecosystems is important in sustaining the tourism industry.

When the ecosystems are damaged or lost, tourism will decline as shown in Figure 4.
This happens as the local carrying capacity of the environment is surpassed by numbers
of tourists and other types of development activities.
3
Number of
tourists

Institutionalization,
overdevelopment
and stagnation

2
1
Discovery

Local
control

4
Rejuvenation

Decline

Time

Figure 4: Tourist area life cycle with four stages of development

(Butler 1980)
Beaches are the focal point of coastal tourism since many tourist activities depend
on clean beaches. Beaches are dynamic, unstable systems, which are constantly subject
to the forces of erosion, the removal of sand; and accretion, the deposition of sand.
Many beaches are part of eroding systems, causing economic losses to property owners
and to the tourism sector. Beach loss from human activities, sometimes tourism related,
is generally caused by:

Sand and coral mining in coastal areas (e.g. from dredging of boat channels,
and mining of sand for construction or beach replenishment);

Building structures which inhibit long shore sediment transport (Figure 5);
and

Construction of groins and seawalls that adversely affect adjacent coastal areas
(Figure 6).
current

accretion

current

coral
reef
original runway
beach

new runway
eroded
area
reef

seawall to
protect
houses

ORIGINAL

NEW

Figure 5: Extension of airport runway interferes with sand

movement, Dumaguete City (DENR et al . 2001)

Introduction
Tourism and Coastal Ecosystems
IntroductionTourism

Groin blocks natural

sand movement
Boat passage

Accretion of
sand

Sand moves into boat

channel and is lost
into deeper areas

Erosion

Waves
or current

FUNKHOUSER

Figure 6: Examples of beach erosion caused by the construction

of a groin (A) or a boat passage (B). A shows the distribution of
sand and the site of erosion caused by the construction of a groin. In B
the arrows indicate the movement of sand into a trap created by the
construction of a boat passage (Wong 1991)
Coral reefs are valuable tourism assets that attract many tourists for snorkeling and
scuba diving. Healthy reefs are important ecologically and economically. Potentially
damaging tourism-related activities of coastal development on coral reefs include:

Increased siltation and sedimentation from

dredging, filling or coastal construction;

Pollutants and excess nutrients from waste disposal

and sewage discharge;

Discharge of large volumes of freshwater from

stormwater drains, increased surface runoff from
surface paving or vegetation removal;

Overfishing and blast fishing to provide fish for

local tourist restaurants; and

Coral breakage from guests exploring the reef,

anchor damage or collection of organisms for sale
or souvenirs or for recreation such as by spear
Healthy coral reefs in the Philippines have high
biodiversity, support many species that benefit humans
fishing.
and attract tourists.

Coastal wetlands, which include seagrass beds, lagoons, mudflats, estuaries and
mangroves, are important to tourism at two levels. They remove pollutants from water
flows before they enter the main water bodies. This function protects beaches and coral
reefs and coastal water qualitythe most important coastal tourism assets. Second,
wetlands can provide direct benefits such as settings for birdwatching and nature
photography, canoeing and other water sports. Ecologically, wetlands and mangroves
provide spawning and nursery habitat for juvenile fish, crustaceans and mollusks or
habitats for migratory and resident birds among other terrestrial wildlife (Figure 7).

Habitat for birds, bees, monkeys

and other wildlife
Microbial decomposers and herbivores

Juveniles for
aquaculture

Leaf litter/Detritus
Mo
llus
ks

Nursery
ground

Detritus

Protection from storm

waves and erosion
Traps sediments and
stabilizes coastal areas

Supports food
chain away from
mangrove areas

Benefits to humans:
Clean water
Fish, shellfish,
mollusks, etc.
Medicines
Tannins
Wood (fuel and
construction)
Honey
Alcohol
Shore protection
Research data
Education
Recreation/tourism
Biodiversity

Small carnivores
Commercial and
subsistence fisheries

Large carnivores

Figure 7: Mangroves and their ecological and economic

benefits (Berjak et al. 1977)
Human activities that impinge on wetlands are many, those related to tourism are:

Removal of mangrove habitat for resort construction;

Disposal of sewage and solid waste into wetlands; and

Construction of obstructions to the natural water movement within or between

wetland water bodies.
Ecosystem linkages and the impacts of tourism
The above ecosystems combined form the coastal environment. These ecosystems
are connected to one another via several mechanisms including tides, currents, waves,
nutrients, the hydrologic cycle and sedimentation (Figures 3 and 8). It is important
when designing a development project to understand these mechanisms and to predict
how the development project will affect these processes. Disruptions in these processes
can lead to severe environmental damage (Maragos et al. 1983). The potential impacts
on coastal ecosystems of various tourist development activities are summarized in Table
1.

Introduction
Tourism and Coastal Ecosystems
IntroductionTourism

Precipitation
Evaporation
Transpiration

Surface water
Corals

Groundwater transport
Seagrass

Figure 8: The hydrologic cycle (Rees 1990)

Table 1. Potential environmental impacts from coastal tourist

development activities
Coastal
habitats
Coral reefs

Environmental impacts

Estuaries/
lagoons

Tourist development activities

which may cause these impacts

Physical damage to coral reefs

and collection of reef
organisms beyond sustainable
limits
Increase in freshwater runoff
and sediments
Introduction of waterborne
pollutants

Encroachment
Changes in sedimentation
patterns
Changes to the salinity regime
Introduction of waterborne
pollutants
Destruction of submerged and
fringing vegetation
Inlet modifications
Loss of fishery habitat

Reefwalking, collection of souvenirs

from reef, overfishing to supply
restaurants
Land clearing for construction
Freshwater influx from wastewater
pipes from poorly treated sewage
and improper disposal methods
Land-filling for siting of structure
Placement of structures on beach/in
coastal waters
Freshwater runoff
From runoff, sedimentation,
recreational uses
For harbor maintenance, siting
considerations
From land-use modifications,
increased runoff, sedimentation;
pollution increases from sewage,
wastewater disposal
(continued)

10

Table 1. (continued)
Coastal
habitats
Mangroves

Environmental impacts

Seagrass beds

Salt marshes
(tidal flats)

Barrier
beaches, sand
dunes and
spits

Tourist development activities

which may cause these impacts

Changes in freshwater runoff,

salinity regime and tidal flow
patterns
Excessive siltation
Introduction of pollutants
Conversion of mangrove
habitat and overharvesting of
resources

Physical alterations
Excessive sedimentation or
siltation
Introduction of excessive
nutrients or pesticides

Degradation of bird habitat or

seed fish collection sites
Obstruction of stormwater
runoff

Sand mining
Erosion
Dune migration

(see coral reefs, estuaries/lagoons)

From construction activities,
wastewater discharges sewage
For use as a tourist development site

By boat anchoring, recreational

activities, increased runoff (see
above)
Sewage, wastewater discharge
From discharging wastes, physical
alteration for tourist uses
From altering tidal flats for
development purposes
For construction purposes
From disregarding setback
regulations, improper placement of
coastal structures
Removal of natural vegetation

Adapted from CCD (1997)

SUMMARY
The coastal ecosystems common to the Philippines and their linkages must be
considered in planning for development. Those ecosystems of concern include coral
reefs, mangroves, estuaries and beaches together with the marine waters that are essential
to all marine ecosystems. Natural beach erosion processes and sand transport dictate
building setback requirements and the need to maintain natural beach vegetation. Marine
and fresh water quality maintenance is determined by the type and impact of coastal
facilities and their waste treatment process. Aesthetically pleasing coastal features such
as coral reefs, vegetation, clean beaches and water attract tourists while disturbed and
polluted systems repel tourists. Thus, careful maintenance and enhancement of the coastal
system is the only sustainable path for tourism development.

Introduction
Tourism and Coastal Ecosystems
IntroductionTourism

11

CHAPTER 2

Integrated Coastal Management:

Context for Tourism Planning
The best plans are no guarantee for stopping
environmental degradation, but without
them there is no hope!
The development of tourism in coastal areas occurs in the context of the coastal
environment and its ecosystems described in Chapter 1. The coastal area has many
complexities that must be considered for any kind of development, whether it is
tourism related or not. This chapter provides an introduction to integrated coastal
management (ICM) as the overall approach to address the issues created by
development in coastal areas. ICM is a means of planning for resource management
and coastal development and implementing these plans. ICM considers the interaction
among and within human development activities and the natural coastal environment.
It provides a systematic way to analyze the coastal situation and to plan for its
development before mitigation and restoration are required. It helps prioritize the
outcomes that people value most through a participatory process whereby all key
stakeholders have a role in the decision process in planning the development of their
area.
The widespread decline of coastal resources in the Philippines is, without a doubt,
a fundamental and urgent issue that needs to be addressed through active involvement
from all sectors of society. The uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources has
served as the primary starting point for the degraded condition of coastal resources
experienced today. Tourism only stands to lose from this deteriorating scenario.
Regular and appropriate investments in coastal management are required to sustain
national and local benefits derived from coastal resources. Furthermore, with the
recognition that effective management develops from a participatory process involving
coastal stakeholders and day-to-day resource users, many countries, including the
Philippines, have devolved the responsibility of managing coastal resources to the

lowest level of government. Herein lie the challenges and opportunities to transform
these and other new paradigms in coastal management to the successful recovery of
Philippine seas. Changes in the overall orientation of coastal management in the
Philippines are described in Table 2.

Table 2. New paradigms for coastal management in the Philippines

Shift in emphasis to coastal protection and management from fisheries development,

exportation and optimum production;

Devolution of responsibility and mandate for managing municipal waters to local government;

Redefining roles of national government agencies (NGAs) toward assisting local government
with coastal management;

Establishing multisectoral and inter-LGU agreements to solve complex problems associated

with coastal management;

Broadening the base of local and national support to sustain community-based coastal
resource management (CRM) (Christie et al. 1994; White et al. 1994); and

Mainstreaming coastal management on the national agenda.

PROVEN APPROACHES

AND

POLICIES

FOR

COASTAL MANAGEMENT

The Philippines is in the process of defining what policies are basic to successful
ICM. These are being tested at the field level all around the country and are being
compared to national law and institutional structures in an effort to improve the
connections between local implementation and national policy. Several key ingredients
in the national policy framework that reflect local realities in the Philippines are:

Participation in management decisions is essential at all levels. The

Philippines has a tradition of democracy that encourages community-level
participation and responsibility. This builds on the bottom-up model of
encouraging barangay-level groups to form management associations and
become the effective managers of their coastal resources. This local level of
decision-making is supported through the Local Government Code and the
Fisheries Code, which both give significant jurisdiction to local governments
in the resource management process.

National agencies with jurisdiction over coastal resources need to assist

LGUs and provide technical support. The capacity of local governments to
manage their coastal environments and resources is limited. They need
technical guidance, personnel, budget and mentoring to achieve ICM practices.
This can be facilitated by national agencies such as the Department of AgricultureBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR), Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Department of the Interior and
Local Government (DILG), and Department of Tourism (DOT) with

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

13

jurisdiction and concern for coastal environments and resources. The difference
now, as compared to the past, is that the direct management responsibility and
implementing authority lies primarily with the local governments.

Collaboration and synergy among agencies is essential. The very term

integrated strongly suggests that all institutions with a mandate and concern
for management of coastal resources must collaborate. This collaboration
will include government and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and
international projects and donors. The planning unit and the boundaries of
collaboration will most often be determined by ecological criteria and natural
divisions. Bays with defined ocean parameters, resources and issues do not
respect political boundaries. Rather, they must be planned for and managed as
a bay unit. This may include several municipalities and one or more provinces
in some cases.

Multiple education and communication strategies are required to build a

wide base of support for ICM. People must begin to understand the issues
before they will take action to solve them. This can be achieved through
education and media campaigns. ICM can be promoted through networks of
constituency groups to support initiatives, thus ensuring better sustainability
of efforts.

Proven technical interventions must be pursued and applied appropriately.

Much experience has been gained through a variety of coastal management
projects that have tested coastal management interventions. The viable
interventions must be pursued, such as integrated planning, habitat protection
and management, improved law enforcement, environmentally sensitive
livelihood options, community organization and education, and others
(Christie and White 1997).

Local government plays a pivotal role as the last safety net for the recovery of
coastal and marine resources in the Philippines. For this reason, the Philippine Coastal
Management Guidebook Series (DENR et al. 2001) highlights coastal management
processes and management measures that are collectively viewed as the delivery of basic
services by local governments municipal, city and provincial. These basic services
cannot be delivered without cooperation between local governments and, at the same
time, without the support of NGAs, NGOs, coastal communities, academe, private and
other sectors.

NATIONAL LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR COASTAL MANAGEMENT

The primary mandate for coastal management has been largely devolved to local
government under the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act No. 7160)
and more recently defined in the Fisheries Code of 1998 (Republic Act No. 8550).

14

Coastal management may be viewed as one of the inherent functions of LGUs in

accordance with their general powers for management within their territorial
jurisdictions which include municipal waters out to a distance of 15 km from the
coastline (Table 3). Protected areas declared under the National Integrated Protected
Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 are managed by a locally constituted Protected Area
Management Board (PAMB) which also provides a major role for LGU participation.
The full national policy framework for coastal management is described in Guidebook 2:
Legal and Jurisdictional Framework for Coastal Management (DENR et al. 2001).

Table 3. Granting of jurisdiction over municipal waters as

defined in the Fisheries Code
Section 16, Article I. Jurisdiction of Municipal/City Governments. The
municipality/city government shall have jurisdiction over municipal waters as
defined in this Code (marine waters included between two lines drawn
perpendicular to the general coastline from points where the boundary lines of
the municipality touch the sea at low tide and a third line parallel with the general
coastline including offshore islands and fifteen kilometers from such coastline).
The municipal/city government, in consultation with the Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Management Council (FARMC) shall be responsible for the
management, conservation, development, protection, utilization and disposition of
all fish and fishery/aquatic resources within their respective municipal waters.
Section 76, Article II. The integrated Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Management Councils shall be created in bays, gulfs, [bounded by two or
more municipalities/cities to assist in the preparation of plans, fishery ordinances,
enforcement of fishery laws, provide advice on fishery matters and perform other
functions as required.]

COASTAL MANAGEMENT

AS A

BASIC SERVICE

OF

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Coastal management as a basic service of local government incorporates all the local
government powers and responsibilities including planning, protection, legislation,
regulation, revenue generation, enforcement, intergovernmental relations, relations with
peoples and nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and extension and technical
assistance. The process shown in Figure 10 has been detailed from the perspective of
local government, in particular, municipalities and cities, which are now tasked by law
with the primary responsibility for the nations coastal resources and municipal waters.
This planning process for local government is tailored from a more generic process
evolving in many parts of the world for coastal management (see Figure 9).
The steps in the coastal management planning process adapted for local governments
shown in Figure 10 are basic and essential prerequisites to successful CRM. These steps
can all be facilitated and partially supported by local governments together with their
partner communities at the barangay level as well as NGAs. A brief description of each
phase in the process highlighting LGU basic services and the role of other sectors is
shown in Table 4.

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

15

Program
preparation

Update information
base and refine plan

Monitor and
evaluate results

Implement planning
actions through
projects

Refine management
plan strategies,
actions and projects

Identify issues, collect

baseline information and
develop coastal profile

Update
information
base

Prioritize issues and

formulate management
goals and objectives

Implement
actions

Monitor and
evaluate

Develop plan
with strategies
and actions

Figure 9: Cyclical integrated coastal management data collection,

planning, implementation and monitoring process (White 1997)

National policy and legal framework

Issue identification
and baseline
assessment

CRM plan
preparation
and adoption

Action plan and

project
implementation

Local legislation
Information management,
education and outreach

Coastal law
enforcement
Regulation

External
revenue
sources

Annual program
preparation and
budgeting

Revenue
generation

Monitoring and evaluation

Multisectoral and inter-LGU participation and resource sharing

Figure 10: The coastal management planning process being

adapted for Philippine local government
The municipal or city government has an important facilitating role in the coastal
management process because of their legal mandate to manage resources within
municipal waters. National agencies, DENR and BFAR primarily, have key supporting
roles in the coastal management process together with LGUs, including provinces.
NGOs, both national and local, are often involved in the community-level
implementation process through either contracting arrangements under government
agencies or through their own projects funded externally.

16

Table 4. Coastal management phases and steps as a basic local

government service and the roles of various sectors

Phases and
steps

Roles of local
municipal or city
government,
community and
stakeholders

Activities and
outputs

Technical assistance
roles of national and
provincial
government, nongovernment
organizations,
academe and donors

PHASE 1: Issue identification and baseline assessment

a. Program
preparation

Allocate budget
Determine boundaries
and scope
Make workplans/
budgets
Assign personnel
Secure consensus on
overall approach

b. Secondary
information
gathering

c. Field assessment/
Participatory
Coastal Resource
Assessment
(PCRA) and
other research

d. Database and
profile
development

Compile existing
maps, reports, data
Interview information
sources
Compile existing laws,
plans
Review other sources
of information

Train practitioners
Conduct PCRA
mapping and data
collection
Contract special
research studies on
fish stock assessment,
habitat condition,
water quality,
enterprise and others

Maps completed
Set up data storage
and retrieval system
Compile coastal
environmental profile
Use profile as
planning base
Refine boundaries
and further research
needs

Source funding for

CRM planning
activities
Annual investment
plan for CRM
Enter into memoranda of agreement
Participate in
discussion
Communicate needs
and potential roles
Agree on design

Provide information
Assist in compiling
information
Begin to develop
information storage
and retrieval system

Conduct PCRA with

technical assistance
Participate in special
research and data
collection
Assist in data analysis
Provide inputs to
mapping

Provide information
Assist with profile
analysis
Validate data
Use profile for
planning
Decide on boundary
demarcation
Present profile to
legislative bodies

Prepare workplans
Formulate working
agreements
Contract and train
staff
Facilitate consensus
on design

Locate sources of
information
Compile
information in
useful form
Coordinate activities

Train practitioners
Facilitate PCRA
Conduct specialized
research
Analyze research
data
Make results
available

Determine data
storage site,
personnel
Write profile
Distribute profile
Facilitate discussions
on boundaries and
research needs

(continued)

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

17

Table 4. (continued)

Phases and
steps

e. Prioritize issues
and analyze
causes

Roles of local
municipal or city
government,
community and
stakeholders

Activities and
outputs

Conduct community
and municipal-based
planning sessions
Develop issue tree
Prioritize issues for
management

Technical assistance
roles of national and
provincial
government, nongovernment
organizations,
academe and donors

Participate in
process and provide
major input
Participate in
conflict resolution
Set priorities in real
terms

Advisory body to
LGU
Provide basic policies
Provide major inputs
to plan

Facilitate process
Interject outside
perspectives,
research findings,
policies, etc.
Help translate issues
into causes

PHASE 2: CRM plan preparation and adoption

a. Establish
management
bodies

Barangay and
municipal FARMCs
established and active
Multisectoral
Technical Working
Group established

b. Define goals and

objectives

c. Develop CRM
strategies and
action plan

Conduct CRM
planning workshop
Identify and evaluate
management options
Management
strategies and actions
identified

Proposed water use

zones delineated and
mapped
Multi-year
management plan
drafted
Community
consultations on
draft management
plan conducted
Proposed CRM plan
presented in
multisectoral forum
Multi-year CRM plan
finalized and adopted

Facilitate planning
process
Conduct planning
workshops
Provide technical
guidance
Assist to set up
management bodies

Build consensus
among community
LGU support to
planning process

LGU and
community
participation in
planning process
Present plan to
concerned legislative
bodies for adoption
and support

Facilitate interagency coordination

(continued)

18

Table 4. (continued)

Phases and
steps

Roles of local
municipal or city
government,
community and
stakeholders

Activities and
outputs

Technical assistance
roles of national and
provincial
government, nongovernment
organizations,
academe and donors

PHASE 3: Action plan and project implementation

a. CRM plan
implementation

b. Legislation and
regulation

c. Law enforcement

d. Revenue
generation

Establish and staff

municipal CRM office
Action plans
developed for CRM
plan implementation
Secure support as
required
Increase
implementation effort
Marine sanctuaries
established and
functional
Environment-friendly
enterprises established
Mangrove areas
rehabilitated and
managed under
Community-based
Forest Management
Agreement (CBFMA)
Registry of municipal
fishers established

Ordinances enacted
for CRM plan and
implementation
Permits and licenses
issued for municipal
water uses consistent
with CRM plan

Coastal law enforcement units trained and

operational
Ordinances enforced

Taxes, fines and fees

collected from
enterprise development, coastal law
enforcement and
municipal water use

Take full
responsibility
Participate in
implementation
Provide local
personnel
Organize
community groups
to assist with
implementation
Enter stakeholder
agreements
Source funding

Participate in
decision process
Endorse and
implement

Assist to draft
Provide information
with examples

Participate and
support
Deputize and
organize fish wardens

Technical training
Assist in
coordination

Establish regular
collection system
Use revenue for
CRM

Provide examples
and technical
assistance

Facilitate initial
implementation
Provide seed funding
Provide technical
guidance
Conduct training
course as required

(continued)

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

19

Table 4. (continued)

Phases and
steps

e. Annual program
preparation and
budgeting

Roles of local
municipal or city
government,
community and
stakeholders

Activities and
outputs

Review implementation progress of CRM

plan
Annual Investment
Plan prepared and
budget allocated for
CRM
Staffing requirements
identified
Operation and
maintenance needs
identified
Capital outlay
requirements
identified
Special projects
identified

Technical assistance
roles of national and
provincial
government, nongovernment
organizations,
academe and donors

Conduct public
review
Develop Annual
Investment Plan for
CRM
Allocate budget
Commit staff

Training, technical
assistance and outreach needs identified
Train monitoring and
evaluation team
Monitor
environment and
ICM process and
feedback to database
and plan
Performance
evaluations
conducted
Management capacity
assessments
conducted
Outcome evaluations
conducted
Annual monitoring
and evaluation report
prepared

Collect data
Participate in process
Take responsibility

Annual CRM plan

review and revision

Technical assistance
as appropriate
Policy guidance
Source funds

PHASE 4: Monitoring and evaluation

a. Monitoring and
evaluation

b. Refine
management plan

Use data to refine

plan and update
database

Assist to train LGU

personnel
Assist to analyze
data
Assist to set up
sustainable system

Provide input on
plan refinement
(continued)

20

Table 4. (continued)

Phases and
steps

Roles of local
municipal or city
government,
community and
stakeholders

Activities and
outputs

Technical assistance
roles of national and
provincial
government, nongovernment
organizations,
academe and donors

PHASE 5: Information management, education and outreach

a. Information
management

b. Information,
education, and
communication

Establish and update

municipal coastal
database
Produce and update
municipal water use
and coastal habitat
maps
Annual CRM status
reports and maps
produced
Information
management system
functioning and
institutionalized

Information
disseminated for
education and
planning
Technical assistance
and outreach
program established
Conduct education
campaigns for
municipal CRM
programs
Hold public hearings
for proposed CRM
plans and ordinances

Process data into

useful information

Disseminate and use

information
Feedback to plan
Disseminate
municipal report on
status of coastal
resource
management

Design information
system
Maintain provincial
and national coastal
databases
Provide training

Assist with
information and
education materials
development
Prepare and
disseminate
provincial and
national reports on
the status of coastal
resource
management

Source: Modified from White (1997)

Academic institutions of different types have important roles in baseline assessment,

information management and analysis for planning, and monitoring and evaluation of
coastal management. Overall, the coastal management process is one of collaboration
among various sectors and stakeholders. The various roles are elaborated in Table 5.

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

21

Table 5. Specific roles of government and nongovernment

groups in coastal management
Local government units (Municipality and City)
Provide overall facilitation and coordination for planning and implementation
Develop a coastal environmental profile with maps for planning
Conduct information, education and communication (IEC) and training activities for local
oranizations
Develop and adopt 5-year CRM plan
Support CRM plan implementation through appropriate ordinances
Incorporate appropriate CRM best practices in plan
Implement CRM plans through Annual Investment Plan and budget
Enact comprehensive fisheries management ordinance
Maintain a municipal coastal database to facilitate planning and implementation
Support participatory coastal resource assessments for each barangay
Provide budget and dedicated personnel for planning and implementation
Identify and implement alternative or supplemental livelihood for coastal communities
Support coastal law enforcement units as required
Contract assistance through consultants and NGOs
Support organization and mandate of municipal and barangay FARMCs
Monitor field activities and selected biophysical and socioeconomic indicators
Implement revenue generation mechanisms through licenses, fees and taxes
Network and collaborate with local and international funding institutions for program/
project implementation
Conduct IEC campaigns related to sustainable use of coastal resources
Conduct site-specific research
Collaborate with province, other municipalities or cities and national agencies to develop
multi-municipal ICM plans as required for special management areas
Local government units (Provincial)
Develop and implement policy and planning framework for CRM in province
Provide technical assistance to municipalities and cities for coastal management planning
and implementation
Monitor and evaluate all coastal management activities and results in province
Establish and maintain a training staff to train LGUs and other stakeholders in CRM
Assist to coordinate law enforcement for multi-municipal areas
Establish, maintain and update an information management system and database
Assist each municipality and city to establish and maintain a municipal coastal database
Provide financial incentives for coastal management based on results of monitoring
Assist the national government in developing and implementing policy and planning
framework for CRM in the country
Community stakeholders and peoples organizations (POs)
Participate in all CRM planning sessions in all levels of local government (barangay/
municipality/city/province)
Provide members to barangay and municipal FARMCs
Participate in stakeholder management organizations
Volunteer for coastal management implementation activities (i.e. law enforcement,
fisheries monitoring and sanctuary establishment and management, etc.)
Provide local and traditional knowledge and experience in resource management
Initiate IEC activities in the community
Source funds for community projects
(continued)

22

Table 5. (continued)
Local government units ( barangay )
Data gathering and profiling
Collaborative planning, implementation and gathering of information
Participation in FARMC, Bantay Dagat and other organizations
Formulation of resolutions on CRM and enterprise for submission to municipality
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Formulate in coordination with BFAR, a national strategic framework for CRM
Assist with management of resources and areas under the mandate of DENR (e.g.
mangroves, water quality, foreshore management, quarrying and protected areas)
Provide material input assistance in specific projects under DENR's mandate
Provide technical guidance to LGUs in coastal management planning and
implementation
Assist in training of LGUs and community stakeholders
Identify and implement alternative or supplemental livelihood for coastal communities
Coordinate with BFAR in the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources
Monitor and evaluate progress in achieving goals and objectives for coastal and marine
resources in the Medium Term Program Development Plan
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
Formulate a national fisheries management plan as a component of a national strategic
framework for CRM
Assist with management of resources and areas under the mandate of BFAR (e.g. fisheries
of all kinds, fishing techniques, stock assessment and aquaculture)
Provide material input assistance in specific projects under BFAR's mandate
Provide technical guidance in coastal management planning and implementation
Assist in training of LGUs and community stakeholders
Assist in fishery enforcement
Coordinate with DENR in the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources
Monitor and evaluate progress in achieving goals and objectives for coastal and marine
resources in the Medium Term Program Development Plan
Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)
Provide technical guidance and training to LGUs in enhancing the delivery of CRM as a
basic service
Provide operational coastal law enforcement units under the Philippine National Police
(PNP) Maritime Group
Provide financial assistance in specific projects under DILG's mandate
Monitor and evaluate progress in achieving the goals and objectives for coastal and marine
resources in the Medium Term Program Development Plan
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Monitor aquatic and marine research and development projects
Formulate strategies, policies, plans, programs and projects for aquatic and marine science
technology
Generate external funds
Department of Tourism (DOT)
Undertake tourism planning
Promote and assist tourism
Establish policies and guidelines for tourism development
Assist tourism development to comply with Philippine laws and norms
(continued)

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

23

Table 5. (continued)
Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC)
Formulate policies, plans and regulations involving maritime transportation through the
Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA)
Develop ports and harbors through the Philippine Ports Authority (PPA)
Assist in the implementation of laws in the high seas and waters of the Philippines;
safeguard marine resources and the environment; prevent, mitigate and control marine
pollution through the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG)
Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD)
Coordinate, plan, monitor and evaluate research development activities dealing with the
country's aquatic resources
Facilitate and program the allocation of government funds earmarked for fisheries and
aquatic resources research and development, including coastal management initiatives
of academic institutions
Generate resource-based information for the management of the country's marine
resources
Act as the government lead agency in the implementation of the National Course on
Integrated Coastal Management and the training program on ICM for LGUs
Maintain the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development System and the
PhilReefs, the information network on coral reefs and related ecosystems
Nongovernment organizations
Provide assistance at the community and barangay level to organize FARMCs and
other resource management organizations
Provide technical services to LGUs for implementing community level interventions
Provide information and education services at the community and municipal level
Provide legal services for environmental and fisheries law enforcement
Assist in monitoring of biophysical and socioeconomic indicators
Provide a conduit for financial assistance to LGUs for coastal management
Academic institutions
Assist in analyzing information for coastal environmental profiles
Assist in designing and implementing a monitoring program for biophysical,
socioeconomic and legal-institutional indicators in CRM for LGUs
Assist in integrating existing data and information into ICM plans
Assist in formulating CRM plans and packaging of project proposals
Assist in designing and maintaining a management information system and database
for coastal management
Assist in designing coastal management projects for multi-municipal management
areas
Assist in training LGUs and communities
Assist in designing IEC and community development programs and strategies for LGUs,
NGOs and POs
Donors (national and international)
Provide financial assistance to national and local governments for CRM projects
Provide financial assistance for building sustainability in CRM through technical
assistance in program design, policy planning and implementation, training, education,
monitoring and other aspects of coastal management programs
Assist in coordinating multisectoral collaboration and policy support for CRM
Provide international experience in coastal management policy and implementation
Source: DENR et al. 2001 (Book No. 1)

24

E SSENTIAL S UPPORT P ROCESSES

MANAGEMENT

AND

S TRATEGIES

IN

C OASTAL

Best practices in coastal management can be defined in terms of processes that

involve direct community participation and management measures. The overall purpose
of developing good coastal management plans is to support the implementation of
best practices that are effective in protecting and managing coastal resources and are
sustainable (Figure 11). The most important support processes and strategies in coastal
management are briefly described below.

Local government primary support mechanisms

a. Budget allocated for CRM planning and implementation
b. Staff capability for CRM strengthened through training
c. Legal support provided for CRM plans through ordinances and resolutions
d. CRM unit set up with dedicated staff for CRM planning and
implementation
e. Contracts to NGOs, POs or individuals to support CRM activities signed
Environmental baseline assessment and profiling undertaken
a. Participatory coastal resource assessments and maps completed and used
for planning

Open water

Coral reef conservation zones

Strict protection zone

Municipal water
boundary

Island

Marine reserves
Sustainable use zones

Buffer zone

Mangrove forest
conservation zones
Pier

Coastal tourism zone

Shoreline
setback
Urban areas
and settlements

Figure 11: Illustrative zoning and resource use plan for the coastal area
and municipal waters (not to scale)

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

25

26

CRMP

b. Baseline information collected and stored for planning and monitoring

c. Information system and database established and functional
Resource management organizations formed and active
a. Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMCs)
supported and active at barangay, municipal and multi-municipal levels
b. Community stakeholder resource management organizations functional in
assisting with CRM
Community participation ensured in
CRM planning and implementation
a. Community organizing services
provided as required
b. Information and education provided
to community stakeholders
c. Barangay-level CRM plans developed
and implemented
Habitat management implemented
a. Marine reserves and sanctuaries
Participatory planning is an important part
established for nearshore habitats
(White 1988a, 1988b; De la Cruz and Militante 1996; Hermes 1998)
b. Community-based Forest Management Agreements (CBFMAs) functional
for mangrove habitat areas
c. Zoning schemes developed for habitats and shoreline land
Fisheries management in place
a. Licensing and permitting schemes planned and established
b. Seasonal and gear restrictions planned and implemented
c. Level of fishing effort known and monitored for management
d. Legal and financial incentives used to regulate fisheries
e. Sustainable coastal aquaculture practices implemented
Coastal law enforcement available for CRM implementation
a. Municipal law enforcement units organized and functional
b. Barangay Bantay Dagat groups and municipal fish wardens organized and
effective
c. Municipal water patrols operating in multi-municipal areas
d. Court convictions obtained for illegal coastal activities
Shoreline development and pollution controls in place
a. Setbacks enforced for shoreline building and development
b. Prevention of building any structures below high tide level enforced
c. Domestic and industrial waste not dumped into the sea
d. Watershed-level management plans in place
Enterprises encouraged that promote CRM
a. Tourism revenues harnessed to support local conservation
b. Marine sanctuaries managed as enterprises to benefit local people
c. Environment-friendly souvenir cottage industries promoted
d. Employment encouraged outside of fisheries

of CRM.

The best practices listed above must be carefully selected for given planning areas to
address specific issues. The organization of activities to implement these CRM practices
is always shown in a plan. Good coastal management plans are essential and should
always have certain contents as shown in Table 6 and described in Guidebook 3: Coastal
Resource Management Planning (DENR et al. 2001).

Table 6. Coastal resource management plan checklist

A coastal resource management plan for any area, barangay, municipality, city or multimunicipal area requires basic contents to make a good plan. The essential parts of a
good plan are:
1. Description of the area provides background information. This can include
geography, demography, important coastal resources and their condition,
socioeconomic status of people, institutions and laws, and other relevant
information for management. Use graphs and tables.
2. Maps of different scales needed. Include a map of the entire area and
detailed maps of the coastal area with resource locations and use patterns,
existing management interventions, and other data.
3. Management issues must be clearly stated along with their contributing
causes and factors. Trends in decline of resources can be used to illustrate
issues of concern.
4. Goals and objectives should be derived from the main issues. The goal is
broad while each objective must be achievable and measurable within the 3to 5-year life of the plan.
5. Strategies and actions are the heart of the plan. One strategy and several
actions with assigned responsibilities should address each major issue. A
strategy is a well-conceived means to solve a problem. The actions
implement the strategy. Actions can be budgeted.
6. Institutional and legal framework is needed to support plan
implementation. This section explains what institution is responsible and
how it is supported by the law.
7. Timeline for implementation helps organize all responsible parties to
implement the plan.
8. Monitoring and evaluation must be included as a set of activities to
provide feedback on plan implementation and impact on environment.

SUSTAINING COASTAL MANAGEMENT THROUGH MULTISECTORAL

INTER-LGU COLLABORATION

AND

The capacity of local government to deliver coastal management as a basic service

depends to a large extent on local leadership, community participation, inter-LGU
cooperation and on support mechanisms from NGAs, NGOs, academe and the private
sector. Each sector plays a substantive and vital role but all must work together toward
the common goal of coastal management.
There are many cases where more than one municipality or city must enter into
shared management arrangements where the marine and coastal ecosystem presents a
larger management unit than one LGU can handle. Bays bordered by more than one

Integrated Coastal Management: Context for Tourism Planning

27

LGU require bay-wide management plans that are common to all concerned LGUs.
Fisheries in such instances do not follow jurisdictional boundaries and must be planned
and managed with an ecosystem focus.
Coastal areas with a complex mix of management issues to resolve require
multisectoral arrangements and plans to address the issues. Areas with industrial or
tourism development concerns require plans that are developed with the participation
of the appropriate national agencies, private stakeholders and the concerned LGUs.
Such plans must also consider economic criteria in decision-making that value natural
coastal resource benefits and revenues (White and Cruz-Trinidad 1998).
All multisectoral and multi-municipal planning areas require the establishment
and monitoring of baseline information and databases to measure the effectiveness of
management activities. Academic institutions can play an important role in collecting
and managing this baseline information. All coastal management implementation
activities can only be measured for success if monitored results are checked against
baseline information. Because management of information is not always done efficiently
by government institutions, nongovernment institutions can assist with this important
function.

SUMMARY
Integrated coastal management offers a framework to plan for tourism development
within a broader context than site-specific projects or resorts. Coastal areas in the
Philippines are beset with many types of development all of which add up to negative
impacts on the coastal environment. Unless planning is done at a scale that encompasses
a stretch of coastline and addresses various types of activities, any tourism site will suffer
as seen in most coastal areas. ICM can help municipalities and cities plan for development
through a process that involves all stakeholders, brings technical solutions and looks to
the future.

28

CHAPTER 3

Legal Framework for Managing

Coastal Tourism Development
The laws governing coastal tourism development are not
unreasonable or in excessthey just need to be followed!
This chapter provides a brief overview and orientation regarding the statutory
requirements related to coastal environments and tourism development in the Philippines.
Both municipalities and provinces can set up tourist facilities but it is the Philippine
Tourism Authority (PTA) that coordinates all tourism project plans (Presidential Decrees
[PDs] 189 and 564). The role of the DENR is to see that the Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) System is implemented. DENR has issued several Administrative Orders
(AOs) where and when this is required and how it should be implemented. Local
governments are empowered to enact ordinances that cater to specific aspects of tourisminduced issues in their areas, like specific setback requirements or the use of anchor
buoys which are not dealt with in detail by national laws. These local ordinances may be
stricter than national laws if the conditions of local coastal resources require that. Agencies
with prime responsibility in the coastal zone are shown in Figure 12.

settlements
and
shoreline
setbacks
LGU
DENR

beaches,
mangroves
& estuaries
LGU
DENR
BFAR

seagrasses & coral reefs

LGU
DENR
BFAR

gamefishing
LGU
BFAR

LGU - local government unit; DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources;
BFAR - Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Figure 12: Coastal zone and agencies with primary responsibility

in management (DENR et al . 2001)

Developers and LGUs involved in coastal tourism development need to know what
laws are applicable and what agencies to contact for permits and guidance in planning
their development. Table 7 provides a list of possible issues, applicable laws and the
agencies responsible for implementation and information.

Table 7. Reference guide to coastal development and legislation

in the Philippines 1
Category

Legislation and Responsibilities

Agency in charge

Environmental
Impact
Statement
(EIS) System

The newest regulation concerning Environmental

Impact Assessment (EIA) in the Philippines is
DENR Administrative Order No. 96-37:
EIA is done by the project proponent- the
tourism developer- within the EIS System.
Initially, an Initial Environmental
Examination (IEE) is required.
For larger projects or projects with potential
significant environmental impacts within an
Environmentally Critical Area (ECA), a more
detailed Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) may be required by DENR.
Small resorts should request an
Environmental Impact Checklist from DENR
(similar to IEE).
After evaluation and approval of IEE, EIS, or
checklist, DENR will issue an Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC).

Environmental
Management Bureau
(EMB) Department of
Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR) or
Protected Areas and
Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) if
a protected area is
concerned

(see Chapter 6)

DENR Regional Office

IMPORTANT: ECC needs to be obtained prior

to construction of tourism facilities
Critical
habitats and
endangered
wildlife

Foreshore
areas

Coral reef, mangrove and estuarine

ecosystems are critical habitats protected by
the Fisheries Code (1998) (RA 8550) and
various other laws that prevent destruction,
degradation or alteration
Whales, dolphins, Dugong, whale shark, sea
turtles, sea snakes, manta rays, milkfish, giant
clams, Triton and Helmet shells and selected
other mollusks, all stony and precious corals
and the Coconut crab are protected from
collection and alteration of habitat

DENR and BFAR Regional

Offices, Local governments

DENR Administrative Order No. 99-34

DENR Regional Offices
governing foreshore areas specifies the process
for foreshore leases and limits the type of
development

For a more comprehensive review of legislation concerning coastal resources and coastal area development refer
to DENR et al. (2001): Book No. 2.

30

(continued)

Table 7. (continued)
Category
Shoreline
setback

Legislation

(see also
Chapters 6 & 7)

Marine
protected
areas

Marine
tourism areas

Ecotourism

Agency in charge

The Water Code of the Philippines (PD 1067), DENR Regional Offices,
Article 51:
Local governments
The use of banks of rivers, lakes, streams and
the shores of seas, throughout their entire
length and within a distance of 3 m in urban
areas, 20 m in agricultural areas, and 40 m
along forest areas along their margins are
subject to public easement where building
of structures of any kind is prohibited.
DENR Administrative Order No. 97-05:
20 m direct measurements from the edge of
the high water line, to be excluded from
development and to be kept with vegetative
cover and planted with trees. Sufficient
measures shall be undertaken to prevent
erosion.
The National Integrated Protected Areas
PAWB of DENR, Local
System (NIPAS) Act (1992) mandates the
governments
protection of selected areas under the direction
of a Protected Area Management Board
(PAMB) that is locally constituted and chaired
by DENR
The Local Government Code (RA 7160) and
the Fisheries Code (RA 8550) mandate local
governments to establish marine protected
areas (marine reserves, marine sanctuaries,
marine parks and variations thereof) that
regulate uses and activities
DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-51:
Guidelines and Principles in Determining Fees
for Access to and Sustainable Use of Resources
in Protected Areas provides guidelines to
determine fees for protected areas under NIPAS
jurisdiction
PD 1801 declares many small islands as tourism Department of
areas and limits other types of development in Tourism (DOT)
the specified area
DENR Administrative Order No. 99-31:
PAWB of DENR
Ecological Destination Development Guidelines
for Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi details the types of
development and activities allowed within the
Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area
Presidential Executive Order No. 111/1999:
Establishes an inter-agency National
Ecotourism Development Council (NEDC)
as policy-making body for ecotourism.
National ecotourism strategy, program,
guidelines, etc.

DOT and DENR

(continued)

Legal Framework for Managing Coastal Tourism Development

31

Table 7. (continued)
Legislation

Category

Small island
development

Inter-agency Regional Ecotourism

Committees (REC) approve and monitor
ecotourism projects in the region.
DENR Administrative Order 2001-04:
defines ecological destinationsand sets
guidelines on the establishment,
development and management of ecological
destinations and environmental rest area
parks
DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-83
concerning small island development
Refers to islands with an area of less than
50,000 hectares.
Islands less than 500 hectares are strict
conservation areas, no renewal of leases
allowed.
Islands of 500 to 5,000 hectares are under
restricted use. For tourism: No construction
and/or operation of casinos, high rise hotels
(3 storeys and up), golf courses/driving
range.
Islands of 5,000 to 50,000 hectares are
open to sustainable development within the
prescribed carrying capacity and subject to
EIA.
ECC needed for development.
Sets out lease/rental fees for islands

Agency in charge

DENR Regional Offices,

Local governments

DENR
Application to
Community Environment
and Natural Resources
Office (CENRO)

SUMMARY
The primary mandate for coastal management and hence coastal tourism has been
largely devolved to local government under the Local Government Code of 1991 (RA
7160) and more recently defined in the Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550). The only
exception to the devolution of authority is under the framework of the National Integrated
Protected Areas System whereby such areas are managed under a Protected Area
Management Board that is locally constituted but chaired by DENR. These basic laws
coupled with DENR regulations on Environmental Impact Assessment, wastewater
emission, setbacks and development restrictions in shoreline and foreshore areas and
various regulations affecting coastal ecosystems and wildlife comprise the bulk of legal
control over tourism development in coastal areas.

32

CHAPTER 4

Planning for Sustainable

Tourism
If we had been paid 50 cents for every word
that has been written on sustainable
development, we would be wealthy.
If we had been paid 50 cents for every action
taken, we would be paupers.
WHAT

IS

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM?

International institutions have started to formulate strategies and principles for

sustainable tourism development in parallel with the Department of Tourism in the
Philippines. The planning tools of determining carrying capacity and the limits of
acceptable change are increasingly being used along with integrated master planning
described in this chapter. Stepping-stones in the growing worldwide awareness for
sustainable tourism are the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism, Lanzarote, Canary
Islands, Spain (1995), the International Conference of Environment Ministers on
Biodiversity and Tourism, Berlin, Germany (1997) and the Manila Declaration on the
Social Impact of Tourism, Manila, Philippines (1997).
The following points are important principles on the route to sustainable tourism:

Tourism should integrate the natural, cultural and human environments. It

must respect the fragile balances that characterize many tourist destinations
through analysis of carrying capacity in particular for small islands and
environmentally sensitive areas.

Tourism must consider its effects on cultural heritage and traditional elements,
activities and dynamics of each local community. These elements must at all
times play a central role in the formulation of tourism strategies, particularly
in developing countries.

Sustainable development means the solidarity, mutual respect and participation

of all players implicated in the process, especially those indigenous to the locality.
This must be based on efficient cooperation mechanisms at all levels: local,
national, regional and international.
Government should promote actions for integrating the planning of tourism
with environmental NGOs and local communities.
Measures must be developed to permit a more equitable distribution of the
benefits and burdens of tourism. This implies a change in consumption patterns
and the introduction of resource users fees.
Environmentally and culturally vulnerable spaces, both now and in the future,
shall be given special priority in the matter of technical cooperation and
financial aid for sustainable tourism development. Similarly, special treatment
should be given to spaces that have been degraded by obsolete and highimpact tourism models.
There is a need to support and promote feasibility studies, vigorous scientific
field-work, tourism demonstration projects within the framework of
sustainable development, the development of programs in the field of
international cooperation, and the introduction of environmental management
systems.
Attention should be given to the role and environmental effects of
transportation in tourism, and economic instruments should be developed
and implemented to reduce the use of non-renewable energy.

The National Ecotourism Development Council of the Philippines has formulated a

policy statement to guide tourism development in the Philippines. The summary of this
policy is quoted below.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM FRAMEWORK

In the beginning of life and it will be until the end, people are united with nature.
This is the beninning triad of TIME, PEOPLE, and NATURE, the integrity of creation.
Drawing from the Filipinos mythical past of Malakas and Maganda or the biblical story
of Adam and Eve, it is second nature to the Filipino to see the other person as a fellow
human being (kapwa-tao). Hence, the concept of equality and partnership is nothing
new to the Filipino. This is the concept that is at the heart of sustainable tourism in the
Philippines.
Because of this unity with nature and this concept of equality and partnership,
every family and community can be one in owning up the accountability to be stewards
of the future:

as a way of giving glory to the Creator,

as a way of valuing human life and the legacy of our forefathers, and

out of respect for the dignity of the human person.

(continued)

34

(Sustainable... continued)

This heart of gold in every Filipino, in every family and community is the soul of
Philippine tourism. This is the driving force that will give life to and propel tourism.
This is the ideal of motivation for sustainable tourism.
In pushing tourism forward, due consideration and diligence is given to the character,
way of life, and ecology of every destination in the Philippines and also the needs of the
world in the future. And priority is given to total human development. Character, way of
life, and ecology of the Filipino are the building blocks or the main ingredients in
developing tourism products appropriate for the destination
About people, theres cultural, heritage, pilgrimage, and historical tourism.
About ecology, theres ecotourism, environmental or nature tourism, adventure
tourism and the indigenous peoples link to nature or ethnic tourism.
About peoples way of life, theres rural, business & leisure, sports and health tourism.
The aspirations of every person, family and community are the very same goals of
tourism in the Philippines: produce better yields, have a better place to live in, and be a
better person and have a better family life.
So the efforts that will be put in by the present generation will be worthwhile and
beneficial and will safeguard the welfare of the future generations, it is right and just to
have a system that will monitor the effects of collective action. And Philippine Agenda
21 has identified six barometers: socio-cultural, economic, ecological, technological,
institutional, and political viability.
Peace is the foundation and the essential ingredient of attractive tourism. Tourism
promotes international and cross-cultural understanding, that is why it is referred to as
the worlds peace industry.
Building on the Filipinos value of malasakit or solicitous concern, customer focus
should be the strategy for developing and marketing a tourist destination so that it will
not only be globally competitive but more importantly through niche marketing the
Philippines can find and establish its leading edge. The rich natural and cultural heritage
of the Philippines allows for diversity in travel and tourism experiences and the unifying
quality would be the innate good nature of the Filipinos. What every tourism
masterplanner or practitioner should keep topmost in their mind when thinking customer
focus is:
IF YOU WANT TOURISTS TO FIND YOUR CITY/PROVINCE/
MUNICIPALITY/BARANGAY ATTRACTIVE, THE RESIDENTS MUST FIRST
FIND IT ATTRACTIVE.
Each community improves to reflect what the residents want for themselves and the
community welcomes to their home whoever conducts himself or herself as a person
should, and in return, the people reciprocate with graciousness and genuine hospitality.

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

35

(Sustainable... continued)

Every Filipino aspires for a well-ordered balanced and prosperous life there is
physical equity (good health), intellectual equity (continually expanding learning), spiritual
equity (clear sense of lifes purpose and meaningful life), psychological equity (selfesteem and positive self-concept), and financial equity (having enough money to meet
the needs for subsistence). Equity in society is a vital strategy in sustainable development.
Equity in society is not just about distribution of wealth. It begins with a keen sense of
self and sustained by finding greater value and meaning in relationships. When the
heart is empty, the head cannot think, and a full pocket only amplifies this emptiness.
Tourism is sustainable when it dignifies and makes people proud of it because
people treat each other well; it satisfies the customer because there is a lot of caring; and
it promotes well-being because it brings out the best in every Filipino.
When tourism is developed, managed and promoted in this manner then it will be
alive, progressive, enduring, and continually beneficial because an EMPOWERED
SOCIETY stewards it, TOURISM DEVELOPMENT is COMMUNITY-SUSTAINED,
and GOVERNMENT NURTURES the INDUSTRY to make it GLOBAL in state of
mind.
Truly sustainable tourism is the Philippines gift to the world because it lends to the
BETTERMENT of the NATION, its people are imbued with a sense of nationhood
because of renewed SENSE OF IDENTITY, PRIDE OF PLACE, and
COMMITMENT.

PLANNING TOOL I: PHYSICAL CARRYING CAPACITY

The assessment of the physical carrying capacity in sensitive coastal environments
is a good planning tool for sustainable tourism development. The carrying capacity is
the level of visitor use an area can accommodate with high levels of satisfaction for
visitors and few impacts on resources. The concept implies that there are limits to
visitor use. In fact, most problems related to coastal development are the result of placing
too much stress on limited coastal resources, exceeding the carrying capacity.
A formula to estimate the tourist carrying capacity of a given area consists of dividing
the area to be used by tourists by the average individual standard (usually in m2/person)
required (Boulln 1985). This individual standard, however, is not easily arrived at, and
must be carefully defined for each particular case, since it involves at least three capacity
variables: material, psychological and ecological.
Once this average standard has been specifically determined for each particular
area, then planning can proceed with some degree of confidence knowing that a given
development will not alter the environment of a site more than is acceptable. An example
showing how to determine the carrying capacity is given in Table 8.

36

Table 8. Tourist carrying capacity of a given area

Carrying capacity

Area used by tourists

(Average individual standard or
Area tolerance for visitations)*

Total number of daily visits = Carrying capacity x Rotation coefficient

Rotation coefficient = Number of daily hours area is open for tourists
Average time of one visit
Practical Example - Trcoles River Dyke
a. Basic information and decision criteria:
an open space that allows visitors to move about freely
each standing person occupies an area of about 1 m2
there is no required distance between tour groups
group size is, in this case, irrelevant
one hour is required to visit the site
it is open 12 hours a day
the area available for visitors is 1,116 m2
If one visit requires 1 hour and the site is open for 12 hours per day, then, theoretically, a person
could make 12 visits in one day.
Following the above formula:
2

Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC) = 1,116 m2 = 1,116 x 12 visits per day per visitor per 1 m

= 13,392 visits per day

b. Real carrying capacity (RCC)
RCC is defined as the maximum permissible number of visits to a site, once the corrective (i.e.
reductive) factors (cf1, cf2, ...)derived from the particular characteristics of the site have been
applied. These corrective factors are obtained by considering biophysical, environmental,
ecological, social and management variables**.
The formula for measuring RCC is:
RCC= PCC x 100 Cf1
100

100 Cf2
100

100 Cfn
100

Corrective factors are expressed in percentage terms, using the following general formula:
Cf = M1 x 100
Mt

where

Cf
M1
Mt

= corrective factor**
= limiting magnitude of the variable
= total magnitude of the variable

*Determined by a survey of typical visitors to a given area or by research on the tolerance of a

given environment to the impacts of visitors.
**Examples of corrective factors for coral reef use may include limit of boat anchorage sites,
need for space of each diver/snorkeler, influence of visitors on a coastal community and others.

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

(continued)

37

Table 8. (continued)
Example: Excessive sunshine at Trcoles River Dyke
At this site, which has no roof cover for visitors, there are normally 12 hours of sunshine each
day (06:00- 18:00). Between 10:00 and 15:00 sunshine is intense, making visits to the site
very uncomfortable. During the rainy season, which lasts three months, rain occurs between
12:00 and 18:00. Intense sunshine is accordingly reduced to the hours of 10:00-12:00.
Hence, there are:
9 months without rain (dry season) = 270 sunny days per year
3 rainy months
= 90 rainy days per year
M1a = 270 days per year x 5 excessive sunshine hours per day = 1,350 hours of excessive
sunshine per year.
M1b = 90 days per year x 2 excessive sunshine hours per day = 180 hours of excessive
sunshine per year.
M1 = 1,530 total hours of excessive sunshine per year.
The total hours of available sunshine (Mt) are:
Mta = 270 sunny days per year x 12 sunshine hours per day = 3,240 hours of sunshine per
year.
Mtb = 90 sunny days per year x 6 sunshine hours per day = 540 hours of sunshine per year.
Mt = 3,780 total hours of sunshine per year.
Cf

sunshine=

Cf sunshine=

1,530 total hours of excessive sunshine per year x 100

3,780 total hours of sunshine per year
excessive sunshine factor = 40% limitation

Example: Rainfall at Trcoles River Dyke

We know that there are 90 rainy days per year and that rain falls between 12:00 and 18:00,
hindering normal visitation during those hours.
Hence:
M1 = 90 rainy days per year x 6 hours limiting rain per day = 540 hours of limiting rain per
year.
Mt = total number of visiting hours per year = 360 days x 12 hours per day = 4,320 visiting
hours per year.
Cf rainfall =

540 x 100 = rainy weather corrective factor = 12.5%

4,320

RCC= PCC x 100 Cf1

100

100 Cf2
100

x 100 Cfn
1 00

RCC= 13,392 x 100 40 x

100

100 12.5
100

= 13,392 x (0.59 x 0.875) = 13,392 x 0.516

The Real Carrying Capacity (RCC) for this site is 6,914 visits per day.
Source: Ceballos-Lascurin (1991)

38

Increasing carrying capacity

Carrying capacity can be reduced by both human and natural forces or can be
maintained or increased through proper management. The following examples of
management procedures can be used to increase carrying capacity:

Design viewing tracks, trails, etc., to distribute use widely;

Provide adequate information and interpretation services to minimize negative

impacts;

Increase durability of heavily used resources (e.g. surfacing materials, anchor

buoys); and

Provide facilities and design policies that encourage wet or off-season use.
Figure 13 illustrates the general relationship between carrying capacity, the coastal
environment and tourism and may be used to determine corrective factors such as
monsoons with high-energy wave impacts. Table 9 provides some common planning
standards to determine carrying capacities of coastal areas and resort development.

Tourism system

Coastal environment

Carrying capacity limits

Physical space
Topography
Soil
Vegetation

Accommodation
and service
sector zone
Hinterland
Transit
zone

Dunes/Vegetation

Beach

Environmental habitat
Maintenance of
vegetation and sand
Social space
Erosion forces
Weather and waves

Recreational
activity zone
Sea

Environmental habitat
constraints/limits
Weather, waves and
currents

Figure 13: Physical carrying capacity of the coastal zone

environment in relation to tourism (Pearce and Kirk 1986)

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

39

Table 9. Selected common planning standards to determine

carrying capacities of coastal areas
TYPE OF ACCOMMODATION
a) Hotels:
Economy
Average
Luxury
b) Seaside Holiday Village
c) Apartments in beach resort studios:
1-bedroom unit
2-bedroom unit
3-bedroom unit

SPACE REQUIRED

INFRASTRUCTURE
a) Water (daily consumption per person)
Tropical beach resort
b) Sewage disposal (space needed with
no main system)
c) Parking facilities:
Parking spaces
Overall density

REQUIREMENT

10 m2/bed
19 m2/bed
30 m2/bed
15 m2/bed
53 m2
80 m2
110 m2

500-1,000 liters/day*
0.3 hectare/1,000 persons
1 per 4 bedrooms
5-25% of site

TOURIST FACILITIES
a) Swimming pool (resort hotel)
b) Open space (seaside resort)
c) Shops

3 m2 of water/user
20-40 m2/bed
0.67 m2/bed

BEACH CAPACITY
(for resort excluding facilities)
a) Medium standard
b) Comfort standard
c) De luxe

m 2 /person
(persons/m of coast for 20-50 m beach)
15 (1.5-3.5)
20 (1.0-2.5)
30 (0.7-1.5)

RESORT DENSITY
In Spain, Greece, Bali, Honolulu
In Club Mediterranean Villages

60-100 beds/hectare
20 beds/hectare

*Water consumption in luxurious hotels can increase to 1,500 to 2,000 liters/day per person.

Source: World Tourism Organization (1981)

PLANNING TOOL II: LIMITS

OF

ACCEPTABLE CHANGE

There is no zero impact tourism. Thus, how much is too much? This question
can be answered by determining carrying capacity of an area. But since carrying capacity
is often difficult to specify, another approach, sometimes easier to determine is the
limits of acceptable change (LAC) technique (Figure 14).
The process begins with the identification of important social and environmental
indicators. The researchers who conduct the analysis are responsible for choosing

40

STEP 5
Specify standards
for resource
STEP 4
& social
STEP 6
indicators
Inventory resource
& social
Identify alternative
conditions
opportunity class
allocations

STEP 3

STEP 7

Select indicators
of resource &
social conditions

STEP 2

Identify
actions for each
alternative

LAC
PLANNING
SYSTEM

STEP 8

Define & describe

opportunity
classes

Evaluation &
selection of an
alternative

STEP 1
Identify area
concerns &
issues

STEP 9
Implement actions &
monitor conditions

Figure 14: The limits of acceptable change planning

system (Stankey et al. 1985)
participants who have long-term interest in the development area. These might include
government officials, hotel proprietors, tourist guides, biologists and anthropologists.
The specific types of people involved in this phase of the
process will vary, however, according to the type of
development area and its attractions. An ornithologist
would be an obvious participant if the area includes birds
that attract birdwatchers, whereas an anthropologist might
better serve an area with ancient ruins or religious sites.
Once this panel of experts has been chosen, the Delphi
technique can be used to establish a consensus on the
variables that require further study. By consulting as many
parties as possible with an interest or role in tourism for
the area in question, conflict can be avoided.
Limits of acceptable change have not been considered in
many shoreline areas.

Delphi surveys are a widely accepted technique for

gathering information on issues that are not easily quantifiable, such as the environmental
and social impacts of tourism development. The process begins with an anonymous
survey of selected individuals with an interest in a proposal or who possess relevant
skills. The initial survey is intended to solicit the opinions of the respondents with
respect to the impact of the proposed development. Subsequent surveys are used to

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

41

establish the relevant importance of the issues. This survey process is not infallible but
In the
can facilitate the planning process since it integrates the input of many relevant players.
continuing
process of
One way to learn about what is acceptable change is to interview residents and
uncontrolled outside users of an area. This was done for Boracay Island and indicated that the change
development, had been too much based on experience (Table 10). But whether people are willing to
physical AND act on this information is not known.
social carrying
Table 10 shows that for Boracay Island half of the residents and over half of the
capacities are
tourists
surveyed were not pleased with the general trends of tourism development.
often exceeded
simultaneously. Residents and tourists alike are concerned over the unregulated degradation of the
island. Tourist numbers are likely to drop if these trends remain unchanged, residents
LAC would be
may experience lower incomes from tourism operations. Figure 15 shows how these
set before local trends progress and how the social climate between tourists and residents may worsen.
resentment is
irreversible and
In Boracay, the need for more active control over development is a powerful issue
unfriendly
and there is almost a complete consensus among residents and tourists who
overwhelmingly support more control. The excessive stress on the infrastructure,
behavior
ecosystem and community from rapid unplanned and unregulated growth suggests that
towards
tourists leads the carrying capacity has been exceeded. The majority of residents agree that there
to decline of should be limits to growth established.
tourism
visitation.
Table 10. Resident and tourist perceptions of Boracay

regarding changes in 1997

Question:

Are you happy with the changes (trends) you see taking place
on Boracay?
Residents

Yes
50%

Somewhat
18%

Tourists
No
32%

Yes
43%

Somewhat
0%

No
57%

Question: Do you feel there is a need for more and better control
over development on Boracay?
Residents
Yes
95%

Somewhat
5%

Tourists
No
0%

Yes
86%

Question: Should there be limit set to growth?

Residents
Yes
82%

Somewhat
0%

Source: Trousdale (1997)

42

No
32%

Somewhat
14%

No
0%

Limits to social
carrying capacity
Negative interaction between
residents and tourists

Tourists sense unfriendliness as

various problems worsen

Tourism visitation
begins to decline

Local resentment increases toward

visitors as a result of various perceived
problems both physical and social
LAC may be set within this range
Commercialization increases in response to growing number of tourists

Generally friendly response but minor

irritations develop and commercialization
of tourism grows

Curiosity and friendly interest towards tourists

Figure 15: The relationship between tourist resident relations

and carrying capacity (Murphy 1983)

The example shows that, having to face the negative impacts of unplanned
development directly, residents and tourists alike accept limits of tourism growth. The
concept of LAC aims to establish these limits up front. It is a useful early planning tool
for LGUs and the tourism industry alike before it is too late (Table 11).

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

43

Table 11. Possible indicators for physical coastal resource and

social conditions for limits of acceptable change process
Coastal resource
Coral reefs/marine
water quality

Limits of acceptable change indicator

Mangroves

Changes in freshwater runoff, salinity regime and tidal flow

patterns
Excessive siltation
Introduction of pollutants
Conversion of mangrove habitat for building space or building
materials

Seagrass beds

Physical alterations
Excessive sedimentation or siltation
Introduction of excessive nutrients or pesticides

Salt marshes
(tidal flats)

Degradation of bird habitat or seed fish collection sites

Obstruction of stormwater runoff

Barrier beaches, sand

dunes and spits

Sand mining
Erosion
Dune migration

Estuaries/lagoons

Encroachment into setback areas

Changes in sedimentation patterns
Changes to the salinity regime
Introduction of waterborne pollutants
Destruction of submerged and fringing vegetation
Inlet modifications
Loss of fishery habitat

Social

Limits of acceptable change indicator

Residents/tourist
interactions

Increase in local resentment towards tourists and vice-versa

Increased criminality and prostitution
Resident/tourist ratio during peak season

Employment
opportunities/
ownership

Percentage of local employees in low-paid and high-paid

(management) jobs
Local/foreign employee ratio
Land tenure status
Level of foreign investment and foreign owned tourism
projects

Cultural

44

Physical damage to coral reefs from divers

Collection of reef organisms for souvenir industry
Increase in freshwater runoff and sediments from tourism
operations (construction)
Introduction of waterborne pollutants from tourism
operations (sewage, fertilizer, pesticides)

Increased influx of foreign workers

Increasing commercialization of cultural events and traditions
and declining authenticity
Alienation of local culture (Coca Cola/Mc Donalds-Effect)
Increase in cases of disrespect for local values, religious beliefs
and traditions by outsiders
Declining interest for local culture amongst youth
Change in consumption pattern

PLANNING TOOL III: INTEGRATED MASTER PLANNING

This approach is often chosen by professional tourism developers with large-scale
projects and encompasses generally the physical, economic and to a certain extent the
environmental planning components. The principles can also be applied to projects of a
smaller scale with various stakeholders involved such as LGUs and coastal communities.
It compliments integrated coastal management (ICM) planning and can be incorporated
within an ICM plan of a local government.
Integrated planning means incorporating a variety of baseline parameters. This
includes physical data, e.g. topography, environmental data, socioeconomic and cultural
data, and of course, data from economic and market studies. The following suggests
a simple integrated planning process and expected outputs. It can serve as a guideline
to integrate physical and economic planning with the needs of local communities and
LGUs (Table 12 and Figure 16).

Table 12. Integrated master planning process

TASK 1
TASK 2

TASK 3

TASK 4

TASK 5

TASK 6

Establish Project Goals and Objectives with all Stakeholders

Identify stakeholder groups with a long-term interest in an area, conduct initial meetings
Site Inspection and Additional Studies
Rapid inventories of biological biodiversity hot spots for zoning into coastal tourism
zones as well as critical environmental areas prone to disturbances (core zones).
Community-based resource evaluation to provide data on areas with traditional landuse systems and land-use types.
Market research (existing infrastructure and accessibility, expected number of visitors,
etc.). Start of product planning.
Physical site analysis (slope analysis, scenic areas, available water resources, physical access
options, etc.).
IMPORTANT: Assess also the regional impacts of tourism and infrastructure
development (e.g. improved access allows uncontrolled migration via newly built or
improved roads).
Stakeholder Workshop
Presentation of findings from environmental inventories, interviews, market research, site
analysis
Brain-storming session, suggest LAC and carrying capacity benchmarks
Conceptual Planning/Initial Feasibility Analysis
Initial cost estimate and income generation potential/distribution system
Concept plan and report
Spreadsheet showing project uses, order of magnitude costs, absorption and phasing
Presentation of conceptual master plan/alternatives to all stakeholders
Master Plan Refinement and Plan Selection
Refinement of cost data, income generation and distribution system
Final market studies
Final plan based on market research, physical /ecological assessments, community
involvement, phasing and cost
Presentation of Final Master Plan to Stakeholders
Feedback and approval
Final Plan preparation
Final report, translation of text, cost estimate, electronic copies, available to the public

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

45

Additional
studies and
information
requirements

Initial client
meeting

Establish
project goals
& objectives

Mobilization
client/consultant
Team familiarization
Finalize work schedule
and work program
Assemble reference
material and base maps
required for use during
the project

Initial
cost
estimates

Site studies
Site investigation
report

Conceptual
planning initial
feasibility
analysis
Concept plan and
report
Spreadsheet showing
project uses, order of
magnitude costs,
absorption and phasing

Presentation of
alternatives
to client

Working session
with client

Presentation of
findings from
analysis, interviews,
market research,
site analysis
Brain-storming
session

Finalization
of cost
information

Presentation of
alternatives
Client feedback

Refinement
of cost
data

Field trip
site
inspection

Establish preliminary
criteria and priorities
Preliminary market
assessment

Plan refinement
selected plan

Final market studies

Final plan based on
market, physical
character of land,
phasing and cost

Presentation of
final plan
Final report
Oral and visual
presentation to
client
Client feedback

Final plan preparation

Final report
Translation of text
Cost estimate
Electronic copies

Figure 16: Planning process for private sector tourism projects

(Belt Collins 1996)

46

CASE STUDY: PALAWAN

Palawan Province is proactive in trying to present unsustainable coastal development.
The case study that follows exhibits some of planning processes with development principles
highlighted in this chapter.

PROVINCIAL

CASE STUDY:

AND

MUNICIPAL PLANNING

IN

PALAWAN

Among all Philippine provinces, Palawan stands out environmentally because of its
status as a major repository of biological diversity as well as an ecologically sensitive
area. This reputation has given rise to a unique law called the Strategic Environmental
Plan (SEP) for Palawan. The centerpiece of the SEP law is the creation of an
Environmentally Critical Areas Network (ECAN), basically a zoning system that divides
each of the provinces 23 towns and the capital city into core zones, buffer zones, and
multiple-use zones (with a tourism development component). Core zones are restricted
areas, such as national parks, marine reserves and higher elevations that require maximum
protection and minimal human intrusion. These core zones are surrounded by buffer
zones, which are meant to shield the inner areas from economic activities. The lower
elevations and generally more developed areas are designated as multiple-use zones,
where most town sites and settlements are found.
Under the SEP law, equitable access to resources is emphasized and local community
management is encouraged. Ecological viability and social acceptability of development
projects are given importance. The Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD)
was created to implement the law. To decentralize decision-making, ECAN boards are
supposed to be organized in each municipality with members from LGUs, tribal groups
and NGOs.
The underlying philosophy is to provide equitable access to the resources and to
assign responsibility for their management to the LGU and the community. Palawans
ECAN Coastal Zone shall adopt the concept of marine parks and reserves, which usually
requires limited entry and encourages various uses with emphasis on education, recreation
and preservation.
It is the policy of PCSD to support and promote the sustainable development of
Palawan through proper conservation, utilization and development of its natural resources
to provide optimum yields on a continuing basis. It shall also promote and encourage
the involvement of all sectors of society and maximize people participation in natural
resource management, conservation and protection. PCSD also recognizes the significance
of preserving and declaring certain areas free from human intervention to maintain
ecological balance.
The PCSD has established a set of easy-to-implement guidelines for tourism
development in coastal areas. These guidelines concerning planning and management
of tourism establishments are not too technical and can be enforced and managed by
LGUs to control tourism development (Table 13).

Planning for Sustainable Tourism

47

(Palawan... continued)

Table 13. Guidelines for tourism-oriented establishments in

Palawan relevant to coastal areas

The mandatory beach front easement along the coastline shall be established at 5 m from the
tree line identified by LGUs. There shall be no permanent or temporary structures or signs for
whatever purpose within the mandatory easement except those authorized by the LGUs.
The established building line of 5 m from the mandatory beach front easement shall govern the
siting of all structures along the coastline.
All permanent structures shall at least be 10 m from the established high water level of
mangroves, swamps and freshwater lagoons.
Construction along established waterways, intermittent or perennial, shall observe the 5-m
easement on both sides of the waterway.
Waterways that flow through or traverse a tourist development area shall not be relocated or
blocked and any structure that will tend to impede the free flow of water shall not be allowed.
The preservation of trees and other species of plants in the province is mandatory.
Plants not indigenous to the province shall not be introduced unless properly cleared with the
LGUs and the DENR.
Solid waste shall be separated at source into recyclable, biodegradable and compostable material.
If composting is to be done at backyards, the composting pit shall be located at least 25 m away
from any water source and shall be covered with sufficient soil after every disposal.
Discharge of wastewater from kitchen sinks, toilet and bath facilities shall be through appropriate
connections to the septic tank, which shall be provided by all establishments either individually or
communally. Septic tanks shall be located at least 25 m away from any water source
source. No
septic tank shall be constructed under any building. The effluent from septic tanks shall be
discharged into designated absorption fields.
The use of indigenous materials, such as wood, nipa, and bamboo shall be encouraged. The overall
design concept shall adopt Philippine architecture for tropical environment.
In no case shall the management or accommodation facilities allow swimming in coastal waters
beyond 10 p.m. and appropriate notices shall be posted within the establishment to inform the
guests of this regulation.
Any tourism-oriented establishment must prepare an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
report. The concerned LGU, in consultation with the Tourism Committee of the PCSD, shall
determine whether an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) shall be required prior to the
approval of the said application. However, an ECC must first be secured for establishments located
in an Environmentally Critical Area (ECA), which includes mangroves, coral reefs, small islands,
and areas classified as ECAN Core Zones by the PCSD.
The LGU, in consultation with the PCSD through its Tourism Committee, may require the
proponent to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) in addition to the IEE, where it
is deemed necessary in view of its potential environmental impact.

Source: Arquiza (1999)

SUMMARY
The carrying capacity of a tourism development area will depend on the extent
and condition of the existing coastal resources in relation to the scale of development,
the activities proposed and the potential impacts to be caused by development.
Determining the limits of acceptable change can assist in establishing the carrying
capacity for an area. Integrated master planning is a process for systematically developing
an area-wide plan for tourism development that involves all the important stakeholders
with an interest in the planning area and the project outcome. Carrying capacity is also
addressed when environmental assessments are conducted for development projects as
discussed in Chapter 6.

48

CHAPTER 5

Developing and Promoting an

Ecotourism Venture
Ecotourism as a term is overused but real
ecotourism can enhance environmental
conservation and provide tangible benefits
to local communities.
Product development is an essential part of any form of tourism development. You
have to know your market to be able to offer the right tourism product. For conventional
coastal tourism projects the developer will conduct a market analysis and feasibility
study prior and as part of the early planning process. Medium and small-scale coastal
tourism projects should consider a similar approach to set up a successful and professional
business.
Product standards and requirements for small and medium-scale projects are
considerably different from large-scale coastal tourism developments. Small and mediumscale developers are more likely to venture into niche markets. That is why we are
presenting the product development process for a coastal ecotourism product.
The focus of this chapter is the software of ecotourism. This consists of the
ecotour and other attractions visitors will experience during their stay. The hardware
of ecotourism, e.g. boats for transportation, accommodations and restaurants is addressed
in later chapters.

WHAT

IS

ECOTOURISM?

There is no widely agreed definition of ecotourism and much of the travel industry
literature fails to differentiate between nature-based mass tourism (such as scuba diving
in general or destinations like the Galapagos Islands) and ecotourism. The International
Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as: responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves

the environment and sustains the well-being of local people (Lindberg and Hawkins 1993).
Integrating the element of scale is one of the key factors that determines the environmental
compatibility of any tourism activity. Thus, ecotourism is used to refer to a scale that is
small with limited ecological and social impacts.
Promoting conservation objectives is a significant role of ecotourism. Apart from
educating the guests about local environmental and conservation issues, revenue from
ecotourism should at least partially finance the costs of protecting natural areas. In the
case of Gilutongan Marine Sanctuary in Cordova, Cebu, this is achieved by levying a
user fee from tourists. This fee can be integrated into the price for the ecotour or the
ecotourism product, or earmarked as a separate contribution for the projects conservation
activities. In the latter case, the ecotourists will have a more active feeling of supporting
conservation as the money is used for a specific purpose. In some cases the contribution
may be voluntary, in other cases where these revenues are the sole source of funds for the
operation of a conservation area or program, they may be fixed at a certain amount.
Ecotourism should bring economic benefits to local
people in the area of the tourism activity. That may include
a wider range of locally owned and operated tourism
businesses such as tour operators and travel agents, small
and medium guesthouses and hotels amongst others.
Community-based ecotourism focuses on improving the
livelihoods of poor people in rural environments. This form
of tourism can be built on natural resources and cultures,
which are often the only real tourism assets that the poor
Ecotourism depends on healthy and abundant
have. It has the potential of offering alternative livelihoods
marine life such as these dolphins in the Taon
with benefits for education and health care for the involved
Strait.
community members (Boo 1990). Most of the people
involved have no previous backgrounds in the tourism industry. In Olango, near Mactan
Island, they are fisherfolks from the coastal village Suba.
Poverty forces people to exploit natural resources in unsustainable ways due to lack
of alternative income opportunities. In coastal areas, this often means destructive fishing
methods such as dynamite fishing or overharvesting. Community-based tourism may be
able to achieve two goals: a) provide alternative livelihood and income to the poor, and
b) offer more sustainable means of utilizing and conserving natural resources.
Ecotourism development covers a wide range of activities: strategic planning,
product development, physical development, visitor education and management, market
research, enterprise development, tourism stakeholders management and environmental
impact management. Community-based ecotourism adds the element of community
organizing and capacity-building. Training of tourism skills is most essential.

50

Ecotourism also involves the development of different kinds of products that ensure
safe, enjoyable, comfortable and well-informed travel that are then sold to tourists.
Products and services include all types of transportation to and from the tourist
destinations, food and drinks, accommodation, tours, tour guiding, tour books, facilities
for interpretation, rest, recreation and other things. Differences between ecotourism
and nature-based mass tourism are highlighted in Table 14.

Table 14. Checklist to differentiate ecotourism from naturebased mass tourism

Indicator

Nature-based mass tourism/

nature tourism

Ecotourism

Scale

Small to middle scale, slow

growth

All scales, fast progression to large

scale

Investment
strategy

Moderate/low investment,
balancing supporting
infrastructure development
between the needs for access
and the environmental
impacts connected with
infrastructure development

High investment
Extensive supporting infrastructure
development
Priority to allow for fast, easy and
comfortable access

Promote conservation
objectives, provide funding
for protected area
management
Earning potential for local
communities, promoting
small-scale local business
ventures

Unique location
Stay within carrying capacity,
establish LAC
Services, price

High guest capacity

Services and prices

Scientific tourism
Wildlife watching with
interpretation facilities and
services
Nature photography
Voluntary environmental
programs (inventorying,
monitoring)
Low impact/low intensity
adventure/sports activities
(e.g. Whitewater rafting)

Fishing and hunting

High impact/high intensity
adventure/sports activities (e.g.
4x4 wheel drive safari in rainforests)
Non-individual, high comfort
nature tours (e.g. AC-coaches)
Combination with other nonnature related activities (e.g. ship
cruises)

Natural surroundings first

Facilities second (basic
needs)
Educational/activity focus

Development goals

Planning parameter

Activities

Key attractions
focus

Promote national development

objectives, distribute funds to
central governmental agencies
Leakage of revenues from rural
areas to city-based operators,
airlines, travel agencies

Natural surroundings and facilities

equal
Recreational/relaxation focus

Source: Httche (1998a)

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

51

Important points to remember are

that community-based ecotourism:

Provides alternative livelihood

and income to the poor;

Occurs at a small scale with

limited ecological and social
impacts;

Offers a means of support for

conservation of natural
resources; and

Contributes to the financing of

conservation areas and
programs.

KNOWING

THE

Entrance ticket to the community-based marine

sanctuary at Gilutongan Island where user fees
benefit the community and the local government,
while financing its maintenance.

MARKET

In ecotourism, as in other travel segments, guests have different motivations to visit

the area. Accessing market data from the Department of Tourism (DOT) and other
sources will greatly improve chances to develop a viable tourism product. Visitors can
generally be divided into two groups as shown in Table 15.

Table 15. Visitor expectations in different target markets

Casual or popular wildlife viewer

Serious nature observer

Day-tripper, as part of a tour

program, or just fun seeker

Spends unhurried periods of time in areas of

unspoiled wilderness

Stays at comfortable resort or

hotel in vicinity

Accepts simple facilities and inconveniences

in intact and remote environments

Wants spectacular encounters

with wild animals without too
much sweat and inconveniences

More appreciative of the whole ecosystem

and less spectacular species and observations
Serious interest in education and
interpretation
Part-time scientists

Source: Httche (1998a)

In early 1998, a survey of tourists in Port Barton, Palawan was made to provide
information for improving Port Barton as a tourist destination. The results highlight
some characteristics of tourists coming to the Philippines and to what extent they are
seeking nature-based destinations and ecotourism experiences. The results are highlighted
in Table 16.

52

Table 16. Results of visitor survey in Port Barton, Palawan

Sample size: 23; Average age: 34 years; 19-73 years of age; 56% female
Duration of stay: Average stay in the Philippines was 3.5 weeks; average stay on Palawan
Island 12 days; average stay in Port Barton 4 days
Access
Access: 70% came by boat with an average cost of PhP600 per person (one-way); others came
by land from Puerto Princesa City
Activities in the order of frequency: relaxation, snorkeling, island hopping, sightseeing, scuba
diving, hiking and swimming
Accommodation and price: 50% said price was a primary factor in their choice of resort;
average lodging was PhP260 (US$6.50) per person per night; spent average of PhP670 (US$17)
per person per day
Type of visitor: 70% scuba divers and snorkelers
Willingness to pay for conservation: All willing to contribute an
average of PhP120 (US$3) per person as user fee to a marine sanctuary; 78%
would contribute an average of PhP150 (US$3.75) to an environmental fund;
60% said there was a need for an information center in Port Barton
Perceived problems: 50% felt there were environmental problems in Port
Barton; complaints in order of importance: litter on the beach, deforestation,
coral damage, forest fires and noise
Perceived attractions: most enjoyable reasons for coming: snorkeling,
the local people, sightseeing, island hopping, the beach, relaxed atmosphere
and swimming
How to improve Port Barton: Most common answers were related to
maintaining the cleanliness of the area, followed by Dont change anything,
Port Barton is beautiful. Other suggestions related to improving
transportation, the roads and accommodations
Most needed to protect the area: Mooring buoys at frequented reefs
and for boatmen to avoid anchor damage on the reefs; education regarding
coral ecosystems and putting up informational signs about corals at strategic
locations; preserving the natural surroundings of the area; keeping the area
small and simple to preserve its character thus preferring few vehicles and no
large-scale developments or hotels

Underwater research and

monitoring as a way of learning
and assisting locally attracts
some international and local
tourists.

Source: Arquiza (1999)

DEVELOPING

AN

ECOTOUR

The process of planning, testing and implementing is described in the following

case study by Flores (1999). The resulting Olango Birds and Seascape Tour is now
functional and managed by a community-based enterprise group.

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

53

CASE STUDY:

THE ECOTOUR DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Based on a pre-determined itinerary and time, an ecotour product is created by
skillfully combining different kinds of tourism resources (tourism attractions and
activities), tourism workers (e.g. guides, boatmen, cooks), tourism products (crafts,
food, accommodations) and many others to enable tourists to have an active experience
with the natural environment and local culture (Figure 17).
Organize
activities in
a schedule

List down
tour activities

Identify goods
and services
needed

Secure suppliers
of goods
and services

Services and
supplies
Resources/
attractions

Itinerary
Ecotour
product

Activities
Price structure

Partnership with
tour operator/
wholesaler

Figure 17: Necessary steps and components for the ecotourism

product development process (Flores 1999)
An ecotour is a good product for developing community-based enterprise ventures.
Once linked to a viable market, an ecotour venture can provide a good income source
for a core group of community owners, while providing supplemental incomes to more
people who are providing services and supplies to the tour. As tourism grows, ancillary
enterprises can be developed around new products and activities such as handicrafts,
biking or kayaking, bed and breakfast, camping facilities and others.
By providing economic incentives to a wide group of local people, an ecotour
venture can catalyze environmental awareness and commitment by the local people to
protect the natural resources on which their livelihood depends. Moreover, the tour
visits help bring national and international attention to protected areas, providing
additional opportunities for leveraging policy and resource support for conservation.
To optimize the benefits of ecotourism for the local community and environment, it
is important to pay attention to market information and linkages, planning, local
participation and benefits, stakeholder education and natural resource management.
Determining whether an ecotour venture is appropriate for a given area requires
considering the following:
a) Are there appropriate ecotourism resources to attract visitors to come to the
area?
(continued)

54

(The Ecotour... continued)

b) Is there something unique (attraction, experience, knowledge, package, price)

that is competitive in relation to other local tour products or those being visited
by target tourists?
c) Is the area accessible to tourists safely, reliably and regularly?
d) Are there tour operators and brokers who could sell the product directly to
tourists and who could be responsible in bringing the tourists to the area?
e) Are there dedicated tourism workers (people who will work in the venture)
who enjoy relating with people and working hard and are willing to commit to
work even in difficult times?
f) Are the people in the community organized for and involved in decision-making
on ecotourism development in their area?
g) Will the community share in the economic benefits of the ecotour venture?
h) Are government bodies on local development, resource and tourism management
in the area supportive of the planned venture?
i) Do the community, concerned public agencies or private groups integrate the
ecotour venture in a larger environmental conservation effort?
j) Will there be a professional business management system to run the venture in
the locality?
k) Is there access to financing for starting the venture?
Ecotourism Product Development Step by Step
The steps to develop an ecotourism product are outlined in Figure 18 and explained
in more detail below. This process will vary from one project to another depending on
the local context, needs and potential (Lindberg and Hawkins 1993).
1.

Identify and assess existing and potential ecotour resources in the target area
Ecotour resources are natural, cultural or historical attractions in a given locality.
These are the core resources for ecotour product development. Attractions can
be places, objects, events and peoples unique way of life. Natural attractions
include surf and beaches, coral reefs, mangroves, rivers and waterfalls, caves,
mountains and cliffs, forests and lakes. Cultural and historical attractions include

Identify and
assess ecotour
resources

Identify
market
segments

Match resource
and market
segments

Develop a tour
theme from
the match

Secure suppliers
of goods and
services

Pull together
a tour
package

Test run and

fine-tune
the product
Launch the
commercial
run of the tour

Establish
partnerships
with tour
operators

Figure 18: Ecotourism product development steps (Flores 1999)

(continued)

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

55

(The Ecotour... continued)

churches, artifacts, festivals, rites and rituals, traditional production (such as

fishing, loom weaving, woodcarving and brass making) as well as annual local
competitions like banca (boat) and carabao (water-buffalo) races.
Other important resources that need to be identified and assessed are: food and
accommodation services, stores (for souvenirs, film, rentals or sale of outdoor
gear), transportation, information services, access to infrastructure (ports,
communications, roads and trails), public services (police, rescue, health and
medical) and local skills (cooks, guides, boatmen, entertainers, natural and
cultural interpreters, etc.). If any of these resources are not available locally,
identify the nearest place where they are available or what training is required.
Knowledge of available financial services and organizations assisting in
ecotourism development is useful.
To start the identification process, make a list of attractions with a brief
description of what is unique or special about them. Begin with attractions that
are already popular with locals and visitors. Proceed to list other less popular
but potential ecotour attractions.
Score the resources identified for: attractiveness, ability to draw visitors,
accessibility, integrity and contribution to environmental conservation and cultural
promotion. A higher score indicates a greater resource potential for ecotour
product development.
2.

Identify market segments

Identify and analyze existing local tour destinations and products. Destinations
are places and events that attract visitors. Products are tour packages that are
put together by tour operators. In places where there are no tourists yet, get
information about destinations and products near the locality. What kind of
visitor goes there (include both local and foreign)? Where do they come from?
How many and from what month to what month do they visit (seasonality)?
Who brings them (tour operator)? What activities do they engage in? How
long do they stay? How much do they spend? Be specific with the data gathering.
List down names and places. Primary and secondary data can be gathered from
the nearest Department of Tourism (DOT) office, local tour operators, guides
and local residents around the destination. Interviews with the visitors themselves
are very useful.
Group the visitors according to activities that they engage in. List the visitor
groups under one column and the activities under another column. This exercise
should give a good picture of the nature of the existing accessible visitor markets.
Remember that schools and companies are also potential markets.

(continued)

56

(The Ecotour... continued)

3.

Match resources and market segments

Organize the list of local resources and visitor groups into a
matrix (Table 17). Draw lines connecting resources that match
with a market segment and vice-versa. Count the number of
matches for each resource and market segment. The three
highest scores in each column will be the resource and market
segment that should be pursued for tour product development.

4.

Develop a theme
A tour theme is a clear, concise statement that aptly describes
and captures the combination of natural resources resulting
from the resource-market matches. The tour theme provides
guidance on how to weave the activities and itinerary that will
be developed from the identified resources and target market
segment. Try to differentiate the theme from existing tour
products. Examples are:

Mount Isarog is but a glimpse into the vanishing biological diversity of

ancient Philippines.

Table 17. Matching visitor groups and resources or attractions

Resources
Pristine coral reefs

Visitor groups
Matches
Divers/snorkelers/swimmers
4

Whales and dolphins

Nature enthusiasts

White sand beaches

Researchers

Mangrove forest

Students

Old coastal churches

Botanists

Indigenous cultures/festivals

Culture enthusiasts

Endangered wildlife/birds

Birdwatchers

Shipwrecks

Ecotourists

11

Surfing areas

Surfers

Adventure travelers

Scuba diving on
coral reefs is a very
popular activity
among coastal
tourists.

Kayaking, camping, etc.

Marine parks
Divers
Surfers
Birdwatchers
Nature enthusiasts
Researchers
Mountaineers
Collectors
Adventure travelers
School/students

Shipwrecks and coral reefs of Coron: diving and snorkeling

Cloud nine surf in Siargao: surfing and swimming
Bird sanctuary in Olango
Taon Strait: whale and dolphin watching
Mangroves, sea turtle nesting places
Mountains and rocky cliffs, Batangas, Mount Halcon, Mindoro Oriental
Craft villages, Lake Sebu
Kayaking, camping, trekking, remote areas
Nature parks

Source: Flores (1999)

(continued)

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

57

(The Ecotour... continued)

FLORES

Community
participation in an
ecotour develops
pride and ownership
in the community.

Low impact
recreation activities
such as ocean
kayaking is gaining
popularity.

Six hundred years in the making, the eruption of

Mt. Pinatubo demonstrated the raw power
simmering inside the earth.

If a tour has a variety of attractions, it can have different

sub-themes that are unique to each attraction such as:

Migratory birds from Japan, Russia and China are

genetically programmed to stop over Olango, Cebu
during their seasonal round trips to avoid cold
weather.

Seahorses are monogamous and will not breed once

separated from their partners (Bohol).
5. Put the tour product together
Develop a tour product that reflects the theme. A tour
product is a combination of identified resources,
services and activities organized around the theme in
a way that will interest and satisfy the target market
segment. Steps in the process include:
a. Identify product components by answering the
questions: what to see, where to go, how to go,
what activities, what to eat, where to eat and where
to stay (rest and sleep).
b. Arrange activities sequentially into a tour itinerary including stops for meals
and rest. Specify the duration of the entire tour and the duration of each
activity including travel time. A half-day or one-day tour product is
recommended for starters. Identify the goods and services needed.
c. Identify and secure suppliers for required goods and services necessary for
the operation of the tour.
The Olango Birds and Seascape Tour is an ecotour product owned and run by
the villagers of Suba, in Olango Island, Cebu. It features a boat tour around
several islets just off Mactan Island; a canoe ride through shallow waters and
mangroves to see various speciessome endangeredof migratory birds; and
the hospitality of a quiet and friendly coastal village. There are 41 fisherfolk,
women and youth that benefit from the venture who have become active
community partners in the conservation of the Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary
and the surrounding seas. Leading national inbound tour companies have
committed to promote and sell the product to their clients. The community
ecotourism venture was assisted by the Coastal Resource Management Project
and enjoys the support of the local Protected Area Management Board (PAMB),
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of
Tourism in Region 7. A sample itinerary is shown in Table 18.

(continued)

58

(The Ecotour... continued)

Table 18. Sample itinerary for Olango Birds and Seascape Tour
9:00 am

Rendezvous and pre-departure briefing at a dock in Mactan

9:15 am

Cruising by boat to Suba, Olango Island; Interpretation of Olango Islets

along the way

10:00 am

Paddling on outrigger canoe baroto or banca to Suba beach

10:15 am

Welcome drinks and fishing demonstration by a local fisherman

10:30 am

Bird briefing by a naturalist interpreter

10:45 am

Paddleboat along Suba channel and walk to the birdwatching area

11:15 am

Birdwatching

12:00 nn

Paddleboat back to Suba beach

12:15 pm

Lunch on Suba beach

1:00 pm

Shellcraft, interactive cassava and siakoy cooking, entertainment

1:45 pm

Farewell activities

2:00 pm

Paddleboat back to boat

2:15 pm

Boat cruise to the open sea aquarium at Gilutongan Island

2:45 pm

Swimming or snorkeling at the Gilutongan Marine Sanctuary

3:15 pm

Head back by boat to Mactan Island

6.

Secure suppliers of goods and services and cost the tour

Determine the kind and frequency of goods and services that the tour product
would need from the start to the ending point of the tour. Generally, these are:
a) Transfers from visitor pickup point to tour starting point and back
b) Accommodations such as homestay, camp, hotel and/or lodges
c) Food (meals, snacks, drinks)
d) Charters (for boats, jeeps/trucks) for travel between attractions
e) Guide services
f) Local entertainers
List tour operators and suppliers of goods and services, get price quotations,
put them together and then add 30% to estimate the selling price of the tour
(Table 19).

7.

Test and fine-tune the product

Do several test runs of the tour and evaluate every run. Cultivate relationships
with tour operators by inviting them to the test runs (commonly referred to in
the industry as fam tours or familiarization tours). Another way of testing
and promoting the new ecotour product is to mark the tour as a promotional
or exploratory run and offer the product at cost. Again, make sure that the
tourists give their feedback about the tour.
(continued)

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

59

(The Ecotour... continued)

Table 19. Costing and pricing for an ecotour

Costing and pricing (Based on 10-20 tourists per trip)
Costing per trip:
Total cost Cost per tourist
Items:
(Pesos)
(Pesos 1998)
Local services (for paddling, cooking,
3,295
329.5
hospitality, entertainment)
1 Local tour coordinator
200
20
1 Head paddler
175
17.5
1 Head cook
175
17.5
1 Hospitality coordinator
150
15
2 Paddler-guides (PhP150 each)
300
30
10 Paddlers (PhP100 each)
1,000
100
1 Assistant cook
120
12
2 Demo-cooking attendants (PhP100 each)
200
20
3 Food assistants (PhP75 each)
225
22.5
5 Guest attendants/cleaners (PhP75 each)
375
37.5
5 Entertainers (PhP75 each)
375
37.5
Naturalist interpreters (PhP400 x 2 persons)
800
80
Sanctuary entrance fee (PhP8 x 10 persons)
80
8
Environmental fund contribution (PhP50 x 10 tourists)
500
50
Community fund contribution (PhP50 x 10 tourists)
500
50
Hut rental
300
30
Water for washing
120
12
Meals and fruits (PhP150 x 13 tourists and guides)
1,950
195
Buko (coconut), softdrink, bottled water, ice (PhP50 x 13) 650
65
Ingredients for demo-cooking of native delicacy
200
20
Use of binoculars (PhP20 x 10 tourists)
200
20
Tour brochure and other literature (PhP50 x 10 tourists)
500
50
Welcome necklace (PhP10 x 10 tourists)
100
10
Boat rental
1,200
120
Miscellaneous transportation
800
80
Communication
200
20
Total
Add: Profit margin
Exchange rate: PhP40 - US$1

11,395
(US$ 285)
4,205
(US$ 105)

1,139.5
(US$ 28.5)
420.5
(US$ 10.5)

Source: Flores (2001)

Depending on how quickly fine-tuning can be done, test runs can graduate to
full commercial runs after three to five trial runs. This usually takes a full tourist
season or one year.
8.

Establish marketing partnerships and promotion

Establish marketing partnerships with tour operators and guide associations.
Tour products are best marketed through established tour operators and guide
associations. They have links to the market and know their way around the
(continued)

60

(The Ecotour... continued)

industry. Choose tour operators that share or are sympathetic to the mission
and objectives of your ecotour. At least, get operators who deal fairly in business.

FLORES

A familiarization tour of the chosen tour operators is one of the best ways to
establish marketing partnerships. While usually covered by the product tour
developer, the costs of the fam tour may be shared with the guests.
Once it is agreed that the tour product is
viable, get the details of pricing, bookings
and payment systems. Tour operators add on
at least a 30% margin to the tour product
price to cover their marketing and
administrative expenses plus profit.
In the case of the Olango Birds and Seascape
Tour, the members of the Cebu Association
of Tour Operators were invited along with
other specialist operators such as dive centers
to attend the familiarization tour. The tour operators participated as ordinary
tourists to experience the whole package first hand. This enables them to sell
the package to their customers having experienced the tour personally. As industry
professionals with extensive experience the tour operators feedback and
suggestions were of great value for the fine-tuning process.

A demonstration
presented by the
women of Suba,
Olango Island to
tour guests.

SUMMARY
Ecotourism is not an easy panacea to replace the problems created by more traditional
forms of mass tourism. Rather, it requires good planning and product development so it
can cater to a more special clientele than mass tourism. It needs to first determine the
attractiveness of a local natural resource or tradition and then harness a tourism market
interested in the attraction and maintain it through management and marketing. These
ingredients do not come easily and require organized and well-run businesses or
community groups. Coastal community involvement in ecotourism as a livelihood is
possible as long as the community is willing to be organized as a business entity and
learn to regard its environment and traditions highly so that their pride and care can be
selling points of their tourism product.

Developing and Promoting an Ecotourism Venture

61

CHAPTER 6

Environmental Impact
Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the
process of assessing potential impacts of a planned
project and designing appropriate preventive,
mitigating and enhancement measures. EIA should be
done early when plans can still accommodate required
changes. Otherwise, EIA becomes a pointless exercise.
All development projects that occur in Environmentally Critical Areas (ECAs) or
those that are considered Environmentally Critical Projects (ECPs) as defined under
Presidential Proclamation No. 2146, Series of 1981 and presented in Table 20 are
covered by the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) System. As such, they are required
to obtain an Environmental Clearance Certificate (ECC) after undertaking an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

Table 20. ECAs requiring an ECC before development can occur

Protected areas such as national parks, watershed reserves, wildlife preserves and
sanctuaries declared by law; seascapes
Areas set aside as potential tourist spots;
Habitats of endangered or threatened species indigenous to the Philippines;
Areas of unique historic, archaeological or scientific interest;
Areas traditionally occupied by indigenous people and cultural communities;
Areas frequently hit by natural calamities (geologic hazards, floods, typhoons,
volcanic activity, etc.);
Areas with critical (steep) slopes;
Areas classified as prime agricultural lands;
Aquifer recharge areas;
Water bodies used for domestic supply or support of fish and wildlife;
Mangrove areas supporting critical ecological functions or on which people depend
for livelihood;
Coral reefs which have critical ecological functions; and
Areas which are ecologically, socially or geologically sensitive.

EIA is a planning and management tool that will help government decision-makers,
the project proponent and affected communities or groups decide whether the positive
consequences or benefits of the project will outweigh the negative consequences or
risks. These consequences can be classified as biophysical and ecological, geophysical,
socioeconomic, cultural and human health impacts.
EIA will aslo identify alternatives and measures which can prevent, minimize or
alleviate the adverse consequences of the project in all its stages from construction,
operation, closing to rehabilitation after the project has ended. It will also provide
sufficient options for the project to be continued with assurance that the quality of the
environment and well-being of the people will be safeguarded.
In brief, EIA has the following objectives:

To identify adverse environmental problems that may be expected to occur;

To identify environmental benefits and constraints of the project as well as its

economic and environmental acceptability to the community;

To identify critical environmental problems, which require further studies and/

or monitoring;

To examine and select the optimal alternative from the various relevant options
available;

To incorporate appropriate mitigation measures into the development process;

and

To involve the public in the decision-making process related to the environment

and social settings.
The initial letters E, I and A also describe three important attributes of the EIA
process:
EARLY: EIA begins at the interception of development planning to identify
opportunities and constraints in natural systems and thus guide the design
of projects.
INTEGRATED: EIA is linked directly to engineering and economic studies, not
performed separately or at a later time.
ALWAYS: The EIA process continues to accumulate data throughout the project
cycle, monitoring the implementation of environmental protection
measures and suggesting mid-course corrections to management.
Typical reasons why EIAs are required for tourism development are depicted in
Figures 19 and 20. Because coastal shoreline areas are sensitive environmental features,
it is easy to disrupt nature and cause permanent damage and change without proper
planning, analysis and monitoring.
EIA is done by the project proponent the agency, business firm or organization
that wants to pursue a project that falls within the EIS System.

Environmental Impact Assessment

63

Resorts built
on beach

Beach walls
cause erosion

Jetskis in
nearshore
swimming areas

Sewer outfalls
Anchors break
corals

Inappropriate breakwater
or causeways

Figure 19: Frequent environmental impacts of tourism

activities on the coastal zone (DENR et al . 2001)

GUIDELINES

FOR THE

EIS SYSTEM

FROM THE

DENR

What is Environmental Impact Assessment or EIA?

Department Administrative Order (DAO) No. 96-37 (1996) defines EIA and who
is responsible to do it. This EIA process and procedures are explained in a booklet
published by the DENR titled: Our Stake in the Future: A Primer on the EIS System and
DENR Administrative Order No. 96-37 (DENR 1996). The discussion herein is a brief
summary of this DENR booklet.
The Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
The Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is the document required of proponents
describing the environmental impact of, and mitigation and enhancement measures for,
the projects or undertakings located in ECAs.
Regional DENR personnel are in charge of processing and receiving an IEE. The
Regional Executive Director (RED) has the authority to approve or not the IEE and
determines whether a full EIA and EIS are required to obtain an ECC before the
development can proceed. The RED will want to ensure that the project is
environmentally and socially sound. It is best for the proponent and the DENR Regional
Office to discuss the project plan first informally and determine if only an IEE or a full
EIS is required.

64

COASTAL AND MARINE

TERRESTRIAL

Habitat loss or degradation

Ecosystem function
Fisheries
Pollution
Species diversity

Habitat loss or degradation

Wildlife/species diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem function
Pollution

ECOLOGY

PHYSICOCHEMICAL

LAND

HUMAN
INTEREST

HEALTH

Erosion and siltation

Shoreline stability
Drainage
Soil characteristics

Diseases
Sanitation
Nutrition
SOCIOECONOMIC

SURFACE WATER
Watershed
Silt and nutrient load
Water pollution
GROUNDWATER
Recharge/Freshwater
supply
Water table
Water pollution

Land loss
Crop production
Aquaculture
Fisheries
Livestock
Irrigation
Navigation
Flood control
Transport
Social and cultural
values
Resettlement
Employment

ATMOSPHERE
Air pollution
Dust pollution
Noise pollution

AESTHETIC
Landscape
Recreation
Tourism potential
Quality of life

Figure 20: Types of impacts that should be considered in the

EIA (Clark 1996)

Environmental Impact Assessment

65

The IEE is in the form of a checklist which contains questions concerning type,
size and proposed environmental management of the planned project. The project
proponent completes the checklist and returns it to the DENR Regional Office for
review and verification. If no major impacts are expected, the DENR will issue an ECC
for the project. In other cases, the DENR Regional Office will decide if the project
would require a full EIA, for instance, when located in an identified critical environmental
area like a marine reserve or a shoreline area with valuable ecosystems. However, these
decisions are presently made on a case-by-case basis. There is no general guideline in
terms of numbers of rooms or area size of tourism facilities, which would require a full
EIA.
The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is the document on the environmental
impact of a project, including the discussions on direct and indirect consequences upon
human welfare and ecological and environmental integrity. It contains the assessment of
the most likely impact of the project on the environment and on the people in areas to be
affected by the project. More importantly, the EIS provides an Environmental Management
Plan (EMP), which specifies measures to prevent or minimize damage and alleviate the
foreseen negative effects of the project on the natural environment or on the lives of
people around it. The major sections of the EIS are listed in Table 21.

Table 21. Contents of an EIS

1. Project description: Project information, location, rationale, alternatives and
phases of implementation (from pre-operational, operational up to abandonment
phase)
2. Baseline environmental conditions for land, air, water and people
3. Impact assessment and mitigation: Identification, prediction and evaluation of
impact; an analysis of future environmental conditions with and without the project
4. Environmental Management Plan: Measures for mitigation and enhancement:
environmental monitoring IEC; institutional arrangements and costs to implement
the plan
5. Proposal for an Environmental Monitoring Fund and if required, an
Environmental Guarantee Fund.
Attachments or Annexes: List of EIS preparers; Accountability Statements of EIS
preparers and proponent; process documentation reports; maps and photos of project
site and impact areas
Specific chapters in the EIS as well as in the EMP should include the impact of the project
on:

66

Indigenous people, if the project is located in ancestral lands or domains of those

people and affects their lives and culture;

Women and consideration of gender issue, such as womens access to the land,
water and fuel to meet their families basic needs; and

Population and its relationship with the resources, development and environment,
for instance, if a significant increase in population will put pressure on the resources.

The review process for an IEE, EIA and EIA is outlined in the booklet published by
DENR (1996) and outlined in Figures 21 and 22. A key factor in the process is the
timely communication between the project proponent and the DENR Regional Office
and personnel. The project proponent should at all times try to meet the requirements of
a good EIS in a sincere effort to minimize impact on the environment and social conditions
of the area of concern. The project proponent or any of the stakeholders may appeal the
decision of the DENR Regional Executive Director, in granting or denying an ECC for
a project. The person or group filing the appeal should make the appeal to the DENR
Secretary within 15 days from the receipt of the decision. The DENR Secretarys decision
on the appeal is final and can be immediately enforced.
Monitoring of compliance with ECC and of environmental impacts
When a project begins implementation or construction, the Environmental
Management Plan approved as part of the ECC is monitored for compliance. For a
project granted an ECC based on an EIS, a Multi-Partite Monitoring Team (MMT)
should be formed soon after the projects ECC is issued, in time for the project startup.
The functions of the MMT are generally to:

Monitor project compliance with the EMP and conditions in the ECC;

Gather information if damage occurs or public complaints are raised about the
project;

Prepare and disseminate monitoring reports and submit recommendations to

the DENR; and

Conduct relevant community information and education campaigns regarding

the project and its impact on the environment.
The core members of the MMT are: the project proponent; affected communities
and women, through their designated representatives; the relevant LGUs (barangay,
municipal, or provincial); the DENR Provincial and/or Community Environment and
Natural Resources Officers (PENROs/CENROs) in the project areas. Other members
may be identified during MMT formation. The DENR Regional Office and the
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) will provide support to the MMT in technical
aspects of evaluation and policy monitoring.
Participation of stakeholders within the EIA System
The primary means of public and stakeholder participation in the EIA System are:

Public consultations are held to allow free and open exchange of information
and discussion by the proponent and stakeholders. This is important during
scoping and during the EIA study and planning stages.

Public hearings are required if the project affects a great number of people, if
there is mounting concern or opposition to the project, or if there is a request
from any stakeholder. This is facilitated by a hearing officer designated by
DENR.

Alternative dispute or conflict resolution processes are used if there are complex
issues between the proponent and other stakeholders that remain unresolved
and stall the completion of the EIS, or hinder the determination of social

Environmental Impact Assessment

67

Projects in Environmentally
Critical Areas

Environmentally Critical Projects

- EIS required

- Project description and IEE required

- EIS may be required

DENR-EMB

ECC
Denied

ECC
Approved

DENR-EMB Regional Office

ECC
Denied

Environmental Compliance
Certificate signed by
DENR Secretary

ECC
Approved

Environmental Compliance
Certificate signed by
Regional Executive Director

Figure 21: Overview of national EIS System (DENR et al. 2001)

STEPS

TIMETABLE

EIA Scoping
for Environmentally Critical Project

EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment is done or
contracted out by the project proponent

EIS
Environmental Impact Statement is submitted by
project proponent to and processed by EMB

EIS Submission and Convening of

EIA Review Committee
15 days

EIA Review Committee Work

60 days

EIA Review Committee Report

and Recommendation
15 days

EMB Directors Recommendation

15 days

ECC
Environmental Compliance Certificate is decided
on by the DENR Secretary

DENR Secretarys Decision on ECC

15 days

Figure 22: Steps and timetable for review of Environmentally

Critical Projects (DENR et al . 2001)

68

acceptability. Mediation, negotiation or similar methods may be used to come

to a consensus on key issues.
Public information is essential for public participation. A public notice of
submission of the EIS or IEE should be posted by the proponent in a conspicuous
place in the barangay and municipal halls of affected communities. The
stakeholders and public are also notified of any consultations or other meetings
regarding the project. Information about the project should be presented to
communities in local language. The proponents must cover costs.

The stakeholders are comprised of people and communities living or working in

areas affected by a project. Those most likely to be affected are the first ones to be
consulted about the projects impact on their lives. Appropriate attention should be
given to the concerns of indigenous people and women. Through their designated
representatives, they should be able to take part in the decision-making process of the
project. Stakeholders of a project also include: LGUs where the project is located up to
the barangay level; social institutions, like churches and schools; other government
agencies and business entities operating there; NGOs and POs working in the area; and
other groups that evidently will be affected by the project.
LGUs aim to protect their constituents and the natural resources of their geographical
jurisdiction. They can, therefore, fulfill key roles by:

Helping DENR to disseminate information and implement the EIS System

and to encourage compliance in minimizing impacts from development projects;

Helping to bring together the stakeholders among their constituents to

participate in the EIS scoping, consultations or other processes in ensuring the
projects environmental and social acceptability; and

Participating as a member of the MMT for specific projects.

Social Impact Assessment
In addition to environmental factors, impact assessment should also include an
analysis of the potential social impacts and mitigation options, either as part of the EIA,
or in a separate Social Impact Assessment (SIA), conducted simultaneously with the
EIA. Anticipating and addressing the potential social impacts in surrounding communities
is equally important to the success of a resort development as mitigating environmental
threats. Key points in SIA are:

Discuss with local stakeholders and experts to ensure that they get an opportunity
to review the development program and the expected results and benefits;

Collect demographic data of the surrounding communities together with the

earning structures before tourism development;

Evaluate impacts on existing land-uses and cultural traditions; and

Determine potential secondary and tertiary environmental and social impacts

and their significance. Often secondary impacts like intense migration to newly
accessible areas can cause more severe environmental and social problems and
conflicts than the direct impacts from resort development.

Environmental Impact Assessment

69

Social acceptability is not a simple yes or no vote for the project by which
majority wins. It is a resolution of all valid concerns regarding the project, which is
done through a series of dialogues, information and negotiation among stakeholders.
If the project is socially acceptable, agreements should be made on what economic
and social benefits should go to the communities through their local governments or
organizations, to the barangay level. Other agreements on environmental protection
and just compensation in case of damages should also be reached. All these should be
made formal through a document, such as a Memorandum of Agreement, which is
submitted, as part of the EIS/IEE.
Concrete measures and documentation of social acceptability should be included in
the EIS/IEE. These may include: perception surveys in socioeconomic impact analysis,
process documentation of consultations and hearing, resolutions by LGUs, and POs
supporting the project, the social development program in the EMP, or other negotiated
agreements reached among the proponent and other stakeholders.
Violations of the EIA System and DAO 96-37
An Environmentally Critical Project (ECP) or a project
located in an Environmentally Critical Area (ECA) must
obtain an ECC or it can be immediately stopped. A Cease
and Desist Order can be issued and put into effect by the
EMB Director or the Regional Executive Director.

Coral reefs are considered environmentally critical

areas. These groins were built contrary to laws
controlling foreshore development and those
protecting coral reefs.

If the project has an ECC but violates its conditions,

the EMP, or the rules and regulations of the EIS System,
its operations may also be stopped and its ECC may be
canceled or suspended.

Proponents or EIS/IEE preparers involved in

misrepresentation in the documents or other presentations,
or who commit other infractions of DAO 96-37 or other relevant laws and orders are in
violation of their Accountability Statement and are subject to sanctions.
Environmental Impact Statement checklist for coastal resorts
In the Philippines as in other countries of the region, the legislation for EIA is in
place. However, the implementation and enforcement is still weak. In 1997, only 4 out
of 54 coastal resorts and hotels on Mactan Island, Cebu, had completed the EIA and
were granted the ECC. Many environmental problems have arisen from this situation.
For the parties involved in construction and operation of coastal resorts,
environmental management and environmental monitoring plans are critical. These
plans provide guidance as to how adverse environmental impacts can be avoided or
mitigated during the construction and operation of a resort. Hence, the format of the
EIS should help these people to do a good job with practical and easy-to-implement

70

recommendations. Although professionals are normally approved by DENR to prepare

an EIS, in many cases the quality of the EIS may vary and be too wordy, non-specific or
overly academic.
Local and regional DENR officials, as well as the project proponents, can use the
user-friendly guidelines for drafting an EIS shown in Table 22. These are particularly
helpful for the environmental management and monitoring measures. It is important
that mitigating measures are described in detail so they can easily be implemented by
the construction personnel (Figure 23 and Table 23). A coastal tourism impact network
is shown in Figure 24 that highlights the interconnections among tourism impacts,
quality of environment and the ultimate tourism demand for an area.

Table 22. Checklist for good-practice EIS

Most crucial and practical environmental management and monitoring measures

are tailor-made to suit site-specific conditions.

Avoid general statements on management measures like Runoff should be

prevented. Describe how this should be done.

Structure EIS documents, especially EMPs, following the sequence of development

activities (e.g. land-use planning, land clearing, grading, drainage works, building
construction, landscaping, operations). In this way, it becomes more relevant to
the practitioners as they can easily refer to the work phase they are dealing with at
any time of the development process.

Present information on environmental management practices in a visually

accessible manner wherever possible with sketches, typical cross sections,
dimensions and design details (see example in Figure 23).

Use simple language for easy understanding by implementing agencies such as

construction contractors.

Identify clearly the implementing agencies and responsibilities.

Quantify environmental management measures for costing purposes. If no budgets

are allocated for mitigation measures (e.g. silt traps and fences, etc.), the
contractors may not be able to implement them. Include environmental budgets
in all awarded works contracts.

Provide exact location details of areas allocated for measures. Simple maps make it
easy to find the locations for management measures.

Source: Httche (1999a)

Environmental Impact Assessment

71

Visualize environmental mitigation measures in EIS

In this graphic, revegetation
of slopes and drains are
visualized to provide details
on location, purpose and
method of the measure.
An existing project
engineering drawing has
been used to add the
information.
A practical EIS contains
several of these drawings
for all key mitigation
measures.

TYPICAL FILL AREA

1:100

Figure 23: Example of how environmental mitigation measures and

management plans can be graphically enhanced to assist with implementation
(Httche (1999a)
Table 23. An overview of often-cited environmental impacts in
the context of coastal tourism and mitigation measures
Potential negative impacts
DIRECT
Beach mining of sand for construction.
Destruction of reef for aggregate materials
used in construction.
Destruction of wetlands, forests, other
unique/sensitive habitats or cultural, historical
and archaeologically important sites.

Mitigating measures

Control of construction contractor

Submission of plans in accordance with
local ordinances on beach sand mining

Areas considered for development should

have zoning plans to account for natural
geographic and socioeconomic conditions
Base development phase on an inventory
of resources

Erosion resulting from uncontrolled clearing,

infrastructure construction such as roads and
marinas.

Develop erosion and sediment control

plans

Loss of free environmental services from

natural systems and degradation of air, water,
land resources.

Carrying capacity should be defined so that

target tourist population can be sustained
without overburdening existing
infrastructure and resources

Water pollution from inappropriate sewage

or solid waste disposal.
marine effluent disposal
residential sewage disposal
marinas
infiltration to groundwater

Allowance made for use of existing

municipal or regional collection and
disposal system or construction of on-site
sewage treatment plant
Liquid waste should not be discharged
onto beaches, coral reefs, or other sensitive
areas
Verify local capacity to monitor and
enforce pollution regulations

Solid and liquid waste disposal creates

nuisance conditions adjacent to amenities.

Appropriate waste disposal options

required to manage potential problem
(continued)

72

Table 23. (continued)

Potential negative impacts

Mitigating measures

Landfill versus incineration alternatives, as

well as waste minimization will be
considered

Access problems created

traffic congestion and noise
minor and localized air pollution
people density greater or too high

Access problems minimized by integrated

planning to reduce traffic and pedestrian
congestion, noise

Sea turtle nesting affected (special case)

Beach monitoring for turtle protection

coupled with beach zoning and
development guidelines to preserve the
natural beach environment from the
primary dune seaward
Restricting night activities and lights on
nesting beaches during egg-laying and
incubation periods

Displacement of human population

INDIRECT
Conflicts with other resource use such as fisheries,
agriculture

Plan and implement program of

compensation and resettlement
Offer guidance for people in their newly
resettled area
Conceive tourism development in
framework of national, regional, local
socioeconomic development plans to
integrate new objectives into development
strategies
Identify zones most suitable for tourism

Beyond capacity to manage the tourist or

related environment
legislation and polling constraints
agency support lacking
staffing and financial resources to mitigate
impacts absent/reduced
inadequate training in environmental
management

Multiplier effect on other industries causes

increased stress on natural resources or services
(craft market, vendor, taxi driver, suppliers,
farmers/fishermen).

Congestion, overcrowding

Design (urban areas and transport

networks, etc.) according to carrying
capacity of natural setting

Natural hazards peculiar to developed site such as

coastal storms, flooding, landslides, earthquakes,
hurricanes, volcanoes may stress infrastructure
and reduce long-term benefits

Design facilities to (a) meet best possible

specification for natural hazard
amelioration; (b) take advantage of
natural resources such as wetlands ability to
buffer storms or absorb treated wastewater

Comprehensive legislative action

frequently required to address direct and
indirect impacts and their monitoring and
evaluation
Staffing and equipment support must be
budgeted, including whatever training
necessary to mitigate impacts and monitor
the environmental protection plan or
other mitigation plan
Provide adequate infrastructure and
support to meet physical, social and
economic needs of the region
Recognize that overbuilding may be a
persistent problem

Source: Adapted from Sullivan et al. (1995)

Environmental Impact Assessment

73

Coastal tourist development

Removal of vegetation and exposure of bare soil

Increase in sheet and gully erosion

Increased sediment flows into

estuary and open coastal water
Deposition of
sediments on
bottom organisms

Decreased
growth rate and
size of
commercial
shellfish

Aquaculture
operations become
unprofitable and
close

Aquaculture
area filled in
for urban
development

Effects and
impacts of
filling

Increased turbidity
in coastal waters

Decreased
recreational
quality of
coastal waters

Changed
composition
of recreation
beaches

Decreased
recreational
quality of
beach

Increased
sedimentation
of nearshore
waters

Degradation of
coral reefs

Decrease in
tourism

Loss of
biodiversity
and fisheries
Loss of
employment and
income to region
and/or country
Loss of income
to fishermen

Tourism
decline

Figure 24: Example of a coastal tourism impact network with

direct and indirect impacts (Sorensen and West 1992)

74

FEASIBILITY

OF

EIA PROCESS

FOR

SMALL-SCALE RESORTS

Undertaking the EIA is a lengthy and expensive process. Small-scale resorts may
not have the resources to conduct the activity. However, this process is important since
even a small-scale project can wreak havoc on fragile ecosystems. For instance, female
sea turtles dependent on a particular beach to lay their eggs could be disturbed by the
presence of small resorts.
In reality, small resorts are springing up like mushrooms in popular coastal
destinations in the tropics of course unchecked. Individually, they may not pose a large
threat to the coastal environment, but in a dense cluster development of small resorts,
their environmental impacts are accumulated. These cumulative impacts are a loophole
in the EIA legislation in the Philippines and elsewhere and must be addressed by proactive
planning and negotiation of local governments and organizations.
In addition, smaller resorts might not have the financial capacity and technical
know-how to implement modern environmental technologies. Their performance
standards per unit are usually lower compared to a unit of the same size of a large resort.
An example is sewage treatment. In small resorts, no or only simple technologies like
septic systems are used for treatment purposes. The results can be observed in coastal
tourism destinations such as Boracay Island or Puerto Galera, Mindoro Oriental.
Insufficiently treated sewage from numerous small resorts accumulates, flows directly or
leaches through the ground into the coastal waters. The effects include: unhealthy bacteria
levels, algal blooms, odor problems and unsightly beaches.
Local municipal, city and provincial governments need to be alert and proactive to
address these issues. EIA is one tool to address these problems and serve as a planning
and management instrument when conducted for areas at the scale of one or more
barangays. These combined EIAs can produce mini-masterplans or EMPs based on the
EIA findings. They can serve as local area environmental management plans and set the
stage for guidelines on development for an area of concern. The format may be reviewed
and simplified where possible to facilitate the EIA process and its implementation to
make it more efficient for small-scale resorts.
A combined EIA and SIA can clearly address cumulative impacts and can offer
integrated and shared environmental management solutions. For instance, several smallscale resorts can be connected to treat their sewage in a small modular treatment, where
costs can be shared. Barangay-level EIAs should encourage the participation of community
members, as they will be the ones to implement and live with the EIA recommendations.
Ultimately, planning at the barangay and municipal or city levels to prevent the negative
impacts of tourism development can follow the process elaborated in Chapter 2 on ICM
planning and implementation.

Environmental Impact Assessment

75

CASE STUDY: MALAYSIA AND BATANGAS

Conducting a thorough EIA is not enough; the studys recommendations must be
followed. Some developers regard the EIA as an administrative hurdle. Once the EIA
has been submitted and approved by the authorities, EIA implementation is not seen as
adding value to the projects. The following examples showcase this problem.
CASE STUDY:

PULAU REDANG, MALAYSIA AND NASUGBU, BATANGAS

Before development on the island of Pulau Redang, Malaysia, an EIA predicted that
major resort development would result in the depletion of freshwater supplies, slope
erosion and the destruction of the surrounding coral reef (marine park). Although the
EIA recommended significantly limiting development and placing restrictions on building
in steep areas, these recommendations were ignored and major resorts were developed,
not surprisingly causing the predicted impacts. Freshwater resources on the island have
been overused, resulting in saltwater intrusion and contamination and forcing the
government to propose an expensive water pipeline from the mainland to meet tourists
needs (see also Boracay Island). Furthermore, slope erosion has destroyed terrestrial
ecosystems and choked the surrounding reef, resulting in significant species loss, the
clouding of previously clear waters and a decline in the quality of the tourism product
(Manning and Dougherty 1994).
Another case shows that a public discussion on EIA is important for enforcement.
In 1996, a Philippine property developer started with the development of a large-scale
integrated coastal resort near the coastal town of Nasugbu, Batangas Province. The
company hired advisers to address relevant environmental aspects and to prepare the
EIA, but failed to secure an ECC before construction began. Large projects like this are
often driven by tight schedules since they represent millions of investment dollars. The
issue of the missing ECC was publicized in local newspapers at that time, together with
reports about pollution of coastal waters in the project area due to poor clearing practices.
This led to a temporary suspension of construction until these issues were clarified.
Thus, public scrutiny of projects with adverse environmental and social impacts is an
important element of the EIA process.

MINIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

IN

PROTECTED AREAS

All protected areas are required by the NIPAS Act to have a management plan
that guides its development and uses within the area. Such management plan often
includes quite specific guidelines to prevent negative impacts. An example of allowable activities within specified zones for the Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi is shown in
Table 24.

76

Table 24. Activities allowed or restricted in the Turtle Islands

Heritage Protected Area
Activities

RZ

HMZ

SPZ

Access
Paddle boats
Motorized boats
Cruise boats
Anchoring/mooring buoys

Yes
Yes
Restricted
Restricted

Yes
Yes
Restricted
Restricted

Yes
No
No
No

Tourism Activities
Turtle nesting watching
Bird watching
Nature appreciation
Volcano exploration
Daytime photography
Nighttime photography
Picnicking
Island hopping
SCUBA diving
Snorkeling
Swimming
Rowing/kayaking
Wind surfing/hobiecat

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Restricted
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Restricted
Restricted
Restricted
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

No
No
No
N/A
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

Infrastructure Development
Restaurant
Single-level cottages
Souvenir shops
Comfort stations/restrooms
Visitor information center
Improvement of airstrip
Solid waste disposal system
Sewage treatment facilities
Jetties
Observation decks
Trails
Interpretive signs

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Restricted
Yes
Yes
Yes

Restricted
No
Restricted
Restricted
Yes
No
Restricted
Yes
Restricted
Restricted
Restricted
Restricted

No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

RZ - Recreation Zone; HMZ - Habitat Management Zone; SPZ - Strict Management Zone
Source: DENR AO No. 99-31

SUMMARY
It is important that small locally managed and medium-scale coastal resorts are
active in planning to prevent the negative impacts of their presence. Although it is in
their interest to do so since their business often depends on a clean and healthy coastal
environment, they may lack the expertise, knowledge and financial resources to minimize
impacts in the most effective way possible. Thus, LGUs can play an important role in
facilitating the planning and mitigation process and the EIA process can be modified to
accommodate the planning and prevention needs of the smaller-scale tourism operations.
Large resort developments should follow the full intent of the EIA requirements of
DENR and in coordination with local government.

Environmental Impact Assessment

77

CHAPTER 7

Site Use and Design

Sustainable design is not a reworking of
conventional approaches and technologies,
but a fundamental change in thinking and in
ways of operating
you cant put spots on
operatingyou
an elephant and call it a cheetah.
-C. Franklin (1993)

Planning and development in coastal areas is often not sufficiently systematic, thus
leading to environmental decline. Voluntary measures by private developers and individuals
are necessary to change this pattern. This will result in the preservation of the scenic and
natural attractions of the coastal zone. This chapter outlines the considerations that
tourist developers should make when planning to use a site within the coastal zone and
is consistent with guidelines endorsed by the Department of Tourism (UNDP/WTO/
DOT 1991).
With better planning and integration with the community, overall socioeconomic
benefits from natural resources will increase and last much longer.

SELECTING SUITABLE SITES WITH ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN

MIND
Physical location and design of coastal tourism projects go hand in hand with the
EIA process, described in Chapter 6. EIA delivers the necessary data on natural resources
and the sites potentials and constraints to facilitate the location and design of buildings
and facilities. In general, a site should be maintained in its original state as much as
possible by locating all buildings with the least environmental impacts possible. Extensive
re-shaping of land and alienated designs should be avoided. The benefits of this approach
are both aesthetic and economic. Costs can be reduced dramatically by considering
physical and geographic features when planning developments.

Utilizing existing natural coastal systems and conditions can, for example, reduce
reliance on electric cooling systems and water pumps. Less investment and ground
maintenance will be necessary if existing vegetation is kept intact.
Existing coastal geomorphology and the physical attributes and features of the coastal
zone are of great importance for the selection of a suitable resort site. Knowing and
recognizing some coastal geomorphological features and trends is important for both
the short-term and the long-term development of the resort. For example, if the potential
coastal erosion is known, a setback or buffer zone can be incorporated in the placement
of the resort.
Research on Malaysias east coast has produced a classification guide of beach
resort sites as a reference for the identification of potential resort sites (Figure 25).
Recommendation for resort sites for the classification shown in Figure 25
Picture A Zetaform bay, where a resort is best located in the protected northern
curve and away from the river mouth. Other possible locations including
the exposed southern sector are along the length of the bay but all
should be away from river mouths.
Picture B Non-zetaform bay, where the best location is usually in the center of
the bay as both ends of the bay are subject to marked seasonal beach
changes.
Picture C Coastal barrier, where the beach resort is best located landward of the
lagoon (seasonal channel) separating the barrier from the mainland.
Picture D Low linear coast, where the preferred location is away from any coastal
erosion and river mouth.
Picture E Estuary, where the preferred location is above the flood level and away
from the changes attendant with spit formation.
Besides beaches, there are many other types of coasts and elements to be considered
for an environmentally sensitive resort site location. Seasonal monsoons and storm waves
are important factors (see Shoreline setbacks), and the effects of the resort on the
surrounding environment have to be anticipated (Bird 1969; Bascom 1980).
In the resort design practice, environmental zoning provides clear guidance for the
selection of building sites. A simple system is illustrated in Figure 26 and operates as
follows:

All identified coastal resources are classified in zones of impacts with zone 1
being the most sensitive to disturbances and zone 3 the least sensitive. This
serves to identify and demarcate environmentally sensitive areas as context for
the proposed development.

Environmentally sensitive areas are designated as coastal buffer zones or

greenbelts. A classification guide used for the zoning is presented in Table
25.

Site Use and Design

79

iv
er

Rive
r

r
Rive

C
Riv
er

Seasonal
channel

ion
os
Er

Legend
Beach resort site
Contemporary beach

Spit
r
ve
Ri

Beach ridge
Land above 15 m
Mangrove swamps

Figure 25: Classification of beach resort sites based on coastal

features (Wong 1990)

80

In coastal areas, zone 1 will mainly include beaches, cliffs, rocky shores, coral
reef flats, mangroves, etc. If an area is classified as zone 1, certain restrictions
for placement and design of buildings are imposed to maintain the buffer
function of the zone.

Rocky
headland

ZONE 2
Buffer
Area

ZONE 1
Most sensitive

ZONE 3
Development
Area

Legend
Zonal area
Contemporary beach
Mangroves
Coral reefs
Steep hill/slope

Zone 1: Most sensitive: Critical habitats e.g. reefs, mangroves, beaches or steep slope
Zone 2: Less sensitive: Buffer between most sensitive and development area
Zone 3: Development area: Generally level areas without critical natural habitat or steep
slopes

Figure 26: Zoning scheme used for minimizing resort impacts

to sensitive areas
This system serves to maintain the overall environmental quality of a given site,
including features such as biodiversity, drainage, water quality, slope stability and natural
vegetation (Figure 26; Table 25). The distribution of the zones is based on criteria such
as proximity to sea or coral reefs, slope gradient, presence of coastal vegetation and
wildlife. The data can be extracted from an EIS or other source, which includes an
inventory of all resources. Certain restrictions can now be developed and imposed for
the development of the area. For example, no buildings should be allowed within zone 1
while those in zone 2 should be placed on stilts or columns to minimize grading and
earthwork in these sensitive environments. Larger building complexes can be situated
within zone 3 further away from the shoreline, leaving the other zones mainly as buffer
with only small structures built.

Site Use and Design

81

Table 25. Guide for the classification of natural resources

in zones of impacts
Impact
character

Classification
criteria

Erosion
control/
water quality

Proximity to water/
sea
Undisturbed slopes

Proximity to
tributaries

<50.0 m

High diversity and/

or abundance of
species
Species protection
status

excellent

protected
by law
endemic

Biodiversity/
habitat value

Zone 1

Noise

Construction noise:
proximity to
hospitals, local
clinics, schools and
religious places
Ambient noise level
during operation of
road

0.0 - 40.0
m
>25.0%
slope
(22.5
degrees)

Zone 3

Zone 2

>100.0 m

<20.0%
slope
(<18.0
degrees)

>50.0 m

good

moderate
to poor

vulnerable/
rare

no
protected
species

0.0 50.0 m

50.0 100.0 m

>100.0 m

increase to
65 to 90
decibel
(A)

increase to
below 65
decibel
(A)

no
changes
predicted

40.0 100.0 m
>20.0 25.0%
slope
(18.0 22.5
degrees)

Source: Httche (1998b)

Shoreline setbacks and locating facilities away from the coast

Coastal land is a limited resource valuable for many different uses. It is imperative
that any coastal development be built inland
from the shoreline. Facilities for tourist resorts
should be located away from the shore as
much as possible. Locating these facilities
on the shoreline occupies valuable space,
pollutes nearshore waters with increased
surface runoff, and greatly increases the
chances of storm and wave damage and the
ultimate loss of the beach. The negative effects
of building too close to the shoreline are
illustrated in Figure 27.
Setbacks and natural beach vegetation are attractive while
minimizing impacts on the beach environment.

82

A setback is defined as an area left free of any physical

modification. Setbacks are important because they allow
for natural coastal processes to occur uninterrupted and
ensure both physical and visual access to the coastline.
The major objectives of setbacks are:

Protecting life and property against erosion and

storm surge;

Minimizing public investment in coastal

protection;

Protecting and enhancing the scenic value of

coastal environments;

Minimizing use conflicts among various types

of activities taking place in the coastal zone;

Ensuring public access to and along the coast;

Maintaining consistency between national and

local laws and plans;

Protecting vulnerable beaches and other habitats

such as coral reefs and seagrass beds; and

Providing buffer zones around coastal historical

and traditional use areas.
By allowing seasonal or long-term changes and storm
surges to occur, economic losses will be minimized as
coastal structures adhering to setbacks will generally avoid
most of the severe damage.

BEFORE: Moalboal beach in 1980 was very attractive and

spacious.

AFTER: Moalboal beach in 2001 has been almost totally

lost due to illegal building and sand mining in foreshore
areas.

No setback

Setback

Figure 27: Effects of locating building too close to the

shoreline. Potential of damage to physical structures from storm and
storm waves increases when no proper setback is applied (adapted from
Rees 1990)

Site Use and Design

83

The setback regulations for coastal areas vary from country to country. Indonesia
requires a 100-m shoreline setback for all buildings from the mean high water line.
Some countries like Sri Lanka allow for variable setbacks that depend on the section of
coast and the rates of erosion, the type of structures to be constructed and an overall
appraisal of the site and its limitations (CCD 1997).
The required easement or setback distances under Philippine law and the terminology
used to describe shoreline areas are shown in Figure 28. A provision of the Water Code
or PD 1067 states that the banks of rivers and streams and the shores of the seas and
lakes throughout their entire length and within a zone of 3 m in urban areas, 20 m in
agricultural areas, and 40 m in forest areas, along their margins, are subject to the
easement of public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, floatage, fishing, and
salvage. No person shall be allowed to stay in this zoneor to build structures of any
kind. Furthermore, PD 1198 requires the rehabilitation of damaged foreshore areas
to their original condition. The DOT has established a minimum setback or easement
zone for beach resorts of 30 m from the seaward edge of natural vegetation as shown
in Figure 29 (UNDP/WTO/DOT 1991).

Alienable &
disposable

"Salvage or
easement zone"
Mean high tide
No building
"setback" area
above high tide
line and foreshore
area

Low tide
Foreshore

Figure 28: Coastal shoreline setback required by law in the

Philippines and zones (DENR et al . 2001)

Low tide
line
Sea

High tide
line

Edge of vegetation

Beach

Vegetation

Energy-dissipation
zone

30 m wide easement zone

Development zone

Figure 29: Setback along a beach front from edge of vegetation

as stipulated by DOT (UNDP/WTO/DOT 1991)

84

Although some tourism developers feel setbacks decrease their establishments

desirability to tourists, there are several advantages to having setbacks in place. In a
resort or tourist area, the land between development and the beach can be enhanced and
provide attractions to tourists. Many tourists come from countries where they have
spent months indoors avoiding the cold. When they travel to the tropics, they want to
spend as much time as possible outside. The beach will always be an attraction but
open, landscaped spaces away from the water can be equally as appealing in providing:

Shade from the sun and heat;

Place for artists or photographers to work;

Native vegetation which provides tourists an opportunity to study indigenous

plants; and

Open space to enhance the view of the coastline and ocean.

Carrying capacity of site to support facilities and amenities
Water supply in a selected resort location is always a crucial factor in site selection.
It is important to pre-determine if the proposed development area provides an adequate
natural supply of fresh water or the planned resort capacity. The alternatives are expensive
such as constructing a desalinization plant to convert seawater to fresh water or
transporting water by truck or pipe from a distant source.
There also must be suitable space to locate important infrastructure facilities such
as sewage and wastewater treatment systems to protect against fecal contamination (see
Sewage disposal). Answers to these questions will depend on the EIS or a good project
design (Figures 30 and 31). Considerations include placement of septic systems in
relation to bedrock and seawater levels. Leaching of wastes from improperly sited septic
systems contributes to temporary seawater contamination in Boracay Island and other
developed shoreline areas.

Better

Sea
Sea

Bedrock
Bedrock

Inappropriate
Left septic system is directly above bedrock, resulting in wastes seeping along bedrock gradient
and reaching sea before proper treatment.
Right better placement of septic system as wastes will be treated in at least 1 m of soil above
bedrock. Gradient of bedrock is less steep, so effluent will not flow directly into sea.

Figure 30: Placement of septic systems for sewage treatment in

relation to topography and soil structure (Rees 1990)

Site Use and Design

85

Better

High w
ater ta
ble
Low wate
r

table

Inappropriate

High w
ate

r table
Low wat
er table

Left septic system installed during dry season contaminates water supply during monsoon
season.
Right septic system built above the high water tables.

Figure 31: Septic systems must be sited with knowledge of

groundwater tables during the monsoon season (Rees 1990)

Aesthetics of area and near cultural sites

Along with the regulatory considerations, design should be sensitive to the aesthetics
of an area. If the development is within view of an important site or building, the tourist
facility should not be taller than the site. The design of the exterior of the building
should also be harmonious with the architectural style of
the site.

Good design minimizes impact on the local coastal

environment and is aesthetically pleasing.

For coastal resorts, a rule of thumb is to restrict height

of buildings to the height of the surrounding vegetation.
As many coastal areas in the Philippines and the tropics are
lined with coconut palms, the height of the coconut has
been used as a common measure for good aesthetics.
Building height is generally measured from the finish ground
elevation to the peak or highest ridge of the building roof.
Another way of sustainable siting is to step buildings to
reflect changes in the sites topography (Figure 32).

Figure 32: Staggered building form (BBIR 1996)

86

These considerations are particularly important in areas of cultural, archaeological,

and scenic beauty, but should also be considered for any tourist development. In Bali,
the construction of a resort golf course near the scenic Tana Lot Temple sparked protests
from the local people and NGOs. Many believed that building close to a religious site
and possibly preventing access to it, is inappropriate and disrespectful to local traditions
and religious customs. On the other side, planning and design can enhance the countrys
natural coastal assets and protect the main tourism attractions if done in a sensitive
manner. Some countries, such as the Maldives, have developed coastal tourism
development criteria as in Table 26.

CONSIDER LOCAL LAND USES

AND

TRADITIONS

Social considerations when locating a tourist facility include a careful assessment of

all local uses of the proposed development area, including potential ways to limit the
impacts on local uses. A development project that inhibits the traditional uses of a
region will most likely not be welcomed by the community, resulting in decreased living
quality for local people as well as decreased vacation quality for visitors. Another social
variable is determining the type of clientele expected to frequent the establishment and
planning according to desired needs.

Table 26. Coastal tourism development criteria for Maldives

Strict criteria for appropriate location and design of coastal tourism developments are
to:

Limit the maximum builtup area to 20% of the total land area.

Preserve the aesthetic integrity of resort islands by restricting the height of

buildings to the height of the vegetation profile of the island. The maximum
height of any building is limited to two stories provided that there is vegetation
on the island to conceal these buildings.

Allocate space for each tourist such that each tourist room should face the
beach with 5 linear meters of beach line provided to each tourist in front of their
room. Only 68% of the beach length can be allocated to guestrooms, 20% has
to be allocated to public use and 12% left as open space.

Preserve native vegetation through mandatory replacement of each tree that is

cut down. Certain rare and large trees have to be avoided when constructing
buildings.

Ensure setbacks from the beach such that all buildings have to be located well
away from the peripheral vegetation. A minimum setback distance of 5 meters
from the shoreline to ensure that the peripheral vegetation, most important for
coastal protection, is preserved.

Allocate space for vegetation between buildings to ensure that substantial areas
of indigenous vegetation are left untouched.

Prevent construction of rock-filled jetties, groins, seawalls and detached and

submerged breakwaters. Rather, promotion of greater coral colonization on the
peripheral reefs and other natural methods to protect shorelines is encouraged.

Source: Ministry of Tourism, Maldives (1998)

Site Use and Design

87

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN

Environment-friendly designs include, for example, designing rooms, facilities and
amenities to maximize the natural ventilation from the prevailing coastal winds. External
screens can be fitted and used to shade windows from direct sunlight. Ceilings can be
well insulated to minimize heat transfer into rooms (Figure 33).
Utility design with renewable energies
The use of renewable energy technologies, solar, wind, water among others, is still
new in the design for sustainable tourism facilities. However, the external conditions
for many resorts, remote locations, unspoiled environments, lack of public infrastructure,
are requiring developers to be self-sufficient in their utility design. Technologies are
developing rapidly and are becoming more accessible for the tourism industry.
The Philippines is in the forefront in the use of renewable energies in Southeast
Asia together with Indonesia and Thailand. The country generates more geothermal
and hydroelectricity than solar and wind power. Electricity demand is expected to be
nearly 3 times higher in 2020 than it was in 1995. Over the past decade, electricity
growth has averaged in the range of 10% per year. This rate is expected to continue.
The biggest boost for renewable energy is expected to come from hydropower. Already
14,000 megawatts in Southeast Asia is generated by hydropower (Table 27).
Solar photovoltaic
Solar photovoltaic can provide an autonomous source of energy for tourism facilities
in remote coastal locations. The generation is smokeless and noise free and very low
operating and maintenance costs are required once the system has been installed (no
fuel or moving parts to repair). Long life spans of 20 to 25 years for the system can be
Protected openings
High ceilings with venting
Ceiling fan
Cross ventilation
Terrace or arcade
Integral/adjacent
planters

Sun control-reduced glare

with landscaping
Insulated roof

Figure 33: Building design options for natural ventilation (BBIR 1996)

88

Table 27. Installed renewable energy generating capacity

(megawatts) in Southeast Asia in 1998
Countries

Geothermal

Hydro

Biomass

Brunei
Indonesia
Cambodia
Laos PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Total

363
1,906
0.3
2,269.30

3,876
1
210
1,471
340
2,309
2,909
2,909
14,025

178
2
21
1,230
1,431

Solar
Wind
photovoltaic
5
0.40
0.02
0.80
0.15
0.24
0.35
0.031
3.40
0.172
0.10
0.145
991
0.898

Total
4,422.40
1.02
210.00
1,473.95
340.24
4,236.38
4,142.87
2,909.24
17,736.10

Source: Httche (1999c)

expected which compensate for the high capital investment up front. For one tourist
bungalow with a ceiling fan and two lights operating, the setup costs can range from
US$2,500 to 3,000 (TEA 1999). This cost includes the photovoltaic modules, support
structures, regulation unit, cables and fittings, energy-saving ceiling fan and light bulbs
and special batteries to store the surplus energy for night usage and rainy days (Figure
34).
Lights
Solar home
system

10 watt
6 watt

Solar module
Controller
Black/White
TV 17"
10 watt

Radio/tape
6 watt

Battery
12 Volt

Figure 34: Components for a solar photovoltaic system with

possible receivers (Httche 1999c)

Site Use and Design

89

Solar water heating systems

Solar water heaters are different from solar photovoltaic systems. They use the suns
energy to heat up water, but do not produce and store electrical power. They are suitable
for all tourism facilities. Solar water heaters can provide 50 to 100 liters of warm water
per unit. The technology is simple and reliable. It consists of a collector, a heat transfer
circuit and a reservoir tank. Prices range from US$400 to US$2,000 for a 100-liter
capacity solar water heater depending on quality, climatic conditions, materials used
and local labor costs. Usually a solar water heater acts as a pre-heater and can be easily
integrated with the normal hot water supply. A solar water heater has a life span of up to
20 years. It requires low skill levels to operate and maintain.
Wind power
The generating capacity for wind power systems ranges from 100 watts to 1 megawatt.
The systems require the installation of a generator with rotor, tower, battery bank and
control unit (Figure 35). A generator with an average capacity of 500 W with a 5-m
diameter rotor and a life span of 10 years can cost US$20,000 (TEA 1999). These
systems may benefit coastal resorts as these areas are generally exposed to wind. An
average wind speed of greater than 4 m per second is necessary if wind energy is to be
economically feasible. In this case, wind generators are often cheaper than solar PV and
diesel generators. But, because wind speeds are variable, large batteries are required,
which are expensive. Skilled technicians are required to install and maintain the system.
Maintenance requires regular checking and access to new parts.

Rotor

1. Wind generator
2. Control unit
3. Heating coil
4. Inverter
5. Batteries
6. Lamps, domestic appliances,
small tools
7. Water pumps
8. TV, radio

1
Generator
Vane

Tower

4
6

Figure 35: Typical wind generator system components (Httche 1999c)

90

Hydro power
Electricity can be generated on a small scale using the water flow in rivers and
streams (Figure 36). Hydro plants are classified as: micro (less than 100 kW), mini
(100-500 kW), small (500-1,000 kW) or large (above 1,000 kW). The first two systems
are more relevant to tourism projects. These systems consist of a weir (small dam),
settling tank, turbine and generator and control mechanism. Micro and mini hydro are
most suitable where there is no grid extension. Investment costs for micro and mini
hydro plants are very site-specific. They depend on the distance between the plant and
the tourism facility and on what the electricity will be used for. To avoid large distribution
costs, the hydro plant should be 5 km or less from the resort. A well-maintained system
can last about 20 years without any major new investments.

Settling tank
Canal

Sluice gate
Headrace

Spillway

Forebay tank

Penstock

Transmission

Generator

Turbine

Control panel

Trailrace

Figure 36: Example of a mini-hydro plant for electricity generation

(Httche 1999c)

Site Use and Design

91

MARINAS

AND

SHORELINE PROTECTION STRUCTURES

Marinas of any scale require an EIA in the Philippines and should always be sited in
areas with good water circulation, steep banks and natural wave and storm protection.
To reduce potential damage to shorelines and the need for expensive and damaging
dredging and bulkheads, boat slips should be placed out into the water and connected to
shore with wharves. If important wetlands or other coastal features exist, developers
should avoid building on or filling these areas.
Methods used to prevent beach erosion include hard engineering solutions that
are permanent features designed to reflect or dissipate incoming waves and soft
engineering solutions that do not involve hard structures. Examples of hard engineering
solutions are seawalls, bulkheads, groins and jetties. Soft engineering solutions such as
good planning and prevention are preferred because they retain the natural form of the
shoreline and beach and because hard structures usually accelerate sand losses. Also,
once hard structures are in place, they are costly to maintain and difficult to remove to
correct a mistake or to adapt to new changes (Clark 1985).
Seawalls, bulkheads and sheet piling are solid vertical walls constructed of concrete,
masonry, or metal which all serve the same purpose. These methods are used to combat
erosion because they require less material and space. However, due to their verticalness,
reflective wave energy is maximized, creating the potential for undermining and
destruction of the beach or other land form being protected as indicated in Figure 37.
Natural beach

Protected beach

Natural dissipation of energy

Energy reflected by seawall

Scouring action at seawall base

Collapse of structure

Figure 37: Undermining of a seawall built on a

high energy coastline (CCD 1997)

92

Groins, breakwaters and jetties are structures predominately built with rocks
or concrete. Groins or their variations are placed perpendicular to the shoreline
to trap sand on the updrift side by extending out into the water and interrupting
the littoral drift, causing deposition of sand. However, after the water column
loses its suspended sand load, its velocity increases, causing it to wrap around the
groin and pull more sand away from the down-drift side, resulting in beach loss
and erosion. Such structures tend to cause more problems than they solve unless
they are very carefully designed and placed appropriately in relation to the shoreline
features, drift and wave patterns of the water (Figure 38).
Revetments are sloping rock walls and similar protective structures that are
used along the coast to prevent undermining and erosion of coastal lands. The
slope of the wall and the spaces between the rocks act to dissipate wave energy
and minimize reflective waves. Revetments require a large amount of coastal area
and building materials, making them a less economically viable alternative.

Seawalls are vulnerable to erosion

and collapse as portrayed in
Figure 37.

Beach nourishment is another form of erosion control in which sand is brought

onto an eroding beach to replace lost sand. Nourishment must be done periodically
if beach erosion continues. Nourishment is costly and since it is usually prohibited to
mine sand, the source of sand may be limited or not available. An eroding beach needs
to be analyzed for what is causing the erosion and the most appropriate solution sought
considering nature, cost and legal restrictions.
Beach
Erosion

Groins

Accretion

Littoral drift/current

Sea

Beach
Erosion
Accretion

Jetties

Littoral drift/current

Sea

Beach
Erosion
Accretion

Breakwater

Littoral drift/current
Beach

Sea

Rocky
headland

Erosion

Accretion
Littoral drift/current

Sea

Figure 38: Effects of placing groins, jetties or

breakwaters along a shoreline (Clark 1985)

Site Use and Design

93

In all options of protecting coastal areas from erosion, the science is highly imprecise
and costly. Engineering studies to determine placement of the structure, obtaining permits,
building materials and construction are some of the initial costs. Long-term maintenance
can be very costly depending on the structure used or the erosion forces of the area. The
only method of avoiding these costs is to not develop along eroding beaches. If development
is to occur on these beaches, setbacks must be followed to prevent property damage and
large costs.
In planning a coastal tourist establishment, the hazards of beach erosion may be
avoided by following several golden rules for combating beach erosion:

Understand the natural beach system before it is altered. Site-specific studies

may be required at many locations to insure wise planning decisions;

Develop a setback line before construction begins;

Never mine the sand from the dune, beach or nearshore sandbars;

Where a major obstruction to longshore water transport is built, such as a

harbor, use soft solutions, such as sand nourishment or diversion of channels,
rather than hard solutions, such as revetments or seawalls, to solve beach erosion
problems; and

Do not panic after a storm has drastically altered the beach. Wherever possible,
let the normal beach cycle return the sand.

CASE STUDY: MACTAN ISLAND

The southeast coast of Mactan Island is an example of uncontrolled development
starting in the 1970s that has culminated in a highly modified shoreline. Although in
hindsight it cannot be changed, there are lessons to be learned for Philippine shoreline
development as noted in the following case study.

CASE STUDY:

THE CHANGED ROCKY AND SANDY COAST OF MACTAN ISLAND

As a coastal resort destination, Mactan Island stands in sharp contrast to the coast
destinations in other Southeast Asian countries. Mactans coastal tourism has essentially
developed on a low rock coast with two lagoons facing a deep sea fringed by viable coral
reefs. The Mactan shoreline is characterized by short sandy beaches between pronounced
coral rock outcrops serving as headlands along the southeast coast facing Olango
Island (Figure 39). Since the 1970s, this coast has experienced significant change due to
poorly planned resort development.
Three types of modification to Mactans southeast coast can be identified. The early
stage involved the least amount of change to the rock coast. The existing limited sandy
beaches were used and sea walls were built where necessary. The middle stage of
modification witnessed a variety of coastal structures built to retain the beaches, together
(continued)

94

(The Changed... continued)

Main road
Settlement
Beach resort

CEBU ISLAND
Magellan Bay

rt
el

MACTAN
ISLAND

nn

po

ir

ha

Lapu-Lapu

ng

an

Maribago

ilu

to

Marigondon

Lagoon

OLANGO
ISLAND

Cordova

Figure 39: Beach resort location on the southeastern coast of

Mactan Island (Wong 1999)
with the use of imported sand for beach nourishment. Groins and breakwaters were
deployed in various ways to create different resort layouts. The final stage of modification
was the excavation of the rock coast and the creation of new and artificial beaches
(Figure 40).
Shangri-Las Mactan Island Resort was the first to carry out the bold move of
excavating the rock and building an entire artificial beach. The process of creating a
new beach started with the initial removal of the rock along a 350 m stretch by
jackhammers to form a large bay. Two large outcrops were left behind to remain as
islands and to help retain sand. Two large groins were constructed at the ends of the new
bay. Natural sand, in the form of shoals, was placed at appropriate depths for waves to
move into the bay. Eventually, three separate foreshore beaches with a continuous backshore
beach were formed.
The construction of the Plantation Bay Resort involved the initial excavation of
rock at the head of the natural lagoon. The artificial lagoon extension was then shaped
appropriately and provided with a cement bottom. Plantation Bay created a 3.5 hectare
lagoon of seawater surrounding a central pool of freshwater. The seawater is pumped
from the sea, filtered and goes into the lagoon. Dolomite granules are used for the
artificial beaches forming the sides of the lagoon and separating it from the central
freshwater swimming pool.
These examples are not highlighted for good practices of shoreline resort development.
Rather, they have totally modified the natural shoreline environment originally present
on Mactan and have created an environment that is artificial and also difficult and
expensive to maintain. In the case of Plantation Bay, the natural lagoon has been replaced
with an artificial one that depends on pumped water and a high level of maintenance.
(continued)

Site Use and Design

95

(The Changed... continued)

ORIGINAL ROCK COAST

Exposed

Lagoon
Rock

Sand

Impacts
Mangroves

Tidal flow

None

Direction of net transport

A. Limited modification
Stone bunds

2.

1.
Sea wall

Jetty

1. Beach erosion
2. Mangrove and
lagoon loss

B. Localized modification
2.

1.

1-3. Longshore
drift disrupted
4. Mangrove and
lagoon loss

Groins
Groins and breakwater
Groin

4.

3.

Jetty

Groins

Breakwater
Artificial island

C. Extensive modification
Artificial beach

Artificial beach

2.

1.
Outcrops
Jetty

1. Longshore drift
disrupted
2. Mangrove and
lagoon loss

Bund

Groins
Seawater intake

Figure 40: Modification of the rock coast for resorts along the
Mactan Island shore (Wong 1999)
Although commercially understandable, the creation of artificial beaches and lagoons
causes adverse impacts to the environment. The coasts are highly dynamic systems with
affecting factors such as tidal currents, monsoon winds and waves or typhoons. Modifications
such as excavations of rocky coasts are major changes to these shorelines. Sand supply for
artificial beaches is a critical problem possibly triggering illegal sand mining activities from
other islands in the Philippines and is thus not sustainable. Lessons learned from the experience
on Mactan Island are:

The construction of one improper structure on a beach or nearshore area causes a

chain of events that affects other shoreline areas and beaches forcing neighboring
resorts to follow suit and build more structures to try to save their beaches;

The lack of setback requirements and lack of enforcement against illegal structures
on the beach or in the water for all shoreline developments in Mactan has allowed
structures to be built in an almost random manner;

The lack of a shoreline development and environmental plan under the local government
foreclosed the option of maintaining a natural shoreline environment;

Once artificial beaches are created, the supply of sand becomes critical, is expensive
and requires illegal sand mining in other areas; and

In the long term, a natural shoreline without structures on the beach or in the water
is more aesthetically appealing and certainly more economically efficient to maintain.

96

LANDSCAPING DESIGN
The coastal regions of the tropics contain delicate
species of vegetation that provide protection from storms,
habitat for birds and mammals, shade from the sun, and a
barrier to erosion forces of the ocean. The best approach
concerning vegetation removal and landscaping is to leave
as much of the preexisting vegetation in place as possible.
Removal of vegetation will increase erosion of valuable
topsoil, cause sedimentation and pollution to local waters,
and raise costs of the project. Further, large trees can take
decades to grow and should therefore be considered an
asset for the shade and beauty they provide to the landscape
(Figure 41).

Landscaping can make a resort environment very

accommodating.

Protection from sun

and glare

Protection from noise,

air pollution and ugly views

Protection from
wind and rain

Figure 41: Services provided by trees and vegetation that

enhance the environmental and aesthetic quality of a
coastal tourism facility (Packard and Kliment 1989)

Site Use and Design

97

The landscaping requirements of any tourist facility will vary according to physical
parameters such as soil type, exposure to elements such as winds and saltwater, amount
of rainfall and contour of the development area. Requirements will also vary according
to the social dimension of the facility. Some social parameters include the type of tourist
desired, privacy and visual aesthetics. Practical considerations include the amount of
maintenance that will be invested in the landscape, as well as cost. An overall plan should
be developed with the consultation of someone who knows about vegetation and who is
familiar with the physical constraints in a given area. Unplanned landscaping can lead to
future problems such as obscured views or buckled pavements. Planned landscapes can
enhance the atmosphere of a resort and provide guests shade and privacy. Physical
factors affecting the choice of plants include:

Rainfall seasonality and amounts;

Direction, velocity and nature of prevailing winds;

Composition of soils, their movement and stability;

Presence of adjacent water bodies other than the ocean such as rivers, swamps
or lagoons;

Types of wildlife in the area; and

Amount of saltwater intrusion into coastal soils during storm seasons.

The following suggestions can help to increase the value of the landscape as well as
to protect the natural environment from negative impacts of vegetation removal:

Protect natural vegetation from construction activities by fencing them off during
construction or by transplanting them into on-site nurseries;

Use indigenous species for replanting: they are already adapted to the harsh
environments of salt-spray, wind, sun, sandy soil, and they are also less water
consuming;

Be realistic about the design of the landscape in relation to ability to maintain

it;

Root-balled trees are not good alternatives to leaving trees in place. They are
expensive to transplant, are subject to sudden death, and take many years to
establish themselves;

Select trees and shrubs that root vertically and deeply rather than species that
root horizontally or shallow to avoid damage to foundations, walkways or other
structures;

Use flowering and fruiting species that attract birds, mammals and insects if
these are desirable to your guests;

Use hardwood species so that there is less chance of damage to property or

injury to guest from falling branches and limbs;

Use species with graceful shapes that do not lose their leaves seasonally, but
throughout the year;

When using coconut, remember that these trees will grow very tall and may
pose a hazard to an adjacent building or people from falling fronds and nuts;
and

Explore mangroves as resort landscape features or for activity areas (Figures 42

and 43).

98

Estuarine
environment

Rhizophora
mucronata/
apiculata

Acacia holosericea
Hibiscus tiliaceus

HHW
MHW

Ceriops tagal
Acrostichum
Lumnitzera
aureum
littoria
Nypa fruticans Xylocarpus
granatum
Pandanus spp.
Odoratissimus spp.
Oncogperma
tigilarium
Cerbera odailam

Note: Certain mangrove species and their associates grow in specific zones (inner to outer)
depending on factors such as seawater salinity and inundation level (HHW= high highwater;
MHW mean highwater).

Figure 42: Mangroves are attractive landscape features due to

their diverse adaptation to inundation with a mix of seawater and
freshwater (Httche 1997)

Figure 43: Mangroves can be made accessible via elevated

boardwalks connected to other resort facilities (BBIR 1996)

Site Use and Design

99

When watering plants, use of grey water from shower drains and kitchen sinks
should be considered, especially in areas where water demand is greater than water
supply from local sources. This way, water is recycled, thereby reducing economic costs
associated with water use while at the same time conserving a limited natural resource.
If grey water is used, the use of laundry and kitchen soaps that are biodegradable and
have reduced phosphate should be preferred as these extra nutrients can be harmful to
coastal waters and groundwater supplies.
Further, any watering of vegetation should be done after sunset to allow maximum
absorption of water. Watering of vegetation in the morning or during the day should be
avoided since a large amount of the water will evaporate and therefore be wasted. Also,
watering during the daytime will scorch some plants.

SUMMARY
The factor that determines the success of a coastal resort more than any other is
appropriate site selection and use of the property. Planning site use is the golden
opportunity for mitigating most potential environmental pitfalls that could come to
haunt a development in later years. If any aspect of the development disturbs the natural
environment excessively, it will detract from the aesthetics of the area and its viability as
a tourism destination. Coastal areas are sensitive environments with valuable natural
ecological functions that must be understood and planned for using proper expertise,
solutions and adequate investment.

100

CHAPTER 8

Construction Activities
Construction is when humans take over.
This is always dangerous and requires careful
planning and management to prevent
unwanted results.
During construction of coastal tourism facilities, various direct and indirect
environmental impacts occur. Therein lies the nature of construction, an activity causing
alterations in the physical, biological and social environment.
Some impacts are temporary and cease when construction is complete, others alter
the coastal landscape irreversibly. Secondary impacts from construction such as soil
erosion, increased surface runoff and siltation of coastal
waters can be more serious as they can affect larger areas
than the original construction site. By means of surface
runoff into coastal areas, various ecosystem types can be
impacted, for instance, coastal streams, wetlands or coral
reefs.
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in any form
help guide construction activities to minimize negative
impacts. Environmental Clearance Certificate (ECC)
requirements should also be followed.
Construction activities, if not planned and controlled, can
cause irreplaceable environmental damage to a
development site.

Careful management of construction activities in coastal

environments benefits the environment and protects the
investment into existing coastal assets such as clean beaches and seas. In many cases,
where no proper environmental controls were exercised during construction, repairs
and cleanup measures of scenic beaches or lagoons become expensive.

BUILDING MATERIALS AND STANDARDS FOR CONSTRUCTION

In most cases, developers use local materials for the construction of facilities. In
coastal areas, the use of sand to make concrete for permanent structures can have serious
impacts. Beaches are lost as a result of sand removal. Sand mining can cause sedimentation
in nearshore waters. Using coral as a construction material causes direct loss of large
areas of reef. Historically, coral rocks were used in the construction of some houses,
tourist facilities and shoreline protection measures. This coral mining led to significant
loss of reefs and extensive coastal erosion and loss of valuable beaches. Coral is now
strictly protected and not used.
Besides conventional materials, such as sand, gravel and wood, resorts can use
materials recycled from other sources. Many new recycled materials are attractive,
durable and relatively inexpensive. These materials include sawdust and plastic.
Materials from resorts operations like bottles can be recycled into products such as
glasses and tiles. Certain native materials can also be used creatively in resort design
and construction such as coconut and its derived fiber products, nipa palm and other
local materials.
The following set of standards can be copied and amended by LGUs and developers
to suit their individual needs. They should be made known to all involved construction
contractors by making them part of contractual agreements. If contractors fail to
comply with these standards, they have to cover mitigation or repair expenses and can
be punished with contractual fines.
Pre-construction preparations

Preserve a sufficient area around remaining trees with smaller trees and
undergrowth to protect trees from sun and heat stress as well as immediate
damage through construction.

Prior to, and during construction, all trees/habitats should be clearly defined,
so that inadvertent entry does not occur. Areas may be delineated either by:

Placement of temporary construction fencing to restrict access into

sensitive areas

Posting of signs on durable posts, or on construction fence, to indicate

that these areas should be avoided.

In addition, orientation training should be conducted for all construction

workers to advise them of the restrictions on entering environmentally sensitive
areas.

Protect stepping stone habitats from damage during construction. Stepping

stones are habitat pockets to which wildlife can retreat during construction
or which are used by wildlife to migrate temporarily to undisturbed areas.

Avoid disturbances from construction during breeding seasons of sensitive

bird species, sea turtles or other wildlife. Seal off effective nest and roost
sites.

102

During construction: Clearing and removal practices

Practice the proposed standards for clearing, grading excavation and earthwork,
temporary drainage and construction as outlined below. The practice of clearing or
removing vegetation from the project site should be based on the following principles:

To allow for construction of specific structures and facilities;

To ensure public health, safety and welfare;

To enhance the aesthetic impact of proposed developments within the context

of the development;

To minimize the degree and extent of clearing as much as possible;

To reduce costs of clearing and re-landscaping;

To reduce the potential for soil erosion; and

To limit impacts on the coastal and stream waters and on the local ecology.
Any clearing and removal activity can be described as belonging to one of the four
following categories in order of preference in maintaining the environment (Figure 44):

No clearing: No removal of plant understory or tree felling; an area of retained

forest with no access provided.

Aesthetic clearing: Removal of understory vegetation for visual access and

aesthetic enhancement, to the extent indicated on the landscape design drawings.

To minimize disturbance to existing soils, aesthetic clearing work should

be carried out manually, and no heavy equipment should be used.

Aesthetic clearing is distinct from selective clearing and should be carried

out separately.

Selective clearing: Removal of dangerous trees and potentially dangerous trees

to ensure public health, safety and welfare.

To minimize disturbance to the existing soil and other plants, selective

clearing should be carried out manually, no heavy machinery should be
used.

Selective clearing is distinct from total clearing and should be carried out
separately.

Cut dangerous and potentially dangerous trees, which have been identified
and marked (based on such factors as size, species, condition, proximity to
development). Tree felling should not be carried out by heavy equipment.
Trees should be felled towards the total clearance area. Trees should be cut
as near to the existing ground level as possible. Stump and roots should not
be removed or disturbed.

Rough grading should use native topsoil to fill local depressions to prevent
pockets of standing water and provide overall positive drainage.

Total clearing: Removal of all vegetation in the area required for construction.

Only where completely necessary for building construction or safety reasons.

Tree felling should begin at the center of the clearance area and move
towards the limit of work to prevent damage outside the limit of clearing
work.

Tree stumps should only be removed where buildings or underground services

are to be located but left in other areas and cut as close to grade as possible.

Construction Activities

103

All waste vegetation should be collected and disposed of, or chipped in a

chipping machine. Burn clearing should not be done because of adverse
environmental impacts.

Aesthetic clearing

Selective clearing

Total clearing
Note: Total clearing in coastal areas should be avoided. Coastal buffer zones should
be fenced off and remain undisturbed

Figure 44: Methods of clearing (BBIR 1996)

104

Specific guidelines for clearing and removal

Key points to consider are:

Contractors should have and follow approved clearing plans;

Clearing plans should indicate which trees are to be cleared, which are to be
relocated, and which are to be preserved in place;

To reduce the potential for soil erosion and sedimentation of waterways, clearing
and grading activities should be phased to limit the area of land left unvegetated
at one time;

No clearing should be done within the established setbacks from streams or

coastal waters;

A vegetated buffer strip of approximately 30 m should be maintained between

cleared areas and coastal or stream waters to help filter runoff water and prevent
sedimentation;

Clearing should not alter existing stream flows or natural drainage;

No clearing of mangrove areas should take place;

No mature trees should be cleared for the purposes of locating temporary

structures; and

Revegetation of cleared areas should be conducted as soon as practical to prevent

soil erosion. Areas that must remain cleared for more than 30 days before
construction or landscaping should be temporarily vegetated with an appropriate
grass or groundcover.
During construction: Grading, excavation and earthwork
Grading, excavation and earthwork should be minimized as much as possible and
limited to only those areas absolutely needed for one or more of the following structures:

Roadways;

Drainage and sewerage works;

Electrical and communication lines;

Topsoil stripping or leveling to insure that

minimum depths of fill are maintained; and

Building foundations.
To preserve topsoil, and limit off-site disposal,
amounts of cut and fill should be balanced as much as
possible. Also, the use of heavy machinery for grading
and earthwork should be limited as much as practical to
prevent impacts to the existing soil profile and vegetation.

Extent of clearing was not considered in this construction

site since no vegetation remains!

A vegetated buffer strip of approximately 30 m should

be maintained between areas of earthwork and coastal or stream waters to help filter
runoff water and prevent sedimentation of waterways. Excavation or earthwork should
not alter existing stream flows or drainageways. All grading and earthwork activities

Construction Activities

105

should incorporate appropriate measures to control fugitive dust and noise, and prevent
nuisance to neighboring properties. Such measures may include:

Construction site fencing;

Periodic dampening of exposed soil; and

Use of proper exhaust systems and mufflers in buildings and equipment.

Excavated material that is not as valuable as topsoil should be used in areas requiring
fill material other than gravel or topsoil.
During construction: Temporary drainage
Temporary measures to handle drainage in and around construction sites should
be incorporated to prevent flooding and washout of facilities, and to reduce soil erosion.
They may include, but not be limited to (Figures 45 and 46):

Diversion structures such as dikes, or temporary drains to route surface

drainage away from cleared or excavated areas or buildings;

Detention basins or sedimentation ponds to capture runoff from cleared or

excavated areas so that it is not discharged directly into coastal or inland
waterways; and

Silt traps, filters and other structures installed at appropriate locations on-site to
filter surface waters before they are discharged to coastal or inland waterways.

Buffer zone
Construction or
disturbed area

Rain water
flow direction
Temporary fence
to contain sediment
Vegetation left intact
in buffer zone

>30 m

Stream or sea

Figure 45: Fencing and vegetative buffers protect streams and

seas from the effects of soil runoff from construction sites
(EPS 1999)

106

Disturbed area
3m
ct i o

no

f flo

Ma x

Posts driven
500-700 mm
into ground

500 mm
Min

Dire

200 mm

Geotextile embedded
200 mm into ground

Buffer zone
grassed area

Figure 46: Geotextile fencing details (EPS 1999)

Surface runoff
During construction of coastal tourism facilities, large areas are stripped of the
protecting vegetation cover to allow for grading and earthwork. During this work
stage, surface runoff is often polluted with silt, temporarily affecting water quality
and coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs. An erosion and surface runoff control plan
should be prepared showing how erosion will be minimized and surface runoff slowed.
The potential measures for erosion control may include sediment basins,
embankments, sediment traps, interceptor ditches, interceptor dikes, containment
dikes, filter berms and inlets, chutes, flumes, down-drains, mulching, hydroseeding,
temporary vegetative cover and dust control. If a project site is in close proximity to
the shoreline, specific erosion control measures are recommended. A perimeter
geotextile silt fence, placed between the building sites and the shoreline should prevent
runoff of sediments into the surrounding coastal waters (Figure 43).
Swales or interceptor ditches can be dug in areas above the silt fence to enlarge the
water holding capacity and channel the water to specific locations for further retention
or treatment (Figure 47).
Other practices to minimize adverse impacts during construction
Other construction related issues and solutions include:

Construction vehicles should follow designated delivery routes and hours of

delivery;

Construction Activities

107

Dire
ction
of

flow

Ditch in ground where

surface flow may concentrate
Fence

F ilte

30 m
- 60 m
spacin
(depe
nding
g
on gr
adien
t)

re d

ru n o

ff

Figure 47: Sequence of geotextile silt fences placed in the

direction of flow to filter runoff. Sequencing allows better filtration
and provides better protection in case one fence collapses
(EPS 1999)

Construction should be screened off from adjoining properties with attractive

fencing, planting, etc, to create a visual separation of the two areas to avoid
creating a nuisance;
Lights used for nighttime construction should minimize lighting of adjacent
properties;
Petroleum products used on construction equipment should be stored and handled
in a manner to minimize potential for spills;
Trash and debris generated on-site should be contained in closed receptacles
that are screened from the views of adjoining parcels; and
No burning of trash or debris should take place on-site.

SUMMARY
In short, construction is a necessary evil that often causes more damage than
intended. It is a disruptive activity, especially in sensitive coastal environments, that
requires having proactive preventive measures in place to minimize negative impacts.
At the very least, a site construction management plan should be approved and followed
that considers the problems discussed in this chapter. The most obvious culprit in
causing damage to the marine environment is from soil erosion and unnecessary removal
of natural vegetation. These should be minimized.

108

CHAPTER 9

Sewage, Wastewater and

Stormwater Management
The most treasured resource of a tropical
coast is the clean, inviting water for
swimming, diving and relaxing
once
relaxingonce
polluted, it is lost!
Lack of public infrastructure such as centralized sewage treatment plants places the
responsibility with individual developers. Considerations will include size of proposed
project, topography of the site, height of water table at the site location and locations of
freshwater wells. The desired environmental quality standards for wastewater effluent
from coastal resorts are another important criteria for choosing the right system.
The proper disposal of sewage and wastewater is
crucial for the coastal resorts to stay attractive for tourists.
Unsafe bathing waters due to bacteria contamination,
unsightly algae blooms caused by nutrient overloads,
smothered and dying coral reefs are amongst the
consequences resort operators will have to face if they fail
to comply. Appropriate sewage and wastewater treatment
systems are available which can be implemented by LGUs
and small and medium-scale resort operations in coastal
areas.
Clean coastal waters are a primary resource and an

Coastal resort developers and operators should aim to attraction for all potential visitors.
comply with the national and international standards for
wastewater and sewage discharge. It should be also taken into account that integrated
coastal resort developments with golf courses are using a wide range of fertilizers and
pesticides.

Two definitions of importance to this section are:

Effluent: A general term denoting any wastewater, partially or completely treated,
or in its natural state, flowing out of a hotel, resort or treatment plant.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD): A measure of the approximate quantity of
dissolved oxygen (DO), required by microorganisms to process organic matter in
wastewater or surface water. A low BOD indicates clean water, a high BOD indicates
organically polluted water.

PHILIPPINE STANDARDS
The Philippines has classified its marine waters according to use (Table 28). The
quality standards for these tourism related classes of water are listed in Table 29.
By setting water quality standards for coastal waters, we know how clean the sea
should be for swimming or bathing in the ocean. However, if there is a pollution
problem, it is difficult to pinpoint the source in areas with dense coastal tourism
development. The pollutants are diluted in the water and distributed by currents and
waves. That makes it difficult to isolate one source, unless there is obvious evidence.
For this reason, discharge standards are important to define. They measure the water
quality at the outlet of each individual sewage treatment plant or other facilities (Table
30). As the effluent is not yet diluted, the values of standards are expected to be higher.

Table 28. Tourism relevant coastal and seawater quality

classes
Class

110

Use

SA

Water suitable for the propagation, survival and harvesting of shellfish for
commercial purposes;
National marine parks established under the National Integrated Protected
Areas System (NIPAS) Act (1992) and other existing laws and/or declared as
such by appropriate government agency; and
Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned authorities.

SB

Tourist zones and marine reserves primarily used for recreational activities such as
bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. under existing laws and/or declared as such
by appropriate government agency;
Recreational Water Class I (areas regularly used by the public for bathing,
swimming, skin diving, etc.); and
Fishery Water Class I (spawning areas for milkfish and similar species).

SC

Recreational Water Class II (e.g. boating, etc.);

Fishery Water Class II (commercial and subsistence fishing); and
Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish or wildlife sanctuaries.

SD

Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.); and

Other coastal and marine water, by the quality, belong in this classification.

Table 29. Water quality criteria for conventional pollutants

and toxic substances for coastal and marine waters.
Water quality parameter

Class SA
waters

Color
Temperature (oC rise)
pH (range)
Dissolved oxygen (minimum %
saturation)
5 day 20oC Biological oxygen
demand (mg/L)
Total suspended solids (mg/L)

No abnormal discoloration from unnatural causes

3
3
3
3
6.5-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-9.0
70
70
70
50

Surfactant (mg/L)
Oil and grease (mg/L)
Phenolic substances as
phenols (mg/L)
Total coliform (Most
Probable Number/100 mL)
Fecal coliform (Most Probable
Number/100 mL)
Copper (mg/L) as dissolved
copper
Arsenic (mg/L)
Cadmium (mg/L)
Chromium-hexavalent (mg/L)
Cyanide (mg/L)
Lead (mg/L)
Total mercury (mg/L)
Organophosphate (mg/L)
Aldrin (mg/L)
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (mg/L)
Dieldrin (mg/L)
Heptachlor (mg/L)
Lindane (mg/L)
Toxaphane (mg/L)
Methoxyclor (mg/L)
Chlordane (mg/L)
Endrin (mg/L)
Polychlorinated biphenyl (mg/L)

Class SB
waters

Class SC
waters

Class SD
waters

7(10)

Not more
than 30%
increase
0.2
1
Nil

Not more
than 30 mg/L
increase
0.3
2
0.01

Not more
than 60 mg/L
increase
5
-

70

1,000

Not more
than 30 mg/L
increase
0.5
3
Not present in
concentration
to affect fish
flavor and taste
1,000

Nil

200

0.2

0.05

0.05
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.002
Nil
0.001
0.05
0.001
Nil
0.004
0.005
0.1
0.003
Nil
0.001

0.05
0.01
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.002
Nil
-

0.05
0.01
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.002
Nil
-

Notes: Nil- Extremely low concentration and not detectable by existing equipment
- - Means the standard not considered necessary at the present time, considering the stage of the countrys
development and DENRs capabilities, equipment, and resources.

Source: Tables No. 3 and 4 DENR AO No. 34 and Section 2 of DENR AO 97-23

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

111

Table 30. Effluent standards for conventional pollutants and

toxic substances for protected coastal and marine waters.
Water quality parameter

Class SB

Class SC

Class SD

Color

100

Temperature (oC rise)

pH (range)
Chemical oxygen demand (mg/L)
Settleable solids 1 hr (mg/L)
5 day 20oC Biological oxygen demand (mg/L)
Total suspended solids (mg/L)
Total dissolved solids (mg/L)
Surfactant MBAS (mg/L)
Oil and grease (mg/L)
Phenolic substances as phenols (mg/L)
Total coliform (Most Probable Number/100 mL)
Arsenic (mg/L)
Cadmium (mg/L)
Chromium-hexavalent (mg/L)
Cyanide (mg/L)
Lead (mg/L)
Mercury (total) (mg/L)
Polychlorinated biphenyl (mg/L)
Formaldehyde (mg/L)

3
6-9
60
0.3
30
50
1,000
2
5
0.05
3,000
0.1
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.005
0.003
1.0

No limits so long as the

discharge does not cause
abnormal discoloration
in the receiving waters
outside the mixing zone
3
3
6-9
5-9
200
200
100
120
10
10
15
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.005
0.01
0.003
1.0
-

Notes: - Means the standard not considered necessary at the present time, considering the stage of the
countrys development and DENRs capabilities, equipment, and resources.

Source: Tables 2A and 2B of DENR AO No. 35; Table 1 of DENR AO No. 35

By law, the coastal waters classified as tourist zones (SA) or marine parks should
not receive any sewage or other effluent from any source including hotels or resorts.
That means a developer who builds an ecotourism resort in a marine park or reserve,
would have to treat and reuse the treated effluent 100% on land. He could water the
lawn or the gardens with it.
However, in the second zone (SB), defined as the swimming and bathing zone,
wastewater discharge of a certain quality is allowed. The stipulated standards are only
achievable with proper wastewater treatment. When treatment is not adequate, the
negative effects can be far reaching as described in the case study that follows.

112

CASE STUDY:

BORACAY ISLAND AND MARIBAGO, MACTAN ISLAND

In 1997, DENR tested the quality of marine waters off Boracay Island to find that
the Philippine water quality standards for tourism areas were not being met. This led to
the widely publicized reports of Boracays waters being unsafe for swimming and other
recreational activities due to high levels of coliform bacteria (total coliforms > 1,000
MPN/100 ml, fecal coliforms > 200 MPN/100 ml). There was a resultant drop in
tourist arrivals to Boracay.
Also, in 1997, the impacts of coastal tourism in Maribago, Mactan Island, were
assessed as part of a masters thesis by Martinez (1997). Marine water quality was
selected to determine environmental impacts from coastal tourism. Maribagos coastal
waters were classified as Class SB, the classification adopted in making the Mactan
Island Integrated Master Plan Study (Schema Konsult 1996). Water quality analysis was
conducted for several test stations before and after the peak tourist seasons. The results
showed that even after the tourist peak season DO and BOD level were within the
allowable levels, indicating good conditions for marine life. The average bacteria level
measured in total coliform, however, were above the allowable 1,000 MPN/100 ml.
This means that the waters were generally clean except that the sewage treatment systems
were not functioning to full satisfaction during the peak tourist season, when approximately
800 visitors visited Maribagos 10 coastal resorts.
Lessons from these cases regarding prevention of pollution in tourism development
areas include:

Hotel operators and LGUs need to be proactive and use the quality standards
to monitor and control the performance of their treatment systems;

Regular water testing at the outlet of the system should be recorded and kept
for reference or corrective actions;

LGUs or NGOs with access to laboratory facilities or water testing kits can
conduct independent control of water quality along beaches to detect potential
sources of environmental pollution in the interest of the general public;

DENR or the LGU should do more regular monitoring of water parameters,

especially during seasons of high tourist visitation in prime tourism areas; and

Hotel operators should seek cooperation with experts and the LGU to improve
treatment capacities and qualities for wastewater and sewage.

SOUTHEAST ASIAN STANDARDS

RESORTS

FOR

WASTEWATER DISCHARGE

FROM

Water quality standards for wastewater discharge developed and adopted by some
major regional coastal resorts can be used as benchmarks. These are noted in Table 31
with notes on handling and recycling of treated wastewater for irrigation or discharge
into the sea. It is desirable to reuse treated wastewater to save on precious potable water
resources.

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

113

Table 31. Regional quality standards for wastewater/sewage

discharge into coastal waters (measured at the treatment plant outlet)
Water quality
parameter

Unit

Standard

visibility

clear
6.5 to 8.5

Temperature
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Total suspended solids

C
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L

40
15
50
20

Total dissolved solids

Chloride
Sulfate
Sulfide
Detergents
Grease and oil
Chlorine
Phosphate

mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L

2,000
400
200
0.1
1
ND
1
4

mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
MPN/100 ml

200
200
13 - 26
<300

Water quality
pH

Calcium
Magnesium
Nitrate
Fecal coliform

Notes
Odorless and not toxic upon ingestion
Lime or acid may be added to correct
pH
350C detrimental to corals

Solids not in excess to inhibit rate of

absorption into soil

No visual pollution, bubbles, foam, etc.

Should not be detectable
Toxic to plants and aquatic life
Phosphate adversely affects plants and
coral reefs, use phosphate-free
detergents

90% removed through uptake by turf

Can disinfect with UV light or
chlorination

Source: BBIR 1996

SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS

FOR

SEWAGE

AND

WASTEWATER DISPOSAL

Wastewater or grey water is the water stream resulting from water wastes from
restaurants and hotels excluding sewage. This includes shower water from bathrooms
and effluent from hotel laundries. Wastewater can be separated from stormwater and
sewage for both treatment and disposal. During pipe laying, grey water should be led to
a separate storage tank. This will help in reducing overall water volume to the septic
system, preventing overload.
If the development is in an area of water shortage or if the developer wishes to
conserve water, treated wastewater can be reused to water lawns, shrubs and golf courses
or can be diverted for agricultural use. Reuse of wastewater is inexpensive and saves
supply costs for potable water.

114

Treated grey water can be also reused for toilet flushing. There is no reason why
valuable potable water needs to be flushed down the toilets. A combined treatmentrecycle system based on the engineered wetland technology can be built for a 20-40
bungalow resort with an average water consumption of US$30,000 to 50,000. A simple
system that separates and stores grey water is shown in Figure 48.
Grease traps
Grease traps are important in coastal resorts and hotels to minimize release of oily
products to the sea or garden in the case of grey water recycling. Grease traps function
as oil/water separators. The chambers of the grease traps slow down the flow and allow
the grease and oils to build up on the water surface. The water is then discharged on the
bottom of the chamber, retaining the grease cake in the traps.
Sewage and sewage management
Sewage comprises the waterborne wastes of a human community carried in a sewer
system containing human, animal or vegetable waste in suspension or solution. Since
there are few central municipal sewage treatment systems operating in the Philippines,
other options are available for coastal tourism projects.

Treated effluent reuse for irrigation

or recharge of aquifer
Shower

Chalet

WC

Filter 1: Vertical wetland filter

for sewage treatment

Shower

Chalet

WC

Shower

Chalet

WC

Filter 2: Vertical wetland filter

for wastewater treatment
Note: The grey water from the resorts showers is piped to Filter 2 for treatment (green line).
After the treatment the effluent is stored temporarily in a holding tank before being sent
back in a separate pipe system to the toilets for flushing (black line). The treated wastewaterturned-sewage is then piped to Filter I for treatment (grey line).

Figure 48: Schematic layout for a wastewater treatment and

recycling system with engineered wetlands (Httche 1999b)

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

115

Septic systems
The least expensive solution, septic tanks are mainly used by medium to small-scale
hotels, resorts and residential developments. Septic systems have two primary
components: the septic tank, which breaks down the sewage through anaerobic action
and the soakage pit which operates aerobically (Figure 49). A septic tank is a watertight
settling tank to which wastes are carried. The first compartment of the two-compartment
tank receives only pour and flush water, which passes after settlement into the second
compartment. Liquification or settlement in the first compartment removes the solids.
Septic tanks reduce BOD by 30-50% but fecal bacteria content is only reduced slightly.
The effluent is then discharged into the unsaturated soil of the soakage pit to remove
more of the solid matter and toxins. Where the design or location of the soakage pit is
inappropriate, the discharge from septic tanks into the environment may cause negative
environmental impacts and potential human health risks.
Household/resort
wastewater

Ground level
Septic tank
0.4 m

Soil absorption field

Liquid
Sludge

In sand/gravel trench
Infiltration

1m

Groundwater
Note: Septic tank made of concrete or fiberglass adjacent to a soakage pit or soil absorption field.

Figure 49: Standard septic system design (Branan et al . 1991)

Placement of septic tanks
Contamination of potable water or seawater may occur if septic tanks are improperly
placed (Figure 50). Therefore, the placement of a septic tank must be done in relation to
any existing freshwater well. The distance between wells and septic tanks in residential
areas could be 75-100 feet. A greater distance will be necessary for larger tourist facilities.
Also, the septic tank must be placed in such a way that discharge from the septic system
flows away from the well.
If the septic tank is installed during the dry season, contamination may occur during
the rainy season. Furthermore, septic tanks should be placed no less than 50 feet from
tributaries to drinking water supplies and no less than 25 feet from lakes, streams and
the sea. In coastal areas, however, it is unlikely that a septic tank can be placed this close
to the ocean, as sandy soils are poor choices for septic tank locations.

116

Better

Well

Well

See
pag
e
Freshwater
Freshwater

Poor placement

Note: Left incorrect placement. Right correct placement of septic tank is at least 25 to 30 m from
wells and positioned so that leachate flows away

Figure 50: Placement of septic tank in relation to topography

and freshwater well (Rees 1990)
Soakage pits
Soakage pits are often too small and the soil conditions are not suitable to provide
efficient filtering. By laying out the soil absorption fields in zigzag trenches, the surface
area for infiltration can be increased, compared to a square soakage pit. Alternatively,
the septic tank can be connected to an engineered wetland cell. These systems are a
good option in areas with abundant vacant land. As an added advantage, the effluent
from the engineered wetland can be reused or used to recharge a coastal islands aquifer,
thus reducing the need for potable water.
Anaerobic digester
Small-scale resorts may use an appropriate technology for waste management, which
can be implemented at very low costs (Figure 51). The system is based on an anaerobic
digester, which is similar to a septic system. However, the sewage tank will be sealed off
to provide anaerobic conditions for the microbes working in the digester. As a product
of the bacterias work, methane gas is captured under the cover of the tank. This gas can
be used in the resort for cooking purposes.
Ground
level

Methane gas

Raw sewage tank

Settlement

Note: Size of raw sewage tank 5 m x 2 m x 2 m, size of settlement tank 3 m x 2 m x 2 m.

Figure 51: Side elevation of a typical brick or concrete

anaerobic digester (Reedbed Technology 1998)

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

117

In Indonesia, anaerobic digesters are being constructed with locally available and
cheap building materials. These are being built with coconut fiber and epoxy resin. A
timber mold is erected on-site on which the fiber-resin mix is applied. The tank is then
fitted with a rubber lid to capture the methane gas for cooking purposes. The effluent of
the anaerobic digester can be polished in an engineered wetland cell (Figure 55).
Engineered wetlands
For coastal resorts and hotels, sewage treatment with green and appropriate
technologies such as engineered or constructed wetlands may prove to be a viable
alternative to the conventional sewage treatment systems. These engineered wetlands
are beneficial in remote areas since they generally do not require much mechanical and
electrical equipment and therefore only need little maintenance. The performance of
these systems is comparable with sewage treatment plants. They can also be combined
with septic systems.
Constructed wetlands are designed to simulate the filtration systems found in nature,
by using engineered complexes of saturated substrates, emergent and submergent
vegetation, animal life and water. These created wetlands can improve the biological
and chemical integrity of water by virtue of their ecological function as kidneys of the
landscape.
Based on this principle, different designs of engineered wetlands are available. One
type is an aquatic system in which floating plants take up nutrients through their roots
but perform little actual treatment themselves. They serve instead as an excellent substrate
for microbial biomass, which performs the actual treatment. The water hyacinth (Eichornia
crassipes) has been studied extensively for use in this type of aquatic system. Its major
advantages are its extensive root system and rapid growth rate. Other species, such as
pennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata) and duckweed (Lemna spp., Spirodela spp., Wolffia
spp.) have been used in the same way. These systems can provide effective secondary
wastewater treatment or nutrient removal, depending on the organic loading rate. They
have been used most often either for removing algae from oxidation pond effluents, or
for removing nutrients after secondary treatment.
Another form of constructed wetland uses rock-reed-filters in which treatment is
generally achieved by filtration, adsorption and microbiological processes (Figure 52).
In this method, the root systems of the reeds create an excellent habitat for microbes
with an immense appetite for organic pollutants. Oxygen is transported through the
root system into the activity zone of the microbes.
Sand and gravel filters provide filtration and water retention to facilitate biological
treatment and the elimination of pollutants. Sub-surface treatment of the water helps to
prevent odor problems and mosquito breeding. Various combinations of these engineered
constructed wetlands have been developed (Figures 53 and 54). The filter media used
(typically soil, sand, gravel or crushed rock) greatly affect the hydraulics of these systems.

118

Engineered wetlands can be combined with other sewage treatment systems (PCRF
2000). They serve to polish the effluent and reduce concentrations of nutrients and
other pollutants in the water as shown in Figure 55.
As a rule-of-thumb one square-meter of engineered wetland can treat 60 liters of
domestic wastewater or sewage per day (PCRF 2000). This formula can be used to
estimate the surface area needed to treat a specific amount of water.
Biological pumps
Soil particles
Oxidized
zone

Reduced
zone
Note: An oxidized zone is created around the roots allowing aerobic bacteria to work

Figure 52: Reed root system acts as a biological pump

transporting oxygen into the root zone (Httche 1999b)

5
6

4
3
9
2
1

Note: Different layers of filter media (lava stone, gravel or sand) are used (1-4), a surface
distribution pipe network (5) distributes the influent to the root system of the planted reeds
(6). The whole cell is contained by a membrane or liner (7) to control outflow via a bottom
drainage pipe network (8). Ventilation pipes (9) are connected to the drainage pipes for
additional oxygen supply

Figure 53: Cross-section of an engineered wetland cell for sewage

and wastewater treatment (Httche 1999b)

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

119

Figure 54: Tropical engineered wetlands used for the treatment

of domestic wastewater from hotels and residences can have
different designs. One is shown in the photo above; a vertical
flow rock-reed engineered wetland cell has dense growth of reeds
( Phragmites communis ). The microbiological treatment takes
place in the root zone. Another design, Wastewater Gardens
concept uses a diverse mix of plants and gravel beds combined
with floating hyacinths in small ponds. Both systems can be
integrated into a resorts landscape as features (PCRF 2000)

Methane gas
Sewage tank

Settlement

Engineered wetland

Figure 55: Combination of anaerobic digester and engineered

wetland

120

Sewage treatment plants (STPs)

A wide range of designs and sizes of sewage treatment plants for coastal resorts are
available (Figures 56 and 57). The standard system would include a first stage where
mechanical treatment takes place, removing larger objects and solids. In the second
stage, aerobic biological treatment processes will reduce the organic toxins, optionally
aided by aeration. In settlement basins, solids settle as sludge, which can be dried and
later reused for soil conditioning purposes. In the final treatment stage, chlorination or
ultra-violet light will kill all microbiological pathogens before the effluent is discharged
or reused for irrigation purposes.
These systems, if properly constructed and operated, allow generally better effluent
qualities than the simpler septic systems. Of course, these systems are more costly as
pumps and other equipment are needed and they require proper and skilled maintenance
for good performance.
Comparing engineered wetlands with conventional sewage treatment systems shows
that engineered wetlands compare favorably in terms of cost and efficacy of cleaning
wastewater to acceptable standards for recycling use. Although they require a proper
design and skilled maintenance, they are low technology operations that deserve
consideration for any medium to large-scale resort. Table 32 shows the relative efficiency
of an engineered wetland for reducing selected wastewater parameters.

Table 32. Performance of an engineered wetland (180 m 2) at a

coastal resort in Indonesia using reed-rock filter system
Test parameters

Wetland
Wetland Reduct- Wetland Reduct- Interinflow
outflow
ion (%)
outflow ion (%) national
(average) March 2000*
standards**
March 2001

Total phosphate
(mg/L)

27.1

5.6

79

2.1

92

4.0

Biochemical oxygen
demand (mg/L)

181

8.0

96

5.0

97

15.0

918

30.0

97

36.0

96

50.0

212

30.0

86

4.0

98

20.0

Chemical oxygen
demand (mg/L)
Total suspended solids
(mg/L)

*Engineered wetland operating less than one month so reed root system not fully established
**Comparison with standards used by Bintan Beach International Resort, 1996
Note: Water samples tested by Chemical Laboratory (Singapore) Pte Ltd.

Source: Httche (2000)

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

121

Small-scale
hotel/resort

Pond
Septic tank
Engineered
wetland

Soakage
pit

Note: Less polluted grey water is separately treated in a soakage pit. In order to recycle the water it can be also
piped to the engineered wetland instead. The sewage flows into a septic tank for removal of larger solids before
being discharged into the wetland cell for treatment. Effluents can be used for irrigation of resort landscape.

Figure 56. Wastewater and sewage disposal options for small and
medium-scale coastal resorts and hotels

Large-scale hotel/resort
Sewage
treatment
plant

Stream

Kitchen

OPTION 1

Pond

OPTION 2
Engineered
wetland
OPTION 3
Grease trap

Soakage
pit

Note: Kitchen effluent will be treated in a grease trap to separate oil and grease from water. It can then flow
into a sewage treatment plant (STP), engineered wetland, or as a minimum solution into a soakage pit
(Options 1-3). The same is possible for the hotels grey water from showers. Sewage from large resorts requires
mandatory treatment via STP or engineered wetland to safeguard a sufficient treatment standard. Reuse of
effluent is advised. Many resorts discharge STP effluent into a coastal stream or directly into the sea.

Figure 57. Wastewater and sewage disposal options for large-scale

coastal resorts and hotels

122

Reuse for agricultural land or for lawn watering

Although the recycling of treated effluent is strongly recommended, it should meet
certain standards to not pose a health hazard to resort staff and visitors. This is to protect
workers and guests, especially children, who may get in contact with treated wastewater
in public areas like lawns or golf courses. The minimum microbiological water quality
requirements for the use of treated wastewater for irrigation are shown in Table 33.

Table 33. Minimum microbiological water quality requirements

for the use of treated wastewater for irrigation
Category of reuse conditions and Minimum bacteriological
quality requirement (fecal
exposed groups
coliform - geometric mean no.
per 100 mL)*

Acceptable
disinfecting
technique #3

Category A - Suitable for irrigation of

turf and landscape areas without any
restriction of public accesses and crops
for human consumption. Exposed
group: workers, consumers, public.

<300 fecal coliforms** (This is

appropriate for public lawns,
such as hotel lawns, and golf
courses, with which people may
come into direct contact)

30 days ponding to
achieve the
microbiological quality
indicated, or equivalent
treatment or other means

Category B - Suitable for irrigation of

turf and landscape areas provided the
public is excluded during any spray
irrigation

<750 fecal coliforms***

20 days ponding, or
equivalent treatment, or
other means

Category C - Localized irrigation of

crops where no contact between
reclaimed water and public is likely.
Exposed group: none.

<3,000 fecal coliforms***

10 days ponding, or
equivalent treatment, or
other means

*Treated wastewater to be used for irrigation should have at least (secondary biological treatment) or equivalent
process and sedimentation or equivalent process to remove solids.
**WHO 1989, Microbiological Quality Guidelines for Wastewater Use in Agriculture recommends <200 fecal
coliforms. The figure of 300 fecal coliform is provided in the EPA of NSW, Australia. Guidelines for the Use of
Treated Wastewater by Land Application, 1992.
***EPA of NSW, Australia Guidelines for the Use of Treated Wastewater by Land Application, 1992. Disinfection by
chlorination or any other means will only be approved if site constraints or other factors preclude the provision of
ponding facilities

Source: BBIR (1996)

Septic tank/grease trap maintenance

Depending on the volume and loading of the septic tank or grease trap, sludge or
grease cake will fill up the tanks compartments over time. In order to allow proper
functioning, the tanks need to be dislodged regularly. The tanks compartment should
not be more than 1/3 filled with sludge or grease cake. Products to reduce sludge
include: special bacteria blends, specifically chosen for their accelerated ability to metabolize
organic solids, grease, fats, proteins, lipids and detergents into carbon dioxide and
water. These products are available in tablet or liquid form. Application is easy by
dropping one or two tablets per month into the septic tank. They boost the performance
of the septic tanks and grease traps and improve the effluent quality significantly. Costsavings are possible, as the products reduce the frequency of cleaning through less
sludge buildup.

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

123

STORMWATER AND SURFACE RUNOFF

Water flowing on the surface during or immediately after a rainstorm is called
stormwater runoff. Property damage, flooding, death, water pollution and erosion may
all result from stormwater runoff. Therefore, coastal tourist facilities must be designed
to limit changes to natural runoff patterns and to compensate for those disruptions that
are unavoidable. Objectives for stormwater management are listed in Table 34.

Table 34. Objectives for stormwater management

Prevent flooding resulting from stormwater surges

Prevent pollution of surface, ground and coastal waters by removing pollutants

acquired from septic systems, pesticides or other pollutants

Recharge groundwater to minimize potential water shortages during periods of little

rainfall

Prevent soil cave-ins and damage to building foundations

Prevent soil erosion which causes damage to streams, lakes and coastal waters

Prevent sedimentation of adjacent water bodies

Prevent clogging and backup of storm drains and channels

Protect wildlife and habitats (coral reefs, mangroves, etc.) from sedimentation and
pollution

Protect open spaces, wetlands and recreational waters to enhance the surroundings

Runoff from developed areas can contribute large amounts of suspended materials,
nutrients, and BOD as well as freshwater influx to coastal waters, all of which are
detrimental to coastal ecosystems. Further, as coastal development not only increases the
quantity of runoff but also lowers the quality, runoff must be properly treated and routed
to minimize impacts to coastal ecosystems. Stormwater often carries more pollutants
than untreated wastewater and causes greater degradation of coastal waters, lakes and
streams.
Runoff is difficult to control, but can become almost impossible once the construction
of the development is complete. In the past, runoff was treated as a secondary issue to be
dealt with as it occurred and not something to plan for. Currently, greater emphasis is
placed on planning for stormwater by determining pre-development discharge rate
standards and using as a baseline standard. This standard requires that the rate, volume,
and content of stormwater discharge after development must not be greater than the
rate, volume or content before site development occurs. Planners must consider
stormwater in the context of coastal tourism development. These actions help minimize
the impact of runoff:

Minimize disturbances to the existing landscape;

Minimize paved areas such as roads and parking areas;

Use shrubs which require little or no fertilizer; and

Use contouring to divert runoff to storage areas.

124

Stormwater storage areas could be either of a permanent type such as reservoirs, or

of a temporary nature such as large low-lying areas where evaporation would be enhanced
(Figures 58 and 59). The runoff could be used for irrigation or discharged after treatment
via a submarine outfall.
If large areas of closed surfaces are unavoidable, materials such as bricks and cobbles
should be used instead of asphalt or cement. The spaces between individual bricks allow
water to seep into the soil reducing runoff. Vegetation may also be used to filter water
and allow percolation and groundwater recharge (Figure 60).

Evaporation

Inflow
3:1 slope
or flatter

Treatment volume
(25-40 cm deep)

Gravel or grass bottom

Infiltration
Water table
Note: Runoff is held in the basin until it evaporates or is absorbed into the soil. No discharge
occurs in this system.

Figure 58. A dry retention basin is one option for collecting

stormwater (Branan et al . 1991)
Marsh plants
Screen

Inflow

Marsh
plants

Treatment volume
(25-40 cm deep)

Outflow

Baffle

Sediment
sump

Permanent pool
(50-200 cm deep)

Note: In coastal areas this limits water inundations associated with large rainstorms

Figure 59. A wet retention pond is another option for stormwater

storage in which stormwater is held and discharged at a rate
determined by the size of the outflow pipe (Branan et al . 1991)

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

125

A. Vegetation

Percolation
B. Swales
Transpiration

Percolation
C. Pervious pavements

Lattice

Open brick

Notes: A . Provides a ground cover that permits rain to percolate into the ground, preventing
runoff flooding while recharging groundwater
B . Grass-lined troughs that collect runoff and allow time for water to percolate into
the ground. Swales must be moved to keep the vegetation healthy and to prevent
outlet plugging from leaves, garbage or litter.
C . Gravel, brick or other pervious surfaces. Separations or pore spaces must be
sufficient to allow rapid percolation of rainwater.

Figure 60. Several landscaping techniques that help to minimize

stormwater runoff damage (Branan et al . 1991)
Parameters to consider in the design of a stormwater disposal system are either
system specific or event specific. In system specific parameters, the most important
consideration is the coefficient of runoff of the catchment area in relation to the actual
catchment area. The coefficient of runoff is dependent on the following factors:

Form, location and size of the catchment area;

Type of land-use;

Infiltration rate and groundwater table;

Slope of ground within the catchment area;

Existence, location, length, size, gradient and condition of the drainage system
or canals; and

Size, location and capacity of the retention areas.

Event specific parameters are governed by the intensity of rainfall. For example, an
intensity of rainfall of 110 mm/hour based on a storm duration of 15 minutes with a
return period of 1 year for open drains requires a certain size drain to channel the water.

126

This intensity of rainfall would require large culvert and drain sizes. If the system being
designed for becomes too expensive, then a slightly less intensity rainfall could be used
for the average storm event such as: rainfall of 90 mm/hour based on a storm duration
of 15 minutes with a return period of three months. For culverts and other structures, an
intensity of rainfall for 125 mm/hour based on a storm duration of 15 minutes with a
return period of two years could be used. These figures will depend on rainfall data from
the area of the development and overall design criteria.
Stormwater collection systems
Stormwater collection systems should be designed according to the desired velocity
of the flow and for ease of maintenance. Closed drains should be provided only if:

Road width is limited;

Where drains are deeper than 0.75 m; and

Where open drains are not aesthetically appropriate.

Stormwater from the collection system should be discharged through outfalls to
natural watercourses, to larger drains or canals, to retention ponds or marshes, or to a
soakage system or engineered wetland cell. The discharge through the outfall should be
via a silt trap and a screen to prevent debris collected in the open drains from being
discharged through the outfall. The placement of the outfall pipes into natural waterways
should be in areas with large amounts of flushing and away from coral reefs and other
coastal habitats, which may be damaged by the outfall.
It is important to avoid discharge of stormwater into resort beach areas, either
through artificial or natural drains. This can lead to pollution of beaches with debris and
silt. During heavy rains the high velocity of the stormwater can lead to beach erosion.
This can seriously affect the attractiveness of the beach areas for tourists and requires
intensive mitigation. Discharge of stormwater should be channeled towards stable rocky
headlands or outcrops, provided no other coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs are
impacted.

SUMMARY
Along with any water supply scheme, there must be an appropriate plan for disposal
of wastewater, stormwater and sewage. Untreated sewage is one of the major sources of
environmental pollution in the coastal areas once resorts are operational. Planning for
wastewater treatment and recycling should be done in the design phase and be adequate
to accommodate expansion of the resort. The technology and designs are available for
very cost-effective and water saving systems for dealing with wastewater. Very little if
any wastewater needs to enter the ocean since all grey water can be used for gardening
and toilet flushing. Stormwater runoff needs to be planned for and channeled away from
the sea as much as possible. The solutions are as broad as the imagination while an
appropriate mix for any given facility must be selected and can produce a truly clean
operation.

Sewage, Wastewater and Stormwater Management

127

CHAPTER 10

Solid Waste Disposal

Solid waste is a predictable product of any

resort. The technology to manage, treat, recycle
and dispose of it is available
lets use it!
availablelets
Disposal of solid wastes (plastics, glass, paper, leftover food) is a difficult process
in most tropical developing nations. However, organic wastes can be processed fast
due to high temperatures suitable for microbial digestion of the waste. Proper separation
and processing of organic matters from resort operations are essential for success as
suggested in Figure 61.
Garden waste
Sewage treatment plant
preliminary treatment
(screenings)
Sewage treatment plant
dried sludge

Compost at site for agriculture

Inerts to farm for burial

Transport to farm by
tractor, trailer for
composting and
agriculture use
Storage of recyclables
for sale to town
collection center

Room waste
combustibles
Kitchen waste
recyclables
Kitchen waste
compostables
Kitchen waste
combustibles

Burning chamber
incinerator*

*controlled by Solid Waste Management Act No. 90-03

Figure 61. Possible methods of solid waste disposal in a hotel (modified

from Sullivan et al. 1995)

Waste management during the construction phase

Land clearing, organic construction debris and vegetation waste shall be disposed
of on-site. Shredding or burying are acceptable means of disposal. Open waste burning
shall not be the first choice and only takes place at controlled sites. The dumping of trash
and debris on adjacent properties or other locations in and around the development site
should not take place.
Dumping of used oil, leftover paint or other hazardous materials shall not take
place on-site or into wastewater and sanitary sewer systems. Materials shall, instead,
be taken to waste recycling and processing facilities. The contractor should be made
responsible for the disposal of these materials and their proper disposal should be
monitored.
Petroleum, oil and lubricant storage, and transfer activities, including equipment
fuelling and maintenance, shall be handled in a manner to minimize the potential for
spills and must be conducted in pre-approved areas. These areas shall be bermed and
lined to contain potential spills. This reduces the risk of contaminated soils, which pose
environmental problems for disposal.
Waste management during operations
Composting of garden wastes (cut grass, dead flowers,
tree and shrub limbs) is an excellent way of producing rich
soils. By removing garden wastes, nutrients are taken away
from the soils, resulting in the need to apply more fertilizer.
If garden wastes are composted and the new soils reapplied,
the area will not lose its nutrients and less money will have
to be spent to replenish soils. Distribution of kitchen and
dining room wastes to local farms is also an excellent way
to reduce the amount of trash to bury or burn or place in a
landfill.

Improper solid waste disposal always detracts from

the environment, repels visitors and causes health
risks.

Total waste treatment and management technologies are available. These systems
or bioconverters take in kitchen wastes, sewage and wastewater to produce compost
(soil conditioner), biogas and useable water. The system not only treats most waste
(except certain solid recyclable, which is separated), but also produces useful products.
Such systems should be explored for use in all hotels and resort developments.

SUMMARY
Solid waste management is essential for environmental and human health as well as
for the economic well-being of tourism facilities. The Philippines generally lacks adequate
waste management systems on a large scale so that resort developers and local governments
must plan for solid waste storage and disposal methods for the proposed tourism facility.
Solid waste management technology and solutions are now available that are not expensive
and much waste can be recycled with an economic return to the facility.

129

CHAPTER 11

Environmental Control and

Auditing
Environmental management and monitoring is
required throughout the entire life of a project and
is the responsibility of the developer and operator.
The EIA process does not stop with the completion of the EIS and the granting of
an ECC. Environmental control is a powerful tool for the coastal tourism operator to
streamline operations, minimize major environmental repair measures through early
detection and improve the quality of housekeeping.
Efficient control is achieved by implementing an environmental monitoring
program. Environmental monitoring is a planned and systematic data collection activity,
carried out repeatedly. Environmental monitoring should ensure that the project does
not cause any significant long-term environmental impacts, in particular cumulative
impacts (e.g. sewage), and that the existing environmental conditions are maintained
to ensure the long-term feasibility and quality of the project.

WHO MONITORS?
In the Philippines, the EIA legislation requires the setup of a Multi-Partite Monitoring
Team (MMT) and an Environmental Monitoring Fund (EMF) for projects requiring an
EIS. The MMT should conduct an independent review of the projects compliance with
the EIS, starting from construction throughout the operations stage. The MMT will set
an operating plan and schedule.
The core members of the MMT are: the project proponent, affected communities
and women through their designated representatives, the relevant LGUs, the DENR
Provincial and/or Community Environment and Natural Resources Officers (PENROs/
CENROs) in the project areas. Other members may be identified. DENR will provide

technical support. The project proponent and later the operator should establish the
EMF to be used for the activities of the MMT.
Due to cost and time constraints, the MMT activities may take place at longer time
intervals (e.g. annual, six-monthly, etc.) during project operations. Daily, weekly or
monthly monitoring activities have to be an easy-to-implement and inexpensive exercise
as it continues for many years. This is easiest achieved if environmental monitoring is
part of the coastal resorts routine maintenance and housekeeping programs carried
out by the resorts staff. In many cases, visual controls and recording of the results can
do the job.
An initial environmental monitoring training may be required for key resort staff
(e.g. engineer, housekeeper, gardener, dive operator). Good environmental quality
and management standards achieved by regular monitoring is definitely a plus in the
eyes of many tourists (see case study: Boracay Island). Environmental monitoring
responsibilities and topics for coastal tourism are outlined in Tables 35 and 36.

Table 35. Proposed environmental monitoring responsibilities

for coastal tourism in the Philippines
Who
Multi-Partite Monitoring Team
Core team:
The project proponent, affected
communities and women through
their designated representatives, the
relevant LGUs, the DENR Provincial
and/or Community Environment
and Natural Resources Officers
(PENROs/CENROs)
Additional members (to be
identified by core MMT):
Examples: BFAR, DOT, DA, NGOs,
Marine Scientists/Consultants/
Universities
OPTIONAL:
Tourism developer/operator

Responsibilities

Tasks

Overall
compliance
monitoring
based on EIS
Stakeholder
inputs by
affected
parties

Day-to-day
environmental
monitoring
routine
Submission
of
environmental
monitoring
reports to
MMT for
evaluation

Review proponents/operators
environmental monitoring reports
Independent monitoring activities of
major parameters (e.g. seawater
quality, reef health)
Effects on neighboring communities
Recommendations to proponent/
operator and DENR for further
actions

Integrate frequent monitoring

activities in routine maintenance and
housekeeping programs
Organize monitoring training for key
result staff
Proper recording of monitoring data
Benefits: Streamline management
activities, improve quality and costefficiency, minimize major
environmental repairs through early
detection

Environmental Control and Auditing

131

Table 36. Sample environmental monitoring form for weekly

monitoring
Weekly Site Environmental Monitoring Form
For the month of
Monitored by
Name

Signature
Week
1

(5)

Status of re-vegetation efforts

Grease trap inspection

Sludge depth (<1/3-1/2 full)
Pipe blockage
Refill with water
Other comments
Bin center inspection
All loose litter in bins
Drains clear
Floor cleaned
Surrounding apron and walls
cleaned
Stains and dirt removed
Any foul smell
Remarks

Rate

1 = adequate

2 = requires
improvement

3 = requires
immediate action

Name

Signature

Date

Comments
Actions
Form assessed and
approved by

Different environmental parameters require different monitoring frequencies. Some will be monitored
daily, weekly or monthly, others are checked every six months or once a year. For example, construction
activities need to be checked daily during monsoons for efficient erosion control and surface runoff
protection. During coastal tourism operations, sewage discharge standards can be checked monthly.
Source: Httche (1998c)

132

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITS
Environmental audits are regular environmental evaluations of whole operations.
Audits go further than checking the compliance with an environmental regulation or
standard. In coastal tourism projects an auditor would assess, for instance, the
consumption of resources such as water and energy. The goal of the environmental audit
at resorts and hotels would be to identify resource-saving means of operating through
energy or water conservation measures. This can lead to substantial cost-savings for
the hotel or resort operator. An example of a self-audit form for hotels and resorts is
presented in Table 37.

Table 37. Sample self-audit form for hotels and resorts

Waste management
a. Monitoring annual waste volume
Yearly waste

Previous
year
volume
(tons)

Current
Year on Target for Achieved
Year on
year
reduction target?
year
year
reduction reduction reduction
(x/9)
(tons)
(tons)
(%)

Sorted
Unsorted
a. Percentage of materials recycled
Waste

Previous year
(%)

Current year

Target for
recycling

Achieved target?
(x/9)

Aluminum
Other metals
Glass
Plastic
Organic
(including food)
Paper
Card
Other
Energy and water conservation
a. Monitoring energy and water consumption
Yearly
consumption

Previous
year

Current
year

Year on
year
reduction
(amount)

Year on Target for

reduction
year
reduction
(%)

Achieved
target?
(x/9)

Electricity (kWh)
Gas (kWh)
Oil (Iiters)
Steam/hot water
(kWh)
(continued)

Environmental Control and Auditing

133

Table 37. (continued)

Yearly
consumption

Previous
year

Current
year

Year on
year
reduction
(amount)

Year on Target for

reduction
year
reduction
(%)

Achieved
target?
(x/9)

Steam (kWh)
Water (m3)
Other
Product purchase
a. Monitoring the switch to environment-friendly products: percentage of purchase
Puchases

Previous
year (%)

Current Target for Achieved

year
recycling target?
(x/9)

Energy-efficient appliances
Locally produced food and products
Furniture-wood from sustainable sources
Biodegradable toiletries
Phosphate-free detergents
Reusable napkins, cups, dry-cleaning covers
Oxygen bleaches
Ozone-friendly aerosols
Organic fertilizers and biocides
Recycled paper
Other items made from recyclable materials
Returnable bottles
External air emissions
a. Quantities of refrigerants purchased
Yearly quantities

Previous Current Year on

Year on Target for
year
year
reduction
year
year
reduction reduction
(amount)
(%)

Achieved
target?
(x/9)

Chloroflourocarbon
Hydrochloroflourocarbon
Other
Pesticides and herbicides
a. Monitoring the reduction in pesticide use
Previous
Yearly
Current
Year on
quantities
year
year
year
reduction
(amount)
Pesticides
Herbicides

134

Year on Target for

reduction
year
reduction
(%)

Achieved
target?
(x/9)

With the results of regular monitoring and audit schemes, coastal resort and hotel
operators can identify areas of good performance and areas for improvements. It
might help to compare the environmental performance with internationally accepted
benchmarks. Table 38 shows the performance benchmark for tropical hotels for energy
consumption, efficiency and water consumption. The following case study also highlights
how environmental monitoring can be institutionalized.

Table 38. Energy and water conservation benchmarks for hotels

in tropical countries
Correction
factor
Large hotel (>150 rooms)
Electricity (kWh/m 2/year)
1.3
1.6
Energy 1 (kWh/m 2/year)
0.4
0.7
Water 2 (liter/guest/day)
1.3
1.6
Medium hotel (50-150 rooms)
Electricity (kWh/m 2/year)
1.3
1.6
Energy 1 (kWh/m 2/year)
0.4
0.7
Water 2 (liter/guest/day)
1.3
1.6
Small hotel (4-50 rooms)
Electricity (kWh/m 2/year)
1.3
1.6
Energy 1 (kWh/m 2/year)
0.4
0.7
Water 2 (liter/guest/day)
1.3
1.6

Good

Fair

Poor

Very poor

165
214.5
264
200
80
140
600
780
960

200
260
320
240
96
168
770
1,001
1,232

250
325
400
300
120
210
880
1,144
1,408

>250
325
400
>300
120
210
>880
1,144
1,408

70
91
112
190
76
133
440
572
704

90
117
144
230
92
161
500
650
800

120
156
192
260
104
182
600
780
960

>120
156
192
>260
104
182
>600
780
960

60
78
96
180
72
96
330
429
528

80
104
128
210
84
147
380
494
608

100
130
160
240
96
168
440
572
915.2

>100
130
160
>240
96
168
>440
572
915.2

Source: Balifokus (2000)

Energy derived directly from petroleum products (gasoline, diesel or natural gas)
Water consumption includes drinking, shower, toilet, cooking and irrigation water for gardens per guest.
Tropical resorts with extensive gardens that use potable water for irrigation have a high water consumption per
guest and thus a poor performance. The solution is to use treated effluent and not potable water for landscape
irrigation.
1

Environmental Control and Auditing

135

CASE STUDY:

BINTAN RESORTS, BINTAN ISLAND, INDONESIA

At Bintan Resorts along Bintans northern shoreline, all individual developers are
required to submit a six monthly environmental monitoring report to the authorities.
The developers conduct most of the monitoring activities in-house, with assistance
from specialists for routine biodiversity assessments of coral reefs, etc. The reports are
submitted to Bintan Resort Management Pte Ltd. There, the reports are compiled and
checked by an Environmental Officer. A summary report with recommendations by the
Officer is produced for all resorts, which will be finally submitted to the Indonesian
Environmental Management Agency in Jakarta, Indonesia, for review and approval. In
severe cases of non-compliance, the developer and operator could eventually lose their
operating license.
IMPORTANT: The Environmental Officer performs on-the-ground spot checks to
ensure the resorts are reporting realistic monitoring results. Without these cross checks
the Indonesian Environmental Management Agency would not be able to fully assess
compliance.

SUMMARY
Environmental control and auditing plays an important role in maintaining the
original good plans of a coastal tourism operation. Most resorts start out with a wellplanned operation but after some time may tend to stop monitoring their own
operations carefully. Small infractions may turn to larger ones to the detriment of the onsite and off-site environment. A simple audit procedure that checks all aspects of resort
operation impacts on environment from energy use, water consumption, waste disposal
of all kinds and other aspects of the resort operation can prevent this from occurring.
More often than not, keeping good records and maintaining a vigilant watch on a resort
operation with respect to environment will translate into a clean, green and more
attractive and profitable facility.

136

CHAPTER 12

The Future: Building Capacity

for Sustainable Coastal
Tourism
Sustainable solutions and green technologies are
only as good as the people who implement them
daily. Thats why stakeholder and staff awareness
and training are of great importance to make
coastal tourism sustainable.
This handbook, augmented by the Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series
(DENR et al. 2001), provide technical materials for various stakeholder groups. For
intensive training workshops (3-5 days), it is advised to structure the training components
into sessions.
The training sessions on sustainable coastal tourism can be linked to the integrated
coastal management (ICM) approach, as tourism is an integral component of coastal
zone utilization. Coastal tourism shares its resources with other users (e.g. fishing).
Environmental and social impacts from coastal tourism may affect these other resource
usage and vice versa.
In general, ICM training aims to enhance the participants awareness of coastal
environmental issues and appreciation of the ICM approach to address these challenges.
A training workshop on sustainable coastal tourism in the framework of ICM is
outlined here with proposed individual sessions in a logical order. However, each of
the sessions can be delivered individually or combined as the target audience requires.
The materials for the sessions can be extracted from this handbook.

Session 5: Strategies and actions

Objectives
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:

Understand the meaning of strategies and action plans;

Formulate strategies and action plans for sustainable coastal tourism; and

Develop a regional ecotour product plan as a key strategy.

Session 6: Ecotour product development
Objectives
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:

Conduct a simple tourism market analysis for small and medium-size business;

Determine the financial pre-feasibility of the business;

Understand the process to set up a professional tourism business; and

Explore available niche markets for community-based ecotourism.

Session 7: Environmental management and auditing
Objectives
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:

Describe green practices for coastal tourism management;

Understand the marketability of green practices to ecotourists;

Outline green conciousness and training for staff and management;

Describe the process of evaluation using indicators; and

Explain the importance of a reporting system in monitoring and evaluation.

SUMMARY
Building capacity for managing coastal tourism is a multifaceted undertaking.
The variety of institutions and persons involved in assisting the design and
implementation of coastal tourism is indeed very large. It is not possible to build
capacity uniformly among this wide range of stakeholders and institutions.
Nevertheless, ongoing training and education is essential to improve the awareness of
people in the tourism industry about the need to look for and implement sustainable
solutions. And, the solutions are not only on-site but more often than not the context of
any one tourism establishment is equally or more important than the actual operation of
the facility. This is why a wider appreciation of ICM planning is essential. If tourists
come to a nice beach with all the services and then swim or scuba dive on a dead coral
reef resulting either from pollution or destructive fishing, the tourist will probably not
return. Building this broad awareness among resort planners and operators must be the
theme of training for the future.

The Future: Building Capacity for Sustainable Coastal Tourism

139

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