TOWARDS IMPROVED

LOCAL LEVEL PLANNING

FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Lessons from some Experience

PLANNING COMMISSION
(MULTI-LEVEL PLANNING SECTION)
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NEW DELHI
1986

CONTENTS
ii

PREFACE
I. Case Study of Kundrakudi, Tamil Nadu
1.

Introduction: The background and genesis

2.

The Institutional Arrangements and the Planning Process

3.

Development Schemes and their Relevance

4.

Public Participation.

12

5.

Transferability and replicability of the -Kundrakudi experience

16

6.

Kundrakudi Revisited

23

ANNEXURES I V

2935

II. Case Studies of Sukhomajri (Haryana) and Daslioli (Uttar Pradesh)

7.

Introduction : The background and genesis

36

8.

Case 1 : Sukhomajri

37

9.

Case 2. : Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal

40

10. Key Elements of Success

42

11. Project Costs

46

12. Constraints on Rehabilitation of Uncultivated Lands

48

13. Project Replication: Need for an Intermediary Support Agency

51

14. Recommendations and Conclusions.

53

15. Observations of Planning Commission Team on Sukhomajri and

Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal

55

PREFACE
Success stories in rural development are few. Wherever they have occurred, it is
necessary to document the experience, analyse the factors that have contributed to the
success and consider their relevance to the country as a whole in terms of their
replicability, This approach is likely to yield valuable insights for evolving a model for
rural development for the country.
The present volume is a documentation of three successful rural development
expsriencesSukhomajri and Dasholi in different parts of the Himalayan region and
Kundrakudi in Tamil Nadu. Each ,of the three experiences analysed here has its own
unique features. Some commonalities are: the availablility of extraordinary local
leadership, the close and continuous involvement of a band of dedicated technicians and
social workers and above all a highly motivated populacea combination that rarely exist.
These three experiences are examples of the bottom-up approach wherein the rural people
plan their own development, albeit with the help of governmental and nongovernmental
agencies. For purposes of planning, they have founded an institutional mechanism suited
to their local circumstances : in Kundrakudi, it is the Village Planning Forum (VPF), in
Sukhomajri it is the Water Users Association (WUA) and in Dasholi it is the Gram
Swarajya Mandal (DGSM).
In all the instances documented here, the Receiving Mechanism at the local level
guided by extraordinary local leadership has performed a commendable role in educating
the people, motivating them and in enlisting their participation in the development
process with a sense of responsibility.
While the factors contributing 1o the success of these experiments have been brought
out clearly, the pr blern, however, remains as to how we can replicate such experiences all
over in a vast country like India with varying resources endowments and institutional and
human capabilities.
Dr. K.V. Sundaram, Joint Adviser, and Shri K.V. Palanidurai,, Senior Research
Officer, Planning Commission, conducted the study on Kundrakudi while Dr. (Mrs)
Kamala Choudhary and a team constituting a sub-committee documented the Sukho-majri
and Dasholi experience. It is hoped that a wider dissemination of these experiences
through this publication would be useful to governmental and non-governmental agencies
engaged in rural development activities.

NEW DELHI:

DR.

ii

C.H. HANUMANTHA RAO

15-4-1986. Member
Planning Commission

I CASE STUDY OF KUNDRAKUDI

CHAPETER 1Introduction:
1.1 "This is what I should like for all other villages", was the observation made by our late
Prime Minister, Smt. Indira Gandhi after going through a report under the caption "Gains
at the Grass Roots" published in "The Hindu" dated, 9th September, 1984. The report
related to the accomplishments in rural development made by the Village Planning Forum
(VPF) in Kundrakudi, an interior village in Tamil Nadu State.
1.2 The Planning Commission received a note from the P.M.'s Secretariat with the above
observation on the Kundrakudi Experiment for further possible action. The present study
is in pursuance of this directive.
The objectives of the present study are:
1. To analyse the Kundrakudi experience as afl example of local-level planning for
rural development; and
2. To fry to determine in what ways the Kundrakudi development experienceor
some aspects of it-is replicable.

1.3 Dr. K.V. Sundaram, Joint Adviser (MLP) and Shri K.V. Palanidurai, Senior Research
Officer, Planning Commission (hereinafter referred to as Study Team in this report) visited
Kundrakudi village during February 1316, 1985 and discussed with the founding figures
of the Village Planning Forum, which is the cornerstone of this rural development
strategy. These founding figures, included a social and religious leader, popularly known
as 'Adigalar' and a group of dedicated scientists from Central Electro Chemical Research
Institute, located in proximity to Kundrakudi. The Study Team also visited the significant
development works undertaken in the area viz. the industrial units sponsored by the
Village Planning Forum, the Community Wells, the Mulberry garden, orchard etc. and
held discussions with a wide spectrum of communityfarmers, industrial workers and
women as well as various officials and non-officials.
1.4 The present report is based on the information collected J from various sources,
including the Village Planning Forum and discussions with the persons mentioned above.
The report is presented under the following five Chapters:
1. The Background and genesis;
2. The institutional arrangements and the planning process
3. Development schemes and their relevance;
4. Public participation.
5. Transferability and Replicability of the Kundrakudi experience.
1.5 The Background and Genesis
Kundrakudi is a typical south Indian Village located in a drought prone part of the
Pasumpon Muthuramalingam district in Tamil Nadu, which is one of the recently carved

administrative districts after the trifurcation of Ramanathapuram district. It is a mediumsized village with a population of 27CO in 1981 and local land area of about 820 hectares.
Nearly 200 hectares of land are cultivated. Forests account for 150 hectares. The
remaining 58% of the area consists of cultivable waste land and poramboke land. Bulk of
the villagers are agriculturists and there are nearly 514 land owners, a sizeable number of
whom (89%) belong to the category of small and marginal farmers. The main source of
irrigation is tanks and there are 19 such tanks providing irrigation facilities to about onefifth of the cultivated area. Bore wells supplement the irrigation facilities. 148 hectares are
classified as wet land and 345 hectares fall under dry land. The Village is situated in Kallal
Panchayat Union (block), which is covered by the Drought Prone Area Programme
(DPAP). The nearest town is Karaikudi, about 17 kilometers from the village. The Central
Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), a National Laboratory under the CSIR is
located in Karaikudi.
1.6 Temples and holy tanks are part of a typical South Indian village and Kundrakudi is no
exception to these. The village is also the seat of a 500-year old religious institution called
"Thiruvannanialai Adheenam Kundrakudi Mutt". The main aim of this Adheenam is to
preach and inculcate the Saiva Sidhanta Philosophy of the Hindu religion among the
people.
1.7 The Mutt is presently headed by His Holiness Srilasri Deivasigamani Arunachala
Desiga Paramacharya Swamigal (popularly known as Thavatbiru Kundrakudi Adigalar).
Sri Adigalar is a great scholar and a powerful orator and above all a religious reformer
with progressive views. He is a follower of Gandhiji, an admirer of socialism and a
staunch supporter of the cooperative movement. He has widely travelled both in India and
abroad and visited the Soviet Union, China, Japan, SriLanka and Malaysia. The rural
development movement around Kundrakudi is closely inter-twined with the social and
spiritual activities of the Mutt.
1.8 Sri Adigalar was deeply moved by the poverty and 'unemployment among the people
living in Kundrakudi, and the nearby villages. He realised that preaching spiritualism to
semi-starved citizens would not help propagate the objectives of the religious institution of
which he is the head. Being a firm believer in Gandhiji's ideals, he wanted the village to be
self-sufficient at least in foodgrains and other essential items. His visits to some foreign
countries, particularly the Soviet Union, influenced his thinking and ideas on the socioeconomic upliftment of the villagers. He became convinced that organising the villagers
for collective self-reliance and utilising the local natural resources of the area in the most
optimal manner constituted the essential strategy of rural development. In order to give
shape to these ideas, he launched a Village Planning Forum in Kundrakudi on 2nd October
1977, the birthday of Gandhiji. The main objective of the Village Planning Forum, as
envisaged by him, is the achievement of self-sufficiency and eradication of unemployment
in the village. In this task, he decided to bring together the three essential actors in the
development drama, viz., The Government, the financiers (represented by the State Bank
of India) and a third party planner (represented by the scientists of CECR1) for mutual
interaction/cooperation in the development process. The idea was to primarily revolve
around the government development programmes, modify them according to local'
requirements and to facilitate their implementation in a successful' way by bringing about
access to capital (provided through the commercial banks) and the scientific inputs and
knowhow (provided by CECRI, the third party planner).

1.9 The main aims of the village-planning forum, as stated. in its constitution, are quite
comprehensive, consisting of some 15 items as follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.

To uplift the economically weaker sections of the society.

To improve the skills of the local artisans.
To impart training to the local people for self-employment.
To train the local people for leadership through formation of cooperative society,
task assignment, participation in discussions etc.
5. To utilise the available resources in the village for the development.
6. To improve the awareness of villagers and to educate them in better health and
family welfare measures, sanitation and clean environment.
7. To introduce modern methods of agriculture.
8. To encourage cooperative movements and to train villagers for different functions
in cooperative society like Directors, Presidents, Vice-Presidents.
9. To improve irrigation facilities.
10. To improve cattle wealth.
11. To bring the entire wasteland under cultivation.
12. To create an atmosphere conducive to formation of integrated society free from
race, religious and caste-differences.
13. To take Science and Technology to the village.
14. To improve the academic performance of students in-villages.
15. To make the villages self-sufficient in all aspects in paddy, vegetables, milk, meat,
fish, etc.
1.10 The Planning Forum is broad-based in composition with different interests
represented in it. Sri Adigalar is the coordinator of the Planning Forum. The following are
the-other members:
1. Selected village citizens (including women).
2. Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the various, cooperative societies.
3. Local industrial interests.
4. Representatives of commercial and cooperative banks.
5. Panchayat Union Officials.
6. Scientists from CECRI, Karaikudi.
7. Officials of the Agricultural Department.
8. Officials of the Animal Husbandry Department.
9. Officials of Agricultural Engineering Department.
10. Officials of Education Department.
11. Officials of Electricity Board.
12. General Manager of District Industries Centre, Ramnad.
13. Officials of Khadi and Village Industries.
14. Village officials.

CHAPTER 2The Institutional Arrangements and the Planning Process

2.1 It should be noted that the Village Planning Forum is not a formally constituted
organisation such as a Registered 'Society, functioning under specified bye-laws and rules.
On the other hand, it is quite an informal type of organisation functioning with
considerable flexibility, with its own code of conduct and procedures for functioning. On
every issue discussed in the forum, "consensus", seems to govern the mode of djcisionnuking. It nnets once in a month (every 4th Saturday) to make an assessment of the
progress of various decisions taken in its previous meeting and to decide on the follow up
actions.
2.2 For the management of development schemes, the Village Planning Forum has
successfully adopted the cooperative form of organisation. A number of projects in and
around Kundrakudi village sponsored by the Village Planning Forum are run on
cooperative lines. The Cooperative Societies Act of Tami1 Nadu State governs the
functioning of these institutions.
2.3 The Kundrakudi Village Planning Forum formulated the first five-year plan covering
the period 1977-82 for the two villages Kundrakudi and Nemam. The monthly meeting of
the Forum is an important one in which decisions are taken regarding development
schemes that may be taken up in the village. The approach is to assess the potentials for
development in various sectors such as agriculture, animal husbandry, village and small
industries, irrigation etc. Small Working Groups set up by the Village Planning Forum go
into the aspects of development potential and feasibility in each sector. The Government
officials present in the meeting explain to the villagers the various development schemes
included in the Government Plans. Villagers, in turn, express their views and the scope for
implementing the schemes in selected pockets. Wherever financial institutions have a role
to play, the representatives of the financial institutions (nationalised Banks and
Cooperative Banks) explain the schemes implemented by themcredit linked schemes as
in IRDP and DPAP and express their opinion as to the feasibility of funding any particular
scheme mooted by the VPF. The scientists of CECRI also take active part in the Village
Planning Forum meetings and they explain to the members the potential for development
in various sectors of activity and the scientific way of formulating relevant projects. Thus
the project ideas get a concrete shape in the Village Planning Forum meetings. These ideas
are then translated into location-specific schemes indicating the financial requirements, the
sources of funding, the organisational arrangements etc. The monthly meetings of the
Planning Forum also provide an opportunity to review the achievements in the previous
month under various sectors of development and to decide on necessary follow-up action,
wherever there are slippages. The local perception of problems as articulated by the
villagers, the technical feasibility for development as assessed by the government
functionaries of technical departments and the follow-up actions pursued ft cm time-totime helps in the smooth and successful implementation of the schemes. The personal
charisma and influence of Shri Adigalar is an important factor in guiding and conducting
the deliberations of the meetings of the Village Planning Forum. Generally, the decisions
of the Village Planning Forum are accepted by all the villagers. The active participation of
the villagers, some of whom are unlettered, is an important feature in the activities of the
VPF. In the first five-year plan, the Village Planning Forum had set a target of improving
the productivity of paddy from 1 tonne to 2 tonnes per acre through adoption of scientific
methods of cultivation. Similarly, they had taken definite decisions for improving
irrigation facilities through digging of community wells and utilising the cultivable waste

land in the village. A detailed list of projects sponsored by the Village Planning Forum
and implemented under the various development schemes of the Government, bulk of
them under the Drought Prone Area Programme, is given in Annexure-I. A notable feature
of the Village Planning Forum is its role in channelising the benefits of Government
Development Programmes to the deserving beneficiaries without any leakage. Whether it
is a community well under DPAP or distribution of milch cattle or a sheep unit under
IRDP, the full benefits of the schemes (loan and subsidy) have reached the target groups,
for whom the schemes are intended.
2.4 Kundrakudi's experience shows the nature and dimension of the development
administration problem in the rural areas. In the first place, the choice of the peasants
below the poverty line to be helped is not an easy task. It requires careful survey of the
village and considerable verification of facts. When this is done by a body of villagers
themselves with no secrecy behind it, then no mistakes are made and no undue favours are
shown to anyone in particular. But more important than this is that the officials entrusted
with the administration of any rural development scheme do their job both willingly and
without succumbing to blandishments and pressures. This aspect of the problem has been
very deftly handled by the VPF. The fact that whoever has been posted to the Kundrakudi
area (irrespective of his past) has served his term with a clean record speaks volumes for
the efficacy of the local leadership provided by the VPF in Kundrakudi. The simple fact is
that; development objectives cannot be reached or targets hit unless the way it is to be
done is clearly chalked out and followed up through the efficient use of appropriate
instruments. Indeed, the role of the Village Planning Forum in Kundrakudi must be
understood in the light of these observations.
2.5 Another point that struck the study team was that the Village Planning Forum was
keenly aware of the fact that the broadening of economic opportunities alone would make
it possible to bring about the development of the poorer sections of the community. With
this awareness, they have sought to find the combination of opportunities that would
enable different groups among the poor to rise above poverty. This thinking is fully
reflected in the industrial development programme of the Village Planning. Forum. The
project formulation at the village level is totally governed by a meticulous manpower
planning concept. During our discussions with the founding figures of the VPF, we could
see that while taking decisions as to choice of development schemes they were always
carrying at the back of their minds the concern for the employment of every unemployed
youth in the village. Thus, while planning for any development activity, simultaneous
attempts have been made to fit the unemployed youth in the village in suitable capacities.
Thus, the employment plan automatically gets meshed with the development plan for the
village. There is no elaborate machinery for effecting the manpower budgeting here. It
happens quite autonomously and unobtrusively, with no prodding from anyone or
contrivance of any kind. The result is that every village enterprise is manned by local
youth who are well motivated and conscientised. Thus, what we find in the local planning
experiment in Kundrakudi is a people's approach rather than a project approach, in which
the people are fitted into the project and not vice-versa. This is au aspect of humanised
development, which we have to note and which, in no small measure, has contributed to
the success of he development projects undertaken in Kundrakudi.

CHAPTER 3Development Schemes and their Relevance

3.1 The purpose of this Chapter is not to provide a routine narration of all on-going
schemes in the various sectors of activity. As is well known, the various departments of
State Governments are implementing numerous schemes in every part of the country.
Unfortunately, these have tended to acquire a certain uniformity because of Central/State
direction and guidelines provided by the State/Central Governments. Although these
guidelines provide for flexibility of operation with reference to area peculiarities and
specificities, the normal government machinery at the lower levels does not exercise this
prerogative for various reasons, which we may not go into. It is only when an enlightened
local body is present, which is in a position to intervene and can articulate the local area
specificities and needs, that these considerations enter explicitly into the formulation of
plan schemes and appropriate modifications in these schemes are made to suit local
resources, local peculiarities and local needs of the village.
3.2 Part of the success of the Kundrakudi experiment may be ascribed to the fact that the
Village Planning Forum was able to exercise some thinking as to the choice of schemes
relevant to the village area and in this way rendered the government schemes both area
specific and people-specific. It is proposed to discuss here only a few of those schemes
which may be considered significant from the point of view of their 'trigger potential' for
area development. The emphasis in this discussion is not so much on the physical details
of a particular scheme, as on its social dynamics, i.e. the part played by the people in its
formulation and implementation.
Agriculture and land-based activities Orchard
3.3 The village has about 325 hectares of wasteland and poromboke land. Utilisation of
these wastelands has been recognised as a priority item in 1he development agenda for
Kundrakudi. The Village Planning Forum conceived the idea of developing a small
orchard by utilising poromboke lands mainly to demonstrate to the farmers that the area is
suitable for horticultural crops. Accordingly, an area of 45 acres was identified in Nemam
village. The development of the land was undertaken by the Horticulture Department and
one bore-well and four open wells were constructed to provide irrigation facilities. Mango,
Guava, Sapota, Pomegranate, and lime were planted. Most of these varieties have started
yielding from 1981-82. It is also proposed to bring an additional area of 22 acres under the
orchard. Nearly Rs.16 -5 lakhs have been spent on the orchard under DPAP.
3.4 The orchard is not limited to growing fruit plants only. The land here is also being
used for nurseries for producing seeds/seedlings for vegetables, pulses, ornamental plants,
flowers and social forestry in addition to fruit trees. The following practices may be noted:
1. The space available in between the plants in the orchard are being utilised for
raising vegetables such as pumpkin, Ash Gourd, Bitter Gourd etc. and thereby the
seeds are being extracted for the distribution to the ryots;
2. In the farm, pulses like black gram, horse gram and Cowpea are also sown for seed
purposes;
3. All ornamental plants such as Rose, Jasmine Neerium Bogainvilla, and Tecoma are
being air-layered for distribution among the ryots of this locality;

4. All economically important plants such as tamarind, Eucalyptus, silk cotton,

Jumbulona, Subabul, Neem etc. are being raised and distributed for social forestry
production;

In addition, Citrus, Guava layers have also been: distributed among the ryots.
3.5 The orchard has provided employment opportunities for about 40 women and 7 men.
The fruits and vegetables produced in the orchard are sold at reasonable prices in the
nearby villages.
3.6 The orchard seems to have already had some demonstration effect in the area. A few
wealthy absentee landlords owning wastelands in the area have now fenced their area
(fearing encroachment) and planted some tree crops. We saw one instance of this kind
during our visit. We were also informed that the orchard has already genuinely caught the
imagination of several farmers in the area who are beginning to think about similar
ventures on their own lands. The present moment appears to be ripe for a vigorous
extension activity based on the orchard experiment to be launched so as to promote the
cultivation of the suitable tree crops in the area on an extensive scale. Two aspects that
would need governmental assistance in this regard are (a) some support for the
construction of bore wells in private lands and (b) some extended support for horticultural
development, specially to the small farmers till the fruit trees start yielding on a
sustainable basis. These components which are already available in several government
programmes have to be brought together in the form of a package to stimulate this effort.
3.7 Having brought the orchard into existence, the extension activity must now get
prominence. The VPF should make an all-out effort to see that the message reaches all
farmers in the area in a massive bid aimed at wasteland development. This needs a
"professional approach", as the farmers must acquire knowledge and training regarding the
technical, organisational and financial aspects of wasteland development. The VPF should
take up this activity in the next phase so as to motivate and educate the farmers in the area
using various communication methods.
3.8 During our visit, we saw extensive tracts of barren and degraded wasteland in the area.
A sizeable portion of this land must be government land, probably with the forest
department. A concerted effort should be made to profitably use this land. Such lands on
which there are no plans for afforestation in the next twenty years or so, may be given on
lease to registered cooperatives of landless labourers and small and marginal farmers who
live around such lands (for a period ranging from .2025 years) so that they may be put
to appropriate economic use. The Government of Gujarat has a scheme like this for the
development of the wasteland**. This is well-worth emulation. The VPF in Kundrakudi
can play a dynamic role in the transformation of wastelands in the area. This should be
systematically pursued. The following steps are suggested for this purpose:
(a) Organising the landless labourers, small and marginal farmers into cooperatives;

On 16-6-1982, the Government of Gujarat passed a resolution for giving such land as has been classified as
forest land and is barren and deforested which cannot be afforested by the Forest Department, to
responsible bodies like educational institutions, registered societies, public trusts, and industrial
establishments for afforestation. On 27-9-1984, this was replaced by another resolution which stated that
forest wasteland would be leased only to registered cooperatives of landless labourers and small and
marginal farmers.

(b) Assisting the cooperatives in formulating suitable programmes for the use of

wastelands;
(c) Finding through consensus, solutions to the problems in implementing the

identified programmes and the running of the cooperative;

(d) Procuring Financial assistance from government and financial institutions; and
(e) Assisting in the marketing of the produce raised on the wastelands.

The above tasks involve a long and ardous process, certainly quite challenging for any
organisation. It is worth experimenting by the VPF and if it succeeds, a model of rural
development may emerge for the utilisation of wastelands in the country.
3.9 Community wells
For an area like Kundrakudi with predominance of small and marginal farmers imbued
with cooperative spirit, a programme like the community wells seems to hold great
promise. Each community well has an average irrigated area of not less than 25 acres and
may irrigate 15 to 25 acres depending on the yield of the well. So far 15 community wells
have been constructed under the drought prone area programme. Such community wells
are expected to stabilise the irrigation facilities and result in increased agricultural
productivity. There are also the other type of community wells (the dug-cum-bore wells)
[which directly feed water to the field channels in the neighbouring, lands. These are
directly related to their beneficiaries in the command area. The community well is a new
experiment. As several beneficiaries are involved, some proper and effective arrangements
for operating and maintaining them is necessary.
3.10 The Village Planning Forum has proposed to organise a cooperative society (Green
Farm Cooperative) for this purpose. This society proposes to ensure equitable distribution
of water to the farmers in the village and to make arrangements for the operation of the
community wells and their proper maintenance. The details are being worked out. Not
much time has elapsed after the construction of these community wells to enable us to
evaluate this experiment at this stage. If this experimentation, by and large, succeeds, it
may provide a basis for policy planning in future.
3.11 Sericulture
The sericulture programme is yet another innovative experiment being tried. Like other
innovative schemes in the village, this is also in an initial and experimental stage. But the
idea has elements of novelty about it and has great potentials to transform the lives of
people below the poverty line.
3.12 A model mulberry plantation has been raised over an area of 9 acres in Kundrakudi
village in 1983. About 7 -5 acres have been brought under mulberry cultivation. Kundrakudi and nearby villages have scope for undertaking sericulture. It is proposed to supply
mulberry seed-cuttings to the farmers from the model plantation and also train them in
silk-worm rearing. Sericulture is a labour intensive activity and this will help create
employment opportunities and improve the income of the villagers. The sericulture
department has proposed a new "silk hamlet" project for implementing the sericulture

programme for the benefit of landless agricultural labourers. The details of the proposed
scheme are given below.
3.13 It was noted earlier that vast stretches of cultivable land lie vacant around the
Kundrakudi area. Even where ground water potential has been located, the farmers of the
village take to cultivation of dry crops only because of financial constraints. As a result, a
large number of landless agricultural labourers remain idle for most of the year. If only the
scarce resources of land and ground water are harnessed and the manpower utilised
properly for raising mulberry, the rural economy could be revitalised and employment
potential increased.
3.14 Since a family consisting of five members can be provided with regular employment
throughout the year in one acre of mulberry cultivation combined with silkworm rearing, it
is proposed to create a "Silk Hamlet" for generating employment to about 100 harijan
families by making use of Government promboke lands and by providing assured
irrigation facilities by sinking bore wells and by providing other infrastructural facilities
that are required for silkworm rearing.
3.15 The scheme requires 125 acres of Government promboke land with adequate ground
water potential. The land necessary for the purpose has already been selected in Kallal
Block. Ten acres of land will be set apart for creating necessary sericulture infrastructural
facilities such as mulberry nurseries, chawkie rearing centres and sericulture service-cumextension centre etc.
3.16 The scheme comprises of land levelling operations such as clearance, levelling,
reclamation and contour bunding. The planting and maintenance of mulberry plantation
will be done by the staff and harijans will be trained who can start silk-worm rearing under
this scheme. Chawkie rearing sheds have to be constructed at the hamlet. Adequate
number of tubewells have to be sunk for providing assured irrigation throughout the year.
3.17 The landless harijan families who have an aptitude for sericulture will "be enrolled as
members of the Silk Co-operative Society and will be leased out mulberry gardens. They
have to maintain these gardens according to the standards prescribed by the department.
They will obtain the water from the bore wells already sunk and will also obtain various
timely assistance of inputs from the department. The income for the beneficiary has been
worked out to approximate Rs.500 per month excluding the lease and rent charges and
other expenditure on cultural operations. The society will also purchase the cocoons after
making spot payment, convert them into raw silk and twisted silk. The profit earned by the
society will be shared by the members according to the bye-laws of the society and will'
also provide employment to landless labourers, mostly women.
3.18 The total cost of the scheme works out to Rs.41.40 lakhs. The planting operations and
execution of civil works envisaged in the scheme are expected to take two years. The farm
is expected to come to full yielding stage only in the third year. The staff will be continued
for three years after establishing the farm. Once the hamlet is established, there would be
all round development of sericulture in other villages. Bore well scheme is fast picking up
in this area and there is vast scope for expansion of area under mulberry. The services of
the Government functionaries posted for the hamlet can also be utilised for future
expansion of the industry in the area.

The hamlet will be organised and maintained as Departmental Unit for first three years
under DPAP. During the first year. it is proposed to clear 100 acres and complete land
shaping in' 50 acres and to plant 20 acres under mulberry.
The 'silk hamlet' is an interesting 'pilot project'. Its success will depend on the proper
design of management procedures and careful planning of extension activity in the surrounding villages.
3.19 Schemes under the non-farm sector
It is our view that the "carrying capacity" of traditional agriculture with livestock rearing
practiced in Kundrakudi has not reached its limits of growth. Undoubtedly, the present
productivity levels in agriculture can be raised further and also there are more waste lands
in the villages that can be brought under appropriate use. But there are constraints of
finding the necessary infrastructure inputs and skills needed for their development. It is in
this context that the question of labour absorption in some non-farm sector activities have
to be explored. This also implies structural transformation of society.
It is gratifying to note that the VPF has already promoted a few important activities in the
secondary sector. These are, by and large, employment intensive and tailored to the skills
available in the area. There are three industries coming under this category which are
engaged in Cashew processing, production of matches and palmyra products.
3.20 Cashew Processing
Although raw cashewnut is produced in the area, the produce used to be formerly
purchased by merchants and sent to places like, Panruti in South Arcot district for
processing. Realising the employment potential of cashew processing and the need to
internalise the development process to reap the full benefits, the forum decided to set up a
unit in Kundrakudi and brought two families from outside who were experts in cashew
processing to impart training to the local people. It is organised along cooperative lines
with a membership of 382. The unit was, started in March, 1979. The unit purchases raw
cashewnuts which are produced in the nearby villages and also from Forest Department. It
employs 35 workers of whom 28 are women A branch of this unit has also been opened in
a nearby village which provides employment to another 40 women. Under the IRDP
training scheme, about 80 women were trained in the unit for six months. The unit has also
set up a Redoxide Unit (Varnish) which utilises the shell of cashewnut and produces the
cashewnut shell oil. The unit has processed more than Rs.5 lakhs worth of cashewnut in
1983. There is also plan to start another cashewnut processing unit. Such expansion must
be planned cautiously taking into account the market potential, the price situation and the
wage rates for labour.
3.21 The Match Industry and the Potassium Chlorate Manufacturing Unit
The Match unit is an employment-intensive industry and the Potassium Chlorate
Manufacturing Unit has grown out of the demand generated by the former industry. The
Match Unit has been functioning since 1976. In the interregnum, its working was seriously
affected by the scarcity and high cost of its essential raw materialthe Potassium
Chlorate. Which the local manufacture of the raw material, small match units located in a
number of centres in and around Kundrakudi have been revived and stabilised. The
Potassium Chlorate Industry was conceived in 1981. The process developed by the

10

Scientists of CECRI has been adopted and the unit commenced production in March,
1984. Its present capacity is 320 tons and it employs 35 persons. Since the demand for the
product is great, it is proposed to expand the capacity to 800 tons per annum.
Khadi and Village Industry
3.22 Palmyra products
The weaving of baskets and making of various other handicrafts have been developed. It is
both a local raw material based as well as an employment-intensive industry. We also saw
that handpounding of rice by women is being done in the village on a small scale. It
employs about 12 persons of which 10 are women. Units for manufacture of bullock cart,
edible oil, chalk crayons, white phenyl have also been established in the Kundrakudi
village.
3.23 Nehruji Polythene Bags Industrial Cooperative Society
This unit was established in 1966 with the main objective of manufacturing cardboard
bags. However, with the advent of the Planning Forum, the Unit was converted into a Unit
for manufacturing polythene bags in 1978. The State Bank of India has extended financial
assistance to the Unit. The Unit has two extruder machines with a total capacity of 20 kg.
per hour. The Unit employs nearly 43 persons of whom 40 are women. Polythene bags are
supplied to Forest Department (for raising seedlings).
3.24 Scope for further industrialisation
Having identified some basic path-finding activities in the secondary sector in the
Kundrakudi area, the VPF is looking for more industrial units that might be established in
other villages in this area. As may be seen, the available project options for
industrialisation seem to be limited in this area. There are constraints both in regard to
natural endowments as well as. entrepreneurship. It was understood during our
discussions with the Village Planning Forum that they have drawn up a list of about 18
industrial units to be set up in the second phase of rural development in a number of
villages around Kundrakudi. A perusal of the 18 industries (list enclosed in Annexure-11)
shows that excepting for the cashewnut processing industry which will be a local raw
material based industry, all other industries will be in the nature of demand-based
industries with employment potential. For some of them, it was informed that the Forum
had already identified the personnel also possessing the necessary skills.
3.25 The next phase of development
As mentioned earlier, presently the Village Planning Forum's activities are confined to two
villages only. Ultimately it is proposed to extend the planning activities to 28 villages.
When this happens, planning process is bound to become more complicated. Planning
activities will have to be conceived at the area level and at the individual village level.
Also necessary linkages have to be planned for. It remains to be seen how the Planning
Forum will re-orient itself to meet these Challenges.

11

CHAPTER 4Public Participation

4.1 Our visit to Kundrakudi and the interaction with various people afforded us a lot of
useful insights into rural institutions and people's participation in their own development.
Sometimes, people's participation is described as an "ideology without a methodology".
But in the case of Kundrakudi, it is to be noted that cooperative development and
community organisation through VPF constitute the two aspects of its methodology. With
these two instruments, it has been possible to reinforce the productivity, welfare and
quality of life objectives in the rural development process. In this Chapter, we may
examine the methodological aspects of public participation in greater depth and draw
some lessons.
4.2 In Kundrakudi, people's participation seems to have proceeded primarily from the
cooperative organisation. The cooperative has been the precursor of the Village Planning
Forum. Indeed, the gains from joint action seem to have provided the basic rationale for
encouraging the establishment of the Village Planning Forum.
4.3 During our visits, questions were repeatedly put in order to ferret out, what may be
considered as the most promising leads in terms of understanding the dynamics of c
operative development, particularly because the "cooperative way" appears to be the
preferred alternative for organising the villagers in various economic activities.
4.4 In the first place, we noted that the cooperatives had been organised for almost every
enterprise in the village, which has resulted from planned development. This is partly
because, the people of the village are, by and large, poor and everything has to be
organised through collective action only. The spiritual leader of the village, who is
associated with every activity, has been able to inculcate a sense of discipline and a feeling
of reverence among the people for all public sector activities undertaken in the village
aimed at the well-being of the villagers. They have been told that all cooperative
enterprises are to be looked upon as a "trust" handed over to them, which they should
manage wisely and carefully. This message, with the trusteeship concept behind it, has
gone a long way in ensuring, that the institutions that have been built up are managed with
responsibility and accountability.
4.5 Cooperativisation has been promoted wherever feasible in order to increase the
socialisation of wealth and to bring about a wider distribution of benefits. A significant
instance that may be quoted is the action taken by the Village Planning Forum in regard to
the administration of fishing rights. The fishing rights in a big tank in the village used to
be formerly auctioned, a practice around which some vested interests had grown resulting
in the concentration of benefits to a few persons only. The VPF decided to end the practice
and took a unanimous decision to establish a 'fishermen cooperative' in the village and to
grant the fishing rights to them. Thus almost every important activity in the village has
come into the cooperative fold.
4.6 About ten cooperatives, are now functioning in Kundrakudi. It is not the fact of setting
up the cooperatives or their number that are important issues. It is the way they function
and contribute to development that really matters. In this, as in many other spheres of joint
activity, it is the persons who matter. In Kundrakudi, the persons who man the
cooperatives are highly motivated individuals, They have been trained primarily on the job
and have been accountable to the VPF. The great achievement of Kundrakudi seems to be

12

this development of local capability among the people to manage, with responsibility their
own affairs for local development
4.7 The cooperative institutions of the village are not hierarchical structures with a patronclient relationship. On the other hand, these are effective horizontal grouping of small
farmers and labourers, operating on the basis of direct participation and serving welldefined common interests. It is well known that only such institutions can ensure loyalty
amongst its members and efficiency in the overall performance. These are some of the
unique factors in the structure and functioning of the cooperatives that have contributed to
their success. Obviously, the cooperative experience here sheds a modicum of light on the
alternative ways of organising the rural community for development. Whether such factors
can be replicated in all situations is a moot qestion.
4.8 The other institutional factor which has contributed to success in Kundrakudi
development is the Village Planning Forum, which is the principal vehicle for public
participation With a membership of 100 persons (about 4% of the population of the
village), it is a mini village community that decides each and every action by the
community. The General Body of this forum meets at least twice in a year, while its
Executive Committee consisting of 7 members meets almost every month-The attendance
in these meetings is between 60 to 80 per cent. The table in the Annexure III shows the
level of attendance in the various meetings during the last three years. This level of
attendance itself is an indicator of the extent of interest evinced by the people in their own
development and hence the degree of public participation. Apart from various interests
represented in the Forum including the government functionaries., there is a sizeable
component of the villagers themselves in the Forum. They number about 30 and include
both men and women and they bring to bear on the discussions in the Forum, a serious
consideration for the felt needs of the community.
4.9 The success of public participation lies in the extent to which decisions are taken with
unanimity. This unanimity has great force in promoting spontaneous and speedy
implementation. A number of instances may be cited from Kundrakudi experience as to
how unanimous decisions were arrived at and executed. They reveal the potency of public
participation as a mechanism for problem solving. The following instances may be
particularly highlighted:
(1) It is particularly striking that Kundrakudi is free from usurious money-lenders. The
cooperative spirit among the people is so great that only informal and friendly give and
take relationships exist among the people in the community No private money lending
system exists. It appears that one moneylenderan interloper from outsidecame and
settled in Kundrakudi village and was indulging in this practice in a clandestine manner.
This was going on for some time until a piquant situation arose, when this act came to the
notice of the Village Planning Forum. This happened when the moneylender started
squeezing and tormenting some borrowers for the return of the loans, upon which the latter
had to seek the protection of the Village Planning Forum. The Village Planning Forum
considered this matter at length and decided unanimously that, the moneylender should not
be allowed to operate in the village and ordered him out of the village. This was executed
promptly despite pressure from many quarters. Thus, the moneylender was made to flee
the village and money lending as a vocation ceased. The village also returned to its statusquo of a "moneylender less" village.

13

(2) Another instance of a bold participatory decision taken by the Village Planning Forum
was on the question of the villagers supporting and joining a general resistance movement
for the non-repayment of government loans, a movement which had gathered great
momentum in the entire State and gripped Kundrakudi as well. The external pressure and
the promptings from opposition parties were quite formidable. On this occasion, the
Village Planning Forum, guided by its intelligentsia, took a crucial, extraordinary and bold
stand that the people of the village will not join the movement at any cost. They not only
took this decision but also repaid the loan voluntarily and in ' right time, affirming their
sincerity and commitment. This incident has gone down in the history of the Kundrakudi
Planning Forum as a unique decision in united action.
(3) As an example of how public participation and particularly the consensus among the
people, could play a significant role in crucial decision-making, we may cite the instance
of the election of Panchayat President in Kundrakudi. One of the persons of the village,
who had already been in office for the previous term was again proposed for a second-term.
Apparently there were no wild protests in the VPF meeting against the proposal and this motion
was more or less carried through by consensus. However the spiritual leader of the village, who
was presiding over the Village Planning Forum meeting sensed that there was some hesitation
among the members about this decision, although they were not quite vocal about it for various
reasons. So he deferred the ratification of the selection to the next meeting. In the mean time, he
discussed the matter outside with a few prominent citizens and came 1o know that some minor
defaults had been committed by the Panchayat President during his previous term of office. While
these defaults were not so vital as to disqualify him for a second term of office, yet there was a
feeling among the people that he should be made to realise the people's sentiments. There upon the
spiritual leader had a word with the President designate and in the next meeting, the latter made a
statement referring to the particular incident and affirming that he would guard himself against
possible errors in judgement in future. This helped to defuse the situation and paved the way for
unanimous election. Here is an incident which shows that public participation can work wonders
for not merely concretising public opinion on critical issue among diverse interests, but also as a
corrective in errant situations.
(4) Public participation enables the VPF to call attention to some issues by-passed in project
formulation. Repetitive emphasis of such issues in the VPF builds up pressures ultimately leading
to their acceptance by Government functionaries. An instance of this kind relates to the expansion
of grazing land in the village. While sheep rearing has been adopted as a scheme under IRDP. the
linked programme of establishing sufficient pasture land seems to have been neglected in the
Government programme. A perusal of the resolutions passed by the VPF showed that this has been
repeatedly emphasised in the meetings. During our visit also, a progressive sheep farmer referred
to this gap. Since the usual criticism against such schemes is that the lands leased out for this
purpose may not be maintained properly by the village, the VPF has now prepared a specific
scheme tying up pasture land development to the scheme of Milk Producer's Cooperative so that
the latter would be responsible for its maintenance.
4.10 A distinguishing feature of public participation in Kundrakudi is the fact that such
participation occurs through all the different stages of the planning process viz., pre-planning,
action planning and post-planning stages. Normally, in many participatory programmes, the
involvement of people is mainly along implementation and maintenance. The standard procedure
is to organise groups at the village level in order to obtain their willing cooperation for the
implementation of schemes planned from above. But in Kundrakudi, the participation goes beyond
this approach and involves people directly in various planning tasks such as definition of
problems, formulation of projects, implementation of projects, evaluation of project implementation and sharing responsibilities in planning with the government functionaries in various
ways. This is no doubt a big achievement. But still, in terms of group organisations and mobilising
local resources, more remains to be done. The cooperative and participatory spirit that exists here

14

encourages the hope that it would be possible to develop in this village, a bottom-up system of
organisation for stimulating joint action by viable groups of farmers imbued with group
responsibility and spirit of self-reliance for the performance of integrated-land-based management,
systematic water management, group credit and development of subsidiary income raising
activities. A note giving some suggestions to organise group action on these lines has been
provided to the village planning forum. (see note in Annexure-IV). It is hoped that the village will
move in this direction during the next phase of development.
4.11 A point that we have not elaborately touched upon so far relates to women's participation.
Women's participation is not a neglected feature in Kundrakudi. Two points that need emphasis in
this context are:
(1) Women are represented in the Village Planning Forum; and
(2) In the programme formulated for the village development, there are quite a few schemes meant
for their employment. More attention may be paid in future to schemes involving technological
improvements that save labour and drudgery for women and improve their productivity.
4.12 The team also noted during their visit that the women in the villages are quite vocal and
articulate about their needs and expressed their preferences freely to the local leaders. We were
informed that this situation did not obtain a few years ago.
4.13 Thus the different aspects of public participation discussed in this Chapter show that
participation here goes beyond mere cognitive participation. It has been raised to a level of 'social
technology', which implies the building up of self-dignity and decision-making capacities of the
poor people. So far as the government functionaries are concerned, they have used the public
participation available to make experimental steps to test what would work in particular
circumstances, both in forms of physical environment and human resources capability.

15

CHAPTER 5

Transferability and replicability of the Kundrakudi Experience

5.1 The foregoing chapters provided an account of the various directions in which rural
development around Kundrakudi area has proceeded and also some of the significant elements of
this experience. This chapter is intended to pick up the various threads of this experience and to
examine both its universal as well as the unique components and to hit at some of the high spot of
transferability and relevance of the whole experiment.
5.2 From all accounts it is apparent that Kundrakudi is a successful story in local level planning for
rural development. If so, the question arises as to what extent it is transferable to other parts of the
country. This question, in turn begs two other sub-question viz: (a) to what extent did this
experiment contribute to local development, and (b) what are the factors and conditions that have
contributed to its success?
5.3 Impact on Rural change and Development

The first query is related to the analysis of various impacts of the Kundrakudi experiment upon
rural change and development, This analysis should deal with the extent to which this experiment
has contributed to capital formation in the rural sector in the form of physical infrastructures, the
improvement in rural employment and economy, changes in values and attitudes of rural people
the fostering of change agents and the promotion of participatory organisation. In the foregoing
chapters some points relating to these aspects were highlighted But since, our analysis is based on
a reconnaisance visit only and not on a total evaluation of the experience in terms of its impact on
all aspects of development, only some partial answers may be attempted in this chapter.

5.4 Impact on investments

During the field visit, the Study Team tried to ascertain the total investment that has been made in
the area during the period 1977 to 1983 including the extent of mobilisation of resources at the
local level. Precise figures could not be collected. But it became apparent from the discussions that
the contribution of the government is the greatest. As it was noted earlier, the Kundrakudi
experiment is really an aspect of development in which the local people worked through the
Government System relying mainly on government financing. As it happens very often in the case
of success stories, it appears that the area has attracted relatively more government investment
because of the several positive factors that have induced development in this area. The people's
contribution however, cannot be belittled, as some of the non-economic factors like the extent of
self help and voluntary participation can not be easily quantified. In other words it is the
Government investment plus the people's contribution which has had a snow-balling effect on the
accelerated rural development which has occurred in the Kundrakudi area.
5.5 Impact on the farmer's value system

It can not be denied that the continued implementation of the Kundrakudi style of development
over the last 7 years has brought about significant changes in rural communities at the individual
as well as the organisation levels. Although we have not carried out a detailed survey in the area to
measure the change orientation that has resulted among the people, even the reconnaisance visit
served to confirm that the people in the area are relatively change-oriented, implying that they are
some what futuristic in their thinking, are more confident of improvements in their future life and
are willing to make vigorous efforts for the realisation of these improvements. Our way-side
questions and observations revealed that their motivational levels are high, In particular, their
positive approach to cooperative endeavour is particularly striking. One may, therefore, conclude

16

that the changes in values and perceptions of the people seem to be a significant factor for success
from the developmental point of view.
5.6 Impact on organisational behaviour

Organisational changes are reflected both in institutional development and in the participatory
behaviour of the village people. In particular, Kundrakudi has contributed to the fostering of
community-based development and has thrown up a number of village leaders who have taken up
responsible positions in the various cooperative enterprises that have come to be established in this
village. These leaders who were interviewed showed that they are moderately educated but are
highly motivated and are also imbued with a sense of dedication to promote development.
Undoubtedly, it is these dedicated personnel who are playing significant roles in organising and
implementing community development at the village level as initiators, promotors, coordinators,
educators, advocators and implementors of specific projects. The fact is that the Kundrakudi
experience has eventually contributed to the identification and fostering of certain pattern of
village leadership who, in fact constitute the source of self-reliant development.
5.7 The village planning forum, in particular, has promoted a participatory pattern of interaction
between village members and the government functionaries in respect of planning and decisionmaking- including the selection and implementation of projects in the village. This positive
participation in the decision-making process at the village level has also continued during the
implementation stages. In this way. it is very interesting to note that the village planning forum has
contributes, to the development of grass roots democracy in the area.
5.8 Impact on the village Economy

We could not collect precise details to illustrate how rapidly the village economy has grown in
terms of change in household incomes, expenditure patterns and saving. This would require a full
range household survey of the village which should be undertaken by some agency. The positive
features of improvement in the village economy are, however, reflected in the extent of waste land
development the diversification in terms of land use pattern and the improvements in agricultural
productivity as well as the employment genera don projects that have been started in the, non-farm
sector. There is no doubt that without the concerted effort of the village planning forum, there
could not have been the significant increase in opportunities for non-farm income in the area to
which we made a reference in Chapter-2.
5.9 Factors that promoted development

The second question to which we may address ourselves is to the several factors that have
contributed to the success of the Kundrakudi experiment. These include a multiplicity of factors
such as the extraordinary local leadership which has been available, the association of a bard of
dedicated scientist who have lent proper guidance in the formulation of relevant projects, the
establishment of a "Village Planning Forum and the single mindedness and consistency with which
it has acted, the intensive local participation both in planning and plan implementation, and above
all the existence of a moral component of development which is indefinable and yet apparaent in
this unique instance.
5.10 The Institutional Factor

We may now consider the factor question in greater analytical depth. A factor of crucial
importance in this context seems to be the institutional and organisational factor. The central institution around which all developmental activities revolve in Kunarakudi is the Village Planning
Forum. It is the coordinating centre for inter-agency planning and management for local
development. It identifies local development projects, gets feasibility studies prepared, monitors
and evaluates progress and effects of projects, maintains a feed back system with concerned

17

development agencies and encourages private enterprises and government agencies to formulate
development projects for the area. Above all, it is 1he principal vehicle for people's participation.
In Kundrakudi, it has influenced the performance by governmental functionaries and rendered the
government sponsored developmental projects more meaningful to the people who are the ultimate
beneficiaries. Its primary task, as may be seen, is the inter-agency collaboration. It is done in a
very subtle, indirect and unobstrusive manner without raising controversies or rubbing officials on
the wrong side. It is coordinating without compelling and integrating without absorbing or
substituting the functions of other agencies. The Village Planning Forum has not substituted the
functions of any of the line agencies, but has assisted them in the improvement of design as well
as of performance. Thus it is the style of its functioning that has evoked the necessary degree of
cooperation from government functionaries and other external agencies. Undoubtedly, its
composition and way of functioning offer some lessons which may be valid under all
circumstances. What its experience suggests is that to coordinate all developmental activities at the
local level and to give some leads to developmental agencies as to what is desirable under a given
set of circumstances, a local body of informed people is necessary. The idea of a local planning
agency is thus quite relevant as an institutional mechanism to match the plan of felt needs from
below with that of the departmental schemes from above. The Village Planning Forum need not
be conceived as a de novo institution. It may be dovetailed into existing structures, if found
feasible. Any local body functioning in a village and enjoying the confidence of the rural
community can incorporate the good features of the Village Planning Forum and transform itself
into a planning agency at the village level and perform all the functions which the VPF at
Kundrakudi is currency performing. For instance, if a village Panchayat is functioning in a
particular context, it could, by suitably enlarging or modifying its functions, take on the role of the
Village Planning Forum. Alternately, the Village Planning Forum could also be conceived as a
separate Committee of the Panchayat performing advisory planning and development coordination
functions. Whatever be the structure, as the Kundrakudi experience has demonstrated, it is the
method of functioning which is important.
5.11 While it can be generally appreciated that local development could be stimulated more
effectively through an innovative rural intervention such as the Village Planning Forum, it should
also be admitted that its degree of efficacy will heavily depend on the development potential
obtaining in a particular context. These contextual factors include such factors as topography and
natural resources, the degree of social cohesive-ness or divisiveness as well as the nature of
strength of local institutions and traditions of cooperation and the availability of dynamic local
leadership. Considering the marked dissimilarities that exist among areas, it is difficult to lay down
a single best organisational design for local development.
5.12 To sum up, the Kundrakudi experience suggests that in order to improve the methodology for
securing the best results in local development planning at village-level, 1he following could be
posited as necessary steps:
(i) A proper public forum should be constituted where the rural people will have the freedom to
analyse the different approaches to local development and express their felt needs;
(ii) After the identification of the schemes is done with the consensus of the villagers, their
feasibility has to be studied in collaboration with technical personnel; and
(iii) After getting a scheme approved by the Village Planning Forum, steps should be taken to
dovetail the same into the departmental schemes handed from above. This will require some
powers of persuasion to get the schemes accepted and funded from the departmental funds. It is in
this context that local leadership of high calibre is called for.
5.13 Local Leadership

18

One factor which came up again and again during our discussions for the successful mobilisation
of local development activities is that of local leadership. As may be seen, the local leadership
available in Kundrakudi has some extraordinary features. It only serves to illustrate and underline
the tremendous potential of this factor in rural development. Leadership of this kind clearly cannot
be expected to be available in every village. However, it cannot be denied that local leadership is
essential to guide various developmental activities at the local level, particularly, those involving
public construction projects, community-run enterprises and cooperative agricultural ventures.
5.14 Traditionally in every village, there exists a village chief who holds this appointment on a
hereditary basis, although this system is changing in some states. 'Wherever village panchayats
exist, the election system has also thrown up some local leaders. There is a view that the traditional
local leaders or the elected leaders are people who have become entrenched in their positions and
hence grown complacent in office. They also usually belong to the elite class. The need for operating an effective cadre of local leaders who would be more enthusiastic and innovative in their
approach and less conservative in their outlook is therefore often advocated for successful rural
development programme in some countries. For the Saemaul Undong programme of rural
development in South Korea, for instance, separate cadre of local leaders has been created. The
government devotes considerable energy to train these local leaders. Through such training of local
leaders, an attempt is being made to build support for local development with an emphasis on the
virtues of self-sacrifice and the need to guide others by setting a correct example. The training
provides little in the way of technical skills, but much by way of generating enthusiasm and
confidence in the selected leaders. It is possible that when new leaders are selected and trained in
this manner, conflicts may arise between the traditional leaders and the new leaders. It is argued in
the Korean context, however, that a competition between the two types of leaders may often
improve 1he performance of both. From this point of view, it is contended that to have a new
leader is not anything undesirable.
5.15 Thus, in the matter of developing local leadership, there are different view points and clear
generalisations about these matters are difficult to pronounce. What makes for good leadership is
also a complex issue. One point on which there could be agreement, however, is that a good leader
must have a sound knowledge of developmental issues derived either through regular education or
through experience. He should be a member of the local community and immensely interested in
their welfare. What is even more important is that the local leader should be subjected to periodical
training and thus 'constantly sensitized to enable him to imbibe more and more education on
development issues. Once the decision to have a Village Planning Forum is taken, the question of
developing the local leaders and constantly improving their calibre must receive due attention.
5.16 The Third Party Planner

The third important component in the success of the Kundrakudi experiment in rural development
is an intellectual component provided by a group of scientists who have assisted the Village
Planning Forum with constructive ideas and have been responsible for concretising many of the
suggestions emanating from the discussions in the Planning Forum. This team of scientists
constitute, what may be called the "third party planner" for the VPF, and have filled a vital gap in
planning expertise. The VPF, by its very nature and composition, cannot have adequate planning
capabilities and expertise on complex developmental issues and may therefore require some
support from an external agency of this kind.
5.17 In the case of Kundrakudi, the external agency, the CECRI has been able to provide
assistance in the following directions:
1. Offering technical guidance to the VPF on a continuous basis on all matters relating to village
planning and development;

19

2. Dissemination of scientific information on indigenous appropriate technology for rural areas

developed by various R & D institutions in the country such as NRDC, NEERI, RRL etc. and
encouraging the transfer of technology in areas considered to be relevant for the village. Thus
CECRI in collaboration with NRDC, has popularised several rural technologies developed by the
latter. An NRDC training centre has also been established in the village. The role of NRDC in
Kundrakudi development and some of the technologies developed by NRDC which are being
sought to be popularised have been set out in a separate note in Annexure (Annexure V).
Transfer the technology developed by its own organisation, (e.g. the setting up of potassium
chlorate Unit);
4. Effectively liaising and holding dialogue with governmental functionaries and assisting in
making necessary arrangements in departmental programmes; and
5. Where necessary, helping the village Planning Forum to have resource inventory/investigations
done through competent agencies.
5.18 From the Kundrakudi experience, one may conclude that the assistance from the external
agency should be in the nature of a continuous involvement in village development activities (not a
mere one-time association). The external agency offering assistance should be capable of solving
many of the operational problems encountered in plan formulation and implementation.
Kundrakudi is. fortunate to have such assistance from CECRI, the result of which is visible in the
many small scale industrial projects that have been established in the village. This experience
clearly brings out the need for a third party planner to fill-up a vital gap in the development
process at the village level. While a few villages may be as fortunate as Kundrakudi in being able
to enlist the support of highly competent institutions, the question is: for a majority of villages in
the country, how are we to arrange such institutional support ?
5.19 Wherever professional academic institutions exist like research institutions, Agricultural
Colleges/Universities, Engineering Colleges, etc., they should be encouraged to offer their
assistance on a continuous basis to a group of villages in their vicinity. Where such institutions are
not available, other institutions such as a local college may be utilised for this purpose. By teaming
up their faculty and adopting a multi disciplinary approach, these institutions can hope to render
more effective service in this direction. The task is not so easy; nevertheless, these alternatives
have to be explored.
5 -20 One institutional infrastructure whose potential has not been harnessed to the full is Vigyan
Kendras which have been set up in different States. If their network could be densified and their
efficient functioning could be ensured by establishing proper linkages with local level institutions,
they could render yeomen service in those areas of rural development, where specialised extension
agencies do not exist at present. Such areas include rural sanitation, rural energy, water resources
development, fodder development and eco-development. Thus, the Vigyan Kendras can fill a
vital gap in extension services in the rural areas. When this happens, the third party planner may be
relieved of much of his role in regard to technology transfer. His primary role will be that of
assisting the village in planning activities. This will also include developing the broader perspectives of the totality of rural development (in which the various tasks and activities would find a
balance and equilibrium towards planned integrated development), dovetailing short and long-term
objectives and maintaining the stability and continuity of the process of plan formulation and
decision-making. As may be seen in this discussion, the third party planner has been brought in
essentially as a "Resource Centre" to tackle the problem of lack of trained manpower and
institutional capability for planning for rural development.
5.21 Attitudinal change among government functionaries :

20

The objectives of rural development have changed considerably over time. The old stance with the
emphasis on "the government decides and people support" must now give place to the idea 'people
decide and government supports'. Many of the studies conducted all over the world have
emphasised that local development efforts can succeed only with close involvement of the local
people. Participatory planning is a new venture. Government functionaries are still new to the
concept and have to learn to work with people and understand the local needs and local
specificities. Many rural development programmes are either State or Centrally sponsored. These
State and Central Governments or their agencies have provided guidelines for the planning and
implementation of their individual programmes and thus prescribed some 'do's' and 'dont's'.
They have also provided discretion to the government functionaries to adapt the
programme/schemes in accordance with the local areas needs and specificities. But in the hurly
burly of achieving the developmental targets within the stipulated time, the lower level
government functionaries do not exert themselves to make such adaptations which call for greater
understanding and ingenuity on their part and prefer to go ahead mechanically with the
implementation of the standard schemes, irrespective of their relevance to the local areas. In this
context, if a local planning agency comes forward to help with "tailored" schemes, the government
functionary is [pared much of the intellectual effort and time involved in formal data gathering and
research necessary for 'adapting' the schemes to suit the local area. This explains the logic ^implied
in setting up local planning forums. In this context, the necessary altitudinal change and
partnership spirit has to be cultivated by the government functionary so that he becomes amenable
to suggestions and follows the leads provided by the local institutions. Ore of the ways in which
this may be secured is by imparting [frequent training to government functionaries in 'participatory
approaches' to planning and development.
5 -22. Summing up:

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a catalogue of insights into the factors that have
contributed to the success story in Kundrakudi. Re-stated in terms of broad principles at the level
of generality, these are:
(a) Building up a responsible and responsive Receiving Mechanism which will be a people's
institution for planning and development, to provide a forum for various people to interact and to
prepare an acceptable framework for planning.
(b) Ensuring a willing, understanding and adaptive Delivery Mechanism which, in effect, implies
bringing about attitudinal changes among the functionaries engaged in development
administration.
(c) Bringing into existence a 'Think-tank' or 'Third Party Planner' which can play both an advisory
role in planning on a continuous basis, as Well as a catalytic motivational role in implementation
With some degree of involvement (not mere association) in the planning and implementation
process,
(d) Identifying a local leader of high personal integrity who is respected by all sections of the
people and who can integrate the functions mentioned in (a), (b) and (c).
(e) Ensuring a style of functioning (of the planning mechanism) which will be informed by an
informal group dynamic approach to decision making and which Would be neither compelling nor
absorbing in its performance and which Would be able to eliminate any conflicts fluctuations
arising during the planning process.
(f) Adopting flexible procedures and consensus building techniques as well as healthy conventions
in the working process.

21

(g) Devising a network of informal consultative groups outside the regular institutional mechanism
for group action, which would expand the scope of public participation and also ensure, voluntary
agency participation. (See Annexure IV)
(h) Imparting Training both formal and informal for the local youth inducted into the development
projects to provide both the skills as Well as moral qualities.
5.23 The principles stated above need to be interpreted appropriately to suit every situation. There
can be no fixed rules of the game. Each situation is unique in itself and demands a different
approach.
5.24 From the fore-going discussion, it may be concluded that the Kundrakudi experiment has
succeeded, by and large, because of a particular blend or combination that could be forged by the
representatives of the village community with the technocratic functionaries in government and a
group of in formed and dedicated academic community. The approach here may be termed
"Technocratic-Academic Democratic mix" (TAD). In other words, a generalisation that we may
draw from this experience is that a combination of popular participation with effective local
leadership seeking to work its way through the governmental system can succeed within certain
limitations. It must be realised, however, that the combination does not automatically ensure
success in every context. This is to underline the point that the 'mix' referred to here is a necessary,
but not a sufficient condition for successful development There are several unique factors in the
Kundrakudi context such as the extraordinary local leadership, the dedicated third party planner
and a highly motivated public which make the problem of replicability of the experience quite a
complex and complicated one. In this context, it is perhaps necessary to make a guarded statement
as to the replicability and transfer-ability of any experience in rural development. Our view is that
exact proto types of Kundrakudi may notand need not emerge in other villages. However, if a
sincere effort could be made in each context to bring together the three major partners in rural
developmenttechnocrats, academics and the people in the right combination to suit a particular
set of conditionsa blend that is called in this report as the 'TAD mix', and orchestrate their
actions in the direction of planned development, it is likely to go a long way towards improving
local level planning for rural development and result in a better realisation of our investments in
rural areas.

22

CHAPTER 6Kundrakudi Revisited

Tour notes of Dr. C. H. Hamunaiitha Rao,
Member, Planning Commission on his visit to Pasumpon Muthuranialingam
district of Tamil Nadu during March 9-10, 1986

6.1 Dr. C. H. Hanumantha Rao, Member, Planning Commission visited the Pasumpon
Muthuramalingam district in Tamil Nadu accompanied by Dr. K. V. Sundaram, Joint Adviser
(MLP) and Dr. Rama Sastry, Deputy Adviser (Agriculture). The visit' was specially intended to
study the success story in Local Level Planning for rural development in the Kundrakudi area and
other dry land development measures in the district.
Developments in and around Kundrakudi ;

6.2 The Kundrakudi pattern of development has already been documented by the Multi-Level
Planning section of the Planning Commission. It is now just one year after this study was made
and the present visit was useful for understanding factors crucial to its success and to take note of
some significant developments that have followed since then, particularly the attempts to extend
the coverage of this experiment over two whole districts viz. the Pasumpon Muthuramalingam and
Ramanatha-puram districts.
6.3 Kundrakudi is a small village of about 3000 population (450 families) in which more than 80%
are small and marginal farmers. Since the village lies in a drought prone area where the cultivation
lasts only for 3 to 4 months, other avenues of employment and income have been thought of. This
has led to the formulation of the following schemes:
(i) Providing milch animals for the poor villagers.
(ii) Providing sheep units.
(iii) Additional facilities for irrigation thro ugh community bore wells.
(iv) Dryland cultivation including development of wasteland through promotion of fodder
cultivation, horticulture and sericulture.
(v) Providing employment through agro-based and other industries.
(vi) Providing training for self-employment.
6.4 In the agriculture and non-agriculture sectors taken together, as man' as 16 rural industrial units
have been brought into existence upto 1984. Since 1984, five more industrial units have been
launched and are in various stages of progress. Out of these, the team visited about 14 units
(including horticulture, sericulture and cashew plantations). It was informed that for various
schemes put together about Rs. 2 crores of investment have gone into the village and employment
for about 1,000 people has been provided. Thus the cost of creating employment opportunities
works out to Rs. 20,000 per job. The beneficiaries have been both from the Kundrakudi village as
well as from about 20 neighbouring villages. During the visits, the team gathered that the average
wage earnings of the employees ranged from Rs. 9-10 per day. This, of course, varied for different
types of occupations/industries.
6.5 With the developments that have taken place, Kundrakudi has been able to achieve near full
employment. The approach to development has aimed at providing employment to at least one
person in a family. It was mentioned that there are now only 20 families in the village which have

23

not been covered for employment and they too will be covered with the commissioning of the new
industrial units by the end of March 1986. This is indeed a commendable achievement. This has
been rendered possible through the dedicated local leadership provided by a spiritual personthe
Adigalar, as he is calledwho has been able to bring together government functionaries,
scientists, the village people and the financial institutions together in a partnership approach to
development. The discussions with Adigalar to trace the historical basis of the evolution of the
development philosophy revealed that this is the result of a transformation in his own outlook and
ideas on development during 1952-72, a transformation in which his visits abroad, particularly to
U.S.S.R. seem to have exercised a major influence. The Village Planning Forum (VPF) is the brain
child of the Adigalar and it has been designed to meet the basic needs of the villagers based on the
available resources through proper implementation of various development schemes. The VPF
caters to a cluster of villages. Currently there are five VPFs at Kundrakudi, Thiruppalakudi,
Piranmalai, Soripparaipatti and Mathur. Now District Planning Forums have been also constituted
for the two districts of Pasumpon Muthuramalingam and Ramanathapuram.
6.6 Discussions with Prof. K. I. Vasu, Director and Dr. Balakrishnan, Scientist of Central ElectroChemical Research Institute (CECR) brought out some of the unique features relating to Scientists'
collaboration in this rural experiment. The CECRI appears to have made their intervention in rural
development in 1977 when some of its scientists and other staff volunteered to involve themselves
in the Village Planning Forum at Kundrakudi and Nemam villages. This was essentially a voluntary effort on the part of a handful of the staff. In early 1984, this programme was formalised and
strengthened with the formation of 'Rural Science Forum9 with official concurrence of the
executive authorities of the Institute. The unique features in its functioning are that its activities are
carried outside the office hours or during holidays without in any way hampering the regular
working of the Institute and that its members are governed by certain self-imposed austere
standards in their conduct. Thus, if for example, any outside visits are required for work connected
with the Rural Science Forum, the members travel by second class rail or bus. Currently over 70
scientists and other staff of the Institute are involved in the Rural Science Forum activities. These
activities are conducted through seven sub-committees of the Rural Science Forum. These are
Education Group, the Resources Potential Group, the Industry Group, the Vocational Training
Group, the Health and Nutrition Group, the Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Group and the
Science Population Group.
6.7 In technology transfer, the Rural Science Forum of CECRI believes that the villagers can
absorb even sophisticated technologies and it is only when such proven and profitable technologies
are taken to the villages, one can have real economic transformation among the villagers. If, on the
other hand, one depends only on the so called simple technology-based village industries, like the
leaf-cup making, their impact alone will not be sufficient to bring about the desired magnitude of
economic transformation, i Thus, the CECRI approach seems to be based on a mix of both Hightech and appropriate technology-based industries to ensure accelerated rural development. The
Rural Science Forum, in association with the Village Planning Forum, has thus established a
Potassium Chlorate factory at Kundrakudi and plans are afoot for establishing a lead acid battery
industry, an aluminium process industry, a paint industry and many electronic industries in several
villages of the district. This may be noted as the significant feature of the approach of the CECRFs
Rural Science Forum towards rural development and economic transformation. In pursuance of
this, the Forum constantly endeavours to obtain appropriate technologies from various research
institutes/publications and evaluates them for adoption in the context of local resource
endowments.
6.8 Another aspect of the small industrial projects that have come up in Kundrakudi is the fact that
they have been consciously planned such that at least 40% of the output has been assured of a
captive market. The provision of such a marketing support has gone a long way towards the
survival of the small industries, which otherwise would have been subject to several vicissitudes.

24

6.9 Some IRDP and DPAP schemes were visited. Under the IRDP, a project that has come up well
is the Milk Society with a membership of 420 persons. The society has arranged loans for milch
animals to weaker sections. The number of animals was stated to be 120 and the average yield of
milk is 5 litres per day. In order to improve the milk yield, a fodder farm has been developed over
an area of 5 acres. The fodder grass grown in this land is supplied to the farmers at no profitno
loss basis. The fodder farm is stated to be not adequate to meet the full needs and there are
proposals for extending fodder cultivation. The milk society has also started producing cattle-lick
based on the know-how obtained from the National Research Development Corporation, New
Delhi.
6.10 Under the DPAP, some notable developments in dryland/wasteland development have taken
place. One of these is the development of an orchard over an area of 100 acres of dry land to serve
as a demonstration-cum-model farm for the farmers for raising fruit crops. Water conservation
measures such as the "drip irrigation" have been employed in the farm. The model farm has come
up well. It was mentioned that the fruits of this orchard are sold in small quantities to the villagers
at fixed and cheaper rates. The orchard also supplies seedlings to the farmers at nominal cost. Over
a period of 5 years, the orchard has become self-sustaining and hopes to make profit in the next
one or two years. It provides employment to about 60 local people throughout the year at an
average wage rate of Rs. 10/- per day. It was mentioned that when the scheme catches up in other
villages, it will help in the establishment of fruit processing industries in future. The Village
Planning Forum has proposed .one orchard for each DPAP Taluka.
6.11 Another important dry land utilisation scheme is the cultivation of cashew plantation. This
has led to the establishment of a cashew processing unit under the cooperative sector (capacity 120
tonnes). The society has been strengthened further with the production of cashewnut shell liquidbas d paints. The society provides employment to 80 members of weaker sections. It was
mentioned that since cashewnut cultivation had extended over a larger area, (3800 hect., onefourth of which is under individual ownership). There was scope for starting on: more processing
unit in this area.
6.12 Yet another project aimed at dry land utilisation is the Community Wells Programme. In
Kundrakudi alone, there are 10 Community wells. In the surrounding 16 villages, it was mentioned
that there were another 31 wells. Windmills have been set up at some places to lift water from the
wells, thus conserving electricity/diesel. An Agriculture Green Farm Association has come up as a
registered association under the Societies Registration Act with 40 members and a share capital of
Rs.400/- to take care of the maintenance and management of the Community Wells. The
Association has representatives from the village (16 persons) and Government (5 officials). At present, this Association's jurisdiction is confined to the Community Wells in Kundrakudi. It is
proposed to extend this jurisdiction to all the Wells in the surrounding 16 villages. The ultimate
aim of the Green Farm Association is to uplift the farmers through full utilisation of the
Community Wells with 3 crops a year and with modern agricultural techniques.
6.13 A sericulture farm and a 'Silk Hamlet' are other achievements under DPAP, A model
sericulture farm has been set up in 1983 in about 10 acres for providing training to the farmers and
to supply seed cuttings to them. In the first phase, 20 farmers have been trained. When the
sericulture activity picks up In the villages, it is proposed to start a spinning centre.
6.14 The Silk hamlet is a novel scheme seeking to develop mulberry plantations in 100 acres of
Government Poromboke land and settling 100 Harijan (Adi Dravida) families. In the first instance,
over a period of 3 years, the Adi Dravidas will be engaged as workers on a daily wage of Rs. 10/per day. After establishing mulberry plantations, it is proposed to handover the management to
these families at the rate of one acre per family. A society is proposed to be registered and
Government participation will be only in the form of supervising the activities of the hamlet.
Individual chawkie rearing sheds will be provided to the families by the Tamil Nadu Adi-Dravidar
Housing and Development Corporation (TAHDCO). Three bore wells have been put up already

25

and two more are envisaged in future. The mulberry plantations are expected to come into yielding
stage by 1986-87. According to calculations, one acre of mulberry cultivation combined with
rearing of silk worms is sufficient to provide a net average income of Rs.500 per family per month.
The total outlay proposed for the scheme is Rs.20 lakhs.
6.15 The dry land utilisation activities in and around Kundrakudi adequately demonstrate the
importance of land as a stabilising force for the rehabilitation of the rural poor. But a lot of
painstaking cooperative effort is required alongwith necessary linkages which the government's
delivery mechanism should take care of, if wastelands are to be effectively put to use.
6.16 Our discussions revealed that the present revenue; land classification has resulted in some
bottlenecks to the Kundrakudi Village Planning Forum. While the VPF is eager to forge ahead
with a larger programme aiming at wasteland utilisation, they find that what is in actuality a
degraded scrub jungle (wasteland) has been recorded as 'forest land' in the revenue records with
the result that they are not able to get effective possession of such lands for development, as these
have to be referred to Government of India for clearance. Land uses such as horticulture
development, they contend, are intended to 'green' such lands which will greatly help in prevention
of soil erosion and improvement of soil fertility and ecology and they should be automatically
exempted from the application of the Government of India restriction. It was pleaded that there
should be adequate devolution of powers to the State Government to exempt such lands from the
present restriction.
6.17 Welfare Activities : In the Kudrakudi style of development, welfare activities have not been
lost sight of. A recent addition to the village is a children's park, which has a Library, Radio, T.V.
arid facilities for indoor games. A boy interviewed by us said that the enjoyed reading story books
and seeing TV in the centre. It was mentioned that there was also an Adult Centre, which had also
T.V., Radio, Library with books on agriculture and allied subjects and visual aids to family
planning. Besides, there is a ladies club and a youth club and it was mentioned that periodical
seminars on health, education, agriculture, animal husbandry, industry and other aspects are
organised at the village level.
6.18 Women Participation: The team also noted that the women of Kundrakudi have found active
involvement in the development process. In some of the industries visited (e.g. cashewnut
processing, Nepali loom), large number of women were found to be employed. Enquiries about
their wages in employment revealed that it ranged between Rs.7-10 per day. It was also mentioned
that attempts were being made to improve their skills through periodical training. In the Village
Planning Forum and the Cooperatives also, women are representedSome women, when
questioned, freely admitted that they have greatly benefited from the development process.
6.19 The Consensus mechanism: One point that struck us about all decision-making processes at
the village level is the consensus mechanism that operates. While this is the accepted procedure in
the sphere of the planning activities organised by the Village Planning Forum, what is striking is
the fact that it has extended to other spheres too, including political. In the recent Panchayat
elections held in the village, not only the President of the Panchayat, but also all the ward members
were elected by the people unanimously without strike or struggle. For elections to State Assembly
and Lok Sabha also, it was mentioned that the. village puts up a common platform and specific
days are allotted to various political parties to use it for their propaganda. The expenses connected
with it are borne by the village and no party is allowed to spend for this purpose. Another example
of a decision by consensus by the village community that was brought to our notice was a decision
not to rear goats in the village. It was mentioned that this decision is being adhered to strictly by all
the people in the village so as to prevent destruction of crops, trees etc. Looking at the functioning
of this consensus mechanism in the village, it must be mentioned that it is an aspect of the culture
which has taken deep roots in the village, thanks to the Adigalar who has been the moving spirit
behind this attitudinal transformation in the people.

26

District Planning Activities

6.20 During our discussions, we also got an overview of what is proposed to be achieved at the
district level. District Planning Forums have been created for two districtsthe Pasumpon
Muthuramalingam district and the Ramanathapuram district and the Kundrakudi style of
development is being sought to be replicated in them. Science, Technology, Agriculture, Animal
Husbandry and Religion (STAAR) are stated to be the basis of the whole development effort. For
District Planning, the approaches to the development of agriculture, animal husbandry, industry
and social services have been outlined. According to calculations made., the government delivery
system is capable of meeting 50% of the requirements (if efficiently used) and anything more than
this could be achieved through internal resource mobilisation. The District Plans propose to
organise community action for this purpose. The methodology for district planning would be based
on a thorough resource inventory of the local resources and human skills and formulating viable
schemes using science and technology inputs as necessary. The CECRI has agreed to provide the
necessary technical assistance for such projects. One such project was under intensive discussion
in CECRI during our visit in which we briefly participated. This is an integrated industrial project
on Marine Chemicals proposed to be set up with the assistance of Tamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO) for the production of Magnesium using sea bittern at a place called
Valinokkam in Ramanathapuram district. This project aims at the production of various industrial
chemicals such as calcium sulphate, magnesium oxide, light basic magnesium carbonate,
magnesium trisilicate, electrolytic grade magnesium hydroxide, iodised salt and potassium
schsonite. It is evident that a systematic and planned salt complex can generate a lot of wealth and
employment and, by forming the industrial cooperatives for the production of various chemicals,
the socio-economic condition of the weaker sections in the backward areas can be greatly
improved.
Wrap-up Discussions

6.21 The Kundrakudi visit was rounded off with discussions with the members of the Village
Planning Forum. This served to bring out some problems faced by the forum. These problems are
outlined below :
It was pointed out that the Massive Agricultural Production Programme (MAPP),
another name used in Tamil Nadu for the centrally sponsored Small and Marginal Farmers
Scheme being implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development was
charging interest at the rate of ll% for the loan taken by the small and marginal farmers.
It was requested that this interest rate should be reduced to 4 % and also the repayment
period should be increased from 3 years to 10 years. Perhaps the differential rate of
interest is now available for SC/ST population only. It has been requested that all
categories of small and marginal farmers may be given the benefit of this, differential rate
of interest.
i.

It was pointed out that the self-employment scheme has-some restrictive provisions.
Under the scheme, a. loan upto 25,000/- is given to individuals for self employment. This
is not, however, applicable to a group of people, as in the case of cooperative units, so that
10 or more individuals can join and get a substantial loan to facilitate starting viable
industries. It was contended that such a provision will promote entrepreneurial talents in
rural areas, as well as cooperative spirit leading to social integration.
ii.

iii. The Village Planning Forum of Kundrakudi has an. ambitious scheme of imparting

training to village farmers in basic hygiene, care and first-aid to animals, as presently the
number of veterinarians are not sufficient to cover the remote villages. Even where they
are available, the poor farmers may not be able to pay for the service. It is felt that the
building up of a paraveterinary force in the rural areas will serve to impart knowledge
among the village population regarding the & importance of cleanliness, constant care and
proper feeding and render first aid for common diseases as Well as promote artificial
insemination. The VPF desires that the infrastructural facilities for training needed for this

27

scheme should be provided under IRDP/ DPAP.

iv. One of the points that was brought to the notice of the team relates to the scheme of
giving subsidy for purchase of milch animals to the weaker sections, of the population. It
was requested that a second loan should be given for the purchase of milch animals within
3 months from the date of purchase of the first animal so that there will not be any dry
period.
It was requested that at least one Science Library and workshop should be set up in
each block to improve the standard of science education in rural areas.
v.

vi. The importance of drip irrigation in drought prone areas, particularly for wasteland

development was brought to our attention during the visit. It was requested that 75%
subsidy should be given for Drip irrigation to the small and marginal farmers so that they can
use this method and ensure efficient use of water in areas like this.
vii. At present the incentive schemes for the industrialisation of backward areas are applicable

to district a^ the unit area. It was suggested that the block should be made the unit area for this
scheme, instead of the districts, so that the 'No Industry Blocks' could be captured under the
scheme.
viii. It was requested that more items should be reserved for the shall scale sector by the
Govt. of India and also the technologies with National Research Development Corporation
(NRDC) should be made available free of cost to small scale units started in backward areas.
ix. It was mentioned that the criteria for the delineation of drought prone areas was based on
rainfall data which tended to preclude some really drought prone areas from the purview of the
scheme as rainguage stations as well as rainfall records were not adequate and sensitive enough
to capture all qualifying areas. It was mentioned that the Sakkottai and Thiruppatter Unions
in the Pasumpon Muthuramalingam district were equally effected by drought and should be
included under DPAP.

28

Annexure-I

LIST OF PROJECTS SPONSORED BY VPF

Details of Insitutions Established up to 1984
I. Agriculture and Allied activities:
1. Agriculture Credit Society
2. Milk Supply Society
3. Sheep Society
4. Labour Contract Cooperative
Society.
5. Sericulture
6. Horticulture A Model Govt.
Orchard Farm with 67 acres.
7. Community wells
II Rural Industry
1. Carpentry
2. Blacksmithy

(coverage) Families
No. of milch cattle distributed
No. of sheeps distributed
Membership coverage

430
380
2709
95 of which 40 are women

Employment in mulberry
garden
Employment

40 of which 20 are women

No. constructed

15

One unit. No. employed

One unit. No. employed

5
3

52 of which 40 are women

III. Small Scale Industries

Name of the Industry

Products

Investment Capacity

Employment
Men
Wome
n
5
6

1. Nehruji Polythene Co-op.

Society.
2. Maruthu Pandian Hand
Pounding Society

Polythene bags

10.0 lakhs

96 M. ton/annum

60

Rice, Bakery, Oil

1.5 lakhs

12

10

3. Periyashewnut Co-op.
Society
4. Kasturba Match Co-op.
Unit
5. Kundrakudi Bharathi
Potassium Chlorate Factory

Cashew Primer

4.0 lakhs

60

Matches

0.25 lakhs

Rice 57000kg.
Bread 90000
Oil 18000 lit.
Cashew 120 ton
Primer 60000 lit.
1800 bundles

40

Potassium
Chlorate

50 .4 lakhs

320 tons

35

88 tons
_

10
5

6. Aluminium Circle (Private) . Aluminium Plates 4.0 lakhs

7. Shanmuganathan Printing Printing
0.5 lakhs
Press (Private)
Stabiliser Fan
8 Electronics (Private)
1.0 lakhs
Regulator

29

Annexure-Il

LIST OF INDUSTRIES PROPOSED

SI. Name of the Industries and Employ Product
No location
-ment
.
Opportunity

Capacity

1
1.

5
6000 batteries per
year

Total
cost of
project
(Rs. in
lakhs)
6
17.00

Remarks

2
Aringnar Anna Lead Acid
Battery IndustrialCoop.
Society, Kundrakudi
Bharathi Indul. Coop.
Chlorate Factory Ltd.
Kundrakudi (Expansion).....
Kamraj Polythene Woven
Sacks, Aranmanaipatti
Paper Industry,Sevaipatti
(Near Sayalgudi Ramnad
District)
Engineering Workshop,
Kundrakudi
Kannappa Nayanar
Surgical Cotton Industries,
Palavangudi
Cashewnut Processing &
Cashew liquid,
Thirukolakudi

3
31

4
Lead acid Batteries

61

Potassium Chlorate 800 tonnes per

annum

60.00

Approved

149

Polythene Woven
sacks
10 TDP of Light
Weight papers

24.00
150.00

Under
processing
Do.

5.00

Do.

21.25

Do.

8.
9.

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

10.
11.

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
17.
18.

220

10.08 tonnes bag

per year
2100 tonnes per
year

48

Job works

104

Surgical cotton

216000 XCS per

year

91

Cashew Kernels &

cashew liquid

G.I. Buckets

76

G.I. Buckets

Cashew Kernels
9.60
Cashew Liquid
50 tonnes per
annum
3000 Nos. per year 6.00

Almunium Utensils,
Patharakudi .
Building Bricks, Koratti
Confectionery Unit (Palm
Products i.e. Chocolates
Toffees)
Lime Production,
Kundrakudi
Milk Sachets, Kundrakudi
Bicycles parts and
components
Dr. Shenoy Aluminium
Building Materials,
Thattatti.
Leather Footwear, SALT
F.R.P. Helmets,
Kundrakudi
Plaster of Paris,
Kundrakudi

32

Aluminum Utensils 90 kg. per day

92
73

Bricks
Varieties of
Chocolates

76

Lime

76
36
31

Milk Sachets
Free wheel Pedals
etc.
Hinges & bolts

61
18

Leather Foot Wear

Helmets

31

Plaster of Paris

0.55

3.5 lakhs per month 4.65

1.33

2.00

30

4 tonnes per day

42000 Nos.

1.00
1.50

7
Registered

Do.

Under
Processing
Do.
Do.
Do.

Under
processing
Do.
Do.

Hinges 2000 dozen 5.82

Tower Belt 100
dozen
40 pairs per day
1.05
200 per month
1.10

Do.

2000 tonnes per

year

Do.

2.00

Do.
Do.

Annexure III

LEVEL OF ATTENDANCE IN VILLAGE PLANNIG FORUM

MEETINGS 1981-83
SI. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

Date of meeting
28-2-1981
28-3-1981
25-4-1981
23-5-1981
27-6-1981
25-7-1981
26-8-1981
2-10-1981
26-12-1981
23-1-1982
23-2-1983
17-4-1982
22-5-1982
22-6-1982
24-7-1982
4-9-1982
2-10-1982
29-1-1983
26-2-1983
26-3-1983
21-5-1983
25-6-1983
23-7-1983
27-8-1983
17-9-1983
19-11-1983
24-12-1983

% attendance
N.A.
N.A
60%
40%
51%
63%
75%
88%
50%
70%
58%
44%
50%
31%
32%.
57%
76%
74%
69%
83%
60%
70%
65%
73%
54%
68%
60%

31

Annexure-IV

THE PLANNING PROCESS AT THE VILLAGE LEVEL-SOME

SUGGESTIONS TO THE VILLAGE PLANNING FORUM (VPF)*
I look upon the Kundrakudi experiment together with its Planning Forum as the functioning of
a Receiving/utilising mechanism which interacts with the Delivery Mechanism (i.e. the
government and its local offices and personnel and other agencies operating in the area, such as
banks) to obtain a fair share of its developmental needs in accordance with its local preferences
and local potentials. In this concept, the Receiving/Utilising mechanism (i.e. the Planning Forum)
has an important contribution to make towards the framing and adoption of the Village Plan. In
order to enable the Planning Forum to play this role effectively, the following suggestions are
given:
(1) For the formulation of the plan, the initiative should come from the bottom level and the
proposals formulated by the Receiving/Utilising mechanism should adjust and be adjusted by the
proposals of the Delivery Mechanism at a 'matching exercise'.
(2) While the bitter off farmers may prepare their individual farm plans, the low income
disadvantaged farmers and peasants can plan effectively only in groups. So the first task should be
to form suitable groups. In these groups, farmers owning land in contiguous association may come
together. A group may consist of 15 to 20 small farmers/other occupation groups.
(3) The formulation of Group Plans is the core of the Planning exercise. A Group Plan is a plan
of work for an agreed period of time, indicating joint and individual production and income-raising
activities, based on joint and individual resources, sharing of inputs and other aids and supports to
production and following a schedule of operations. It will enable individual farm and household
plans to be prepared. Each group should be associated by a Group Organiser who will be from
among the members of the group itself, being one who enjoys the confidence of the Group as a
whole. The Group Organiser is expected to inter-act vigorously with the VPF and perform the role
of a planner and change agent. He would be constantly "sensitised" for this role by the intellectual
component (scientists and planners) in the Forum. Where necessary, the help of subject matters
specialists and extention officers should be sought.
(4) A group plan should have three main components, the Group Record Book, the Plan for the
"Nucleus" or Starter Activity, and the plan for subsidiary income raising activities.
(5) The Group Record Book will result from the collection of base line data of the socioeconomic conditions, resources and liabilities of the participating households. It will also keep a
record of the progress of the group schemes.
(6) The Plan for the "Nucleus" activity will cover the joint undertaking of the Group that
benefits all or most members participating, that is likely to bring quick results and that necessitates
the continuance of joint effort in mutual interest.
(7) In nature, the "Nucleus" undertaking will require the participation of all members in one
capacity or another. Examples are tube well, storage, feed mixing for animal production, common
transport, power tillers, common pool of sprayers and machinery, processing, rice huller, common
procurement of livestock, supplies of aids to production etc. Crops and/or livestock that are
consequential to the choice of the Nucleus activity are also included in the Group Plan.
The Plan for subsidiary income raising activities is the third component of the Group Plan. It
should give a cumulative picture of the action contemplated by individual numbers for farm-based
*

Prepared by Dr. K. V. Sundaram, Joint Adviser, Planning Commission.

32

subsidiary income raising activities/or other kinds of employment generating work that raises the
income and living standard of the family. These may often require joint aids for production and
mutual help.
Planning of the Nucleus Activity

The group should discuss different ways of increasing productivity and income through
activities that are common and could be done jointly. The Group Organiser should help the group
by obtaining and collecting information on existing or new developments in the area that may give
scope for common activities for income raising. The scientists and other intellectuals in the VPF
(The Think-tank) should feed such information to the Group Organisers during their weekly interactions. The common income-raising activities may be of the following kinds:
(a) Joint aids to production, e.g. tubewells, bullocks, storage, power tillers, common hand
operated feed mill for poultry, common nursery for seedlings, common milk collection and
freezing centre, common methane gas plant, etc.
(b) Group custom services for additional income, e.g. contractual labour for other farmers and
public works, specialised services for others on payment e.g. servicing through providing draft
animal, machinery, sprayers, repairs, etc.
(c) Inter-related farm-production requiring Group effort e.g. crop-cum-livestock, farm-cumfishery, poultry-cum-crop etc.
(d) Items of physical infrastructure relevant to the rural poor e.g. deepening of a pond, soil
conservation, terracing, deepening of channels, a short approach road etc. Though the provision of
physical infrastracture is the responsibility of the Delivery Mechanism, it is possible that in some
situations, localised and small scale landwater-soil development by the Group itself is an essential
starter for income-raising.
Selection of 'Nucleus' Undertaking

The members should identify the 'Nucleus' undertaking on the basis of the list of common
activities. Priority should be given to those undertakings that will not only give additional income,
but will also benefit the majority of members. The Group with the assistance of the subject-matter
specialists should also consider the technical and economic aspects of the undertaking. The
'Nucleus' undertaking, especially in the beginning, should, to the extent possible be simple and
practical. It should be the felt need of the group, labour intensive and should demand cooperation
of all members. Furthermore, technical support from government and non-governmental agencies
should be available. The size of the activity or enterprise should be determined on the basis of the
resources available. Consideration must also be given to indirect benefits such as that the activity
should encourage cohesive functioning of groups and lead to better use of surplus family labour,
etc.
The viability of the 'Nucleus' undertaking should be appraised by the Group before deciding to
go ahead with the Nucleus undertaking and the production plan.
Subsidiary income raising activities will be organised by the Group members on household
basis. This portion of the Group Plan will therefore be the sum total of individual decisions. In
some cases, the group may form smaller sub-groups to organise such activities i.e. two or three
households may find it convenient and economical to undertake an activity and may formulate a
work plan. A summary of the plan to subsidiary activities should be preparedly the Group for
incorporation in the Group Plan.

33

Though the subsidiary income raising activities are to be planned individually by every
household, it is important that the Group should provide support and assistance in its formulation
and implementation. It is the Group's responsibility to obtain off farm inputs, assist in transport
and marketing and take action to cover the risks. Sometimes joint aids to production will be
necessary and the factors mentioned above will have to be considered.
Consolidation of Group Plan into the Village Plan

The Group should be brought together and discussed by the members of the Village Planning
Forum. The representatives of every group should present "an explanation and implication of their
Group Plans. A consolidated statement of all Group Plans will then be prepared for consideration
at the higher levels This statement should include the assets and liabilities of each group; the
production activities, the requirements for investment (Nucleus activity and joint aids to
production), production inputs credit, farm machinery and equipment etc. and estimate of costs and
recovery item-wise. On these subjects, banks may prepare separate statement of credit
requirements.
Specialised Training Requirement

The Planning Forum should determine the training requirements of the different groups. For
example, a group may need to have a trained tubewell or tractor operator. The requirements of the
different groups for such specialised training can be considered and the planning forum can plan
training programmes according to the needs.
Adjustment between the Plans of the Receiving/Utilising and Delivery Mechanisms and the
procedure for matching the plans from below with those from above.

The aim here is to examine the plans of several Groups in order to match and adjust them with
the State Government Plans or programmes. The responsibility for this area-level adjustment lies
with the Village Planning Forum (VPF) on the one hand and the concerned supervisory and some
decision making officials of government and the credit agency on the other hand. If a District
Planning Team exists, then they would be familiar with the government plans and would have
access to policy makers and planners in the State Government level. Then, it would be their job to
link local level plans to the plans prepared by decision-makers and planners at the State headquarters. As such, they should be in a position to influence people in higher authorities to accept
the plans prepared with their participation.
One procedure for 'matching' the plans from below with those from above is for the VPF to take
the initiative by organ sing a short Field workshop to which the government departmental
functionaries at the district level may be invited. Then the proposals of the Group Plans are
presented and the officials are requested to accommodate these proposals with their departmental
schemes. If the departmental schemes are also ready, the Workshop could compare the list of
proposals emanating from the Group Plans with the departmental scheme-and should attempt
adjustments in the light of priorities from-below and above. Sometimes the departments may have
to prepare a new programme in order to support the Groups' Plan. Groups may also have to modify
their [proposals in certain circumstances.
The conclusions emerging from this exercise should lead to quick action in two directions. First, it
will be the responsibility of the Government officials participating in the Workshop to obtain early
clearance of the schemes from the government and the bank. Secondly, the Groups will
immediately consider the adjustments to be made in their plans as a result of the matching
exercise.

34

AnnexureV
THE ROLE OF NRDC

The National Research Development Corporation is a Government of India enterprise

specially established to develop and explore indigenous know-how. One of its activities is to
evolve appropriate rural technologies and to carry them to economically backward people in
the rural areas. In doing so, the NRDC seeks to graft the technologies in such a way that they
match effectively with the existing life style of the people. This is sought to be accomplished
through a special programme called "Development and Promotion of Appropriate Technologies". Under this, the NRDC has established Rural Technology Demonstration-cumTraining Centres (RTDT Centres) in about a dozen places in the country. In these centres, a
cluster of technologies relevant to the needs of the local population are available for
demonstration and training of the local people. They include provision of safe drinking water,
lift irrigation, farm based utilisation technologies, low cost and safe housing, post harvest
technology, literacy aids, technology for women, utilisation of solar and wind energy. The
NRDC has chosen Kundrakudi to establish a rural technology demonstration-cum-training
centre in collaboration with Village Planning Forum and the Centre was set up in April, 1984.
The NRDC has supplied machines and equipments worth Rs. 10,000 for demonstration
purposes.
The RTDT Centre in Kundrakudi has demonstrated the following technologies :-

i. Safe drinking water (water filter);

ii. Leaf-cup-making machine;
iii. Fire Proof thatch roof;
iv. Agrowaste compaction machines;
v. Paper slate;
vi. 'Balwan' bullock cart of improved design;
vii. Cattle Lick;
viii. Smokeless chulha;
ix. Solar cooker;
x. Storage bin;
xi. Rope making machine
Two local teachers were given training in operating the machines. They explain the salient
features of the centre to the visitors and demonstrate the working of the machines.
Apart from the people in Kundrakudi and surrounding areas people come from far off places
also to see the demonstration-cum-training centre. It is understood that an average of 50 to 100
persons visit the centre every month. The village Planning Forum itself has proposed to set up
g, few manufacturing units based on the rural technology. The Dairy cooperative in the village
has already started manufacturing cattle lick. A unit for producing water filter candle has also
been set up in 1983-84. The Village Planning Forum has proposed to set-up a unit for fire
proof thatch roof and improved smokeless chulha in 1984-85. Quite a few interested persons
have come forward to adopt the technology advocated by the NRDC for manufacturing paper
slate, leaf-cup-making, agrowaste compaction.

35

II. CASE STUDIES OF SUKHOMAJRI AND DASHOLI

CHAPTER 7 Introduction: The background and genesis

7-1 The Planning Commission has set up a Working Group on Hill Area Development for the
Seventh Five Year Plan (198590), which constituted a sub-group on "Catchment area
development and integrated micro-watershed management and coordination of sectoral
programmes." The Sub-group, in turn, established two sub-committees, one "to suggest measures
for protection and development of catchment areas", and two "to conceptualise and give
expression in the form of a project report to the multi-disciplinary integrated work carried out in
the Sukhomajri project and the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal Project. The project report should
serve as a model framework for micro-watershed management projects for the hill areas in the
country."
7.2 The sub-committee appointed to study and conceptualise the Sukhomajri and Dasholi Gram
Swarajya Mandal projects comprised the following persons:

1.
2.
3.

Dr. (Mrs.) Kamla Chowdry

Chairman

Dr. D.R. Bhumbla

Member

4.

4. Shri Madhav Ashish,

Mirtola Ashram

Member

5.

5. Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt

Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal

Member

6.

6. Dr. M.G. Jackson,

Mirtola Ashram.

Co-opted Member.

Shri P. R. Mishra,
Member
Officer-in-charge, Central Soil and Water,
Conservation Research and Training Institute.

7.3 The Working plan of this sub-committee was to travel together to Dasholi Gram Swarajya
Mandal (DGSM) and the Sukhomajri project and discuss our observations, insights and their
implications on site and enroute. Unfortunately, this plan could not be followed, so that Shri
Madhav Ashish and Dr. M.G. Jackson visited Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mardal en May 15, 16 and
17 (1985) and Shri P.R. Mishra, Shri Bansal and Dr. Kamla Chowdry visited on June 13 and 14,
1985. The collective visit to Sukhomajri project also did not take place because of the Punjab
disturbances. However, most of the members excepting Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt, had previously
visited Sukhomajri and had discussions with Mishraji, Madhu Sarin, Deep Joshi and other key
persons connected with the project.
7.4 The report briefly describe the Sukhcmajri pi eject and the activities of the Dasholi Gram
Swarajya Mandal especially those related to the rehabilitation and management of uncultivated
lands by village communities; identifies key elements in the success of these projects, considers
replication of these projects and proposes an intermediary support agency as a buffer between
voluntary agencies and government in the development of micro-watershed and related village
developments; mentions constraints in the management of uncultivated lands by village
communities and suggests some policy charges necessary and finally discuss the broader
implications of these projects on hill development.

36

CHAPTER 8Case 1: Sukhomajri Background

8-1 At the foothills of the Himalayas are the Shivalik, Garhwal and Kumaon hills, environmentally
perhaps the most degraded hills in the world. Accounts of this area, only a century and half ago,
speak of dense luxurious and vast forests. Drastic changes began to take place around 1830's when
deposits of iron and copper were discovered which attracted private entrepreneurs as well as the
state government for their exploitation. Coupled with mining were decades of railway building
which called for high quality timber much of which came from the lower Himalayas. By the turn
of the twentieth century, much of the dense forests had given way to boulders, deep gullies and
chasms. After Independence, the building of dams, the widening of roads and other such
development projects further deteriorated the situation. Increased pressure of grazing also
accelerated deforestation and denudation of the hills. The Shivaliks even more so that Garhwal
and Kumaon hills are now bare and barren, hardly able to provide even the subsistence needs of
the people and their cattle.
8-2 With the cover of trees and grasses all gone the monsoon water comes down in torrents
destroying villages and whatever else comes in its path. The villagers in these hills live in fear of
the cataclysmic deluge that comes with each monsoon often carrying their villages and fields into
the ever widening gorge or "choes" as the locals call them.
8-3 Sukhomajri, a small village of about 71 families, mostly gujars, is in Ibe lower ranges or
the Shivaliks. The village has about 240 acres of land, half owned by individual families, and the
other half used as common land. The major portion of the catchment is owned by the Forestry
Department who lease it to the villagers for grazing. Before the project the village had 411 animals
consisting of goats, buffaloes and bullocks. Not enough was produced either in agriculture or in
the surrounding slopes to feed the people or their cattle Many men found jobs in the nearby cement
or machine tool factory or in Chandigarh.
8-4 The Gujars of Sukhomajri trace their origin to seven families that came to the village eight
generations ago. There are two Jat families also who have been in the village for about two
generations. Historically they are poor cultivators and became very poor once the fodder from the
trees and grasses disappeared. Most people in the village are illiterate and few children attend
school.
8-5 Before the project the only water in the village came from a muddy rainfed pond in the
middle of the village and a rapid drinking water supply from a nearby spring.
8-6 The monsoon water often played havoc with the village. In 1968, several acres of land had
plunged 40-50 feet into a deep gorge at one end of the village, and since then the precipice of the
gorge has been edging closer to the village huts.
8-7 The village had no irrigation water, no electricity, not even a bullock cart for there were no
surpluses of harvested crops to be taken to the market. There were no vegetable plots, or fruit trees
or fodder crops since all of these required water which they did not have. The wealth of the village
was in their animals, none of them of superior breeds because these more productive animals could
not survive with the fodder and water available. The village also produced wheat, maize and
legumes but these were rainfed crops and often withered because of drought.
8-8 Whereas, the msn of the village tried to find employment outside, the women spend most of
their energies searching the surrounding countryside for grass and trees that could be cut for fodder
and fuel.

37

Beginning of the Project

8-9 Chandigarh a city designedly Le Corboussier, has a large artificial lake. The residential
mansions of the Governors of Punjab and Haryana are located near the lake. The lake water
recharges the aquifers which feed Chandigarh with its water supply. The people of Chandigarh
also use the lake for boating and for other recreational purposes. The lake is one of the major
beauty spots and the pride of Chandigarh people.
8.10 The Sukhna lake , was built in 1958 and was 445 acres (180 ha) in spread and 28 feet (8 4 m) deep. Since the lake was created more than 60% of it has been filled by silt from the
Shivaliks. The deepest point of the lake which was 14 metres was little more than 4 metres deep at
the start of the project. The Chandigarh authorities had been spending lakhs of rupees each year in
dredging and desilting the lake but each monsoon brought tons of silt back again.
8.11 The forest catchment area of the lake amounts to 3214 ha, 76 -3 % of the total catchment
area. The surrounding villages graze their cattle in the forest catchment and have been doing so for
centuries. Because of the large number of cattle grazing in this area it has led to severe soil erosion
and consequently sedimentation in the lake. In an earlier attempt to conserve the soil the Forest
Department had fenced the area and threatened to punish villagers for violations. These measures,
as was to be expected did not succeed.
8.12 Around 1974 the Central Soil & Water Conservation Research and Training Institute
(CSWCRTI) in Chandigarh was invited to discuss the problem of siltation and requested to do
something about it. Shri Mishra and some of his colleagues surveyed the catchment area on foot.
Their observations indicated that the major source of silt was in the higher catchment area which
constituted 25% of the total catchment but contributed 8090% of the total silt lead. Shri Mishra
recommended a number of check dams near the Sukhomajri village and the planting of Acacia
catechu and bhabbar grass on contour trenches in the catchment area, Dalbtrgia sissoo in the
gullies and other soil conservation measures. These were completed before the monsoon of 1976.
8-13 A second check dam near Sukhomajri was built before the monsoon of 1977, However, in
1977, the monsoon failed and the farmers saw their kharif crop of maize withering before their
eyes. There was water in the dam and the farmers realised there was life-saving irrigation in it, for
their crops. It was during this crisis that the farmers realised that the soil conservation work meant
for Sukhna lake could also mean supplemental irrigation for them. Instead of ere uncertain crop the
farmers could have two assured crops. The mutuality of interest between the Chandigarh
authorities, the CSMCRTI and its soil conservation work and the villagers became mutually
reinforcing.
8 -14 Today Sukhomajri has# three rainfed reservoirs varying between 200 and 400 ft. in
diameter. All the rainwater that falls on one side of the village is caught and channelled into the
reservoirs and is then used for irrigating crops and for drinking water. The village people keep
their grazing animals out of the watershed areas. Since the grazing animals have been kept out, the
area has sprung back to life and is new full of new grasses, shrubs and trees.
8-15 Prior to the availability of rain harvested water,, villagers were able to raise only a kharif
crop, whose success depended on the duration and strength of the monsoon. With the availability
of supplemental irrigation, the number of crop rotations has increased varying from 2 to 4. In terms
of production#, in 1977, there was 250 quintals of wheat, 500 quintals of wheat straw and 196
quintals of maize. In 1981 the production was 1015 quintals of wheat, 2031 quintals of wheat
straw, and 356 quintals of maize. The milk yield too has increased from 2196 litres in 1977 to

Sedimentation of Sukhna Lake, Chandigarh Status Report, 1982, CSWCRTI, Research Centre, July 1983.
Planning Commission, Tour Notes of Planning Commission Team unpublished document, December
1980.

38

4405 litres in 1981. The grass production in the catchment areas has increased from 200 kgs. in
1977 to 2500 kgs. per year in 1981.
People's Participation

8.16 For the management and control of the reservoir water, a Water User's Association
(WUA) was proposed and accepted. A young management specialist was hired by the Ford
Foundation to assist in putting the W.U.A. on a sound footing. After many rounds of talking to the
villagers, and after much discussion, a system was established in which every member would be
given equal share regardless of the land owned, landless too could be members and claim a right to
irrigation water.
8.17 Another consultant hired was with the objective of working with the women of
Sukhomajri, listening to their problems and urging them to take a more active role in the W.U.A
and in conserving the watershed. The woman consultant also helped the village women build
smokeless chulas for themselves. The women claim that their wood consumption was reduced by
one third to half and that the inside of their huts has become more hygienic. The women of Harijan
Nada have been providing 'technical assistance' in chula making to other villages as far distant as
Himachal Pradesh. Because of easy availability of grass the women now have more time for
growing vegetables, collecting babbar grass and making rope and other income generating
activities.
8.18 It is clear from the Sukhomajri experience that exhortations for cooperation do not work
especially if these are aimed at people who live on the margin of subsistence. The poor cannot stop
grazing their animals especially when the animals are their mainstay of subsistence. When the
Forest Department had fenced off the catchment area, the villagers found their way inside in spite
of fines and threats. On one occasion, during the early part of the project, when a villager was told
not to graze his cattle in the catchment area, he retorted" who are you to tell me not to graze my
cattle heremy forefathers did it and so will I Only with increased productivity and increased
milk yields resulting from supplemental irrigation, were the villagers of Sukhomajri anxious to
invest in conservation measure to preserve and enhance their new way of life.
8.19 Another lesson that emerges from the Sukhomajri experience is that social and management
systems appropriate to the new technology take time to evolve. All the key people involved in the
project spent much time learning from the villagers, earning their confidence and respect before
they could experiment and introduced new methods going against traditional ways of doing things.
Without establishing mutuality of trust it would have been difficult to establish the new system of
equitable water distribution and the management for its effective functioning and control.
8 -20 In conclusion, it can be said that the first phase of the Sukhomajri project (1974-79) was
concerned in diagnosis of the problem and in building dams and largely improving the technical
system. It was in this phase PVC pipes were laid so that water seepage and evaporation was
minimum, sprinklers were experimented with so that more people could share the limited water.
The second phase (1980-83) was in improving and in ironing out the procedures and problems of
W.U.A., in getting the women involved, and in establishing the social and management system of
the new resource. In this second phase the Sukhomajri project was expanded in Nada and Harijan
Nada so that further experience could be gained. In other words the experimental and the learning
phase lasted almost a decade, with both governmental and non-governmental agencies playing key
roles.

39

CHAPTER 9CASE 2 : Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal

9.1 In common with the rest of the U.P. hills Garhwal has a long history of poverty exacerbated
by increasing population with consequent denudation of village fuel and fodder resources.
Foodgrain production is insufficient for even subsistence levels and men have been forced to
migrate to plains for seeking employment. The women look after farming, livestock and the
collection of fuelwood, fodder and water in addition to their household tasks. In the village
panchayats not much attention has been paid to women's issues of fuelwood, fodder and water, the
men who participate in these forums discuss issues relating to cash crops at the neglect of
subsistence needs.
9.2 The workload of hill woman and the drudgery involved is extraordinary. She works 14 to 16
hours a day spending as much as 2 to 5 hours for collection of fodder and anywhere from 4 to 7
hours for collection of firewood (2-3 days a week). In addition, there is the chore of fetching water
and in many villages they grind their wheat themselves because no power chakki is available
within walking distance.
9.3 The Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) is a voluntary agency founded by Shri
Chandi Prasad Bhatt, in 1964, at Gopeshwar, District Chamoli, Garhwal. It is an autonomous selfsupporting agency, obtaining its funds from Khadi and Village industries programme, its own
resin, turpentine and varnish units and a flourmill. Income from these activities is used to pay the
salaries of about 25 workers. Since 1982 partial funding of eco-development camps has been
provided by the Department of Environment and for the integrated Garur Ganga micro watershed
development, the Planning Commission has given some assistance.
9.4 The floods and landslides of 1970in the Alaknanda valley saw the DGSM engaged in relief
work. The death devastation sharpened everyone's perception of the deteriorating environmental
situation and the realisation that its major cause was deforestation of the hillsides. In 1973-74 with
the leadership of the DGSM, the people started an agitation to save their forests. The Chipko
movement played a significant role in saving the remaining tree cover in Reserve Forests from the
area of the cultivators and the policies of the Forest Department. The other aspect of the Chipko
movement, as led by DGSM is to undertake constructive work for the rehabilitation of the denuded
hills and of village common lands.
9.5 The rehabilitation of denuded hills and forest lands is tackled by making village
communities aware of the importance of tree cover and the protection it would afford to their
villages. The DGSM has also pointed out the need and advantages of surrounding their cultivated
lands by a protective wall, leaving a wide margin between the wall and the cultivated fields. This
area is planted with trees of their choice and also yields fodder grass for hand cutting. The wall not
only protects the cultivated area from wild animals but protects the trees and grasses from their
grazing animals.
9.6 The eco-development camps are a major mechanism for sharing and communicating ideas.
These camps are organised in villages, some 3 to 4 being run every year. There are 250-300
participants in a given camp, 75 per cent of whom are village women. Twenty to fifty outsiders
students, professors, social workers, environmentalistsalso attend. The programme of the camps
is one of discussion and shramdan through which wall building and tree planting activities are
undertaken. There are spontaneous songs and other entertainment in the evening in which
everyone participates, building strong relationships and commitment to each other and to the
protection of their hills.
9.7 A unique feature of these camps is planning for village development. A blackboard is used
to draw out a map of the village. Proposals are made for walling, tree planting, water pipelines, etc.
These are discussed and finalised by all the participants in the camp.

40

9.8 To support the reafforestation programmes DGSM has set its own nurseries and also uses
schools for raising nurseries. Tree seedlings are made easily accessible to villages and given free.
9.9 In addition to reafforestation of common wastelands, the DGSM's programe also includes
the introduction of fuel-efficient, smokeless chulas, pit latrines and gobar-gas plants.
9.10 Efforts of the DGSM are largely concentrated in the 21 villages located in the very
sensitive region of Garur Ganga, Pathal Ganga and Maina Gad tributaries of the Alaknanda river.
9.11 The key to the programme's success is the organisation of Mahila Mandals. These are
informal, with no written constitution, but very effective nonetheless. As has already been
mentioned, firewood, fodder and water are primarily women's concerns in these villages, and
women consequently take more active interest in improving their supplies and thus reducing their
drudgery. In the eco-development camps these issues are highlighted as also the need for women's
control over the common lands. The Mahila Mandals have shown real capacity to take the
management of village common land into their own hands, effectively opposing village and forest
panchayats where their activities threaten the well being of the community. By ensuring the
equitable distribution of grass and firewood produced on village common land, the Mahila
Mandals ensure that all families of the village cooperate in the programme.
9.12 Another agency that has worked collaboratively with DGSM and has played a catalyst role
is Daliyon ka Dag-daya (Friends of Trees). Member of Daliyon ka Dagdaya are men, women and
local students. This agency not only participates in the eco-development camps but plays a key
role in organising the Mahila Mandals.
9.13 There is a quiet revolution going on in the U.P. "hills. The women through their Mahila
Mandals are awakening not only to deal with subsistence issue of fuel, fodder and water, but wider
issues related to the well-being of their families, villages and of hill economy.

41

CHAPTER 10Key Elements of Success

10.1 Both Sukhomajri and DGSM are exceptional projects providing new perspectives and
insights in micro watershed and hill development. In this section we plan to discuss key elements
contributing to the success of these projects.
Participation of Local Communities, especially Women

10-2 In both projects the involvement of the village communities has been absolute and the
women's participation has been of key significance. In Sukhomajri when people realised that the
dam water could be used for irrigating their crops, their commitment to preserve the watershed was
there. Only when people saw the benefit accruing to them, were they in a position to provide
cooperation in 'social fencing'. Participation did not come from exhortations or persuasion but
from the realisation by the people that their own benefit was tied to it.
10-3 For people who live on the margin of subsistence, a change to a new system of land and
livestock management can only be achieved if they can clearly see the benefits to themselves. It is
difficult for the poor to stop grazing their animals especially when the animals are their mainstay
of subsistence. As Seckler mentions in his paper *, "These people cannot save resources for the
future through reduced current consumption nor can they direct resources from present production
to invest in increased future production. Savings or investment is the difference between income
and consumption. When people consume all their income, and even then consumption is only at
subsistence levels, they cannot be expected to save and invest until their income is increased".
With increased productivity resulting from supplemental irrigation and increased milk yields from
better availability of fodder, the villagers of Sukhomajri arc on an upward spiral, anxious to help in
conservation measures to preserve and enhance their new way of life.
10.4 In DGSM the villagers realised that if protective walls could be built, not only will their
crops be safe from wild and domestic animals, but there would be regeneration of grasses and
protection of trees they planted. Participation and involvement was possible because of the
tremendous need to reduce the drudgery in their lives. In other words, community participation is
possible where the community can see the benefits accruing to each one of themin the short run
in the first instance. The Village Organisation and Equitable Distribution
10.5 In Sukhomajri the W.U.As
were established to manage and control the water.
Mishraji has renamed these associations as Hill Resource Management Village Societies
(HRMVS). In Chamoli hills the Mahila Mandals became the key village organisation for
management of the newly generated resources. In both projects the communities agreed to
equitable distribution of water or grasses or bhabbar grass. There were examples in each project
where the more privileged tried to get a bigger share but the threat of cutting the water was
sufficient in the case of Sukhomajri to discipline the erring member. And in one of the villages of
DGSM when the Mahila Mandal found that the Pradhan's family had taken the grass on the
wrong day, the grass was confiscated. The Pradhan in retaliation registered a case of theft against
two women of the Mahila Mandal. The women of the village met the District Magistrate and
explained to him the nature of the 'theft' and said that they would all go to jail if anything was
done to their two members. The incident and the stand taken by the Mahila Mandal clearly
established the principle of equity and the authority of the Mahila Mandal over the management of
common lands.
10.6 The concept of village people taking responsibility for their own development was very
prominent in post Independence thinking about rural development. The gram sabha was set up as a
democratic village institution to take up this responsibility. Cooperative societies of various sorts
were also set up with the same basic aim. However, these village level institutions have been
*

Sukhomajri"a Rural Development Program in India" by David Seckler and Deep Joshi, The Ford Foundation,
mimeo, 1980.

42

ineffective for a variety of reasons including political interference and corruption. Forest
panchayats are too tightly controlled by the government bureaucracy to function effectively.
10.7 If we are to return to, and give new life to the concept of people taking development into
their own hands, new organisational forms will be needed, we will need new organisations that are
independent of government and that involve women. The replicability of the projects discussed
depends entirely on the degree of success that can be achieved in setting up effective village level
organisation.
10.8 Both in Sukhomajri and in DGSM villages we did not find much caste/class differences
and therefore the local village organisation had a higher probability of being effective. How well
the new village organisation will work in a multi-caste community or a community with large
differences in land holding is difficult to say.
10.9 Both at DGSM and at Sukhomajri, the village organisation was non-government and
independent. This is important because there will be situations when village people must oppose
outdated government policies and laws in order to be able to push ahead with their development
activities as happened in the Chipko movement.
Facilitating Organisation
10.10 The village communities need the help of a sympathetic service oriented organisation
which assists the communities to move into new directions. Without the leadership of DGSM, the
Mahila Mandals, the eco-development camps, and the rehabilitation of common lands would not
have been possible. In Sukhomajri, the outside facilitating agency was the CSWCRTI, a
government agency, with Ford Foundation also playing a facilitating role in collaboration with
CSWCRTI.
In each case the leadership was able to bring together individuals with different skills, experience,
abilities, position and relationships which helped in the success of the projects.
10.11 In each case the facilitating agency was able to attract exceptional people who were
committed to working with the rural poor. They realised the importance of spending time with the
local communities, understanding their problems and perspectives. Unless a relationship of mutual
trust is established, which is time consuming, such projects are difficult to undertake. Flexible
Funding:
10.12 Both DGSM and Sukhomajri had access to flexible and non-bureaucratic funding which
was considered essential especially during the period of experiment and learning. The DGSM has
used shramdan and their own funds to finance the development work they undertook. Only after
1982 did they receive some funds for their eco-development camps and integrated development of
Garur Ganga from the Department of Environment and the Planning Commission respectively.
10.13 In the case of Sukhomajri funding for the dams, pipes, sprinklers came from a grant from
the Ford Foundation to CSWCRTI for operational projects. A second grant in 1980 was for
expanding the programme in Nada. The Ford Foundation also hired short and long term
consultants to work on the project. These grants gave considerable flexibility in responding to the
development needs of the project. Communication, Motivation and Learning
10.14 In the case of DGSM the
eco-development
camps are a major instrument in
communication, motivation and learning for those who attend. The students gain a first hand
understanding of the problems at the grass-root levels and the villagers gain a new understanding
of their problems. The discussions are fruitful with active participation from all concerned It is
through these camps that the women learn what is possible and how the drudgery in their lives can
be reduced. A tremendous sense of confidence is generated and the village people literally take
their destiny in their own hands.
10.15 In the case of Sukhomajri too the village meetings and the W.U.A. meetings were key
instruments of communication, motivation and learning. The meetings by village women to the
use of smokeless chulas and the income generating activities connected with rope making.

43

Focus on Rehabilitation of Uncultivated Lands:

10 -16 It is significant that both projects developing independently of each other, recognised
the over-riding importance of the degeneration of common lands and focussed their projects on
their rehabilitation. In both projects the rehabilitation of common land secured the deteriorating
subsistence base of the hill economy, that is, it may secure the supply of subsistence needs such as
fodder, fuel and water. The weakness of most development programmes in hill areas is the neglect
of this base and .the almost exclusive attention to improving money income.
10.17 Uncultivated land is as important as cultivated, While food comes primarily from
cultivated land, fodder, firewood, water, house-building materials, wood for agricultural and
domestic implements and a host of other natural products come from uncultivated land. Even food
production from cultivated land depends upon inputs of organic matter : and plant nutrients,
deriving from uncultivated land via the chain.

Food production also depends upon firewood produced by uncultivated land, because in the
absence of firewood, cattle dung is burnt, depriving the cultivated land of its vital inputs of organic
matter and plant nutrients. The dependence of cultivated land on uncultivated is greater in the hills
than elsewhere because of poor soil. Finally, in the hills irrigation potential depends upon the
capture and storage of rain water, a function performed by uncultivated land. For all these reasons,
uncultivated land has been termed a 'support area' for cultivated land.*
10.18 Further, most traditional cottage industries, as well as the new, small-scale industries
visualised as a part of hill development, are based upon forest produce, such as bhabbar grass at
Harijan Nada, the supply of which can only be secured through the rehabilitation and proper
management of uncultivated land.
10.19 Rehabilitation of uncultivated lauds also means more fodder, which will permit more and
better animals to be stall kept which were previously "grazed. The individual family effectively
regulates its animal members to its feed supply. For instance, in Sukhomajri with the change from
grazing to stall feeding, buffaloes increased, cows decreased and goats almost disappeared.
10.20 In both projects rehabilitation is accomplished though purposive management, by
replacing competitive exploitation by individual families with planned cooperative exploitation,
The main elements of the management system are: planting and protecting of trees, regulating offtake and equitable sharing of benefits.
10.21 At Sukhomajri and Nada irrigation had been the catalyst for the change to a new system
of managing uncultivated land. It must not, however, be assumed that the replicability of these
projects is limited to areas where irrigation can be developed. Increased yields of fodder and
firewood can be adequate incentive, as the experience of another village in the vicinity of
Sukhomajri shows. In this village irrigation was net possible, but successful rehabilitation was
nevertheless achieved. In the DGSM villages, increased yields of fodder and firewood, the
prospect of future cash returns from fruit and nuts and environmental protection have been more
than adequate to motivate people to protect and manage uncultivated land.

Madhav Ashish in a seminar in New Delhi, January, 1984.

44

Watershed Management:
10.22 From Sukhomajri and DGSM projects it is clear that people have to be the focus of
planning and therefore, the planning unit must be the village and the families in it. If we do not
encourage rural people to manage the common lands to meet their needs of fuel and fodder, the
watershed has no chance of survival. Only by increasing the productivity of the watershed in the
interest of meeting local community needs will the watershed be rehabilitated and protected. These
projects highlighted that people must be the focus of watershed planning and management.
The Bottom-up Approach
10.23 The two projects are examples of the bottom-up approach wherein rural people plan their
own developmental belt with the help of governmental and nongovernmental agencies. In the ecodevelopment camps of DGSM it is the people who decide what needs to be done with the support
and the facilitating role of the outsiders. As people begin to take development in their own hands,
they start realising many constraints that needs to be tackled. There will be conflicts with
government to re-examine their policy about real rural development. The Chipko movement forced
the government in re-examining the policy of tree felling in the sensitive area of Alaknanda
resulting in a moratorium on tree felling. The Forest policy too needs to be re-examined and
debated by the people and the recommendations made to safeguard the interests of the people who
in turn would safeguard the forest interests. No amount of fencing or guards can save the forests if
the people's interests are not involved. A top-down approach would have serious problems in
safeguarding the watershed and the forests.

45

CHAPTER 11Project Costs Project Costs

11.1 It is difficult to estimate project costs, especially when the benefits are in the nature of less
drudgery for women, smokeless huts and environmental regeneration. However, in the case of
Sukhomajri, David Seckler in his paper pointed out "At 10% discount over a 30 year horizon, the
present value of the annual net return (9 -427 factor) is Rs.490,000. This amount divided by the
total project cost of Rs.324,000 results in a favourable cost-benefit ratio of 1:1 -51"
11.2 Current economic norms calculate the cost of an irrigation projects on the number of
hectares irrigated. At Sukhomajri the cost for 31 -5 ha. irrigated was Rs.10,375 per ha. This is
considered very reasonable when compared to reported costs of upto Rs.25,000 per ha. on some of
the big dams.
11.3 However, besides irrigation for the cultivated fields, the project has resulted in the
protection and rehabilitation of about 100 ha. of uncultivated land in the watershed. If the
regeneration of the uncultivated lands is taken into account the cost per ha. of the total land area
effected by the project may be considered as low as Rs.2,465 per ha. Further, large sums running
into lakhs of rupees were spent in desilting the Sukhna Lake which has reduced enormously after
the reforestation and protection of the catchment area.
11.4 It would perhaps be difficult to obtain accurate figures for the costs of walling and treeplanting under the DGSM programmes. Work done by the eco-development camps could not be
validly compared with similar costs under the Forest Department. It is claimed that the walls built
by DGSM art far superior to Forest Department walls, and that the survival rate for the trees
planted are higher. Saplings from the DGSM nurseries are distributed free. However, if the programme is to be extended and recommendations made for funding, it would be desirable to have
reasonably accurate estimates of costs.
11.5 Estimates of benefits could be made, but the short-term benefits would have little
significance in terms of cost-benefit ratios. In the Sukhomajri project, not only has irrigation
largely increased grain yields, but the village is also reported to sell 1,500 litres of milk daily, and
Harijan Nada is reported to make an annual sale of rope fetching Rs.20,000. The DGSM villages
might be able to build up similar gains from fruit and walnut trees planted both by the DGSM and
by the villagers themselves, but such gains will be relatively long-term, owing to the slow growth
of trees in the hill climate. Other possible income generating resources, such as bamboo (Ringhal)
basket-work and drug plants are at present inhibited by Forest Department policies and by
marketing problems.
11.6 We have to appreciate that the DGSM programme are starting from much poorer
conditions than at Sukhomajri. It has inferior soils, a harsher climate and more ardous problems of
transportation and communication. It may, therefore, take more work, a longer time and larger
funds lo raise the village economy even up to full subsistence. To reach the point where
moneymaking surplus can be generated may take longer still, particularly because as yet unproven
products and markets may have to be found. These conditions must temper any optimistic hopes
that programmes in the Garhwal hills could reach a self-sustaining level as rapidly as appears to
have occurred at Sukhomajri.
11.7 Investments in such projects should not be considered on the basis of bankability. In areas
where the rural economy is on a degenerative, downward spiral, that is, where each unit of
consumption decreases the annual yield of materials, so that degeneration proceeds exponentially,
the investments are for national good and for future generations. If the degeneration is not checked
its repercussions may spread in what is known as the domine effect; communities migrating from
devastated areas throwing unbearable burdens upon their neighbours resulting in further
devastation. The point to be emphasised is that there is a difference between investments which
stimulate growth in a viable community, and investments as part of a rescue operation to reverse a
degenerative process. It needs to be pointed out that if the concept of bankability of projects comes
between the rural communities and their capacity to regenerate their subsistence base then national
subsistence itself will be jeopardised.

46

11.8 Both at Sukhomajri and DGSM it has been shown that a one time input, irrespective of its
cost-benefit ratio has reversed a degenerative process and placed the village economy on an
upward regenerative spiral and each further input increases the community's own capacity to invest
and provide further inputs.

47

CHAPTER 12Constraints on Rehabilitation of Uncultivated Lands

12.1 The Directive Principles of State Policy, set down in Articles 39 of the Constitution of
India, provide that "The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing, that the
ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as to subserve
the common good."
12.2 Village communities in general do not manage the material resources of uncultivated lands
partly because of lack of appropriate community organisation for their management, and partly,
because of ownership rights and control. Some forms of community organisation have been
discussed in previous sections. In this section we discuss some of the constraint whose removal
might require major changes in forest policy and perhaps even legislative and administrative
reforms, if the well being of the hill community is to be ensured.
Village Rights within Reserve Forests :
12.3 In Sukhomajri and Harijan Nada there is no common land belonging to the village, all
common land being Reserve Forests. Two problems have arisen; rights to the produce of the land,
and lack of exclusive rights of a single village in a defined area of Reserve Forest. As Sukhomajri
when grass regenerated as a result of protection by the people of the village, the Forest Department
auctioned it, denying them the fruits of their investment of restraint and labour. At Harijan Nada,
neighbouring villagers came and harvested the Bhabbar grass so laboriously planted and tended by
the people of Harijan Nada, because all villages of the area share rights in common in the Reserve
Forest land on which the bhabbar grass was planted.
12.4 A solution to this problem might take the form of changing Forest Department rules to
permit village people greater rights to the produce of Reserve Forest land which they protect and
plant and of delineating areas of Reserve Forest village-wise, so that each village has exclusive
rights within a defined area of Reserve Forest.
12.5 A better solution would be to reclassify appropriate areas of Reserve Forest as village
forest, since management of land for commercial forestry and for meeting villages' needs of fuel,
fodder and minor forest products, as well as water, are not entirely compatible. In areas where
village forests are no longer adequate to meet the needs of an expanded human population,
reclassification would be desirable. If villages do not have enough land to meet their minimum
needs, rehabilitation will probably not be possible through community action such as we are
considering. In fact, what is needed, is a new, complete land settlement to ensure that every
village has adequate land, reasonably nearby, to meet its basic subsistence needs. Safeguards
would need to be applied to ensure that villages did, in fact, rehabilitate and manage the land
properly for the benefit of all residents equally. Such a settlement, if safeguards could be
ensured, would be the surest way of protecting and facilitating the improved management of the
Reserve Forests that would remain. This would require a major policy decision to give priority
to satisfying the rural people's basic subsistence needs from forest land over commercial
exploitation.
12.6 The Forest Act of 1927 makes specific provision for the reclassification of Reserve
Forests when increased areas are required to meet the subsistence needs of local people. This
provision is removed from the draft Forest Bill 1980. In fact, the point of view from which the bill
has been drafted is one of seeking more powers to protect existing Reserve Forests from the
people. Corning at a time when the Forest Department should be enlarging its outlook to include
an active concern for the rehabilitation of village forests by village people, this bill can only be
retrograde in its ultimate effect.
Village Boundaries :
12.7 The point was made about the village communities lose their incentive to rehabilitate
common land if the rights of benefits are disputed. Disputes over village forest boundaries are
reported to be an obstacle to community forestry plantations (D.F.O. Almora, 1983personal
communication), Boundaries are officially demarcated by the Revenue Department's Bandobast.

48

However, it appears that the Department takes no steps to enquire into and to settle disputes.
Disputes between villages therefore, have to be settled by the lengthy process of appeal in the Civil
Courts. Means for speedy settlement need to be devised. The Lok Adalat or the 'people's courts' is a
mechanism worth studying to deal with disputes of village boundaries.
Rights of the Individual
12-8 Problems might arise in respect of the power of the community to restrain the activities of
the individual on common village land. Forest panchayats, established by law, have punitive
powers over individuals who damage the panchayat forest, even though individual rights were
once exercised in these forests. But the voluntary association of persons, such as the Society at
Sukhomajri and the Mahila Mandals in the DGSM villages, have no legal standing in respect of
their control over dissenting individuals. At Sukhomajri, the Society has so far been able to use the
threat of deprivation of irrigation water to restraint individuals from grazing their animals on the
land the Society is rehabilitating in the community's interests. If anyone were to ignore this threat,
it might require a high level court case to decide whether the majority in a community can legally
restraint a minority from actions construed as harmful to the majority's interests. The Society's
principle that all members shall have an equal share in the produce of rehabilitated land would be a
strong point in the Society's favour. But, since membership is voluntary, anyone who resigns or is
deprived of his membership, would appear to be deprived of both his share under the Society and
his rights in common law.
Legal Status of Societies
12.9 The point was made earlier that new village organisations will need to be set up in
most villages to tackle the task of rehabilitating and managing village community land, because
existing gram sabhas, forest panchayats, cooperatives, etc. have become ineffective. However,
these existing bodies are constituted by government, while the Societies and Mahila Mandals we
are considering are not. Conflict over which body has the right to manage common village assets,
and to receive revenue generated from those assets, is a real possibility. Such conflicts could
entirely paralyse any attempt at community management of village land.
Marketing
12.10 In some of the DGSM villages people have planted citrus and walnut trees in addition to
fodder and fuelwood species on the slopes and on their uncultivated land. Their experience of
marketing the citrus fruit, a perishable commodity, has been dismal. In Harijan Nada the rope
makers also had a difficult time finding a suitable market for their rope. However, being close to
Chandigarh they have been able to make some marketing arrangement. Were Sukhomajri not near
Chandigarh, the marketing of milk, its chief saleable produce, at remunerative prices would pose a
problem.
12.11 For hill development along the lines of Sukhomajri and DGSM projects there will clearly
be a need of marketing assistance if village communities are to be helped to move from below
subsistence farming to economic self-sufficiency through cash crops and village produce and
perhaps to generate a cash surplus or savings. How such assistance can be provided is discussed in
the next section. The National Dairy Development Board has recently undertaken the marketing of
fruit and vegetables, in addition to the marketing of milk and vegetable oil. It might to be
worthwhile to study their approach to see its suitability for marketing produce from the hills and
the rural areas.
Population Growth
12.12 Throughout India, all development plans are overhung by threat of increasing human
numbers. In the U.P. Himalayas there is still sufficient land, with only a marginal reclassification
of reserve forest to village forest, were it all to be rehabilitated to meet the needs of the present
population for fodder and firewood (Jackson, 1983). But if population continues to increase at its

49

present rate, all afforestable land (villlage forests and reserve forest) will be needed by the year
2025 (Nautiyal and Babor, 1984)**.
12.13 It might be argued that one reason for the failure of the family planning programme was
our failure to implement the equitable social policies proposed in the First Five Year Plan (e.g.
land reforms) that lack of social security has driven the rural poor in particular to find economic
security in the earning potential of children. The projects discussed in this report exemplify the
rural response to socially equitable programmes, where everyone benefits in terms of the direct
availability of the materials of subsistence which are everyone's basic security. It is to be hoped
that such programmes will have an effect on population growth rates in the future, besides, direct
programmes such as better health care and population, and family planning education in schools.*

Nautiyal, J.C. and P. S. Babor, 1984. Changing the role of forestry to meet the needs of
Himalayan communitiesHow to avert an environmental disaster. Interdisciplinary Science
Reviews, accepted for publication

50

CHAPTER 13Project Replication: Need for an Intermediary Support Agency

13.1 How can projects like Sukhomajri and DGSM be supported, expanded and replicated ?
Should a separate intermediary institution be considered, and if so, what kind of an institution
should it be ? Much discussion took place among sub-committee members as to the nature of such
an intermediary support agency. Should it be a government or semi-government agency or should
it be an independent agency perhaps funded by government ?
13.2 In the view of the sub-committee the limit to micro-watershed development on the lines of
Sukhomarji and DGSM is not likely to be resources or technology but creating an appropriate
structure and management on the one hand, and finding committed and dedicated people like
Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Mishraji on the other hand.
13.3 It is important to consider institutional structures that can work closely and collaboratively
with agencies such as DGSM and can earn their trust and confidence. It was the view of the subcommittee that a governmental agency will not do because of its rigid procedures, inherent lack of
flexibility and the inaccessibility of the poor to bureaucracy.
13.4 In discussions with the leaders of Sukhomajri and DGSM projects, we were told that funds
were a major constraint in spreading the model to other micro-watersheds. Funds are required to
build the dams, lay pipes, build protection walls, buy cement for biogas plants, etc. but government
procedures and the inherent indignity of related follow-up has discouraged many persons to avail
themselves of government resources. Even when top authorities were very sympathetic the lower
echelons of bureaucracy found reasons for delay and found many obstacles to the sanction of
project funds. The rules and regulations involved in taking funds from government have
discouraged many voluntary agencies taking advantage of government schemes.
13.5 Other services mentioned that voluntary agencies like DGSM need are (i) sources of
information for getting technical, management and marketing advice, (ii) audio-visual materials
especially relevant at the village level, (iii) documentation, (iv) net-working in terms of exchange
of experience with likeminded agencies, and (v) a newsletter keeping them informed about
government policies on the one hand and development experiences of other agencies on the other
hand.
13.6 After considerable discussion and debate the subcommittee recommended establishing a
non-governmental support institution, primarily to provide funds for the expansion and replication,
of such 'models' in other hill areas. The function of such an agency would be to identify voluntary
agencies and other NGOs, to assist in project proposals, and to provide grants to such agencies for
watershed management and related village development. Such a non-governmental agency should
be a registered Society. The name of the Society suggested was (a) Hills Local Imitative Support
Centre (HILLISC) and/or (b) National Hill Resource Management Centre (NHRMC). It should
have a Governing Board which should consist of 12 members, 6 representing voluntary agencies, 3
from government, and 3 independent members to be co-opted. The Chairman of the Board should
be appointed in consultation with the Board members. The Executive head should be appointed by
the Board. The Society should receive 50%-60% of its funds from government, and it should raise
the rest from other sources.
13.7 It is important that the Society establishes norms of autonomy and flexibility. In this
regard, choice of the executive director would be crucial to the success of the Society
13.8 The sub-committee also recommended supporting established agencies such as can
provide the services mentioned earlier. Illustrative examples are the Society for Promotion of
Wastelands Development (SPWD) for information about seeds, seminars for exchange of
information and identifying problems, developing project proposals, providing information
relating to technical, management and marketing help, development of audio-visual materials, etc;
the Centre for Science & Environment (CSE) for net-working and newsletter, and other such
agencies in other parts of the country. The idea | is to keep H1LLISC or NHRMC simple ^concept
and management, and to use existing agencies with overlapping interests to provide the necessary
services.

51

13.9 A team of 2 or 3 persons should be appointed to translate the idea into reality, and to work
out the funds required for the Society and support services. The government should fund microwatershed development and community management of hill resources through such an
intermediary agency which in turn provides resources to grass root voluntary and other nongovernmental agencies.

52

Chapter 14Recommendations and Conclusions

14.1 What we have learnt from Sukhomajri and DGSM can be summed up by two quotations
from Swami Vivekananda:
"All the wealth of the world cannot help one little Indian village if the people are not taught to
help themselves."
"Take man where he stands and from there give him a lift. What can you and I do ? Do you
think you can teach even a child ? You cannot. The child teaches himself. Your duty is to afford
opportunities and to remove obstacles".
14.2 The above quotations are especially significant in relation to village level planning, micro
watershed development, hill resources management and rural development in general. Planning
must involve the people and the unit of management must be the village or a hamlet not an abstract
watershed. Although village panchayats were established as democratic institutions, unfortunately,
these have not functioned well for a variety of reasons. Much greater understanding is required of
the rural poor, of class and caste differences and their impact on the kind of organisations that will
work well at the village level. In Sukhomarji and Nada, three reservoirs were built in each village,
so that each sub-group could have its own W.U.A. The Harijans of Nada have a separate hamlet
and a separate W.U.A. which has been extraordinarily active not only in equitable water
distribution but in growing bhabbar grass, rope making and building smokeless chulas. A shared
concern and a shared way of life seems important for local organisations which work well.
14.3 A point that needs to be underscored is that in projects involving subsistence issues, and
dependence on uncultivated and common lands, the involvement of women is crucial to the
success of the project. Men are not interested in issues of fuelwood and fodder, these are part of
the women's domain, and any regeneration of common and forest wastelands can only be
accomplished with the active involvement and support of women, Any policy formulation in
relation to fuelwood and fodder, and micro-watershed development, must take into account the
role of women and the management of these resources by women.
14.4 Experience of Sukhomajri and DGSM, and a variety of other poverty programmes indicate
that social and economic problems cannot be solved by crash programmes with large budgets. The
marginal impact of such programmes has a second lesson : that efforts to deal with hill areas and
backward communities must be comprehensive and long term. And it is not just capital but
innovative problem solving mechanisms that would make better use of the leverage inherent in
available resources.
14. 5 With the growth of specialisation there is a widening gap between knowledge and action.
The planners, administrators and scientists have knowledge in relation to soil and water
conservation techniques and other scientific knowledge useful in the hills but the utilisation of
such knowledge is not there. Utilisation of knowledge for the benefit of the rural poor, requires
understanding of the poor and their psychology of fear, risk-taking, alienation, and trepidation of
approaching the officials, and skills of organisation and social action. The gap between knowledge
and action is a major concern of administrators and development activists. Certainly some of the
most perplexing and urgent problems are not technological but human, organisational, social and
political. It is evident that a governmental agency will not be able to work closely and
collaboratively with the rural peer even with the best of intentions, and that an agency such as the
DGSM should be the intermediary between government and village communities, and between
knowledge and action.
14. 6 In an earlier section we highlighted what we considered were key elements in the success
of these projects. These elements are interrelated and interdependent: with bottom-up planning
stratagies there is participation of local communinities; with equitable distribution everyone in the
community is involved. An independent organisation at the local level can only be [supported by
an independent voluntary agency, and such an agency must have flexible independent funds for it
is often necessary to fight against government policies as the Chipko movement did and as may be
necessary to fight the new Forest Bill in relation to their rights.

53

14.7 The cultivated and tin uncultivated lands too are interrelated and inter dependent, as has
been amply shown in section 12. The rehabilitation of uncultivated lands which will mean more
fuel and fodder, will also mean more productivity of cultivated lands, and greater participation of
women.
14.8 At a future date when cultivated and uncultivated lands in the hills will mean more cash
cropsvegetables, fruit trees, walnut trees etc. the incentive for participation will come within;
availability of better marketing services, that can pro--vide a better price to the producers.
14.9 Recommendations of the sub-committee for watershed and hill resource development are:
i.

Participation of local communities, especially women,

ii. A village organisation to manage the resources,

iii. Equitable distribution of resources amongst members.
iv. A facilitating organisation which works closely with village communities e.g. DGSM.
v. Horizontal and vertical linkages amongst villages students, teachers, between insiders and
outsiders, between knowledge and action.
vi. Focus on rehabilitation of uncultivated and wastelands.
14.10 A number of policy changes have also been recommended in the section on constraints to
the rehabilitation of uncultivated lands. There is need to redefine village rights within reserve
forests, to reclassify appropriate areas as village forests and redefine village boundaries.
14.11 The government should give clear cut policy decision to give priority to satisfying the
rural people's subsistence needs because there are conflicts between the commercial needs and
subsistence needs of the poor in a shortage economy.
14.12 It is also recommended that an intermediary nongovernmental agency be established in
providing flexible funding, to organisations such as DGSM and Sukhomajri. Further, it is
suggested that funds be allocated to agencies that could provide technical managerial and
information services to such agencies.
14.13 Education regarding environmental problems and their impact on the village economy
needs to become an integral part of schooling. This will mean the development of appropriate
curriculam and teaching materials. Special emphasis on non-formal education for women would be
important for their active involvement and participation in hill resource development.

54

CHAPTER 15Observations of [Planning Commission Team on Sukhomajri and [Dasholi

Gram Swarajya Mandal Projects
I. Visit to Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal Project
15.1 Dr. C. H. Hanumantha Rao, Member, Planning Commission visited U.P. Hill Areas
from October 11 to 16,1985 with a view to get acquainted with the implementation of the
integrated watershed management projects under the U.P. Hill Sub-plan and the functioning of the
Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal, a voluntary agency for eco-development in
the district of
Chamoli. He was accompanied by Dr. S. L. Shah, Consultant (Hill Areas), Sarvashri N. L.
Meena, Deputy Adviser (NEC) and S.S. Batra, Sr. Reasearch Officer from the Planning
Commission and R. P. Sharma, Project Director (watersheds), Sh. K. P. Singh, Additional
Director (Agriculture) Shri Anil Berri, Deputy Director, Land Use Survey Directorate, Department
of Forest and Shri Gairola, Deputy Development Commissioner, Garhwal Division from the State
Government of War Pradesh.
Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (D.G.S.M.)
15.2 The Dasholi Gram Swarrjya Mandal (D.G.S.M.) is a voluntary agency founded by Shri
Chandi Prasad Bhatt, in 1964, at Gopeshwar, District Chamoli. It is an autonomous self-supporting
agency, obtaining its funds from Khadi and Village Industries Commission, its own, resin,
turpentine and varnish units and a flourmill. Income from these activities is used to pay the salaries
of the workers. Since 1982, partial funding of eco-development camps and for the integrated Garur
Ganga micro watershed development has been provided by the Department of Environment.
15.3 The DGSM has played a key role in motivating the local people to participate in various ecodevelopment and soil conservation schemes with the main thrust on plantation and forest
protection. It has a history of its own for leading a movement of eco-development. An interesting
phenomenon in this area is that various Andolans or movements were witnessed in recent years.,
and the DGSM has played an active role there in. What is more, women have been invariably in
the forefront. In its initial stage, the DGSM workers took to spread the message of "Bhoodan
Movement" in the villages but with little success. In 1967-68 for instance, they launched a massive
"antiliquor campaign". The Govt. finally agreed to their plea and Uttrakhand and Chamoli
remained dry. The "Chipko Movement" was born in march, 1973 when the women folk prevented
the contractors from felling trees in the forest. The genesis of the Chipko Movement has both an
ecological and an economic background. If any one event was responsible for the tremendous
support extended by the local people to the Chipko Movement and the afforestation programmes it
was the 1970 floods in the Alaknanda Valley. The flood innundated an area of about 1000 sq. kms.
of Chamoli district. It swept away six major bridges, 10 kms of motorable road and 24 buses.
Much of the vegetal cover all along the Alaknanda in the above catchment was lost. This
Alaknanda tragedy left a deep impression on the hill folk and, with it, soon followed the
appreciation of the role that forests play in their lives. The DGSM workers discovered that the root
cause of the flood was heavy deforestation, heavy rainfall and ill planned road construction in the
area.
15.4 The! DGSM launched its first direct action programme of forest protection in 1973 with a
view to provide stability to the area. For creating awareness of the need for conservation, it has
been imparting environmental education to the villagers through eco-development camps in the
different villages of the region. Three to four camps are held every year with majority of women as
its participants. The camps start with patriotic songs and prayers and an inspiring atmosphere is
created. Discussions take place on the problems of the village and their solution. Shramdan is also
done. Every one participates spontaneously and this helps in building strong relationship and sense
of commitment amongst the participants. The major task in the camp include stone wall
construction for protection of crop fields pasture lands and plantation on community lands, digging
pits, planting saplings, raising nurseries construction of check dams for prevention of landslides
etc In addition to re-afforestion of common wastelands, the DGSM's programme also includes the
introduction of fuel-efficient, smokeless chulahs, gobar gas plants, solar energy. Having created
the consciousness about protection and regeneration of their degraded lands the need for a village

55

level organisation is felt to manage common resources. Mahila Mandals have been set up as the
key village level organisation for the management of common resources.
Mahila Mandals
15.5 The Mahila Mandals are informal, with no written constitution, but very effective
institutions indeed. Firewood, fodder and water are primarily women's concerns and women take
more active interest in improving their supplies and thus reducing their drudgery. For the equitable
distribution of grass and firewood produced on village common land, the Mahila Mandals ensure
that all families in the village cooperate in the programme. Women have learnt that the
rehabilitation of common lands could ensure the supply of subsistence needs such as fodder, fuel
and water.
15.6 D.G.S.M. has provided a methodology for people's participation. The leader is held in
very high esteem. He has been able to inculcate a sense of discipline, a feeling of reverence. The
decisions are taken in unanimity which ensures success of public participation. The other leaders
including women may be moderately educated or even uneducated, but they are highly motivated
and imbued with a sense of dedication to promote eco-development. They work as initiators,
promoters, educators and implementors of eco-development projects. They emphasise virtues of
self-sacrifice and the need to guide others by setting a correct example. They generate enthusiasm
and confidence. Being members of the local cc immunity, they have a sound knowledge of ecodevelopmental issues derived through experience. They are immensely interested in the welfare of
the local people and have a concern for the unemployed youth, who are well motivated and
conscientised. The D.G.S.M. approach is a people's approach rather than a mere project approach.
15.7. In the afternoon of October 13, 1985, the team accompanied by Shri Chandi Prasad
Bhatt, leader of the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM), reached Tungsa village. Encouraged by the Dasholi Gram Swarjya Manadal (DGSM), Gopeshwar, the village had prepared
several nurseries of fruits and fodder trees. The land for nurseries was donated free by the
villagers. The nurseries are owned and maintained by the village community. The plants are
being distributed to the villagers freely. The keenness of the villagers in afforestation is reflected
from the fact that they had undertaken an afforestation project of the Deptt. of Forest under which
they planted 10,000 trees on a payment of Rs. 4,000. This money was used in purchase of
utensils, durries, harmonium for use of village community. Caste being no bar, all villagers
participate in the community programme. Another instance of community participation was that
the villagers have themselves harnessed the water having created a water fall by diverting
perennial stream and got the turbine and three kilowatt generater functioning at Tungsa. The
entire project cost them about Rs.12,000. The cost of the project at present was stated to be about
Rs.50,CCO. They have been able to generate power to give street lights in their village, to run the
flour mill, oil expeller and the saw mill. It has saved the women folk of the village a several
kilometres treck to the neighbouring flour mill. A meeting with the Mahila Mandal of Tungsa was
held. Some of the important problems faced and the suggestions made by them are listed below:
i.

A lot of citrus fruits particularly malta and kagji lemon were being produced in the area,
but due to lack of processing/marketing and other infrastructural facilities these were
being sold at throw away prices. As a result, the orchardists were not getting adequate
returns on their investments. The villagers,
therefore,
sought assistance for
setting up a fruit processing unit at their village. The Acting District Magistrate (Joint
Director, Industries, Garhwal Division) informed in the meeting that their Industry
Department would provide loan up to Rs.1.20 lakhs for setting up the fruit processing
unit. They were asked to submit the project proposal to that Department. It was further
stated that a cold storage plant was also being set up by the Department of Industries in
the area.

ii. Opening up of a high school in the village

iii. Setting up of a hospital at a Central place
iv. Opening up of a stiching/knitting Training Centre

56

v. Facilities for soil testing

vi. Primary school in village Kathoor as the children have to cross two rivers to reach the
school in the neighbouring village. As a result many of the children attend the school at
a late stage or remained illiterate
vii. Due attention for the development of fisheries
viii. Representation of women in village panchayat
ix. Vocational education relevant to hill condition
15.8 The Team visited village Bachher in the evening. This pillage also had a big nursery of
fruits and fodder trees. The women of the village were very active in Chipko Movement. For
instance, 200 women of the village had opposed deforestation. During the discussion with the
Manila Mandal, it was stated that the main problems faced by the village people were; (i)
protection of crops from wild animals particularly wild boar and parcupine and of livestock from
tigers (ii) lack of irrigation facilities despite abundance of the water resources (iii) upgra-dation of
their junior high school lo high school and repair and maintenance of its buildings.
15.9 On October, 14, 1985, the Team after seeing the afforestation programme of the DGSM
around Gopeshwar reached Landsidhar and therefrom walked for about 10 Kms., to and fro,
visiting Tapowan and Dwing villages. At a meeting with the village people of Tapowan, it was
suggested that hostel facilities at the school be provided for the boys and girls as they were to walk
10-12 kms. to and fro, from their houses, The school should be upgraded to the intermediate
college level.
The village people expressed that the proposal to construct. another rope bridge near the
existing one should be dropped and a motorable bridge may be constructed. They were of the view
that construction of a motorable road of about 5 1m. length would connect several villages to
motor head and help them to market their produce particularly citrus fruits and soyabean. These
views were also strongly endorsed in the meeting of Dwing, village people. In Dwing village, the
Team witnessed solar energy system used for street lighting and gobar gas plant and smokeless;
chulah for domestic energy purposes. The village was having good orchards of citrus varieties.
They had also platted 40,000 walnut trees and raised stone walls around their fields and pasture
lands with the assistance of DGSM. It has helped them increasing yield of crop and fodder. Prior
to this, wild bear and other animals used to destroy the crops, agricultural lard were turning into
waste land and there was constant tension in the village. With the building of the wall, the
wasteland has been planted with citrus and fodder trees and the we men, no-longer have to walk 34 kms. in search of fodder. The men no longer have to stay up during nights to drive away wild
animals from the fields. They had also a system of equitable distribution of grass raised in
community lards. It was stated that soyabean could be a major crop in rain fed areas provided remunerative prices and marketing facilities were ensured.
15.10 A meeting with the District Officers of various Departments was held in the
Collectorate at Gopesbwar (District (Chamoli) on October 15, 1985 to interact on the various
issues/ problems raised by the village people during the visit of the Team, Giving his impressions
of tour, Member, Planning Commission stated that the basic needs of the hill people were fuel,,
fodder, drinking water, primary education, health care, construction of water storage tanks and
irrigation channels, marketing facilities for horticultural produce. One of the suggestions of DGSM
villages was that the existing system of giving contracts for afforestation projects by the Forest
Department should bet abolished. The work should be entrusted to the village community. It was
evident from the work done by the village youth and the Mahila Mandals that they were capable of
doing such jobs.
15.11 In regard to the question of entrusting the work of the afforestation to the village
community, the Divisional Forest Officer stated that according to U.P. Govt. order, there was no
provision to give contract to the Gram Sabha exceeding Rs.7,500. As the cost of the most of the
projects exceeded the fixed limit of Rs.7,500, it was necessary to increase the limit. It was

57

observed that under the IRDP, NREP, RLGP, the works amounting to Rs.1 lakh on muster roll
basis were being undertaken. It was felt that the Forest Deptt. G. O. "may be examined with a view
to explore the possibility of undertaking works on IRDP norms. This would help involving people
which, is necessary for success of any development programme.
15.12 In his concluding remarks, the Member, Planning Commission, stated that in the District
of Chamoli under the auspices of the DGSM, the people were highly awakened and a movement of
eco-development was underway. The District Officers should take advantage of this awareness and
involvement of the people in carrying out their Depart mental programmes. He expressed that
officers should be rewarded suitably for their good work done in remote and inaccessible areas.
Procedures and rules should not stand in their way as these could be suitably changed.
Conclusion
15.13 Based on the above observations on the Government sponsored and the DGSM projects,
the following conclusions emerge for successful implementation of the integrated water-shed
projects:
(i)

The plan formulation should start at village level' converging on the watershed level. The two
should be taken as complementary.

(ii) The people must be the focus of watershed planning and management and participation of
local communities especially women with a committed and dedicated leadership should be
ensured.
(iii) A village organisation to manage resources is needed. The State Govt. is to decide what the
best form of local level organisation for people's participation would be however, since
people have lasting interest in their resources, they should be trusted. It should be left to them
to decide what kind of organisation would suit them most. The D.G.S.M. is one model for
people's participation. Whatever may be the organisational form it should be the main vehicle
for people's participation. It should not substitute the functions of any of the line departments
but should assist them in the improvement of design as well as performance. It should
effectively liaison and hold dialogue with line department functionaries and suggest necessary
adjustments in the programme and its implementation.
(iv) The shortage of fuel, fodder and water are the major problems in the hill areas and the burden
of it falls on the women who have to walk two to three kms. along steep cliffs and jungles in
search of them. Therefore, the subsistence needs of the people for fuel, fodder and water have
to be met first. Conservation should become possible with fulfilment of this prime requisite.
Providing social amenities like education, health care and family welfare, drinking water,
bridle path and foot bridges and other communications facilities would not only improve the
quality of their life, but also induce people's participation.
(v) There is need to train multi-purpose workers at the watershed level and put them under the
supervision of the project Director who should be vested with adequate powers for
implementing the integrated watershed management programme.
(vi) The people's organisations by their very nature and composition may often lack scientific and
technological capabilities and expertise. Watershed management needs scientific information
and appropriate technology for which a professional approach is needed. Collaboration and
effective liaisoning with various R&D Institutions preferably those located in the region are
very desirable.
II. Visit to Sukhomajri :
15-14 The Planning Commission's team comprising Dr. C.H. Hanuroantba Rao, Member,
Shrimati P P. Trivedi, Adviser (State plans) and Dr. Virendra Kumar, Consultant (Hill Areas)
visited Sukhomajri Watershed Rehabilitation Project in the state of Haryana on 23rd October,
1982. This small watershed is a part of the 900 kms. stretch of Shivalik tract of low hilly range.

58

The project has been sponsored by Ceneral Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training
Institute's Regional Research Centre of ICAR at Chandigarh.
15.15 The team was accompanied by Shri P.P. Caprihan Chief Secretary, Haryana State
Government and Shri P.H. Vaishnav, Financial Commissioner (Development), Government of
Punjab, Shri Kulwant Singh, Planning Secretary, other officers from the, Forestry, Agriculture and
Irrigation Departments of Haryana and Punjab Governments.
15.16 The visit aimed to make first-hand observations on the Sukhomajri watershed project in
the denuded Shivalik Hill tracts which could be taken up as a model for large scale replication in
all watershed areas. This region for over a century and a half, had undergone systematic
deforestation and consequently, lost its water harvest and recharge properties. Instead of offering
perennial source of water for a variety of human activities, it has become a zone of drought and
flash floods. Instead of gradual release of minerals from the hills, enormous quantities of debris
and silt flow down to destroy vast stretches of fertile agricultural land. Consequently, the
inhabitants of this tract have come to live as scavengers at bare subsistence level; others migrate to
cities to work as labour and live under a variety of deprivations in slums.
Sukhomajri project
15.17 Dr. P.R. Mishra, Officer-in-charge of the project explained to the group the technological
measures undertaken, the socio-economic benefits which accrued out of it, and the emergence of
new social consciousness among the local inhabitants, during the tenure of the project.
Social Fencing
15.18 It is a unique experiment in that the reforested area. was not cordoned off by the barbed
wire fencing to prevent grazing and other human interferences. Dr. P. R. Mishra, the officer-incharge, explained that the- area has instead been placed under, 'social fencing', a novel concept by
which the people voluntarily decided not to allow grazing in the catchment area. The periodic
removal of grass has been permitted for stall-feeding of cattle and for other economic purposes but
not cutting of the trees or even lopping of leafy branches. Water Harvest
15.19 The area received approximately 1200 mm of ram during summer and winter monsoon.
Earlier the entire water was lost in the form of flash floods in Sukhna Choe leaving the watershed
dry during the non-monsoon period of 8-9 months.
Water Distribution System
15.20 With the availability of water to support irrigation, it was possible to raise crops other
than during the monsoon period. The project helped in setting a Water User's Association of 10
members, including 2 non-resident members. The WUA decided to provide equal quantity of
water by rotation to the head of each family by following coupon system. The benefit is equally
shared irrespective of the size of the land-holding. Even the landless persons have the same share
and therefore have strong stake in the conservation, protection of the watershed and restoration
efforts. A coupon holder is free to sell his share of water to others who may need extra water. The
amount collected by the association is being used for supporting the maintenance of the water
supply system.
15.21 The gravity-run water is distributed by underground steel-pip; lines laid 20 metres apart.
For each field there is a simple water-measuring device for the quantity of water utilised. By
flexible hose, low pressure sprinklers have been used to irrigate the fields.
Key to the success of the Project
15.22 The key role for collective social cooperation was played by water harvested during
rainy season and stored in the first stage reservior. This water was made available for irrigation
purposes and distributed equally to all the villagers. It was a revolutionary approach, turning
"Warabandi" into "Hakabandi". It ensured social justice to all the inhabitants who, in turn, agreed
to put themselves under an unwritten pledge of protecting the watershed. The defaulters are
punished by the village panchayat. A defaulter losses his right to water. This voluntary moral and

59

social binding, imposed upon themselves by the people to protect the catchment area, again has
been a unique feature, which led to the success of the programme. This concept appropriately
named as 'social fencing' proved to be a much more effective barrier than the usual barbed wire
fencing.
Conclusion
15.23 The field visit to Sukhomajri watershed Rehabilitation Project was a convincing
verification of the concept that ecological and economic securities are clearly inter-dependent.
That given the bleak panorama of 900 km. stretch of Shivalik hill tract and its recently gained
propensity for hurling recurrent misfortunes in the form of flash floods, disrupting communication
system, turning fertile agricultural land into wasteland of infertile stretches of debris and silt,
drastically reducing the functioning life-span of expensive hydro-electric dams and irrigation
system, loss of human life and collosal economic damages, this project gives the hope that nature
when treated with due wisdom and care continues to be the ultimate "benign source to sustain the
diverse life phenomenon.
A Viable Development Model
15.24 That the Sukhomajri and the satellite Nada Village project have offered a 'viable model,
with comparatively low financial inputs, short gestation period and it has short and long term
continued benefits, for strengthening the ecological as well as economic base concurrently.
Simple Inexpensive Technology
15.25 The 'soil Conservation and reforestation technology us simple, not requiring heavy
investment in costly equipment or heavy machinery and other infrastructure like large building
complexes etc.
The sun-light as the Energy Source
15.26 The source of energy, the abundant sunlight is the prime mover of this plantation based
rural industry with its multifold environmental and economic benefits.
Socio-psychological Benefits
15.27 Besides, the ecological and economic benefits to the land and the poverty stricken
people, this activity has brought harmony, cooperation and a sense of togetherness and optimism,
among the people. We are well aware of the numerous social conflicts and atrocities and economic
imbalances in rural and urban India brought by developmental projects in certain sectors. The
people showed the ability to take right decisions collectively to enforce social discipline and
provide social justice and equity for all. This socio-psychological gain is as significant as other
obvious economic gains. The project is not a text book project, rather it has evolved as a gradual
learning process leading towards clearly visualised ecological and socio-economic goals.
Need for Institutionalization
15.28 It is, therefore, highly desirable that the Sukhomajri watershed Rehabilitation project
should be replicated on large scale, in the 900 km. belt of Shivalik hill tract, stretching from
Jammu and Kashmir in the West to Kumaon hills in the East. However, to organise the scattered
sectoral activities and finances in different States, it would be necessary to suitably institutionalise
the process, among the 5 participating States, for coordination, funding and technical support from
different sources.
Stages in the Watershed Rehabilitation
15.29 The Watershed rehabilitation would essentially follow two -developmental stages:
Stage I : Restoration of the Watershed
It would involve all the present ongoing activities as seen in Sukhomajri project i.e. integration
of soil conservation engineering, reforestation, water harvest and human development.

60

The ecological objective of this developmental stage is to bring a drastic reduction in the siltdebris flow to prevent sedimentation of water bodies and degradation of agricultural land and
severity and frequency of flashfloods in plains.
The social objectives is to upgrade the economy of the inhabitants, as situated, without any
displacement of population..
Stage II : Re-activation of the Watershed Hydrology
This stage involves two inter-linked steps:
Tin natural vegetation should be allowed to reach the 'climatic climax'-this ecological term
refers to the final stage of the process of plant succession i. e. under the given ecological" factors
the natural state of vegetation beyond which it cannot transcend to any other stage.
Our academic knowledge is rather very fragmentary and inadequate, therefore, this aspect
needs intensive inter-disciplinary research, for the understanding of this process in nature and its
replication on large scale. This is a challenging field of research for the Universities and other
scientific institutions located in the region.
The step (1) will gradually lead to the reactivation of the watershed to harness the atmospheric
precipitation to recharge the underground storage and its gradual release in the form of perennial
springs and to sustain the natural waterflow in the river channels originating in the watershed. The
drying of hill springs and streams has caused great concern. This aspect of watershed restoration
would need sustained efforts for a. period of 2-3 decades, therefore, needs long term
comprehensive integrated developmental planning for the entire region.
Urgent Need for Organised Action
15.30 The Stage I, in the form of Sukhomajri project is a fairly complete and successful model
emerging out of the 1CAR operational research project, should now be taken up as a development
model for Shivalik hills and other hill tracts which have similar topography and agro-ecological
situations. With the growing national concern for loss of forests, scarcity, of fodder, fuel and
increasing incidence of flash floods, droughts quick thinking and organised action are needed on
part of the State Governments sharing the Shivalik hill terrains.

61