Imp Que

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History of India 1200 to 1550 AD.

Content
Unit 1: Establishment, expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate between 13th
to 15th centuries: Expansion; Iqta system; nobility; The North-Western Frontier and the
Mongols.
Unit II: Military, administrative and economic structure under Khilji and Tughlaq.
Unit III: Regional Political Structures: Vijayanagara and Bahmani.
Unit IV: Second Afghan Empire.
Unit V: Society, Culture and Religion: Bhakti – Kabir and Mira Bai Sufism – Chishti and
Suhrawardy.
Unit VI: Art and Architecture: Qutb Complex; Vijayanagar (Hampi).
Unit VII: Trade and Commerce: Indian Merchants in Foreign Trade, 12th – 15th
Centuries.
All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/
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Q 1 – Evaluate the contribution of Ziauddin Barani in the history writing of Delhi

Sultanate.
Or
Describe the importance of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi for reconstructing the

history of the Delhi Sultanate.
Answer - Introduction
Historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the
past. The historiography of North India from the 7th–
12th centuries draws extensively on archaeological

sources, such as numismatics and epigraphy. However,
a rich collection of literary sources is available for the
period after the 13th century. A large number of
Persian chronicles are also available to historians of

the Delhi Sultanate. These power-centred Persian histories (tawarikhs) were written by
courtiers of Delhi, whose main purpose was to describe the Sultan, his court and related
institutions.
Contribution of Ziauddin Barani in history writing
Ziauddin Barani, a renowned figure of medieval Indian history, was a brilliant historian
and scholar. His work was to provide information about the political and social situation
during his time. His writings focused on the Delhi Sultanate and included political, social
and cultural aspects. Barani's most famous work is "Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi". He
emphasized historical accuracy and the use of primary sources. His ideas influenced
future historians and shaped the field of historiography.
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Barani stressed the importance of accuracy in historical accounts. He criticized his
contemporaries for relying on unreliable sources. He emphasized the use of authentic

sources and critical analysis to ensure accuracy in historical research.
Barani's exploration of socio-religious issues contributed to a deeper
understanding of medieval society. In his writings he examined the role of religion in

governance, the impact of social hierarchy, and the status of women. This socio-cultural
commentary expanded the narrative beyond political events and brought to the fore the
lived experiences of individuals.
Ideal ruler and state-
Barani considers Mahmud Ghaznavi as the ideal emperor and all subsequent Muslim
emperors are the descendants of Mahmud Ghaznavi. Therefore, all Muslim kings should
follow Ghaznavi. Barani was a staunch Muslim. He gives the mantra of 'destruction of
infidels' to the ideal ruler.
According to Barani, a wise king is one who is safe from the deceit and betrayal of
envious people and evil people. In their opinion, the king should protect himself and
the state according to the Quran. The ideal king should follow Shariat. The king should
be Deenpanah (protector of Islam).
The king should display terror as per time and he should be justiciable . This leads to
progress of Islam. The king must maintain the abundance and unity of Hashem (army
and family). The king should keep the market prices cheap, so that the common people
can get satisfaction and happiness.
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Description of the importance of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi-
Zia al-Din Barani's Tarikh-e Firoz Shahi is the most commonly used
source for writing the history of the Delhi Sultanate. He completed it
in 1357 AD. In this, the history is written from the ascension of
Balwan to the throne in 1265 AD till the sixth year of Firozshah. In

this, the socio-economic and justice reforms of that period have
been described. Ziauddin Barani was working on the post of
revenue. Ziauddin Barani has described the revenue situation in

great detail in his book.
Ziauddin Barani has also given an introduction to the social life of this period in his book
Tarikh-e-Firozshahi. Along with this, good light has been thrown in this book on the
social and economic condition of the reign of Alauddin Khilji. There is a glimpse of
religious bias in Tarikh-e-Firozshahi, yet Tarikh-e-Firozshahi has historical importance.
He writes that “I have written all the histories as true”. He has openly written the
merits and demerits of everyone. The history of Balwan has been written by Ziauddin
Barani after hearing it from his ancestors. He has also written the economic and political
history of this period from the literature of Amir Khusras. He has described all the events
and economic history from a special perspective.
In this book, rich people and high officials of the state have been described. He has
written a brief version of important events. This is also the fault of its history. He
considered nobility necessary in high positions. He had no value for ability.
According to Tarikh-e-Firozshahi, the economic condition of the country started
declining since the time of Muhammad Tughlaq. He has ridiculed the agricultural
development schemes of Muhammad Tughlaq. He did not get any benefit from the
canals and economic policies built during the time of Firoz.
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Tarikh-e-Firozshahi is considered to be the sequel to Tabaqat-e-Nasiri because its
history begins exactly where the history of Tabaqat-e-Nasiri ends. That is why historians
have called Tarikh-e-Firozshahi the latter part of Tabaqat-e-Nasiri.
Demerits/Criticism of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi
1. Barani does not give importance to the lower class of the society nor does he
consider them to have any relation with history. According to his opinion, history
should be limited to the upper families. Barani considered the main objective of his
history to be to guide the rulers, rich etc.

2. Ziauddin Barani followed the principles propagated by Balban, Alauddin Khalji and
Mohammad Tughlaq, and the main ones were his own thoughts and principles.
3. The main defect of Barani's historiography is that he has mostly described the
important and major events in a very brief form - which at some places is so brief
that there is great difficulty in understanding the history of that time.
4. Another flaw of Barani is the sequence of events.
5. Barani also evaluates politics from a religious perspective, which is completely
inappropriate - whereas he should have been inspired by a neutral and objective

viewpoint.
Conclusion
Ziauddin Barani's contribution as a historian and scholar was truly remarkable. His
writings on the Delhi Sultanate provide valuable insights into the political, social and
cultural landscape of medieval India. Opinion is divided on Barani's authenticity as a
historian of the Delhi Sultanate. Complete confidence in him as a source has been
advocated by Irfan Habib and earlier Mohammad Habib. Peter Hardy (1961) is skeptical
of Barani's historiography, because Barani treats it as a branch of theology.
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Q 2 – Examine the working of the Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate.
Answer-Introduction
The real founder of the Muslim empire in India was Muhammad Ghori, who is mostly
called Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of the Gur dynasty. The main
objective of Muhammad Ghori to attack India was to establish a Muslim state. Death of
Muhammad Ghori in 1206 AD. Mohammad Gauri had no children. In such a situation,
Qutbuddin Aibak's rule is established over the territories won by Mohammad Ghori in
India and with this the Delhi Sultanate is established in India in 1206 AD.
There were five Muslim empires or dynasties that ruled the Delhi region between 1206
and 1526 AD. The names of these five dynasties - Ghulam dynasty (1206 - 1290), Khilji
dynasty (1290- 1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320 - 1414), Syed. dynasty (1414 to 1451),
Lodhi dynasty (1451–1526).
Meaning of Iqta system –
Iqta means a plot of land from which the land revenue was used to pay the salary of an
officer or soldier. It was a territorial grant whose recipients were called Mukti, Wali
and Iqtedar. Who did not take cash salary but took some part of the land. Iqta was a
structure which had two functions, firstly to collect land revenue and secondly to
distribute the collected land revenue as salary to its officials.
Mukti, 'Iqtadar': Iqtadar or Mukti was a title given to a person who held Iqta. He had
the authority to manage and collect the entire revenue from the Iqta.
Development of Iqta system under Delhi Sultans
The Iqta system was implemented in early Islamic countries. In the administration of the
Caliph, it was given to civil and military officers. Iqta system was introduced by the
Sultans after the establishment of the Sultanate. Initially, new areas were handed over to
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military commanders and aristocrats to run the administration and collect revenue.
These areas thus assigned were called Iqta and those to whom these Iqtas were
assigned were called 'Iqtadar' or 'Mukti'. Gradually rules and regulations were laid down
to organize the entire system. Over the years, it became the main means of running the
administration of the Sultanate. Apart from this, through this system the Sultans started
getting a larger share of the produce from different parts of the vast areas.
During the reign of Iltutmish, the Iqta system was the basis of administration. During his
reign, he divided the Sultanate from Multan to Lakhnauti between small and big Iqtas.
The power of the Sultan became the real power and started depending on the Iqtas,
which could prove fatal for the Sultanate.
How the practice of the Iqta system and determination of land revenue changed over
time. This can be seen during the reign of various rulers of Delhi Sultanate-
Mohammad Ghori – This system was first started by Mohammad Ghori.
Shamsa ud-din Iltutmish – This system was first effectively structured by Sultan
Iltutmish. Iltutmish started the Iqta system in 1226 AD. Under the new organizational
structure, the Iqtadar was in charge of maintaining certain troop levels, overseeing the
administration of the territory under his control, bringing money and deposits to the
Fawazal central treasury.
Ghiyas ud Din Balban – Sultan Balban tightened the central authority over the Iqtadars.
He sent an accountant, Khwaja, to each Iqtadar to verify the authenticity of his records.
Balban transferred the iqtadar from one iqta to another, thereby preventing the officer
in charge from forming bonds with others. Balban distributed 3000 iqtas, before which
no Sultan had distributed so many iqtas. He opened a new department, Diwan-i-Arz.

Thus Balban's policy created a miserable situation for the rich.
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Alauddin Khilji - In order to expand the Khalisa area, Sultan Alauddin Khilji (Ala-ud-din
Khilji) dissolved the small Iqta existing in the Doab province. He increased the revenue
demands of the Iqtadar. Diwan-i-Mushtakhraz, a new department, helped collect tax

debts from the residents of the Iqtadar.
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq - He further tightened the central control over Iqtadar.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq separated the income and expenditure of the Iqtadar. He
directed that all revenue be deposited in the treasury of the central government, from
where he received payment for his salary and other expenses.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq - This system became hereditary during the rule of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq Iqta. The Iqtadar's widow, son, son-in-law or slave were allowed to succeed him
after his death. He increased the salaries of his great nobles. Soldiers were given Iqta
instead of cash salary.
Lodhi reign – The idea of Fawazal was abandoned during the Lodhi era. Iqtadar allowed
to keep the money received from Iqta with himself. As a result of the Sultan's position as
first among equals, Afghan control in Lodhi continued for a long time. Iqta became a
government and a pargana. The larger Iqta came to be known as Sarkar and the smaller
Iqta came to be known as Pargana.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be said that the Delhi Sultanate came into existence due to the Iqta system
and whenever the Sultan became weak, the Iqtadars became powerful. As long as the
Sultan kept tight control over the Wali, Mukti or Iqtadar, the Iqtadars helped in the
expansion and strengthening of the Delhi Sultanate. And contributed a lot in taking it
forward. The Sultanate system and the Iqta system were complementary to each other
and the existence of one without the other was impossible.
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Q 3 – Discuss the economic reforms of Alaudin Khalji
Or
Critically discuss the motive, extent and impact of Sultan Alauddin Khilji's price
control measures.
Alauddin Khilji was the Sultanate of India and his reign lasted
from 1296 to 1316. Alauddin Khilji was not only a ruler of the
Delhi Sultanate but also a capable ruler among the medieval
Indian rulers. He was a talented and far-sighted ruler. He also

made many economic reforms. Among Alauddin's economic
reforms, the most important place is given to his pricing scheme

or market control policy.
Alauddin Khilji's economic reforms and market control
Information about Alauddin Khilji's market control system is obtained from Barani's
book 'Tarikh-e-Firozshahi' and 'Fatawa-e-Jahandari' and Amir Khusro's book 'Khazain-e-

Futuh'. Market control system or economic act- The most important reform of Alauddin
Khilji was the market control system.
Alauddin Khilji was the first ruler who systematically addressed the problem of price
control and succeeded in keeping prices stable for a long period. Alauddin fixed the
prices of all commodities, from grains to cloth, slaves, cattle, etc. He established three
markets in Delhi, the first market was for food grains, the second market was for all
types of clothes and expensive items, and the third market was for horses, slaves and
cattle.
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Different “Shahnas” were appointed to look after the market and other goods.
Buying and selling of grains took place in the market. Where stability of prices was an
important feature of this era. The officials of the market were called Shahna-e-Mandi.
There was an officer named Parvana Banvis related to the market, who prevented
black marketing. So that no trader could buy at a cheap price and sell at a higher price.
The problem of price increase in the market of slaves, horses and cattle was created by
the brokers.
Alauddin had removed the powerful middlemen or brokers. It was decided that the
government would determine the varieties and prices of horses. Similarly, the prices of
slave boys and girls and cattle were also determined. But these reforms did not last long
and ended after Alauddin's death.
Main objectives of Alauddin Khilji's market control system-
1. The objective of the market control system was to meet military requirements
without putting additional burden on the state treasury.
2. Revenue Increase: Driven the trade and financial system through market control. His
objective was to increase economic stability and revenue during the reign.
3. Security and Control: Helped in security and control of cities by controlling markets.
This helped prevent economic crises and movements during his reign.
4. Social Equality: He tried to reduce poverty and encourage social equality through
fair distribution in a regulated market.
5. Stability of power: His objective was to keep his power permanent and strong.
Through market control, he strengthened his power and kept the opposing forces
under pressure.
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Critical effects of Alauddin Khilji's Price Control Act-
The market control implemented by Alauddin Khilji had a great impact on the business
class, artisans, farmers and people of the entire empire, some positive and some
negative. This policy had an adverse effect on the business class.
1. This system was implemented only around Delhi. In the rest of the states,
exploitation of the people continued as before.
2. Due to the market control system, the condition of the farmers became more
miserable, because not only did they have to pay 50 percent of their produce as
revenue, but due to this system, they were also forced to sell the remaining 50
percent of the grains at the prices fixed by the state. .
3. This system also had an adverse impact on traders because they had to sell
goods at prices fixed by the state, resulting in less profits.
Conclusion
Alauddin Khilji's market control system contributed significantly towards prosperity,
security, and social equality during his reign. This helped in increasing the revenue and
firmly established the stability of the king. Alauddin Khilji implemented this system with
complete success during his rule. This is the reason why Lenphal has called Alauddin
Khilji an efficient economist.
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Q 4 – Discuss the importance of the Nayankara system in the Vijayanagara Empire.
Or
Analyse the articulation and organisation of political authority in the Vijayanagar

empire, with special reference to the Nayankara system.
The establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 AD is a great event in the history
of South India and India. It was established as a result of the political and cultural
movement against the Tughlaq power in South India. The Vijayanagara Empire was
established in 1336 AD by Harihar and Bukka, among the five sons of the Sangam,
who were feudatories of the Kakatiyas in Barangal and later in the Kampili state. Also
became a minister.
Established the city of Vijayanagar (Vidya Nagar) opposite Anegondo situated on the
southern bank of Tungabhada. In this adventurous work, Harihar and Bukka got
inspiration from their guru Vidyaranya and the famous commentator of Vedas, Sayana.
Political power of Vijayanagara Empire
The rule of the Vijayanagara Empire was monarchical and the position of the king was
supreme. Here the king was called "Rai". There were many ministers to assist the king.
Among the administrative institutions, the Royal Council was the most powerful means
of controlling the power of the king. The king himself was a member of this royal
council. This royal council played an important role in the selection, consecration of the
king and the smooth functioning of the state administration. It was through this council
that the king ruled and was informed about all the affairs and policies of the state. He
used to take counselling.
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King's ideal
The kings of Vijayanagara considered governance in accordance with religion as ideal
governance. How an ideal king should behave is mentioned in Krishnadev Rai's book
"Amuktamalyad".
According to Amuktamalyad, a foolishly anointed king should always rule keeping his
religion in mind and should always take care of the happiness and welfare of his
subjects. Only then will the people wish for the welfare of the king and only then will the
country be progressive and prosperous.
The political ideals of the Vijayanagara kings were secular. Whatever may have been
his personal religion, he gave equal protection and patronage to all religious followers.
Along with the expansion of the empire, he was also fully aware of the economic
progress of the country.
The rulers of Vijayanagara were conscious of the exploitation and oppression of

farmers and agricultural people. He gave special importance to the progress of
agriculture and trade. He made continuous efforts towards expansion of cultivable land,
development of irrigation means, advancement of foreign trade and industrial progress.
Yuvraj- Yuvraj was the post of king after the king in Vijayanagara administration.
Generally, there was a tradition of appointing the eldest son of the king as the crown
prince, but in the absence of a son, any eligible member of the royal family could be
appointed as the crown prince. The coronation of the Crown Prince was called 'Yuvraj
Pattabhishek'. Most of the rulers of Vijayanagara tried to eliminate the possibility of
succession-related conflicts by declaring crown princes during their lifetime, yet conflicts
for succession are reported. There was a proper arrangement for the education of the
prince and he was taught literature, fine arts, warfare and policy.
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Raj Parishad- The Raj Council was a huge organization formed by including provincial
leaders, feudal rulers, prominent religious leaders, scholars, musicians, artists, traders
and even ambassadors of foreign states.
Council of Ministers- There was also a Council of Ministers (Council of Ministers) to
provide advice and support to the king in administrative work. The Council of Ministers
in Vijayanagara had a total of twenty members from Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya
classes, whose age was between 50 to 70 years. The Council of Ministers of Vijayanagara
period can be compared with the Council of Ministers of Kautilya.
The meetings of the ministers were held in an assembly hall, which was called
'Venkatavilasamanap'. The chief officer of the Council of Ministers was 'Mahapradhan'

or 'Pradhan', but it was headed by 'Sabhanayak'.
Apart from the Mahapradhan or Pradhan, the Council of Ministers included ministers,
deputy ministers, heads of departments and special close relatives of the state.
Ministers were not selected, rather they were nominated by the king. Sometimes the
post of minister was also hereditary, but this was not a general rule. Although the
Council of Ministers played an important role in the conduct of government work, but
the king was not bound to follow the advice of the Council of Ministers.
There was a high official called 'Dandanayak' at the centre. But this term was not a
designation but indicated a special category of various officers. Dandanayaka meant
'head of administration' and 'leader of armies'. At some places ministers were also given
the title of Dandanayak. The Dandanayaka could be entrusted with the responsibility of
a judge, commander, governor or administrative officer.
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Nayankar system
Nayankar system is a financial system in which the government provides various services
by taking Nayankar (tax) in fixed amount. It is an important mechanism for ensuring
financial relations which helps in conducting the economic functions of the government.
The Nayaks had to maintain an army and assist the king when needed. The posts of
heroes used to be hereditary.
According to DC , this was a type of zamindari system, in which land was given to
immortal heroes to meet the military needs of the king.
According to Neelkanth Shastri, there is a dividing line in the history of Nayankaras in
the Vijayanagara Empire. The Nayankars before 1565 AD were a kind of military chiefs,
whereas the Nayankars after 1565 AD became semi-independent.
Importance of Nayankar System -
The Nayankar system functioned as a type of job system, in which the Nayaks were
paid according to their merit and services. This system held heroes accountable and
encouraged the prosperity of their territories, thereby improving the defense and
management of the empire.
According to some historians, the commanders in the Vijayanagara Empire were
called Nayaks. Nayaks were actually land feudal lords who were given special plots of
land called 'Amaram' in exchange for salary or for the maintenance of subordinate
army. Because of his use of Amaram land, he was also called “Amaranayak”.
Amar-Nayaks used to collect land revenue and other taxes from the farmers,
craftsmen and traders of their territory and kept some part of the revenue with
themselves for personal use and maintenance of their assigned army and sent the
remaining part to the central government. Were. Generally, the number of Nayaks' army
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and the share of revenue to be sent to the center were decided on the basis of the size
(area) of Amaram land. Amar-Nayak also had to fulfill the responsibility of maintaining
peace, security and preventing crimes in the Amaram territory. Apart from this, they also
had to clear the forests and expand the cultivable land. The king did not interfere in the
internal affairs of the immortal heroes (Nayankaras).
The king sometimes demonstrated his control over the Nayankaras by transferring
them from one place to another. Amar-Nayaks used to send gifts to the king once a
year and from time to time used to present themselves in the royal court with gifts to
express their loyalty.
Conclusion
Political power assumed a unique character in the Vijayanagara Empire. The political
system here was structured around kings, chieftains, and chieftains in various provinces,
capable of addressing a powerful imperial space. Vijayanagara excelled in the areas of
its military, religious tolerance, and prosperity, with political power contributing
significantly to prosperity and cultural development. It incorporated different

communities through religious tolerance and encouraged a sense of political unity.
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Q 5 – Trace the contribution of Kabir on medieval society?
The literary and historical contribution of Kabirdas is
memorable among the medieval saints. Mahatma Kabirdas of

Nirguna Bhakti sect was the greatest social reformer of his
time. He was a Hindu by birth and was brought up in a Muslim
environment but in realsity he was neither a Hindu nor a
Muslim. He was a true advocate of human rights in the society.

He was not only a devotee but also a great social reformer. He
strongly opposed the evils prevalent in the society.
Kabir's contributions on medieval society:
Kabir's era was an era of social disparities. In his era, he wanted to eliminate all the
inequalities in the society regarding caste, religion, high-low, wealth etc. Kabir was an
independent thinker. He wanted to bring about reform in the society with humanist
faith. Wherever he saw conventions that were hindering progress, he staunchly opposed
them. In fact, Kabir imagined a society in which there is neither Brahmin nor Shudra,
neither high nor low, neither rich nor poor, all people are children of that one qualityless
formless God.
Promotion of love and renunciation of ego : Kabir Das gave priority to love to
remove evils from the society. Social evils can be removed only through love. The one
who has love, kindness and compassion is the greatest scholar.
He says that no one having knowledge of big texts and books can be a true Pandit or
scholar. People should give up ego and should not be proud, but if a person can read
even two and a half letters of love, then only he will be a truly knowledgeable and good
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person. This human being is born only once. One should not laugh at others and should
do good deeds.
Opposition to violence : Saint poet Kabir Das has strongly opposed the violence that
human beings eats animals. They are not human beings but like animals. Saint poet
Kabir says that goat eats green leaves, yet its skin is removed, then what should be done
with those who kill and eat them.
Denial of the caste system : Kabir has opposed the caste system. He wanted to reform
the caste system and discrimination prevalent in the society. According to him, every
person is equal by birth. If the Creator accepted this caste discrimination then why did
he not make the birth processes of different castes different. Kabir, while attacking the
prevailing caste system, untouchability and feeling of high and low in the society, said
that no one is high on the basis of birth, high is the one whose deeds are good.
Opposition to religious evils : Kabir has rebuked both Hindus and Muslims. On one
hand they oppose pilgrimage, Chhapa, Tilak of Hindus and on the other hand they
oppose Roza, Namaz and Azaan. He considered the relationship between devotion and
external ostentation to be like that of sun and darkness, which cannot live together. they
say that :
 Kabir has also strongly opposed the idol worship prevalent in the society. While
explaining to the general public, he says that God cannot be found through idol
worship, it is better to worship the mill at home through which we grind grains and
eat.
 Made a mosque by adding pebbles and stones and after climbing on it, Mullah
started crowing (calling loudly to God). Kabir asks whether God has become deaf
that he needs to call out loudly like this. (According to Kabir, God is in the heart. He
should be remembered in the mind. One should stay away from ostentation).
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Opposition to the Varnashrama system : In Kabir's era, many religious sects had come
out with mutual opposition in their difficult circumstances. They were busy humiliating
each other. Kabir saw the stupidity and ignorance of the people behind Varnashram. He
scolded both Brahmins and Kshatriyas and tried to give a respectable place to the so-
called lower class of the society.
Opposition to communalism : Communalism means elevating one's own religion by
demeaning the religion of others. Kabir has emphasized on opposing Muslims and
Hindus who discriminate on the basis of religion. They say that look at the saints, Hindus
are devotees of Ram and Turks love Rahman and both are losing their lives fighting but
no one knows the truth that God is one.
Greatness of knowledge, work and hard work : Saint poets say that man becomes a
true human being on the basis of human knowledge and work. Instead of asking the
caste of a saint, one should understand his knowledge. Similarly, the sword is important,
not the sheath. Neither caste nor family makes a man high, but his actions make him
great.
Conclusion
Kabir Das ji was a true social reformer and humanist poet of his time, he wanted to bring
improvement in the entire world. He has strongly opposed various types of evils
prevalent in the society. As a social reformer, the blow of his language is so strong that
it shakes the listener. He hurts so much with the blow of his language that the one who
gets hurt finds no other way than walking on the dust. Kabir has described man's
knowledge and action as great.
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Q 6 – Evaluate Mira Bai’s contributions to the socio – religious life of the

contemporary period.
Mirabai was born in Kudki (in Nagaur district), Rajasthan, in the

late fifteenth century to the family of the Rathore ruler Rana
Ratan Singh. His wife Meera Bai was married to Bhojraj, son of
Rana Sanga of Udaipur. Her husband died shortly after
marriage. After this his devotion increased day by day. She saw
God as her husband. He faced difficulty while wandering in
devotion.
Mirabai's contribution in contemporary socio-religious life
Social contribution:
 In Mirabai society, consciousness came against the exploitation and caste system
and amidst all this, the condition of women in the society was limited and women
were considered as an object of luxury. It had become a tradition for everyone from
small village landlords to kings and emperors to have multiple women. For this
reason, child marriage and the practice of Sati also developed, which she opposed.
 Rana Vikramaditya did not like Princess Meera of the Sisidiya dynasty to mingle so
freely with any other people, no matter how devotee they were. He opposed it. But
when the protest had no effect on Meera, it is said that he tried to get rid of her by
poisoning her. But fortunately the poison had no effect on Meera.
 Mirabai serves as an enduring role model for women in India. Her life story and
poems continue to inspire women to assert their independence, follow their spiritual
path and express their devotion towards the divine.
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 Mirabai's life story and her unwavering devotion to Lord Krishna despite social
norms and opposition serves as an inspiration to women seeking empowerment and
freedom. Her example of following one's heart and beliefs holds modern relevance,
encouraging women to pursue their passions and spiritual journeys.
• According to Parita Mukta, Meera's adoption of Krishna as her husband is a

strong statement on the personal freedom of women.
• An interesting point made by Kumkum Sangri is that, on one hand Meera
wants freedom from worldly life, but on the other hand she wants a new
relationship of bond with Krishna. In other words, she remains limited in her
devotion to Krishna to the same patriarchal norms that she opposed.
Religious Contribution:
Mirabai became a widow at a young age. After the death of her husband, she became
completely engaged in religious activities. Mirabai was of very religious nature. She now
started leading a completely devotional life and became filled with the spirit of
devotion.
 Bhakti Movement: Mirabai was a leading figure of the Bhakti movement, which
emphasized a deep, personal, and devotional relationship with God that transcended
caste and social barriers. His devotion to Lord Krishna and his poetry played an
important role in popularizing the Bhakti movement, making it more accessible to

the masses.
 Poetry and hymns: Mirabai composed many bhajans (devotional songs) in praise of
Lord Krishna. These songs and poems are widely sung and recited in India,
connecting people with the divine through their words. His work has had a lasting
impact on the devotional and spiritual lives of countless individuals.
22
 Promotion of religious tolerance: Mirabai's devotion towards Lord Krishna was all-
inclusive. He emphasized the idea that God transcends religious boundaries and
advocated religious tolerance and unity. His poetry often emphasized the universal
nature of divine love.
 Cultural legacy: Mirabai's legacy extends beyond her time, as her poetry and
devotion remain an integral part of India's cultural and religious heritage. His songs
have been passed down through generations and remain a source of inspiration.
Conclusion
In contemporary socio-religious life, Mirabai's contribution is recognized and celebrated
as an icon of devotion, independence and spiritual freedom. His teachings continue to
influence individuals seeking a deeper relationship with God. His legacy endures
through exploration of his life and writings, as well as the various ways in which his
influence continues to shape contemporary thought and culture. There are stories of
Meera's end in Dwaraka where she spent her last days after spending a few years in
Mathura and Vrindavan in the company of saints.
23
Q 7 – Evaluate the importance of the chistisilsila in the medieval period
OR
Discuss Sufis as a source of authority and evaluate the significance of Nizamuddin

Auliya on the Chisti Silsia.
In the medieval period, the Sufi movement
played an important role in the Indian social and
religious cultural medium. This movement was
against the framework of contemporary empires

and kings and inspired people in search of
divinity through devotion and introspection. At
the same time, various Sufi Silsila were

established in the Indian subcontinent, one of which was the Chishti Silsila.
Importance of Chishti Silsila in medieval period:
In the medieval period, the Chishti Silsila was an important Sufi Silsila which was
very influential in India. This Silsila was established in the name of Khwaja Moinuddin
Chishti, who was a famous Sufi saint. His tomb is in Ajmer and the common people
knew him by the name of Khwaja.
The saints of Chishti Silsila believed in simplicity and poverty. He considered
personal property to be a hindrance in the development of his spiritual life. They lived
on Futuh and Nazur (money and gifts received without asking).
Chishti Silsila promoted the feeling of unity, harmony and humanity in the society.
This silsila even worked to strengthen Hindu-Muslim relations. It raised voice for social
and religious equality in Indian society.
24
The seekers and saints of the Chishti Silsila served the society through service,
loyalty, and dedication. He helped the poor and helpless people and oriented them
towards religious goals.
The principles of Chishtis were as follows-
 To oppose rituals.
 To pay full attention to public welfare.
 Staying away from politics.
 To give equal emphasis on equality of all religions while having full faith in Islam.
 More activism towards lower classes.
 Organizing and participating in music festivals.
Description of Sufis as a source of authority:
Main Sufi Silsila’s established in India-
1. Chishti Silsila
2. Suhrawardy Silsila
3. Qadiri Silsila
4. Naqshbandi Silsila
Chishti Silsila
The first saint of the Chishti tradition in India was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, a disciple
of Sheikh Usman. Moinuddin Chishti 1192 AD. Came to India with Muhammad Ghori. He
laid the foundation of 'Chishtiya tradition'. Mughal ruler Akbar had respect for the
Chishti saint Sheikh Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri and considered his son Jahangir as
his blessing. Akbar built the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti in 'Fatehpur Sikri'. Chishti
Silsila became the most popular and famous in India.
25
Suhrawardy Silsila
The credit for organizing, strengthening and popularizing the Suhrawardy Silsila in India
goes to Bahauddin Zakaria, a disciple of Shihabuddin Suhrawardy. The headquarters
of Suhrawardy Silsila was in Multan. Apart from this, it was also popular in Punjab and
Sindh. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya criticized Qubacha and supported Iltutmish. Iltutmish
gave him the title of ‘Sheikh-ul-Islam’.
Qadiri Silsila
The Qadiri Silsila was founded by Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad in the 12th century.
Sheikh Abdul Qadir, son of Sheikh Muhammad Al Hussaini, propagated this tradition
throughout India. The most prominent saint of the Qadiri silsila was Shaikh Mir
Muhammad or Mian Mir. Shahjahan's eldest son Darashikoh was a follower of this line.
Naqshbandi Silsila
The most famous saint of the Naqshbandi Silsila was Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi, who was
a contemporary of the Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahangir. He was a strong
supporter of Islam. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi opposed the liberal religious policies of
Akbar. Aurangzeb was a supporter of this tradition.
Importance of Nizamuddin Auliya on Chishti Silsila :
 Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya, the prominent Sufi saint of the 14th century, made
Delhi the center of the Chishti Silsila. His two contemporary historians, Ziauddin
Burni and Amir Khusro, have underlined his importance in the social and religious life
of North India in the latter half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th
century. Later, his successors propagated the Chishti Silsila in different parts of the
country.
26
 During the lifetime of Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya, seven rulers one after the
other sat on the throne of Delhi Sultanate. But he always tried to stay away from
rulers and rich people and never set foot in any ruler's court. The langar (free food
system) of his Khanqah was open to Hindus and Muslims alike.
 Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya had many spiritual disciples or Caliphs. Sheikh

Burhanuddin Garib was one of them. Muhammad Tughlaq forced him to go to
Deccan. He made Daulatabad his center and propagated the Chishti Silsila there.
 Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmood was the chief caliph and successor of Sheikh
Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi. He was also known as Chirag-e Delhi. He and his
disciples abandoned the practices of the Chishti Silsila that conflicted with radical
Islam. On the other hand, he requested the Ulema to soften their strict stance
towards Sama, the main practice of the Chishti Silsila.
Conclusion
The most important contribution of Sufis in the Indian context was that they played an
important role in keeping the Muslim ruling class away from fanaticism. He laid great
emphasis on harmony and co-existence. And in the medieval period, the Chishti silsila
created a cultural synthesis by mixing the Sufi stream with Indian culture and religion
which encouraged harmony and harmony in the society. It is considered an important

part of Indian Sufism.
27
Q 8 – Outline evolute of the Qutub Complex during the Sulanate period.
OR
Trace the different stages of the development of Qutub Complex during the
Sulanate.
The Qutub Minar complex is a complex of monuments and
buildings of the Delhi Sultanate in New Delhi, the capital of India.
Qutub Minar is 72.5 meters (239 ft) high, the tallest minaret in the
world made of bricks. It has five distinct floors, each marked by a

raised balcony. This building looks very beautiful, it was built
around the 12th century. There are also two mosques in this
complex, one of which, Quwwat ul Islam Mosque, is the oldest

mosque in North India.
The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, also known as the Qutb Mosque or the Great
Mosque of Delhi, was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the Mamluks. It
was constructed on the site of a large temple located in the center of a citadel. It was
the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India and the oldest
surviving example of Ghurid architecture in the Indian subcontinent.
Various stages of development of Qutub complex during the Sultanate period:
To celebrate the victory of Muhammad Ghori over the Rajput king, Prithviraj Chauhan, in
1192 AD, his then Viceroy (one who rules a country or province), Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
built it as a victory tower. . Its construction also marked the beginning of Muslim rule in
India. It was constructed using red sandstone and marble. Inscriptions reveal that 27
28
Hindu and Jain temples were demolished and used for its construction. Today the Qutb
remains one of the most important "Towers of Victory" in the Islamic world.
1. Construction of Qutub Complex by Qutubuddin Aibak
Qutubuddin Aibak could build only the first storey, hence the lower storey is filled with
praises of Muhammad Ghori. Qutub Mosque was built after a conquest. It was hastily
erected after demolishing existing nearby temples and reusing their loot. This was only
to depict the victory story of the winner.
The city's congregational mosque, Masjid-i-Jami, (then called Dihli-i Kuhna, Old Delhi)
naturally became a symbol of the power of the conquerors and a place to express the
authority of the future Sultanate. . A Gupta period iron pillar was brought from a Vishnu
temple and erected in front of Aibak's mosque screen (1220s). This was reminiscent of
the tradition of re-erecting ancient columns in buildings to symbolically appropriate
authority of past great rulers and dynasties.
2. Construction of the mosque under Aibak and Iltutmish
The ruler of Delhi Sultanate was Iltutmish, who was the second Sultan of Delhi. The
construction work was interrupted due to the death of Qutubuddin and the construction
of the minar was mainly carried out by Qutub-ud-din's successor Iltutmish. Son-in-law
Shamshuddin Iltutmish built its three floors. Qutbuddin Aibak laid the foundation of
the minaret, today called Qutb Minar (1199), on the southern side of the mosque.
Iltutmish (1210-36) expanded the mosque and completed the unfinished minaret. As a
symbol of political authority and the need to address the community, as a means of
expressing their power, they expanded colonies on the eastern, northern, and southern
shores. The extension brought the tower within the southern courtyard. He expanded
the screen as well as three more additional arches.
29
Iltutmish's screen has a flat surface compared to Aibak's highly decorated screen. But
their beauty lies in the Kufic and Tughra styles of calligraphic panels that cover their
surfaces. The Sultan also added his mausoleum here (1235).
3. Expansion under Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin Khilji carried out the largest alteration of the mosque in the Qutub Minar
complex between 1296 and 1316. He more than doubled its size and added a tall
southern gate, the "Alai Darwaza" (1311), to the complex.
Alauddin extended the colonies towards the east and north. A high black stone tower
was added to the old one, although it could not be completed. The only complete
structure that stands today is the southern gateway, the 'Alai Darwaza'. The entrance
gate is of red sandstone and white marble. The interior walls of this gateway are
decorated with Arabic patterns carved in low relief and vertical bands of inscriptions
commemorating the greatness of the Sultan, his piety, and naskhi.
Qutb Masjid: Alauddin also built an 'L' shaped madrasa with a hall and a block of rooms
in the complex. It has been converted into ruins today. These acts of the Sultan made
him a good pious ruler who was chosen to lead the Muslim community. The Qutb
Masjid, the city's congregational mosque, and its minaret were important in their time as
favorite places of expression of authority. The architecture of regional sultanates also

imitated the tapering minaret. After the first storey of the Great Minar, Shah Jahan also
built the Hastsal Minar (1634) in Delhi.
4. Construction of the complex by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
The fifth and final storey was built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century. In this way,
Qutub Minar became a five-storey monument. A fifth storey was added by Firoz Shah
Tughlaq (1368) to make it appear taller, indicating that the minaret and its structures
30
were indeed a symbol of the Sultanate's power. By this time the focus had shifted to
other cities of Delhi but the Qutb complex at Dihli-i-Kuhna (present-day Delhi) remained
important.
The beauty of the minaret lies in its descending storeys where exquisite carving work
has been done in red sandstone on its bracketed balconies that separate each storey.
Alternating between wedge-shaped flanges and the circular scallops forming the first
floor, all other floors use either circular scalloped surfaces (second floor) or only wedge-
shaped (third floor) or plain circular surfaces that Makes the fourth and fifth floors. The
stalactite bracketing cusps of the small arches of the balconies are reminiscent of stone
temple ceilings and are the crowning glory of the monument. Later Firoz Shah Tughlaq
also built an Ashoka Pillar in his city Firozabad.
Conclusion
The Qutb site, thus, was envisioned as a major site for expressing the political authority
of the Delhi Sultans. Qutub Complex is a UNESCO recognized heritage site, people
come from all over the world to see it. They come to see the astonishing height of this
minaret and to offer prayers in the oldest mosque. The complex contains a madrasa
(religious school), tombs, ruins of walls and many other structures.
31
Q 9 – Discuss the pattern of India's oceanic trade during the period between 1200
and 1500. In what ways did the advent of the Portuguese affect it?
Between 1200 and 1500, maritime trade in the Indian

Ocean was playing an important role and this time is
called the Medieval Period. In this period, there was an
increase in trade and commercial activities in the
Indian Ocean region and this can be seen especially

during the reign of the Sultani and Vijayanagara
empires. Maritime trade played an important role in

shaping the economic and cultural landscape of India.
Nature of India's maritime trade (1200-1500):
1. Diversity of materials: India was a country that exported large quantities of
materials. This included spices, textiles, lead stones, metals and other special
substances. Indian traders were well versed in maritime customs and traded with
various regions, such as Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa.
2. Trade Routes: There were established sea routes connecting India with other
regions. These included the most important route called the Spice Route, which
ensured the exchange of pepper, cardamom, and cinnamon.
3. Role of Middlemen: Indian merchants often acted as middlemen in trade between
the East and the West. They played an important role in facilitating the exchange of
goods and ideas between different civilizations.
32
4. Cultural Exchange: Apart from the exchange of materials, maritime trade also
played a role in cultural interactions. It played an important role in spreading Indian

culture, languages, and religions.
Maritime Trade:
Trade Activities in the Indian Sea Region: During this time, trade relations were
maintained with various countries in the Indian Sea region. India was growing rapidly
along with the Islamic trading world.
Vigorous Commercial Activities: Indian business world reached its pinnacle and it was
a time of producing many experts. Gold, silver, jewellery, spices, roses and other
precious materials were traded.
Impact of the arrival of the Portuguese:
Changes in the Politics of Trade: The arrival of the Portuguese initiated changes in the
trade of the Indian Ocean region. He attempted to give a new direction to Indian trade
and established several colonies in the Indian Ocean region through the Sea Islands,
Malabar, and Goa.
Beginning of Maritime Politics: The Portuguese established their presence in the

Indian Sea region and this started a new phase in the politics of the region.
Religious and Imperial Influence: Portuguese traders kept trying to maintain religious
and imperial influence by coming to the Indian Ocean region. This had a bad impact on
the Indian empires.
33
Conclusion
The period between 1200 and 1500 saw a vibrant form of maritime trade in the Indian
Ocean region, which contributed to the economic and cultural prosperity of the region.
The arrival of the Portuguese, although disruptive, was an important chapter in the
history of India's maritime trade. While they altered established trade routes and sought
dominance, they contributed to shaping a new maritime order. Portuguese influence
laid the groundwork for subsequent European colonial efforts in the Indian subcontinent
and underlined the importance of sea routes in shaping global trade dynamics.
34
Q 10 – Write a short note on the following:
(a) Kakatiya inscriptions
(b) Mongol Invasions on the North-West Frontier of India
(c) Administration and struggle of Bahmani kingdom
(d) Second Afghan Empire.
(e) Hampi
Answer -
(a) Kakatiya inscriptions
Introduction
The kings of Kakatiya dynasty ruled in 'Telangana', the eastern
part of the famous modern day city of Hyderabad. The dynasty
was known for its patronage of art, architecture, literature and
religious institutions. After the decline of Chalukya dynasty,

'Chola II' and 'Rudra I' established the 'Kakatiya dynasty'.
Inscriptions and grants :
Stone inscriptions usually appear on temple walls, free-standing pillars or rock slabs
and reveal regional social, political and cultural practices.
The Kakatiyas issued numerous inscriptions and grants, known as "Prashastis",

which recorded their religious endowments, donations to temples, and land grants to
priests and religious institutions. These inscriptions provide valuable historical and
religious information about the Kakatiya period.
35
According to Cynthia Talbot's study :
Cynthia Talbot, studying the Kakatiya (1175–1325) Andhra region,
has argued for the importance of stone inscriptions as historical
sources for medieval Andhra, which may be equally true for
other regions. She further elaborates that the texts always cast
their royal patrons in the mold of bygone heroes and sought to
suppress any contrary evidence.
Through a study of these donation inscriptions that appeared in Andhra (1000–1650),

Talbot has argued that these acts of piety were closely linked with processes of state
formation in the region. Through inscriptions she establishes that this was an era of
agricultural expansion, the movement of agricultural societies from wet coastal
areas, a society in the process of state formation. This was accompanied by the
spread of the temple cult and an increase in religious donations and commercial
activities as evidenced by these inscriptions.
The inscriptions of medieval Andhra show diverse social groups of not only kings and
brahmins but also traders, herders, chiefs, wives, mothers. In medieval Andhra, the
language of the gods was replaced by Telugu, and in some areas Telugu replaced
Kannada and Tamil as the lingua franca in the western and southern regions.
Inscriptions increasingly began to appear in Telugu. With the decline of the Sanskrit
'cosmopolis', a number of regional languages began to emerge in the subcontinent in
the second millennium. The shift towards a regional medium in inscriptions and literary
texts shows that elites everywhere were becoming more local. With Telugu as the
preferred language of inscriptions in Andhra, a distinct Telugu political, social,
cultural and geographical identity began to take shape. Most of the present day
geographical Andhra came into existence during this time.
36
Important inscriptions during the time of Kakatiya dynasty :
1. Vengi Inscription: This inscription dates back to the reign of King Gunapandita, who
was an important king of the Kakatiya dynasty. It gives a description of the
development of his kingdom and his administrative process. This inscription dates
back to the reign of King Gunapandita, who was an important king of the Kakatiya
dynasty. It gives a description of the development of his kingdom and his
administrative process.
2. Hanamkonda Inscription: This inscription was issued by the Kakatiya king Ganapati
and contains details of the king's religious and political activities.
3. Inscription of Krishna Deva Raya: This inscription describes Krishnadevaraya, a
great king of the Vijayanagara Empire, in praise of the Kakatiya king Prataparudra II
and his contribution.
4. Rudramadevi Inscription: This inscription gives information about Queen

Rudramadevi, who was the first female king of the Kakatiya dynasty.
Conclusion
The Kakatiya dynasty was a powerful and prosperous empire. It ruled a significant part
of India for more than two centuries. The dynasty left a rich legacy of art, architecture,
literature and social development. And the Kakatiya inscriptions are an important source
of the history of the Kakatiya dynasty and their administrative functions and provide us
information about the society, culture, and politics of this time.
37
(b) Mongol Invasions on the North-West Frontier of India
Introduction
The Mongol Empire launched several invasions of
the Indian subcontinent from 1221 to 1327. Some
of these invasions were punitive raids with the
intention of plunder while others were intended to
capture major city centres. The Mongol Empire

extended from the Middle East and Central Asia to
Eastern Europe and China, excluding India and the
south-eastern part of the Asian continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mongols
suffered several defeats when the Delhi Sultanate launched military campaigns
against them in the mid-1300s.
Mongol invasion on the north-western border of India :
Between the 13th and 14th centuries the Mongols tried to invade India several times
from the north-western front.
 In 1206 the Mongols were united under their
military general, Temujin, better known as
Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire attempted
to invade the Indian subcontinent between

1221 and 1327 and later by Mongol-origin
Kurgans. They controlled the north-western
part of the Indian subcontinent, including
Afghanistan and the outskirts of present-day

Pakistan, for many years.
38
 Some time after 1235 another Mongol army invaded Kashmir, stationed a
Darughachi (administrative governor) there for several years, and Kashmir became a
Mongolian dependency.
 Another Mongol general named Pakhak attacked Peshawar and defeated the
forces of tribes who had abandoned Jalal ad-Din but were still a threat to the
Mongols.
 In 1241, the Mongol army invaded the Indus Valley and surrounded Lahore.
 In the 1280s, Duwa Khan took control of Afghanistan and launched several attacks
on India's northwestern border cities, including Sindh, Baluchistan, Lahore, and

Multan.
 Concerned by regular invasions in the north-west and lack of border control, the
Delhi Sultanate devised well-planned strategies that led to serious defeats and
repulsion of the Mongols in the years that followed. Furthermore, civil war within
the Mongol Empire provided significant impetus for the Sultanate to build defenses
in the northwest and formulate efficient strategies to suppress Mongol conquests.
Measures of the Sultans of Delhi to stop Mongol invasions :
1. During the time of Alauddin Khilji and the early years of Muhammad Tughlaq's
tenure, Mongol attacks against the Delhi Sultanate increased. As a result the Sultans
were forced to take many costly precautions.
2. To deal with the Mongol threat, the Delhi Sultans devised a multifaceted
approach. First, he adopted diplomatic strategies to maintain relations with the
Mongols. This included establishing strategic alliances, sending embassies, and

paying tribute.
39
3. The Sultans of Delhi recognized the need to strengthen their military defence.
He built fortifications, expanded his armies, and trained soldiers to counter the
Mongol threat. Recognizing the superior cavalry of the Mongols, the Delhi
Sultans focused on increasing their cavalry. He recruited skilled horsemen,
implemented military reforms, and improved his strategies and tactics.
4. The success of the Sultans of Delhi in dealing with the Mongols varied. While
some sultans managed to establish peaceful relations and avoid direct conflict with
the Mongols, others faced significant challenges and had to contend with Mongol
invasions and raids.
5. A notable example of the Delhi Sultanate's association with the Mongols is the reign
of Sultan Balban. Balban, who ruled from 1266 to 1287, adopted a cautious and
pragmatic approach. He engaged in diplomatic efforts such as sending embassies
and gifts to the Mongol court to maintain peace and prevent conflicts. Balban's
diplomacy was successful in preventing major Mongol incursions during his reign.
6. Despite his diplomatic efforts and military preparations, the Sultan of Delhi
could not completely eliminate the Mongol threat. The Mongols continued to exert
influence over the region and Mongol raids remained a frequent challenge to the
Delhi Sultanate. The policies and strategies of the Delhi Sultans had to adapt to the
ever-changing dynamics of the Mongol Empire.
Conclusion
The Delhi Sultans sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Mongols through
alliances, tribute payments, and diplomatic missions. Simultaneously, they focused on
strengthening their military capabilities to fend off Mongol invasions and protect their
territories.
40
(c) Administration and struggle of Bahmani kingdom
Introduction
The Bahmani Sultanate, also known as the Persian
Empire, was the first self-governing Muslim empire in
the Deccan region in South India. It was established
by Alauddin Bahman Shah, a Turko-Afghan
governor. and was popular for its everlasting wars

with its rival Hindu religion known as Vijayanagara.
Administration of Bahmani State :
The administrative system was reorganized during the reign of Mohammad Shah I
(1358-1375). Especially he paid attention to the central administration. The members

of the Advisory Council were increased from two (2) to nine (9). The posts and
functions of the Central Advisors were reorganized in the following manner:
1. Wakil-us-Sultanat - (Assistant to the Naib/Sultan)
2. Wazir-e-Kul - (General Secretary)
3. Amir-ul-Umra - (Army Chief)
4. Sadar-e-Jahan - (Chief Justice)
5. Mir Jumla - (Chairman of Finance Department)
6. Wazir-e-Ashraf - (Chief of Festivals)
7. Nazir - (Deputy of Mir Zulma)
8. Kotwal - (Chief Police Officer and Chief Justice of the capital)
9. Peshwa - (Officer appointed with Vakil-ul-Sultanate)
41
Struggle of Bahmani kingdom :
There were regular conflicts between the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Bahmani
Sultans. Hindu-Muslim disputes can also be seen as a cause of conflict between the
Bahmani and Vijayanagara states. However, the main reasons for the war were purely
regional and commercial. The interests of these Sultans collided in establishing

hegemony over the fertile region of Raichur Doab.
Raichur Doab – Mutual political tensions between Vijayanagara and the Bahmani
kingdom resulted in wars whose main objective was political. Both the states wanted to
capture the fertile Doab of Raichur. Armies constantly entered each other's kingdom, the
Raichur Doab sometimes falling under Vijayanagara and sometimes under the Bahmani
kingdom. Even the capitals were surrounded many times.
Krishna River – A fierce war took place between the two states in 1398. Harihar II
(1379–1404) invaded Raichur Doab with his eight thousand cavalry and nine lakh
infantry. In 1399, the two opposing armies faced each other on the banks of the Krishna
River. The Bahmani army achieved victory due to the smart war policy of Bahmani Qazi
Sirajuddin. As a result, the immense wealth of Vijayanagara came into the hands of the
Bahmani kingdom.
Battle of Talikota - When the Bahmani kingdom got divided into five small kingdoms,
the aim of Vijayanagara politics became to take advantage of the opportunity by

intervening in their wars for succession and their domestic disputes. Initially this policy
benefited the Vijayanagara state but in the end its consequences proved to be
extremely fatal. Except Berar, the remaining four states formed a confederacy against
Vijayanagara, resulting in the Battle of Talikota in 1565.
42
Battle of Kotlam - Political disputes between South Indian states often took the form of
major wars. In which a terrible massacre took place in the battle of Kotlam. After this war
in 1366, both sides accepted the suggestion that soldiers would not harm those who did
not fight. This suggestion was accepted by both the states but neither one followed the
decision completely. But still for some time the people of both the states got relief from
the terrors of war.
Conclusion
After ruling for a long time, the Bahmani Empire declined due to constant warfare
between the Bahmani and Vijayanagara rulers. After the death of Muhammad Shah-III,
his successors were weak and incapable of ruling the dynasty. Additionally, foreign
chieftains and regional rival rulers were overwhelming the Bahmani kings, resulting in its
fall in 1518 AD.
43
(d) Second Afghan Empire.
Introduction
The first Afghan empire under the Lodis was replaced by the
Mughals in 1526 during the Babur period. After a gap of 14
years, Sher Shah succeeded in re-establishing Afghan rule in

India in 1540. Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years.
This period is known as the period of the Second Afghan

Empire. Sher Khan, the founder of this Afghan rule, was a great
strategist and capable military commander. After defeating
Humayun he became the sovereign ruler in the year 1540 and

assumed the title of Shershah.
Shershah :
 Sher Shah Suri was an important figure in Indian history, who established a major
empire leading to Indian independence. He established his power by defeating the
Mughal Empire and inspired various reforms and development programs during his
reign.
 The most important contribution of Sher Shah Suri was in the establishment of his
empire. He defeated Emperor Humayun, the head of the Mughal Empire, and
achieved victory in the Battle of Kanauj in 1540. Sher Shah Suri, through his
intelligence, military policy, and strategic skills, subjugated various states and laid the
foundation of a powerful empire.
44
 His empire was famous for developed governance, road construction, and changes in
government policies. Those justices encouraged political policies and promoted

equality and reform in society.
 Sher Shah Suri gave importance to infrastructure during his reign. They repaired
roads, built bridges and inns, thereby facilitating traffic and trade.
 But, after the death of Sher Shah Suri, a struggle for power began among his
descendants and this resulted in the weakness of the empire. Subsequently, the
Mughal emperor Akbar reconquered the empire and established the Mughal
Empire on a large scale.
Shershah's administrative system :
1. Diwan-e-Wizarat - This was the finance related department, whose head was the
Wazir. The work of this department was related to tax and accounting calculations.
2. Diwan-e-Arz – This was a military department, whose head was called Arz-e-
Mamalik.
3. Diwan-e-Insha - Its form was like a secretariat, in which the work of issuing royal
orders was done. Its chief was called Dvir.
4. Diwan-e-Rasalat - Its head was called Sadr and the job of this department was to
look after religious and foreign affairs. Under this there was Diwan-e-Qaza whose
head was called Qazi. Its function was to look after judicial matters.
Conclusion
The second Afghan Empire established by Sher Shah Suri holds an important place in
Indian history as it influenced an important culture and governance. Sher Shah Suri
created an important era in Indian history, which was important from the point of view
of competition with Indian empires.
45
(e) Hampi
Introduction
From the 14th century to the 16th century (1343 –
1565 AD), Hampi was an important part and capital of

the Vijayanagara city, which was later destroyed.
Situated on the banks of Tungabhadra River (the
confluence of Tunga River and Bhadra River), Hampi
was surrounded by hills and forests on all three

sides, which makes this place quite safe. This is the
reason why this place remained a priority for various rulers and empires.
Discovery and history of Hampi :
Colonel Colin Mackenzie discovered Hampi in the year 1800. Mackenzie was a
renowned engineer, surveyor, and cartographer. He worked in the East India Company.
Mackenzie prepared the first survey map of Hampi. Recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, Hampi represents the remains of the Vijayanagara Empire, which plays an
important role in the historical narrative of India.
The name Hampi comes from the Kannada word Hampe. The word Hampe was derived
from Pampa, the ancient name of Tungabhadra river. The empire was founded by
Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, and reached its peak during the reign of
Krishnadevaraya. During its peak, Hampi was a thriving cultural and trading centre,
attracting scholars, traders and artists from different corners of the world.
The decline of the Hampi Empire began with the Battle of Talikota in 1565 when
the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara, leading to the
city's destruction and subsequent abandonment.
46
Main features of Hampi Empire :
Hampi is a treasure trove of architectural wonders and cultural heritage. The site is
adorned with numerous temples, palaces, markets and other structures that reflect the
grandeur of its glorious past.
1. Virupaksha Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, this temple is a main center of

pilgrimage and is known for its stunning architecture and intricate carvings.
2. Vittala Temple: Famous for its extraordinary architecture, this temple houses the
iconic stone chariot, which is a testament to the artistic skill of the artisans of
Vijayanagara.
3. Royal Enclosure: The fortified area includes structures such as the Lotus Palace,
elephant stables and the Queen's Baths, which display a blend of Hindu and Islamic
architectural styles.
4. Hemakuta Hill Temples: There are clusters of small temples and shrines scattered in
the hills, which offer breathtaking panoramic views of the surrounding landscape.
5. Achyutarai Temple: Set amidst boulders, this temple offers a glimpse of the
magnificent architecture and intricate carvings prevalent in Hampi.
Conclusion
Hampi stands as a symbol of the glorious heritage of India, offering a mesmerizing
journey through time, reflecting the grandeur of a bygone era and inviting visitors to
explore the wonders of its rich history and cultural heritage.

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1

History of India 1200 to 1550 AD.

Unit III: Regional Political Structures: Vijayanagara and Bahmani.

Unit IV: Second Afghan Empire.

Unit VI: Art and Architecture: Qutb Complex; Vijayanagar (Hampi).

Q 1 – Evaluate the contribution of Ziauddin Barani in the history writing of Delhi

Describe the importance of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi for reconstructing the

Historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the

past. The historiography of North India from the 7th–

12th centuries draws extensively on archaeological

a rich collection of literary sources is available for the

period after the 13th century. A large number of

Persian chronicles are also available to historians of

Contribution of Ziauddin Barani in history writing

and cultural aspects. Barani's most famous work is "Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi". He

Barani stressed the importance of accuracy in historical accounts. He criticized his

contemporaries for relying on unreliable sources. He emphasized the use of authentic

Barani's exploration of socio-religious issues contributed to a deeper

understanding of medieval society. In his writings he examined the role of religion in

Ideal ruler and state-

Description of the importance of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi-

source for writing the history of the Delhi Sultanate. He completed it

in 1357 AD. In this, the history is written from the ascension of

Balwan to the throne in 1265 AD till the sixth year of Firozshah. In

been described. Ziauddin Barani was working on the post of

revenue. Ziauddin Barani has described the revenue situation in

According to Tarikh-e-Firozshahi, the economic condition of the country started

Tarikh-e-Firozshahi is considered to be the sequel to Tabaqat-e-Nasiri because its

Demerits/Criticism of Zia Barani's Tarikh-e-Firozshahi

history to be to guide the rulers, rich etc.

4. Another flaw of Barani is the sequence of events.

5. Barani also evaluates politics from a religious perspective, which is completely

inappropriate - whereas he should have been inspired by a neutral and objective

cultural landscape of medieval India. Opinion is divided on Barani's authenticity as a

Q 2 – Examine the working of the Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate.

Meaning of Iqta system –

Development of Iqta system under Delhi Sultans

Mohammad Ghori – This system was first started by Mohammad Ghori.

no Sultan had distributed so many iqtas. He opened a new department, Diwan-i-Arz.

demands of the Iqtadar. Diwan-i-Mushtakhraz, a new department, helped collect tax

Q 3 – Discuss the economic reforms of Alaudin Khalji

Delhi Sultanate but also a capable ruler among the medieval

Indian rulers. He was a talented and far-sighted ruler. He also

reforms, the most important place is given to his pricing scheme

Alauddin Khilji's economic reforms and market control

book 'Tarikh-e-Firozshahi' and 'Fatawa-e-Jahandari' and Amir Khusro's book 'Khazain-e-

Main objectives of Alauddin Khilji's market control system-

Critical effects of Alauddin Khilji's Price Control Act-

Alauddin Khilji's market control system contributed significantly towards prosperity,

Q 4 – Discuss the importance of the Nayankara system in the Vijayanagara Empire.

Analyse the articulation and organisation of political authority in the Vijayanagar

Political power of Vijayanagara Empire

The kings of Vijayanagara considered governance in accordance with religion as ideal

The rulers of Vijayanagara were conscious of the exploitation and oppression of

Council of Ministers- There was also a Council of Ministers (Council of Ministers) to

'Venkatavilasamanap'. The chief officer of the Council of Ministers was 'Mahapradhan'

designation but indicated a special category of various officers. Dandanayaka meant

by taking Nayankar (tax) in fixed amount. It is an important mechanism for ensuring

According to Neelkanth Shastri, there is a dividing line in the history of Nayankaras in