23 2004

Transpersonal
Studies
T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L J O U R N A L O F
Volume 23, 2004
Table of Contents
Editors Introduction ii
Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D. and Harris Friedman, Ph.D.
The Artistic Brain, the Navajo Concept of Hozho, and Kandinskys Inner Necessity 1
Charles D. Laughlin, Ph.D.
Cosmic Connectivity: Toward a Scientific Foundation for Transpersonal Consciousness 21
Ervin Laszlo, Ph.D.
Animal Mind as Approached by the Transpersonal Notion of Collective Conscious Experience 32
Axel A. Randrup, Ph.D.
All Mind? No Matter: The Self-Regulation Paradigm 46
Stanley Krippner, Ph.D.
Transpersonal Functions of Masks in NohKiDo 50
Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, Ph.D.
Metaphysical Tracking: The Oldest Ecopsychology 65
David Kowalewski, Ph.D.
The Trans/Trans Fallacy and the Dichotomy Debate 75
Burton Daniels
A Secret Poem for You 91
Jorge N. Ferrer, Ph.D.
A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale 94
Jerome J. Tobacyk, Ph.D.
Lightly Swimming 99
Don Diespecker, Ph.D.
SPECIAL TOPIC: TRANSPERSONAL STUDIES APPLIED TO ORGANIZATIONAL/CULTURAL CHANGE
Images of the Intrapersonal Organization: Soul Making at Work 106
Mary Ann Hazen, Ph.D. and Jo Anne Isbey
Integral Psychology and Foreign Policy: Lessons From the Fulbright Scholars Program 114
Daniel Holland, Ph.D.
Reframing the Conflict in Fiji: Economic and Transpersonal Frameworks for Peace 118
Harris Friedman, Ph.D.
READERS COMMENTARY
Surfing the Absolute: Comments on Volume 22 of the IJTS 125
Two Suitors: A Parable 129
Richard Tarnas, Ph.D.
Natural Crazy Wisdom 132
Kidder Smith and Susan Burggraf, Ph.D.
Toward a Participative Integral Philosophy 135
Daryl S. Paulson, Ph.D.
About Our Contributors 141
Board of Editors 143
Editorial Policy and Manuscript Submission Guidelines 144
Subscriptions and Back Issues 146
Editors Introduction
Then Stanley Krippner, in All Mind? No Matter:
T
his volume of the International Journal of
Transpersonal Studies presents an eclectic The Self-Regulation Paradigm contrasts the material-
group of writings from a variety of areas within istic and transcendental paradigms, rejecting both in
transpersonal studies. Ranging from poetry and inno- favor of an approach grounded in complex systems
vative prose style used to freely express transpersonal theory that is nonreductive and inclusive. He con-
experience perhaps too resistant for the confines of log- cludes by speculating that this holistic paradigm offers
ical-rational discourse, to qualitative and quantitative an avenue that may not only reconcile the other two
approaches used to empirically explore transpersonal competing paradigms but perhaps also facilitate
issues, to a widely diverse collection of thoughtful top- humanitys survival in currently precarious times.
ical articles, this issue highlights the breadth and depth In the next article, Transpersonal Functions of
of transpersonal studies. Masks in NohKiDo, Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen discuss-
The regular articles in this edition commence with es the role of masks in psychodrama and art therapy
Charles Laughlins Art and Spirit: The Artistic Brain, with specific focus on her own work adapting Japanese
the Navajo Concept of Hozho and Kandinskys Inner Noh theatre techniques to the Western context. In her
Necessity. Laughlin examines art as an expression of article, she emphasizes the transpersonal aspects of
cultures spiritual dimension and also as a powerful masking, providing fascinating insights on how this
driver for individuals spiritual experiences. He ana- can profoundly alter the consciousness of both the per-
lyzes and operationalizes concepts that enable art to be formers and the audiences.
more available for cross-cultural transpersonal Then David Kowalewski, in Metaphysical
research, such as a model of representational-associa- Tracking: The Oldest Ecopsychology, takes us on a
tional abstraction, and richly exemplifies his views with trek into skills that at one time may have been crucial
ethnographic discussions of Navajo art. for humankinds survival and now, similarly, may be
This is followed by Ervin Laszlos Cosmic just as needed in order to reconnect us with the earth
Connectivity: Toward a Scientific Foundation for to facilitate our continued survival. Filled with specu-
Transpersonal Consciousness, which reviews empiri- lation about mystical phenomena associated with both
cal data suggesting that consciousness interconnec- ancient and modern trackers, he ferrets out their pos-
tions extend beyond mainstream understandings, sible root commonalities in various proposed parapsy-
drawing specifically on recent developments in chological phenomena and discusses their implications
physics. Laszlo speculates on the importance of these both for psychospiritual growth and for research.
powerful findings as a way to tie what is often dis- Next, Burton Daniels, in the The Trans/Trans
missed as mere anomaly into a basic paradigm shift Fallacy and the Dichotomy Debate, takes on one of
that reframes knowledge in a way that can impact con- the stickiest disagreements in transpersonal studies,
ceptual analysis, experimental testing, and theory-for- namely whether transpersonal development is best
mulation. seen as cumulative and linear, per Ken Wilbers widely
Next, Axel Randrup, in Animal Mind as acclaimed hierarchical theory, or more spirally ascend-
Approached by the Transpersonal: Notion of ing and descending, as Stan Grof and Michael
Collective Conscious Experience, discusses animal Washburn assert in their persuasive writings. Daniels
mind based on an idealist philosophy of collective con- deconstructs both of these views, clearly showing their
scious experience. In advocating that both animals and limitations, and proposes an alternative integration of
humans can be seen as experiencing collective con- this crucial aspect of transpersonal theory based on Adi
sciousness, he provides for the possibility of studying Das spiritual revelation.
other minds, including animal minds, in a way that Then Jorge Ferrer, in A Secret Poem for You,
avoids the solipsistic traps often associated with other shares an intensely personal piece based on a poem
idealist approaches. written by his father. To preserve the original meaning,
ii The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

the poem is presented in its original language, Spanish, approaches. Daniel Hollands article, Integral
as well as translated into English. Psychology and Foreign Policy: Lessons From the
Following this, Jerome Tobacyk, in A Revised Fulbright Scholars Program, explores the need for
Paranormal Belief Scale, publishes a significantly new interdisciplinary perspectives to address U.S.
improved version of his widely used scale, including national policy issues and emphasizes the moral obliga-
data supporting its enhanced utility. This measure tion of transpersonal scholars to engage in promoting
should prove useful to researchers interested in para- quality of life across many realms and levels. He exem-
normal beliefs, as well as to general readers who want plifies this through discussion of the transpersonal val-
to understand both the domain included in this meas- ues held in the Fulbright Scholars Program, a U.S.
ure and the empirical underpinnings that place such a effort to promote multinational cooperation. As the
measure firmly within the conventions of contempo- last of our special section articles, one of us (Harris
rary science. Through focusing on an area mostly mar- Friedman), in Reframing the Conflict in Fiji:
ginalized by mainstream science, he clearly demon- Economic and Transpersonal Frameworks for Peace,
strates how quantitative research can benefit transper- addresses how narrowly defined identifications can
sonal studies. lead to unfortunate national and global conflicts, illus-
As the last regular article, Don Diespecker pro- trated through a case study of Fiji, where national
vides an entertaining and illuminating illustration of problems are commonly attributed to ethnic, racial,
an alternative form of transpersonal expression in his and religious divides. He shows how these problems
piece Lightly Swimming, using an approach he iden- can be reframed as due to competing economic mod-
tifies as free indirect style. Bearing resemblance to els, an alternative interpretation perhaps more likely to
stream of consciousness writing, this expressive mode lead to peaceful reconciliation. In addition, he propos-
speaks to the experiential lived elements of the es a transpersonal model for fostering global peace,
transpersonal. Perhaps rational discourse can take us particularly when conflicts are fueled by religious divi-
only so far in communion with others, and delightful, siveness.
communicative play, such as through free indirect Finally, we are pleased to offer several readers
style, may push the so-called river furtherand possi- comments. In Surfing the Absolute: Comments on
bly without as much effort. Volume 22 of the IJTS, Don Diespecker, the found-
It is often stated that transpersonal psychology ing editor of IJTS (although at the time of his tenure it
should be relevant to needed change in the world, but was called The Australian Journal of Transpersonal
seldom is anything written on actually applying Psychology), provides his perceptions and criticisms of
transpersonal approaches outside of the clinical arena. the last edition of the journal. In general, he argues
Consequently, this volumes special topics section, that the volume is excessively academic in tone and
Transpersonal Studies Applied to Organizational/ content and chastises both editors and contributing
Cultural Change, focuses on how a transpersonal per- authors for placing emphasis on scholarly writing and
spective can be applied to issues of social relevance at accomplishments over nonconventional modes of
local, national, and even global levels of human organ- expression. While we do not agree with his perceptions
ization. Mary Ann Hazen and Jo Anne Isbey, in and generally do not share his opinions, we believe that
Images of the Intrapersonal Organization: Soul his commentary brings to the fore some core issues
Making at Work, discuss the postmodern organiza- around how we are to best approach and study the
tion from an archetypal perspective, exploring the transpersonal. At the same time, we are delighted that
reciprocal relationship between organizational and per- Diespecker has sufficient fire in the belly to write pas-
sonal growth. Using qualitative methods grounded in sionately about the content and direction of the jour-
constructivist thought, they explore the transpersonal nal. We hope that readers find this short piece stimu-
interplay in three employment settings in North lating and thought provoking. Richard Tarnas, profes-
America through imaginal and other Jungian sor of philosophy and psychology at the California
Editors Introduction iii

Institute of Integral Studies and author of the best-
selling book The Passion of the Western Mind, shares
his comment, Two Suitors: A Parable, on the wis-
dom of approaching knowledge as one would a lover.
If approached with the rough hands and direct touch
of so-called objective science, he asks, would a sentient
world be as likely to reveal its deepest and most inti-
mate secrets as freely as if it were invited warmly with
gentle caresses and shared subjectivity? Kidder Smith
and Susan Burggraf, in their comment, Natural Crazy
Wisdom, extol the virtues of various forms of crazi-
ness, portraying these as states that many spiritually
inclined individuals may be seeking and may already
have attainedif only they knew. They further specu-
late that more recognition should inure to the spiritu-
al possibilities in those often dismissed as merely crazy
but who may, despite being stigmatized by formal
diagnoses, be much moreor paradoxically lessthan
crazy. Lastly, in the final comment, Toward a
Participative Integral Philosophy, Daryl Paulson
expresses his views on developing a living philosophy
based on integral principals. We hope these reader
comments provide a lively forum for expression of
diverse opinions relevant to transpersonal studies, and
we encourage our readers to actively engage in express-
ing their perspectives, especially when germane to arti-
cles recently published in the journal.
As the second volume of the International Journal
of Transpersonal Studies under our editorship and
Saybrook Graduate School and Research Centers
sponsorship goes to press, we want to welcome our
new editorial board members. We also thank both our
departing editorial board members for all of their help,
and all the reviewers who have diligently worked on
this issue.

Professor Emeritus
Saybrook Graduate Schooland Research Center
Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
University of Detroit Mercy
iv The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Art and Spirit: The Artistic Brain, the Navajo
Concept of Hozho, and Kandinskys Inner Necessity
Charles D. Laughlin, Ph.D.

Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada and
International Consciousness Research Laboratories
Most traditional art forms around the planet are an expression of the spiritual dimension of a cul-
tures cosmology and the spiritual experiences of individuals. Religious art and iconography often
reveal the hidden aspects of spirit as glimpsed through the filter of cultural significance. Moreover,
traditional art, although often highly abstract, may actually describe sensory experiences derived
in alternative states of consciousness (ASC). This article analyzes the often fuzzy concepts of art
and spirit and then operationalizes them in a way that makes them useful for cross-cultural
transpersonal research. The fact of the universally abstract nature of traditional art is analyzed and
used as a clue to the function of art in expressing and penetrating to the spiritual domain. A con-
tinuum of representational-associational abstraction model is introduced and described. These
concepts are then applied to the authors experiences with Navajo art and the relation between art
and the important Navajo philosophical concept of hozho (which may be understood as beau-
ty, harmony, unity). A perspective on art and spirit is developed that essentially supports
Wassily Kandinskys contention that abstract art is the expression of an inner necessity of spir-
it. The article argues for a greater sensitivity among researchers and theorists for the sublime
nature of spiritual art.be induced by very different means, including contemplative practices and
chemical substances, and yet have different after-effects. Taken together, these ideas lead to the
cautious conclusion that some psychedelics can induce genuine mystical experiences sometimes
in some people, and that the current tendency to label these chemicals as entheogens may be
appropriate.
The spiritual life, to which art belongs and of
E
thnographers have long known that most soci-
which she is one of the mightiest elements, is a eties on the planet produce art of one sort or
complicated but definite and easily definable another, and that most traditions of art are
movement forwards and upwards. This move- expressions of the particular societys cosmology. A
ment is the movement of experience. It may take societys religious art and iconography often reveal the
different forms, but it holds at bottom to the hidden aspects of spirit as glimpsed through the filter
same inner thought and purpose. of cultural significance. Moreover, traditional art may
describe aspects of experiences encountered in alterna-
Wassily Kandinsky tive states of consciousness (ASC). Any attempt to
Concerning the Spiritual in Art understand the inner meaning of traditional art is
(1977/1914) futile without some grasp of the cosmology and per-
haps even the mystical experiences expressed by the
arts iconic form. Traditions of art are in fact systems of
Physics is a form of insight and as such its symbols that are part of a much greater cultural and
a form of art. experiential contexta transpersonal context that
must be entered at least partially by the ethnologist if
David Bohm he or she is going to be able to critique the art from
Shlain (1991, p.15).
anything like an authoritative stance. Indeed, art
Art and Spirit 1

objects in American society may reach the status of necessity of spirit to express its nature.
icon where their significance transcends mere artistic
criticism. For instance, the famous 1851 painting by Operationalizing Art and Spirit
Emanuel Gottlieb, George Washington Crossing the The term art is scientifically problematic. Art
Delaware, is recognized by virtually all adults and is one of those words we lift from common English
school children in the United States. The facts that the and try to apply in a rigorous way to other cultures.
event depicted in the painting never happened, that Art is an artifact of the way we in modern society value
the flag came into existence after the date of the certain kinds of symbolic activities and products (see
alleged event, that Washington could not possibly have Malraux, 1953, p. 220; Cassirer, 1979, pp. 145-215;
crossed standing up in a small craft under such weath- Langer, 1953; Jung, 1966, p. 136; Read, 1960,
er conditions, and that the ice is all wrong, have no Chapter 2; Dissanayake, 1988, pp. 167-192). One
bearing at all, either upon the significance of the pic- may search in vain in most of the worlds languages for
ture or upon the emotional impact felt by patriotic a term that glosses art in anything like this modern
viewers. Rather, the significance of the image is all sense, if by that term we refer to objects or products set
about a heroic figure who is central to American apart in special places for the sole appreciation of their
mythology. aesthetic and monetary value (see, e.g., Berndt, 1971,
However, because all forms of art derive from the p. 101 on the absence of art or artist in Aboriginal
operations of the human brain in its dynamic interac- languages).
tion with the world, there exist universal properties of
art and artistic activity that may be traced, not only Operationalizing Art
among most human cultures, but to some rudimenta- This said, I do not wish to imply that the term
ry extent in the artistic activity of those animals who art cannot be ethnologically operationalized. Of
share with human beings many of the same neurocog- course it can be, and I intend to do so. But typical of
nitive structures. Thus we may expect to find among natural categories, the concept art has fuzzy bound-
various peoples art products that may be simultane- aries (Layton, 1978, pp. 25-26; Dissanayake, 1988,
ously appreciated as art by us as outsiders and yet pp. 35-39)1 and hence objects and activities may
express meanings and intentions that are obscure or appear to be more or less art-like to our eyes. Our
downright inaccessible to us without some under- own modern Euro-American attitudes privilege the
standing of the cultural context within which the art aesthetic in art, and we sometimes fail to realize that
is embedded. some traditional peoples consider this aspect to be less
It is the purpose of this paper to explore the struc- important, and even beside the point. For these peo-
tural relationship between art and spirit for whatever ples, what are for us primarily objects of beauty may be
clues we may find about how the human brain makes for them objects of significance or objects of utility. In
sense of an essentially transcendental world. I present fact, the symbolic mode of cognition is inherent to all
a model of art and spirit that will explain some of the human beings (Arnheim, 1969; Donald, 1991;
universal properties of artin particular the common Alexander, 1989) and the conjunction of right lobe,
association of abstraction and aesthetics that defines symbolic, cognitive processing, and aesthetic feelings is
what we usually mean by the concept of art. In order universal to human cultures, whether there is a name
to do this, I analyze the very fuzzy concepts of art, in any particular language for that conjunction or not
spirit, and abstraction, and operationalize them in (Dissanayake, 1988; Maguet, 1971, 1986). Moreover,
a way that makes them applicable to cross-cultural and however a people may refer to their art, symbolically
transpersonal research. I then apply the model to the rich and beautiful artifacts, activities, and performanc-
art of the Navajo people of the American Southwest. I es are inextricably involved in symbolic action in tra-
am especially interested in the relation between Navajo ditional societies (Gell, 1998).
art and the Navajo philosophical concept of hozho Thus, a cross-culturally workable definition of art
(beauty, harmony). Finally, the model is used to requires that it encompass at least three major dimen-
analyze Wassily Kandinskys (1977) contention that sions, aesthetics, the dimension of attractiveness, beau-
abstract art, such as modern expressionist paintings ty, taste (Maguet, 1971, 1986), significance, the
and Navajo sandpaintings, is the product of an inner dimension of meaning and the relation between the
2 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

objects meaning and the societys cosmology and reli- beauty in the creation, execution, form, and deploy-
gious beliefs (Eliade, 1986; Layton, 1978), and utility, ment of the object, or the mastery of performance
the dimension of usefulness, purpose, intention, func- usually some form of iconic symbolism or ritual per-
tion, and so forth, as in Alfred Gells notion of formance.
agency (1998). In other words, what art ethnologists It is also important to note that a culture may or
are really interested in studying are material culture may not recognize a special social status similar to our
and performances that involve expression through artist, and may or may not conceive of artistry as dis-
imagery that combines aesthetics, significance, and tinct from the transmission of significance or techno-
utility. As the exact interaction between these three logical intention, but the material intersection of these
may vary from situation to situation, and among cul- three qualities beauty, symbol, and (to a lesser
tures, anything like a crisp definition of art is pointless. extent) utility(1) has been demonstrated in research
As Dark (1978, p. 34) makes clear, western terms like with captive primates and other animals (Alland,
decoration, craft, and art are somewhat inter- 1977), (2) crops up naturally in childrens art cross-
changeable and flexible. What we can do however is culturally (Kellogg, 1969; Alland, 1983), (3) is univer-
lay out an operational definition to guide our under- sal to human cultures (Dissanayake, 1988, p. 1x), and
standing of the underlying processes producing art. (4) has been so since at least Paleolithic times (10,000
We may define art as any imagery that is the result of - 40,000 or more years ago; Dissanayake, 1988, pp.
the coalescence of aesthetics, significance, and agency, 53-55). The universality of this combination cries out
realizing that one or two of these may not be strongly pres- for a neurobiological explanation, for artistic proclivi-
ent and that the peoples themselves may not recognize one ty obviously existed among human ancestors prior to
or two of these as important. complex cultural variation and personal conditioning.
For those readers who are more technically As I will show below, it is my position that this univer-
inclined, I am defining art in terms of an n-dimension- sality is explained as being mediated by an essentially
al phase space (a geometrical space defined by any artistic brain. The brain recognizes and experiences
number (n) of dimensions, each dimension of which beauty, just as it cognizes and produces significance
may vary independently or in concert) in which aes- and initiates purposeful action in the world (Donald,
thetics, significance, and utility are the major three 1991, 2001; Alexander, 1989). When these three nat-
dimensions, with an eventual fourth dimension, sub- ural, semiosomatic processes intersect in material
limity, and a fifth dimension, abstraction, defining objects or in cultural events, we in modern society will
sacred art. Because my intention here is to keep the tend to recognize art. And, because our English con-
discussion as simple as possible, some of the power of cept of art is so fuzzy, we tend to use various hedges to
defining art as a phase space is lost. Nevertheless, this express more precise kinds of art. We may recognize
way of defining art is sensitive to the considerable vari- the merely beautiful (ornamental, decorative,
ation we may encounter cross-culturally in how people fine, or art for its own sake), the beautiful and use-
conceive of art. It is possible to find art objects that are ful (craft), and perhaps the merely significant (con-
considered beautiful without being overly associated ceptual or symbolic art).
with any meaning per se. Ornamentation may or may
not involve significant iconography. Paintings may or Operationalizing Spirit
may not be of something. Likewise, the beauty, or Operationalizing the term spirit is, if anything,
lack of beauty, of icons such as masks used in healing even more difficult than art. The term spirit is fre-
rituals may be considered peripheral within the cultur- quently conflated with such terms as sacred, numi-
al frame of reference. And, as Gell (1992) has shown, nous, religious, soul, and the like. It is especially
the principal concern of the people may be upon the difficult to define in a scientifically meaningful way in
use of the object as a kind of technology, as in the case the current climate of New Age thinking in which
of certain Pacific peoples who create shields, body art, spirit is commonly defined in opposition to anything
and prow boards for their boats in order to dazzle the savoring of received or institutionalized religion. As
beholder and put them at a disadvantage in trade or Mircea Eliade (1986, p. 83) has remarked, this dual-
warfare. But keep in mind that what first draws the ism is an artifact of the loss and rediscovery of the spir-
interest of the Western mind is usually the sense of itual and sacred in modern society; religion being
Art and Spirit 3

more associated with bureaucratic institutions that 1960; Malraux, 1953; Ament, 2002).
participated in the despiritualization and materializa- The dialog between the conscious self and either
tion of nature. Yet the element of spirit cannot be the unconscious or the spiritual dimension of reality
ignored in non-Western art, nor in modern art. There (depending upon ones point of view) remains intact
is something missing from our definition of art above for many traditional peoples, especially those cultures
that must be included within any definition of art of whose core symbolism derives from shamanic imagery
use to ethnology. That something is sublimity. It is the and practices (Winkelman, 2000). This dialogue
element of the sublime in the art of peoples every- means that the core symbolism within their cultural
where. I use the term in its ancient sensefrom the heritage remains pregnantin Ernst Cassirers (1957,
root sub, up to, and limin, threshold. The latter p. 202) sensewith cosmological meaning, and much
root is the same one that has been central to Victor of this symbolism constitutes traditional or folk art
Turners use of the concept of liminality in his analysis in the eyes of Westerners. Thus I want to retain the use
of the function of ritual (Turner, 1969, 1979). I am of the terms spirit and spiritual for the recognition
using the term in Turners sense of threshold to some by peoples everywhere of what Eliade (1986) called
experience of the sacred. Such an experience may vary cosmic religiositythe recognition of a sacred or
from a simple feeling of numinosity to a full-blown occult dimension behind or within the everyday world
transpersonal encounter or ASC. of appearances. For the purposes of this study, there-
What ethnologists often find in traditional cul- fore, spiritual art is defined as the confluence of beauty,
tures is a profound appreciation of the sacred in what significance, and utility in imagery that has associated
we Westerners conceive of as merely matter. with it a link to the sublime, regardless of how the culture
Moreover, there is a universal recognition among peo- within which the imagery is found interprets that
ples that there is a hidden dimension to nature, a imagery. This definition is intended to apply to art
dimension that hosts the animated and powerfulbut found anywhere, whether the culture be traditional or
normally unseenforces that shape events in the modern. It applies as much to traditional Navajo sand-
human world. Even if we take a strictly psychodynam- paintings and Northwest Coast spirit masks as it does
ic view of spirit (or even a neuropsychological point of to the cosmological paintings of Japans Kieji Usami or
view; see Ernandes & Giammanco, 1998)that is, the mystical paintings of Americas Mark Tobey.
that spirit is the projection of our own inner and large-
ly unconscious and archetypal nature upon extramen- Abstraction
tal reality2the loss of the sense of the sacred and the I have so far incorporated four aspects of art with-
spiritual in modern society has been accompanied by in our model, those being aesthetics, significance, util-
an interruption of an essential process in spiritual dis- ity, and sublimity. There is yet another quality of art
covery, maturation, and expression. As those who have that needs addressing before the model may be consid-
actively followed paths of spiritual discovery will attest, ered reasonably complete. Ethnologists of art have
dialog with the depths is generally carried out by way long recognized that nearly all traditional art is
of imagery encountered in hypnagogic fantasy, ritual abstract (see Redfield, 1971). In my opinion, this fact
practice, visualization techniques, and various themat- provides an important clue to understanding the
ic apperception methods such as meditation upon the power of art to penetrate into, evoke, and express the
esoteric Tarot. What may be accessed by way of these sublime dimension of being (Laughlin, 2003). In
techniques is a panoply of extraordinary experiences order to use this clue, however, additional clarification
numinous experiences that may be interpreted by the is required. It is crucial to understand that abstraction
individual or the society as living spirit. What has been is to some extent a characteristic of all artthat is,
lost for most people living in modern society is the involved in all beautiful, significant, and useful
smooth linkage of imagery and culturally rich, spiritu- imagery. But once again we face the problem of ren-
al associations. In my opinion, the more astute critics dering an everyday English word into a technical and
of modern art, or at least certain schools of modern art universally applicable concept. The commonsense
such as abstract expressionism, understand the artistic Western meaning of abstraction involves a movement
process as a rediscovery of the spiritual or mystical away from particularity and toward generalityfrom
dimension of imagery (e.g., Kandinsky, 1982; Read, the concrete presence of something to thought freed

from the demands of representation.3 One of our most are able to express an intuitive grasp, and even the
famous philosophers, John Locke, extrapolated this direct apprehension of the spiritual realms of human
commonsense meaning of abstraction in his 17th- experience, as well as the essential forms and properties
century study, An Essay Concerning Human of normal experience (Burnham, 1971, p. 45).
Understanding, in which he argued that all abstract
ideas derive from comparing the similarities and differ- Continuum of Representative-Associative
ences among the objects we encounter in our environ- Abstraction
ment. The movement in Lockes notion of abstraction Recognizing that all art is to one extent or anoth-
is from external particulars to internal ideas. The er the product of mental abstraction, perhaps a more
notion that some abstract ideas may originally derive scientifically useful model of abstraction in art would
from wholly internal even inherentstructures of be to see that art products may be placed along a con-
the brain and that these structures develop as they are tinuum from representative abstraction at one pole to
instantiated in experience was quite foreign to Locke, associative abstraction at the other pole. I am not defin-
as it is to many thinkers to this very day. Moreover, the ing ideal types here, but rather suggesting polar ten-
English connotations of abstraction do not readily dencies in artistic intention, expression, and interpre-
refer to the expression of ideas or iconic symbols hav- tation. All art products are abstract, but what deter-
ing their origins in inner psychodynamic experience mines their place on the continuum is their principal
say, from intuition, feeling, or contemplation. Other focus along the continuum of the abstraction process.
commentators have recognized this stumbling block. To put it another way, of what phase of the neuropsy-
As one textbook in the psychology of art puts it: chological abstraction is the art an expression? Is the
Thanks to habitual terminology, many would agree main intention the description of sensed objects? Or is
that a great part of modern Western art, as well as the focus upon some adumbrated property of the act
Egyptian, African, American Indian, and Pre- of perception itself? Or is it an expression of an emo-
Columbian art, is abstract, yet few would be will- tion, an intuition, an idea, or an eidetic image sponta-
ing to go along with the implication that abstrac- neously arising from the depths?
tion is built into the very essence of all art products Let me give some examples from the history of
and is essential for experiencing them no less than ten- Euro-American art to demonstrate how the representa-
sion and relief and feeling-into. The difficulty of tiveassociative continuum might be appropriate. If the
accepting these hypotheses arises mainly from the theme of a painting or sculpture or performance is the
usual connotations of abstraction, which place it as depiction of the topographical relations visually sensed
a contrast to concreteness, perceptibility, and indi- in the world, then we would consider that piece to be
viduality as well as to emotional experiencing. highly representational in common parlance. The
(Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972, p. 302; emphasis added) clearest examples of pure representation are illustra-
To apply this very Western idea of abstraction to the tions that utilize the various principles of illusion to
experiences of peoples outside the umbrella of Euro- produce a realistic picture of the sensed object.
American culture and history is obviously problemat- Among visual artists, a landscapesay, one done by
ic, especially in those cases where the process of John Gainsboroughwould normally be interpreted
abstraction seems to be a spontaneous expression of as representational. Perhaps the paintings of Andrew
some inner impetus or drive. Even among ethnogra- Wyeth would also serve as being fairly representation-
phers, there is a tendency to presume that the abstract al in this sense. However, the portraits of Rembrandt
ideas expressed in traditional art inevitably arise from or Renoir are as much inner emotional projections as
some kind of Lockean analysis of similarities and dif- they are illustrations. Even more, a pointillist painting
ferences among experienced objects in the environ- by Georges Seurat, although on the face of things quite
ment. Even the reputable ethnologist Robert Redfield representational, actually focuses upon certain struc-
(1971, p. 47), noted the inevitable distortion of real- tural properties of the perceptual act and uses the rep-
ity that traditional art holds in common with modern resentational aspect (the beach scene or whatever) to
art. As we shall see, eliminating this cultural bias will explore the infra-realistic organization of visual per-
enable us to better understand the way that tradition- ceptionin keeping with the other impressionists, the
al systems of art, as well as some schools of modern art, pointillists were phenomenologists and wanted to
Art and Spirit 5

describe how we see what we see. Further along the accepted aesthetic standards and provoke, not only a
continuum, Pablo Picasso performed topological new kind of authenticity, but unexpected sparks that
experiments upon the geometry of perception by could be obtained in no other way (Ellenwood, 1992,
changing the normally encountered relations of form p. 178). Artistic activity became by definition a
and point of view. Still further along on the continu- transpersonal process.
um, Wassily Kandinsky used the merest hint of real The great French Canadian painter Paul-Emile
objects and forms, or pure geometric, nonrepresenta- Borduas4 distinguished three types of automatism
tional forms to explore the expression of spirit via (Ellenwood, 1992, pp. 173-174):
abstract relations composed of color, form, and mechanical automatismreliance upon the physi-
movement. Piet Mondrian likewise constructed paint- cal properties of a process, like centrifugal force,
ings that use pure geometrical forms and colors to gravity, the properties of plastic media, etc. Not the
probe the dimensions of inner space, the realm of product of psychological processes. For example,
inner psychological experience. The paintings of the imagery from spirographs, or the so-called fractal
cubists and surrealists are also positioned at about this imagery produced from computer transposition of
point on the continuum. As you can see when you Mandelbrot sets.
look at such works, there is a clear movement away psychic automatismcreation with no control by
from the pictorial to the significant, from the sign to conscious thoughts, and in an emotionally neutral
the signified. As Ortega y Gasset (1968, pp. 38-39) state. This would include imagery from the hypna-
notes, the artist shuts his eyes to the outer world and gogic, dreams, fantasy and hallucination, and pro-
concentrates upon the subjective images in his own duced surrealism. But it still involves memory. The
mind. artist is painting what one remembers of the
imagery one has experienced in those ASC. Interest
The Pure Associative Pole and Automatism is more on the object than on the dialog with the
The dripped paintings of Jackson Pollock are materials being used.
perhaps furthest from representational abstraction, surrational automatism5 creation without pre-
and may represent for us the pole of pure associative meditation, process of creating with no attention
abstraction in modern art. Pollock divested himself of to content. The first form that occurs leads by free
all natural components in his compositions, includ- association to the next form, and so on, until a feel-
ing such things as objects, central focus, conventional ing of unity and completion is reached (or a sense
borders, and conventional spatial relations. He wanted that to go further would destroy that unity).
nothing whatever in his paintings upon which the Understanding and interpretation of the work
mind could project remembered objects, even symbol- comes after it is finished. The painting is its own
ic objects like archetypes. His avowed intent was to content, not a description of a recalled image.
freely express the processes of the unconscious by giv- The distinction between psychic and surra-
ing up control of his body and the creative process to tional automatism is an important one for my pur-
the unconscioushence the epithet action painting poses, for not only is the neuropsychology of the two
sometimes used to describe his technique. types of automatism different, there are different rep-
Pollocks method became one of the most celebrat- resentations of these methods among traditional sys-
ed of the automatic methods of creation. tems of art. The difference psychologically is that there
Automaticism was derived from the earlier experiments are two distinct mind-states involved in psychic auto-
by the cubists and surrealists (in fact Andre Breton matic methodsthe mind-state that is the inspira-
once defined surrealism as pure psychic automatism; tional source of imagery is distinct from that during
Ellenwood, 1992, p. 39) and was used by a number of the act of producing the piece of art; e.g., an actual
artists, including many of the other abstract expres- dream and the painting of an image from that
sionists such as Robert Motherwell, Mark Rothko, and dreamwhile there is but one mind-state involved in
Barnett Newman, to access their own unconscious cre- surrational methodsthe inspiration and execution
ative processes (Shapiro & Shapiro, 1990, p. 2). From occurring simultaneously within the unpremeditated
surrealists like Andre Breton, these artists learned to act of creation.
use essentially meditative techniques to subvert The neuropsychology is distinctly different

between psychic and surrational automatism, for each nonfigurative? Certainly not, for the true sense of
method involves a different process of expressive pen- abstraction is retained for any expression of uncon-
etration. In the case of psychic automatic techniques, scious processes, either indirectly through psychic
the subject of the artistic act is a recalled image. So the automatic techniques, or directly by surrational auto-
penetration is from unconscious processes to internal matic techniques. Both are symbolic acts. The process-
eidetic imagery in the first instance, and from the es of the unconscious that produce the imagery are
memory of that image to expression in the painting in transcendental relative to any expression they produce
the second instance. This involves an intentional through penetration to semiosomatic activity (acting,
entrainment of right parietal lobe cortical structures speech, writing, movement, singing, sculpting, paint-
mediating the eidetic image, prefrontal cortical struc- ing, dancing, and so forth), and such unconscious
tures mediating working memory, long-term memory processes are certainly not limited in their movement,
structures in the hippocampus, and the visual and associations, or relations by the physical properties of
somatic structures involved in composing and execut- the artistic medium (be it paint, ink, film, stage props,
ing the painting. But in the case of surrational auto- yarn, wood, soapstone, or what have you). The initiat-
matic methods, there presumably is a direct penetra- ing unconscious processes are limited only by the neu-
tion from unconscious intuitive processes to motor rophysiological structures that mediate them.
and visual systems involved in executing the painting. Surrational automatism is an abstract expression of
The expression of unconscious neurocognitive unconscious processesa medium by means of which
processes via behavior to the canvas is direct and the hidden, transcendental activities of the uncon-
involves entrainment of unconscious associational scious penetrate to those neurocognitive structures
structures (say, in the thalamus and limbic system, and mediating expression in materials and movements.
perhaps structures in the basal ganglia) with the motor
and visual systems.
The process of abstraction is reasonably obvious in Representative-Associative Abstraction and
the case of psychic automatismthe artistic act Traditional Art
requires the abstraction of the image from its original
experiential context. Borduas was correct in emphasiz- The much vaunted iconoclasm of modern art is
ing that this involves an act of memory. To make perhaps a reaction to the materialism of 19th- and
Borduas distinctions even more useful for a cross-cul- 20th-century Euro-American culture. Modern artists
turally applicable model of art, I want to add my own have frequently rejected received cultural values and
subsidiary distinction between two types of surrational styles and have been forced to fall back on their own
methods. A pure surrational method is one without fig- visions and insights, which are communicated using
urative constraint of any kind, while a figurative surra- new and often esoteric symbolism (see Redfield, 1971,
tional method is one in which a figurative constraint is pp. 47-48; Read, 1960). Modern artists are frequently
imposed upon an essentially automatic act, as for the agents of the process of creative mythology
example when Carl Jung required his patients to paint (Campbell, 1968, p. 4), which is no longer subject to
mandalas in their exploration of the unconscious the tyranny of historical styles and standards. Indeed,
(Jung, 1969, 1997). The general form of the mandala as Leonard Shlain (1991, p. 18) has suggested, as new
was set by the analyst, but the execution of the form insights must first be imagined, it is often the artist
and subsidiary imagery was left to automatic processes that presages creative changes in knowledge and society.
of the patient. The patient painted a mandala and only Things are quite different with respect to the sta-
after it was complete did he or she address the issue of tus of associational abstraction in traditional systems
interpretation. of art, for abstract symbolism in traditional societies is
If psychic automatism involves abstraction via typically spiritually iconic, a fact that anthropological
memory from an earlier experience, but surrational theorists as far back as Durkheim (1995/1912, pp.
automatism does not, one may then reasonably ask to 425-428) have considered significant. Art is often an
what extent is surrational automatic art actually expression of deeply held spiritual knowledge about
abstract? And if it is abstract, then what is it an abstrac- nature, and especially about the hidden forces that
tion of? Is abstract in this sense synonymous with impact upon human experience. Most of this knowl-
Art and Spirit 7

edge is incorporated in a worldview that has been The swing back to the more spiritual modes of
transmitted through innumerable generations of story expression in modern society may be presaged in the
telling, ritual performance, and artistic expression. iconoclasm of modern art, especially in the art of the
surrationalist movements that have forsaken any sem-
Sensate, Idealistic, and Ideational Cultures blance of realism. Surrational art is often the product
To make the distinction between modern and tra- of a self-conscious exploration of the unconscious, of
ditional art clearer, it would perhaps be useful to intro- the hidden depths and unknown mysteries of the
duce another continuum, this time involving types of greater psycheof spirit, if you will. The creative eye
society. Pitirim Sorokin (1957, 1962) has suggested of the artist probes inward for a deeper well of intuitive
that societies may be placed upon a pendulum-like understandinga quest for direct apprehension of
continuum in terms of their dominant patterns of spiritual realization through the praxis of the artistic
adaptation. Societies like ours that are out on what he moment (Kandinsky, 1982, p. 758). This quest is in
called the sensate pole are extremely materialistic in reaction to the lived experience of most people in
their mode of adapting to reality. Sensate cultures tend modern society, whose preoccupation with making a
to be outer directed and develop systems of knowledge living and raising families is done within a system of
that rely heavily upon rational thought and the expres- (for them) very commonsense materialist values. For
sion of knowledge through language. Intuitive ways of most people the drippings of Pollock and the palate
knowing are usually held as suspect, are rationalized, knife strokes of Jean-Paul Riopelle are noise at best,
or are merely ignored. Extremely sensate societies and meaning, if there is any, will be limited to the crit-
eventually tend to compensate by swinging back ical comments about art read in newspapers or on
toward a balanced cultural view in which rational museum labels.
knowledge appears more integrated with knowledge
from the spiritual mode (he called these more balanced Art as Icon and Portal Within a Cosmological Cycle
societies midway on the pendulum swing idealistic cul- of Meaning
tures). This seems to be happening in mainstream The art of idealistic and ideational cultures is com-
North American culture at the present time with the monly both highly abstract and powerfully meaningful
rise of charismatic movements, increased use of alter- in a profoundly cosmological wayin a way exceed-
native healing systems, conversion to Asian religions, ingly difficult for western-reared (sensate) people to
and the growth of various New Age movements like comprehend. There is a seeming ease of access to
neoshamanism, Wicca, and the mythopoeic mens meaning found in these groups with living traditions
movement. of art, and the avenue of access does not require decon-
Cultures are actually quite dynamic. They never struction or demythologization. These cultures seem
stand still, and the balance found in one generation to balance and even privilege the mimetic function (or
between rational materialist and imagistic/intuitive mimesis; see Donald, 1991, p. 168; 2001, p. 268) of
spiritual ways of knowing may be lost to subsequent neurocognitive processingthat is, the inherent
generations in the continued movement of the culture process of eidetic knowing that may be unique to
toward the opposite pole, that characteristic of more human beings and that may operate independent of lan-
mystical, or ideational cultures. From the point of view guage. In ideational cultures, people are used to under-
of people in an ideational culture, what we might con- standing art-as-symbol. All members know what their
sider mystical knowledge or experience is not mysti- societys art means, for they have been exposed to the
cal at all. It is simply the way things are. After all, imagery from childhood, and have learned a repertoire
consider that the word occult in English just means of meanings associated with forms of drama, dance,
hidden from view or hard to see. When we finally masks, paintings, and so on, which are part and parcel
experience and comprehend the mysteries, they are no to their societys mythology (Berndt, 1971, p. 104;
longer hidden, and hence no longer occult. Burnham, 1971; Dissanayake, 1988). Styles of tradi-
Ideational peoples tend to be inner directed and rever- tional art are typically quite conservative (Redfield,
ence imagination and intuition as the path to knowl- 1971, p. 48), and artists within these traditions are
edge. Wisdom is valued more highly than mere factu- fairly limited as to the degrees of freedom they may
al knowledge. enjoy in creating new forms of expression (Berndt,

1971, p. 102). It is quite true that we as outsiders can- rational reformulation. Human beings really are
not fully appreciate the meaning of traditional art and mimetic creatures (Donald, 1991, 2001) and do not
symbolism unless we come to understand the cultural require language or rational faculties to apprehend rich
context within which they are embedded (Whitten & and complex meanings associated with objects and
Whitten, 1993). This conservatism of style and speci- events. The tendency of Western analysts to demythol-
ficity of meaning tends to loosen up considerably, of ogize traditional art in their attempt to understand it
course, when traditional artists turn their skills toward is a common failure in both ethnology and art criti-
modern-day commercial art (see Parezo, 1983, for the cisma failure that among other things distracts us
Navajo), but here I am concerned only with the from more appropriate and productive phenomeno-
inwardly directed arts (Graburn, 1976b, p. 4) that logical approaches. As Charlotte Otten (1971) notes,
traditional societies produce for their own consump- ...in asking the meaning of an art event, we are ask-
tion. ing for a translation into discursive mode, embalmed
The power of traditional art for ideational peoples in a tradition of literacy, a translation which (as all
is due in part to the fact that the art-as-icon (mimesis) artists are acutely aware) cannot be achieved... (p.
is part of a much greater system of culturally condi- xiv). The apprehension of meaning is typically one of
tioned signification, a system that may be modeled as immediate intuitive comprehension (Cardew, 1978, p.
a cycle of meaning (see Laughlin, 1997, 2001; 18): realization occurs as a rapid, experiential instanti-
Laughlin, McManus, & Shearer, 1993; Laughlin & ation of the symbolic context that evoked the experi-
Throop, 2003). Ideational cultures typically under- ence, and by way of that symbolic context to the
stand the world as a cosmology; that is, as a vast living underlying worldview of which the symbolism is an
system in which everything is embedded, has a role to expression. It should be mentioned that a shaman or
play, and accrues its meaning. The world is understood other specialist may act to design and control the ritu-
to be a single monad comprised of relations between al context and perhaps act as an interpretive agent
all things big and small, apparent and hidden, linking experience with the world view, as is the case
momentary or enduring, including human beings and with Moroccan dream interpreters or the elders offici-
their social relations and institutions. This cosmologi- ating at a Sun Dance among some Plains Indian cul-
cal understanding is expressed in various institutional- tures.
ized forms of symbolic expression (myth, ritual per- Many ideational cultures encourage their mem-
formance, drama, art, stories, and so forth) in such a bers to seek extraordinary experiences arising in ASC
vital way that it intertwines with direct life experi- (arising in dreams, visions, meditation states, drug
ences. The experiences and memories that arise as a trips, trance states, and so forth) and interpret those
consequence of participation in the cultures semioso- experiences according to culturally recognized systems
matic procedures are interpreted in terms of the cos- of meaning (Read, 1955, p. 87; Winkelman, 1986,
mology in such a way that they enliven and thereby 1990, 2000). This process of exploring experiences in
empirically verify the cosmological order. A living multiple realitieswhat we have elsewhere termed
cycle of meaning would seem to be a delicate process, polyphasic culture (see Laughlin, McManus & dAquili,
and one that requires change or revitalization 1990)combined with social appropriation of the
(Wallace, 1966) over time in order for meaningful dia- meaning of these experiences within a single cycle of
logue to continue between a peoples worldview and meaning, is definitive of ideational culture.6 Many
their everyday lived experience. The social construc- societies go so far as to compel ASC by putting their
tion of knowledge and individual experience is thus members through initiation rituals, sometimes using
involved in a reciprocal feedback system, the proper- psychotropic drugs like datura or hallucinogenic
ties of which may be so changed by circumstances that mushrooms (see Dobkin de Rios &
the link between knowledge and experience may be Winkelman,1989), and enforcing vision quests (see
hampered, and even lost. In other words, a religious Bourguignon, 1973; Naranjo, 1987). The experiences
system may become moribund due to the failure of the encountered during these procedures in turn reinforce
dialogue between worldview and direct experience. the societys belief in the existence of multiple realities
I should emphasize that the interpretive phase of and inform the meaning of the societys art products
the cycle of meaning is rarely one of deconstruction or (masks, icons, mandalas, and so forth) associated with
Art and Spirit 9

such experiences (see, e.g., Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1978 eties where we find art well integrated into daily cul-
on this issue among Columbian Indians). This is why tural life (Redfield, 1971, p. 44; Dissanayake, 1988,
art is so commonly linked to ritual and play in tradi- pp. 98, 168). In order to bring home more effectively
tional societies. Art objects are poignant reminders of the role of art among traditional people, let me offer a
the underlying spiritual realizations indicated by their more extended example from my own fieldwork
symbolism. In this sense, art makes special otherwise among the Navajo people of the American Southwest
mundane contexts (Dissanayake, 1988, p. 98). The (see also Witherspoon, 1977, Chapter 4; Witherspoon
art-as-symbol is a reminder of the hidden spiritual & Peterson, 1995).
dimension, and may well operate also as a portal or Present day Navajo represents the kind of balance
passageway into an alternative reality experienced by typical of Sorokins idealistic cultures. Navajo is also a
the individual in ASC. Hence art objects may figure nation full of artists. Navajo people produce everyday
prominently as neuropsychological drivers (elements art in the form of jewelry, pottery, utensils, textiles,
that penetrate into and evoke semiosomatic processes and so forth. Yet much of the symbolism incorporated
mediating experience) in religious ceremonies (see into these objects has for the traditional Navajo pro-
dAquili, Laughlin, & McManus, 1979) and play (see found historical, cosmological, and religious signifi-
Laughlin, 1990), both of which have distinctly spiritu- cance (see Adair, 1944; Reichard, 1939; Kaufman &
al associations in many traditional societies. Selser, 1999; Witherspoon, 1977; Witherspoon &
Most ideational cultures are also polyphasic (to at Peterson, 1995; Frisbie, 1992). Indeed, Jackson
least a minimal degree), and of course their art prod- Pollock and many other modern artists have been
ucts frequently depict imagery related to experiences directly or indirectly influenced by Navajo weaving,
encountered in ASC. For example, the Huichol peo- sandpainting, and performance (Witherspoon, 1977,
ples of Central Mexico ingest peyote in their religious p. 174). It is interesting that Shlain (1991, p. 245)
rituals, and their yarn paintings, beadwork, basketry, makes the point that whereas museums hang Pollocks
and weaving incorporate imagery that depicts experi- paintings on the wall so that they are in a vertical ori-
ences had during psychedelic episodes (MacLean, entation relative to the audience, Pollock himself often
2001). Other cultures will use their art products as painted the canvases tacked to the floor of his barn,
portalling devicesas symbolically loaded icons that and while dancing around them. These horizontal can-
penetrate to the neuropsychological systems mediating vases were basically portals into energetic space for
extraordinary experiences and intuitive insights (see him, much as are the more geometrical, but no less
MacDonald, Cove, Laughlin, & McManus, 1989, on abstract, Navajo rugs and sandpaintings that so influ-
the process of portalling and portalling motifs in art). enced his understanding of art.
Tibetan Buddhist practitioners, for example, use Yet it is interesting that the closest one can come
sacred scroll paintings (thang ka), usually of specific in the Navajo language to art is naashchaah, which
deities, as objects of veneration and devotion. They refers to the act of decorating something. But we must
may also use these paintings as foci of meditation and be careful here, for as Gary Witherspoon (1977, p.
visualization, especially when carrying out their foun- 151) remarks, beauty (hozho) for the Navajo is an
dation practices (sngon gro) in which meditation on internal mental state, not a quality of something out
the refuge tree and guru are important (Jackson & there. Beauty is a path or ideal of living, and objects
Jackson, 1984, pp. 9-13; Laughlin, 1994a). can be made with such skill that they enhance the
beauty one experiences while walking through life.
Art and the Sacred in Navajo Cosmology Beauty is what one projects onto happenings and
We in Euro-American society are very used to objects from within oneself. Thus to collect a bunch of
experiencing art from our secular point of view. objects and store them in a museum is a foreign notion
Perhaps we visit museums and art galleries, theaters to a traditional Navajo, although like so many other
and festivals, and then carry the memory of those peoples around the globe today, Navajo artists
experiences away with us into our normal sphere of (weavers, sandpainters, silversmiths, painters) have
life. Perhaps we hang pictures or position sculptures so now learned to cater to Anglo tastes and patterns of
that they add beauty to our surroundings. But this is consumption (Graburn, 1976a). And like so many
not the typical pattern encountered in traditional soci- other peoples, the Navajo have produced modern

artists whose work is no longer perceived by more tra- events (slaying of monsters) that reveal the causally
ditional Navajo as sacred or as an expression of Navajo powerful but hidden spiritual dimension of the world.
values or aesthetic ideals. The iconic representation of the Holy People are high-
Beauty is a natural state of both perceived events ly abstract and geometrical, almost insectoid figures
and the hidden forces behind those events (Farella, that merely suggest human forms. These figures are
1984). The Navajo, like so many other peoples around immediately recognizable to traditional Navajo, and
the globe (see, e.g, Laderman, 1991, for the Malay), are considered very sacred. The key to understanding
have noticed that we cannot actually see the air we this sense of the sacred in art is that whether tradition-
breaththat we only know the existence of air by its al or modern, a piece of art is sacred if it is associated
effects on other things (rustling leaves, whirling dust, in the mind of the artist or the audience with the cos-
the sensation of the breeze on our skin). It is not sur- mogonic stories that comprise the core of Navajo his-
prising then that in Navajo philosophy the hidden tory and philosophy. A piece of sacred art reminds the
dimension of things is called nilchi, or Wind viewer of the teachings of the ancient ones, and thus
(McNeley, 1981). Physical realityindeed, all things the mind is guided, via the object and its narrative
in the perceptual world, including peopleare mani- associations, back onto the path of beauty and harmo-
festations of this one, vast, cosmic Wind that flows in ny. The art object must be experienced as a portal into
and out of all things (biiasti, the animated energy the sacred teachings, or it simply is no longer
within) and that underlies the normally hidden total- Navajo.
ity of the universe. Wind is the essential, vital, and The most dramatic deployment of art in Navajo is
unitary truth of nature, from the contemplation of within healing rituals called sings (hataal; see
which the people attain their intuitions about the pur- Reichard, 1950; Sandner, 1979). Sings are very elabo-
pose of existence. And it is an imbalance of that por- rate affairs, often taking days to complete (e.g., see
tion of the wind that stands within (nilchI hwiisizi- Faris,1990, on the nine day Nightway ceremony).
inii) each one of us that leads to disease and misfor- Every phase and element of the ceremony is under the
tune. According to one of my Navajo friends, one of supervision of a medicine man or woman (hataali,
the ways that balance, harmony, or as the Navajo say, singer). Sings involve artistic creations, dramatic per-
hozho, can be lost is by forgetting. One returns to the formances, and chanting of songs that describe events
state of beauty therefore by rememberingand I during mythological time. The rituals and artistic
believe he meant remembering in the literal sense of ingredients are considered to be gifts given by the Holy
re-membering, of re-collecting, of putting it all back People to the Navajo in order that they may avail
together again in the normally healthy way (our words themselves of powerful techniques for evoking and
health, hale, and holy all derive from the same controlling the hidden energies (Witherspoon, 1977,
root meaning whole). One again walks in beauty p. 25; Frisbie, 1992, pp. 459-460) of the Holy Wind
by remembering what the old ones taught from the and the Holy People that bring about healing. A sing
beginning of time. If need be, one may be reminded may only occur within or around a traditional Navajo
by a medicine man, or by singing the appropriate hut called a hogana round, five- or eight-sided hut
songs, or by doing the proper rituals, such as greeting made of logs, mud, rocks, or in more modern times,
the dawn with an offering of corn pollen. brick, lumber, or concrete. Today most people no
longer live in hogans, but rather in more modern styles
Art and Healing Ritual in Navajo of buildings like ranch-style houses, row houses, and
The Navajo imagine the hidden dynamics of mobile homes. But even today, a healer will not con-
Wind as the movement of the Holy People (Diyin sider holding a sing unless the family sponsoring the
Dinee)for instance, the Mountain People, the Star event owns or builds a hogan. The reason is that the
People, the River People, the Rain People, the Corn myths and other texts that prescribe the techniques for
People, and so forth. The Holy People are the Wind symbolic healing require a hogan, and a hogan must be
personifiedthe Wind imagined. Hence, one of the constructed in the proper way, with its one door point-
major mnemonic devices for the hidden is iconograph- ing eastthe direction of the rising sun and Changing
ic artthat is, art objects that invoke cosmological fig- Woman. The daily cycle begins in the east with the ris-
ures (the gods or yeeii), themes (the open circle), and ing sun, which is associated with birth, proceeds clock-
Art and Spirit 11

wise through the south and the west, and ends in the state of harmony (hozho) with the cosmos. Everything
north, the latter being associated with night and death. in the painting and everything within the hogan are
By positioning symbols and people within and around brought into resonance with the cosmos, the inner
the hogan in the proper way, one automatically posi- essence of which is the Holy Wind. The sandpainting
tions them properly in relation to the four sacred thus operates as a portal (MacDonald et al., 1989) that
mountains that define Navajoland, and the four cardi- facilitates the passage of the normally invisible energies
nal directions of the cosmos. into the patient and the hogan. The passage of healing
In many sings, the singer or his helpers will con- energies seems to be directed only one way in Navajo
struct a sandpainting (also called a drypainting, for psychology, thus reversing the direction often
no sand is actually used; see Witherspoon, 1977, pp. described for flying shamans in other cultures, who
167-172; Sandner, 1979; Reichard, 1939, Parezo, may pass through a portal of some sort (geometric pat-
1983) on the smooth dirt floor of the hogan. The tern, mirror, skrying device, and so forth) and make a
painting is achieved by spreading pulverized stone of soul flight into the spirit world (Winkelman, 2000,
various colors in a geometrically prescribed way and in p. 61). There are in fact no data of which I am aware
the proper orientation to the hogan. Sandpaintings that Navajo practitioners have ever practiced or expe-
usually take the form of mandalas (see Jung, 1969, and rienced this kind of ASC.
Laughlin, 2001, on the transpersonal significance of The utility of the sandpainting is over when its
mandala symbolism), the eastern side of which is left phase of the sing is concluded. As it would remain
open and pointed toward the door of the hogan, and powerful and potentially dangerous to others, it is
thus toward the east (all patterns in Navajo art are left completely destroyed by being swept up, and every last
open in this way, whether in pottery, basketry, or bit of the colored powder from which it was made is
weaving, so that the energies may flow in and out). disposed of outside and to the north of the hogan.
The singer will either construct the painting himself, Under no circumstances will an accurate sandpainting
or have it done by his apprentices under close supervi- be conserved, nor is it permissible to photograph it.
sion. If an error is made in rendering the image, no The various ethnographic renditions of sandpaintings
matter how small, the error will be erased and made executed by various medicine men for research and
over. When people enter the hogan for ceremonial archival purposes are said to all have intentional errors
activities during the sing, they move clockwise around painted into their form that render them harmless and
the sandpainting and sit along the walls according to incapable of evoking the power of the Holy People.
their gender, age, and status. Thus people become
arranged properly relative to each other, relative to the More Modern Utility of Art in Navajo
sandpainting, relative to the homeland, and ultimate- As the above discussion demonstrates, the associa-
ly, relative to the cosmosall because of the physical tion of art and myth within a cycle of meaning is
structure of the hogan. essential to understanding both the sacred nature (i.e.,
Sandpaintings relate directly to the mythological the significance) and the utility of art for Navajo peo-
stories being chanted and often depict the Holy ple. For a more modern application, let me turn briefly
People, mythological characters, features, and events to the use of pictures by another of my Navajo friends
mentioned in the stories. But they are far more than who is a social worker. Let me call him Fred. Fred fre-
pictorial illustrations. In Gells (1992) terms, the quently works with families that have been ravaged by
Navajo sandpainting, properly configured and alcoholism, drug addiction, and domestic violence. He
deployed, is a kind of technology of enchantment in works to reintroduce his clients to the proper tradi-
which the intent is to evoke and focus the healing tional roles each must play to form a harmonious
power of the Holy People and to thereby effect a Navajo family. Parents must come to see that they have
change of state in the patient. At the appropriate to become appropriate role models for their children.
moment in the ritual, the patient is placed in the mid- And appropriate here means traditionalin accord
dle of the sandpainting, thus inviting the Holy Wind with the ancient stories that prescribe how the People
energies in the form of the Holy People to pass into are to behave. In beginning his counseling on the nat-
and heal the disease. The healing is accomplished by ural state of harmonious relationships, Fred sometimes
returning the inner Wind of the patient to its natural uses a drawing of the famous sandpainting depicting

Father Sky on the right and Mother Earth on the left art (or craft) among the Navajo. Navajo artists also
(as one looks out of the painting). The male element is produce world-famous fabrics and jewelry, as well as
associated with the right hand side and the female with the masks and regalia used in the yeeii dances that are
the left hand side of the body. He teaches that his also a part of healing rituals and public ceremonials.
clients should think about the act of taking a bath, an Yet all of the imagery used in blankets, silver bracelets,
act that involves the right hand (male) washing the baskets, pottery, or masks have their origins and signif-
female side and the left hand (female) washing the icance within the context of Navajo cosmology. In
male side of the body. Relations among the genders other words, for the traditionally minded Navajo, in
should be, and once were of this kind of mutual help, order for any art object to be perceived as being of the
respect, and cooperation. Things have changed, Fred People, it must partake in the Navajo cycle of mean-
says, for the attraction between the genders is often ingit must relate in some way to the corpus of sacred
merely lust these days. stories that all Navajo hear in their childhood, and that
Father Sky and Mother Earth are depicted as con- relate the formative events in the mythic history of the
nected mouth to mouth by a track of corn pollen, and People. This corpus of stories and the traditional cos-
between the legs by a rainbowthe former referring to mology behind them comprise the Navajo cycle of
the morning ritual of greeting the sun from the earth meaning within which artistic expressions find their
with offerings of pollen and the gift of rays of golden significance and their association with the sublime.
light from the sun to the earth, and the latter recalling The role of art is thus thoroughly mimeticto encap-
the common experience of a rainbow arching from sulate and remind the people to follow the beauty
earth to sky and back again. Mother Earth is shown as way (hozho-ji). To live properly as a Navajo means
pregnant and as festooned with the four sacred plants that one is living in a state of hozho, and thus in accord
(corn, tobacco, beans, and squash). The genital area of with the teachings encoded in the sacred stories. Art is
the predominantly black Father Sky is white and that an expression of this atemporal binding of mythic and
of the white Mother Earth is black. This reversal has modern times, thereby reminding people through the
much the same significance as the dots in a yin-yang immediate nonlinguistic impact of symbolism of the
symbol. Both male and female contain, and are way of beauty and harmony, of the significance of the
dependent for their existence upon, the opposite.7 four sacred mountains that define their land, and of
Fred emphasizes in his counseling that we are all, the immanent presence of the Holy People, whose
whether male or female, both born from the female sublime energies animate the ever-dynamic forms and
and are femaleand that men have become special- processes that constitute the world. Nor is art merely a
ized in their development. Men are nowadays actually passive representation of the cosmology, but, as we
weaker than women, but in the olden days women have seen, may constitute an active technology of
stayed at home and the men protected the women. enchantment by means of which the hidden forces of
This was symbolically enacted in everyday life when the cosmos may be evoked and applied in the service
men slept toward the eastern side of the hoganthe of the way of beauty. Navajo art, and especially art
side that always faces the rising sun and has the only deployed in healing ritualsand as we have seen, in
door to the outsidewhile the women slept on the modern family counselingis thus a clear example of
western, protected side. Fred tells his clients one or the nexus of aesthetics, significance, and utility that
more of the ancient myths about the tragic conflicts frame and suggest the deeper sublimity that I have
between First Man and First Woman, and how these identified as a defining characteristic of art in an eth-
conflicts were only resolved when both men and nological frame. But the Navajo tradition does not
women acknowledged their interdependence in the allow pure surrational art. Figurative surrational art is
scheme of things. According to Fred, many of the mal- apparent in the designs woven into fabrics. Another of
adies facing the People today are due precisely to a fail- my friends who is a well-known Two Grey Hills weav-
ure of folks to remember these teachings and to act er has told me that she never weaves the same pattern
accordingly. twice, and that the patterns come to her out of the
blue before she begins a rug. Her patterns arise as
Art and Cosmology in Navajo either psychic automatic productions or figurative sur-
Of course sandpaintings are not the only forms of rational ones, depending upon how spontaneously
Art and Spirit 13

they originate before weaving begins. and universal structural processes inherent in the
human brain or psyche. Again, obvious examples from
The Artistic Brain and the our own Euro-American experience might be the blues
Inner Necessity of Spirit which, although it arose out of the specific experience
of an oppressed people at an earlier phase of history,
Art itself is a metaphorical activity, finding and although there have occurred stylistic changes over
(rather than seeking) new symbols to signify new the generations, nonetheless is essentially timeless in
areas of sensibility. its structure and the feelings it evokes, and may be
Herbert Read appreciated by anyone in any age and by people of
Icon and Idea other cultures. As Kandinsky wrote,
The model of art and spirit I have constructed, But among the forms of art is another kind of
and the example of traditional spiritual art among the external similarity, which is founded on a fun-
Navajo people, both concentrate upon the inextricable damental necessity. When there is, as some-
and universal association of abstract imagery and spir- times happens, a similarity of inner direction in
itual or transpersonal experiences. I am by no means an entire moral and spiritual milieu, a similari-
the first student of art to suggest the cardinal impor- ty of ideals, at first closely pursued but later lost
tance of this association. In what surely must rank as to sight, a similarity of inner mood between
one of the greatest pieces of art criticism ever penned, one period and another, the logical conse-
Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1977 [1914]), the quence will be a revival of the external forms
great painter and philosopher Wassily Kandinsky took which served to express those insights in the
this relationship to be pivotal in the understanding of earlier age. This may account partially for our
modern art and its connection to traditional art. sympathy and affinity with and our comprehen-
Kandinsky defined two types of resemblances of art sion of the work of primitives. Like ourselves,
in relation to culture. The first kind of resemblance is these pure artists sought to express only inner
between people who share the same culture and age and essential feelings in their works; in this
as he said, Every work of art is the child of its time... process they ignored as a matter of course the
(p. 23). This resemblance is due to a similarity in the fortuitous.
background, attitudes, styles, circumstances, and foci (1977[1914], pp. 23-24; emphasis added)
of a particular society during a particular era of its his- Kandinsky is referring here to something like
tory. No other society will produce exactly that kind of Sorokins pendulum swing between the sensate and
art, nor will people in that society later on be able to ideational poles of culture discussed above. He has rec-
exactly reconstitute the art of the earlier period. As we ognized the stifling effect of sensate (materialist) cul-
all know, history is a point of view on the past taken ture on spirit, and the difficulty faced by people encul-
through the filters of contemporary culture. turated in a sensate society when trying to understand
Kandinsky called this kind of resemblance merely the inner-directed quality of spiritually generated art.
external. In modern ethnology we might say that Again, in Kandinskys own words,
this kind of resemblance in style refers to cultural spe- This great point of inner contact is, in spite of
cific patterning which changes with each generation. its considerable importance, only one point.
An obvious example from our own Euro-American Only just now awakening after years of materi-
experience is the change in pop music fads that seem alism, our soul is infected with the despair born
to occur every few years. of unbelief, of lack of purpose and aim. The
The second kind of resemblancethe one of rele- nightmare of materialism, which turns life into
vance to my studyderives not from cultural taste, an evil, senseless game, is not yet passed; it still
but from an inner necessity of spirit to express itself darkens the awakening soul. Only feeble light
through artistic creation. An ethnologist might call glimmers, a tiny point in an immense circle of
this kind of resemblance transcultural patterning and darkness. This light is but a presentiment; and
recognize perhaps two explanations for apparent simi- the mind, seeing it, trembles in doubt over
larities: diffusion of cultural patterns across societies whether the light is a dream and the surround-
that have come into contact at some point in the past, ing darkness indeed reality. This doubt and the

oppression of materialism separate us sharply from inner meaning is recoverable by way of penetration
primitives. Our soul rings cracked when we from art object to a level of sublimity marked by dis-
sound it, like a precious vase, dug out of the tinct feelingsas Kandinsky says of the spiritually
earth, which has a flaw. expressive artist, ...his work will give to those
(1977[1914], p. 24; emphasis added) observers capable of feeling them emotions subtle
Although he was primarily addressing the state of beyond words (1977[1914], p. 24). And of course
the fine arts during the early 20th century, and the dif- such imagery may penetrate to archetypal levels of
ficulty most people at the time had in comprehending imagery and insight, and evoke direct spiritual experi-
modern art, Kandinsky was aware that the one-sided ences in normal waking consciousness or ASC: the
focus of sensate consciousness upon outer reality is spectator hears an answering chord in himself (p. 25).
conditioned at the expense of an awareness of the Little wonder then that traditional peoples all over the
inner, mystical or spiritual domain. Most members of planet have concluded that certain art objects are
sensate cultures, for instance, pay little or no attention enchanting, or that they are the abode of spirits. A
to their dream life, and thus commonly do not tap that spiritually evocative art is very much a living thing,
domain of experience to inform their waking self- animated by the penetrations and projections of
awareness. Art expressive of sensate culture tends to be observers.
external art that typically does not tap into the sublime
dimensions of spirit. Thus spiritually active individu- Inner Necessity and Traditional Art
als in a sensate society must struggle both to access and Peoples around the planet have been able to con-
to express the insights that emerge intuitively and that serve the spiritual impact of their art by embedding
may give rise to their eidetic imagery. Yet at the same their artistic heritage in a cycle of meaning and a
time, individuals who are spiritually active frequently myth-ritual context that inhibits alterations in style.
find that the spiritually pregnant art of traditional peo- Indeed, it is partly this transgenerational conservatism
ples is moving and even transparent in its essential sig- of form, significance, and psychological impact that
nificance. Having been previously involved in both the defines the meaning of the term traditional in the
spontaneous transpersonal experience of hypnagogic first place. The key to understanding traditional art
mandalas (Laughlin, 2001), and the use of mandalas as among ideational and idealistic peoples is that the
visualization devices in Tibetan Buddhism (Laughlin, force of the inner necessity of spiritual expression is
1994a), when I eventually experienced Navajo sand- locked in so to speak, recurring anew for each gener-
paintings, their structural significanceif not their ation with only subtle changes discernable across the
exact cultural contentwas transparent to me. generationsin Wallaces (1966) terms, the art is sub-
Indeed, I happen to know that Tibetan Buddhist tly revitalized, along with its mythopoeic context, in
monks who also make sandpainted mandalas during the crucible of each generations experience.
their rituals, and who have visited Navajo singers while Technological modifications may indeed occur.
passing through the American Southwest, find it easy Australian Aboriginal artists took to acrylics like fish to
to discuss such art and share experiences with the water, and yet the spiritual impact of their paintings
Navajo. Each in fact find the sandpaintings of the remains the same. The impact is the same because of
other moving and meaningful, and expressing similar the association between the motifs and movements of
insights about the unitary nature of the hidden. the art with the mythopoeic context of Aboriginal reli-
Art expressive of sublimity will endure through gion, an association that remains intact for both artist
history and across cultural boundaries. As Kandinsky and audience. Modern Japanese Noh players purchase
put it, merely external art has no future more three-dimensional masks than would have been
(1977[1914], p. 24) while art generated out of the acceptable in generations past, but the use of the mask
inner necessity of spirit contains the seeds of the in ritual dramas remains the same (Young-Laughlin &
futureby which I take it he meant that the inner Laughlin, 1988).
meaning of spiritual art is recoverable, regardless of the As we have seen above, Navajo sandpaintings are
age in which it was created or the cultural differences highly constrained in their form and in their utility. As
in details. In music, the blues penetrates to the spirit in a consequence, and in keeping with the practices of
a way that perhaps much pop music does not. The most traditional peoples, one will not encounter any-
Art and Spirit 15

thing as individualistic as pure surrational automatism perhaps far easier to ask our informants what does
among the Navajo. The only exceptions, of course, are that image mean than to actually participate in the
the Navajo artists who have left their cultural roots imagery in a direct mimetic way. But when it comes to
behind and are operating in the Euro-American art spiritual art, there is no alternative if one wishes to get
world. However, some figurative surrational art occurs to the real bottom of thingsto fully comprehend the
within the confines of traditional forms. In completing inner necessity that gives sublimity its voice through
a sandpainting for a sing, the singer will often refer to art.
notes about the proper conformation of the image
notes that the singer has learned from his or her Author Note
teacher. The paintings and the rituals of which they are Many thanks to Michael Winkelman, and to the
a part have recurred for untold generations, and they authors fellow International Consciousness Research
recur because people perceive them as effective.8 Laboratories (ICRL) colleagues, especially Paul
Devereux and Hal Puthoff, for their many helpful sug-
Conclusion: gestions.
Ethnology and the Inner Necessity of Spirit
What I have done here is suggest a model of art (1) End Notes
that may be applied to artistic productions cross-cul- 1. See Rosch (1977) on fuzziness of natural cate-
turally, (2) that allows the ethnologist or transpersonal gories, and Laughlin (1993) on categorical fuzziness
researcher a flexible but operationalizable definition of related to transpersonal experiences.
artistic production, (3) that allows the analyst to take 2. A process considered by some to be fundamen-
into consideration the often ineffable sublimity of art, tal to animism and the origins of religion; see Guthrie
(4) that recognizes the true function of abstraction in (1993).
art, (5) that allows the analyst to distinguish between 3. Abstraction is commonly defined in contrast to
cultures in which spiritual art is embedded in a cycle such terms as representation, facticity, concrete-
of meaning from those cultures in which spiritual art ness, perceptibility, individuality, realism,
is, as it were, cast adrift, (6) that explains the seeming objective, and the like. The Oxford English
paradox between cultural conservatism in artistic styles Dictionary notes that the word was derived from the
and the often profound spiritual consequences of artis- Latin abstractus, from abs off or away plus tractus
tic production. Above all, we can see how abstract, to draw. The OED goes on to trace the use of the
spiritual art may be seen as an inevitable outcome of English concept back to the 16th century where it
humanitys essentially mimetic natureour predilec- connotes to withdraw, deduct, remove, or take away
tion to comprehend our world and ourselves by way of (something), as well as to draw off or apart; to sepa-
pregnant symbolism. In sensate cultures, the tendency rate, withdraw, disengage from. At least by the 17th
is toward apperception of the external world, but in century the term had picked up mental connotations,
modern art and in the art of idealistic and ideational as to separate in mental conception; to consider apart
cultures generally, we see an opposite spin toward from the material embodiment, or from particular
apperception of the psychic or cosmological depths instances, to derive, to claim extraction for, and to
through abstract expression. This linking of the vari- make an abstract of; to summarize, epitomize; to
ous functions of imagery (aesthetic, significant, utili- abridge. The act of abstraction came to include the
ty), abstraction, and sublimityof art and spiritis act or process of separating in thought, of considering
fundamental to humanity, and requires on the part of a thing independently of its associations; or a sub-
researchers a greater sensitivity for and appreciation of stance independently of its attributes; or an attribute
the transpersonal dimensions of life and culture. or quality independently of the substance to which it
Ethnologists have an all-too-frequent predilection for belongs; and a state of withdrawal or seclusion from
the obvious and superficial when it comes to describ- worldly things or things of the sense. Certainly by the
ing and analyzing symbolic activity. Moreover, ethno- early 20th century the term was being applied to the
graphers have historically shied away from direct expe- arts meaning the practice or state of freedom from
riences of the sublime, the transpersonal dimensions of representational qualities; a work of art with these
their hosts experiences (Laughlin, 1989, 1994b). It is qualities.

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Correspondence regarding this article should be

directed to Charles D. Laughlin at the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton
University, Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA
K1S 5B6. Email: claughlin9@aol.com

Cosmic Connectivity: Toward a Scientific
Foundation for Transpersonal Consciousness
Ervin Laszlo, Ph.D.

Club of Budapest
The principal aim of this paper is to overview some of the salient existing empirical data support-
ing the possibility of an interconnectivity of consciousness that extends beyond the convention-
ally recognized confines of body and mind. Thereafter, the article provides possible explanations
of this apparent interconnectivity drawn from the work of Jung and recent developments in
physics.
re human beings entirely discrete individuals, known experiments on subtle connections among dis-
A their organism enclosed by the skin and their

minds enclosed by the cranium housing the
brain? Or are there effective, if subtle, interconnec-
tant subjects in regard to the transference of thoughts
and images. They examined the possibility of telepath-
ic transmission between individuals, one of whom
tions between humansand between humans and the would act as sender and the other as receiver. The
world at large? This study argues that the latter receiver was placed in a sealed, opaque, and electrical-
assumption is likely to be true. Though the evidence ly shielded chamber, while the sender was in another
for such transpersonal connections is not in the form room, where he or she was subjected to bright flashes
of incontrovertible hard data, it is nevertheless of light at regular intervals. Electroencephalograph
cogent and significant. The directly pertinent findings (EEG) machines registered the brain-wave patterns of
are generated by research on psi phenomena and by both. As expected, the sender exhibited the rhythmic
the practice of psychotherapists. Possible explanations brain waves that normally accompany exposure to
for these findings can be traced to the ideas of Carl bright flashes of light. Then, after a brief interval, the
Jung, and can now be framed by theories at the lead- receiver began to produce the same patterns, although
ing edge of the new physics. he or she was not exposed to the flashes and was not
receiving sense-perceivable signals from the sender.
The Findings Targ and Puthoff also conducted experiments on
Psi Experiments remote viewing. In these tests, sender and receiver
Controlled experiments concerning subtle con- were separated by distances that precluded any form of
nections between subjects removed in space, and occa- sensory communication between them. At a site cho-
sionally also in time, date back to the 1930s, to J.B. sen at random, the sender acted as a beacon; the
Rhines pioneering card- and dice-guessing work at receiver then tried to pick up what the beacon saw. To
Duke University. Since then, experimental designs document his or her impressions, the receiver gave ver-
have become sophisticated and experimental controls bal descriptions, at times accompanied by sketches.
rigorous; physicists have often joined psychologists in Independent judges found that the descriptions of the
carrying out the tests. Explanations in terms of hidden sketches matched on the average 66 percent of the
sensory cues, machine bias, cheating by subjects, and time the characteristics of the site that was actually
experimenter error or incompetence have all been con- seen by the beacon (Puthoff & Targ, 1976; Targ &
sidered, but they were found unable to account for a Harary, 1984; Targ & Puthoff, 1974).
number of statistically significant results. Remote viewing experiments reported from other
Relevant work began in the 1970s, when Russell laboratories involved distances from half a mile to sev-
Targ and Harold Puthoff carried out some of the best- eral thousand miles. Regardless of where they were car-
Cosmic Connectivity 21
ried out, and by whom, the success rate was generally Earths geomagnetic field was relatively undisturbed.
around fifty percentconsiderably above random A particularly striking example of transpersonal
probability. The most successful viewers appeared to contact and communication has been the work of
be those who were relaxed, attentive, and meditative. Jacobo Grinberg-Zylverbaum at the National
They reported that they received a preliminary impres- University of Mexico (Grinberg-Zylverbaum, Delaflor,
sion as a gentle and fleeting form which gradually Sanchez-Arellano, Guevara, & Perez, 1993). In more
evolved into an integrated image. They experienced than fifty experiments performed over five years,
the image as a surprise, both because it was clear and Grinberg-Zylberbaum paired his subjects inside
because it was clearly elsewhere. sound- and electro-magnetic radiationproof Faraday
Images may also be transmitted while the receiver cages. He asked them to meditate together for twen-
is asleep. Over several decades, Stanley Krippner and ty minutes. Then he placed the subjects in separate
his associates carried out dream ESP experiments at Faraday cages, where one of them was stimulated and
the Dream Laboratory of Maimondes Hospital in New the other not. The stimulated subject received stimuli
York City (Persinger & Krippner, 1989; Ullman & at random intervals in such a way that neither he or
Krippner, 1970). The experiments followed a simple she, nor the experimenter, knew when they were
yet effective protocol. The volunteer, who would applied. The non-stimulated subject remained relaxed,
spend the night at the laboratory, would meet the with eyes closed, instructed to feel the presence of the
sender and the experimenters on arrival and had the partner without knowing anything about his or her
procedure explained to him or her. Electrodes were stimulation.
then attached to the volunteers head to monitor brain In general, a series of one hundred stimuli were
waves and eye movements; there was no further senso- appliedflashes of light, sounds, or short, intense but
ry contact with the sender until the next morning. not painful electric shocks to the index and ring fin-
One of the experimenters threw dice that, in combina- gers of the right hand. The EEG of both subjects was
tion with a random number table, gave a number that then synchronized and examined for normal poten-
corresponded to a sealed envelope containing an art tials evoked in the stimulated subject and transferred
print. The sender opened the envelope upon reaching potentials in the non-stimulated subject. Transferred
his or her private room in a distant part of the hospi- potentials were not found in control situations where
tal, and then spent the night concentrating on the either there was no stimulated subject or a screen pre-
print. vented the stimulated subject from perceiving the
The experimenters woke the volunteers by inter- stimuli (such as light flashes), or when the paired sub-
com when the monitor showed the end of a period of jects did not previously interact. However, in experi-
rapid eye-movement (REM) sleep. The subject was mental situations with stimulated subjects and with
then asked to describe any dream he or she might have interaction, the transferred potentials appeared consis-
had before awakening. The comments were recorded, tently in some 25 percent of the cases. A particularly
together with the contents of an interview the next poignant example was furnished by a young couple,
morning, when the subject was asked to associate with deeply in love. Their EEG patterns remained closely
the remembered dreams. The interview was conducted synchronized throughout the experiment, testifying to
double blindneither the subject nor the experi- their report of feeling a deep oneness.
menters knew which art print had been selected the In a limited way, Grinberg-Zylberbaum could
night before. replicate his results. When a subject exhibited the
Using data taken from the first night that each transferred potentials in one experiment, he or she
volunteer spent at the dream laboratory, the series of usually exhibited them in subsequent experiments as
experiments between 1964 and 1969 produced 62 well.
nights of data for analysis. The data exhibited a signif- A related experiment investigated the degree of
icant correlation between the art print selected for a harmonization of the left and right hemispheres of the
given night and the recipients dreams on that night. subjects neocortex. In ordinary waking consciousness
The score was considerably higher on nights when the two hemispheresthe language-oriented, linearly
there were few or no electrical storms in the area and thinking rational left brain and the gestalt-perceiv-
sunspot activity was at a low ebbthat is, when the ing, intuitive right brainexhibit uncoordinated,

randomly diverging wave patterns in the EEG. When at least for a limited time, it integrates with the thera-
the subject enters a meditative state of consciousness, pists own psyche and produces an awareness of some
these patterns become synchronized, and in deep med- of the patients memories, feeling, and associations.
itation the two hemispheres fall into a nearly identical Known as projective identification, the transference
pattern. In deep meditation, not only the left and right can be useful in the context of therapy: it can permit
brains of one and the same subject, but also the left the patient to view what was previously a painful ele-
and right brains of different subjects manifest identical ment in his or her personal consciousness more objec-
patterns. Experiments with up to twelve subjects med- tively, as if it belonged to somebody else.
itating simultaneously showed an astonishing synchro- Actual bodily effects seem also capable of being
nization of the brain waves of the entire group transmitted from one individual to another.
(Olistiche, 1992). Transmissions of this kind came to be known as tele-
In the past few years, experiments such as these somatic: they consist of physiological changes that are
have been matched by hundreds of others. They pro- triggered in the targeted person by the mental process-
vide significant evidence that identifiable and consis- es of another. The distance between the individuals
tent electrical signals occur in the brain of one person involved seems to make little or no difference. William
when a second person, especially if he or she is closely Braud and Marilyn Schlitz carried out hundreds of tri-
related or emotionally linked, is either meditating or als regarding the impact of the mental imagery of
provided with sensory stimulation, or attempts to senders on the physiology of receiversthe latter were
communicate with the subject intentionally (cf. Benor, distant, and unaware that such imagery was being
1993; Braud & Schlitz, 1983; Dossey, 1989, 1993; directed to them. Braud and Schlitz claim that the
Honorton et al, 1990; Rosenthal, 1978; Varvoglis, mental images of the sender can reach out over space
1986). and cause changes in the physiology of the distant
Interpersonal connection beyond the sensory receivereffects comparable to those ones own men-
range can also occur outside the laboratory; it is partic- tal processes produce in ones own body. People who
ularly frequent among identical twins. In many cases attempt to influence their own bodily functions are
one twin feels the pain suffered by the other, and is only slightly more effective than those who attempt to
aware of traumas and crises even if he or she is halfway influence the physiology of others from a distance.
around the world. Besides twin pain, the sensitivity Over several cases involving a large number of individ-
of mothers and lovers is equally noteworthy: countless uals, the difference between remote influence and self-
stories are recounted of mothers having known when influence was almost insignificant: telesomatic influ-
their son or daughter was in grave danger or was actu- ence by a distant person proved to be nearly as effec-
ally involved in an accident. tive as psychosomatic influence upon oneself (Braud
Interpersonal connection is not limited to twins, & Schlitz, 1983).
mothers, and lovers: the kind of closeness that a ther-
apeutic relationship creates between therapist and Grof s Experience With Altered States of
patient seems also to suffice. A number of psychother- Consciousness
apists have noted that, during a session, they experi- Complementing psi experiments in regard to the
ence memories, feelings, attitudes, and associations ability of the human mind to penetrate beyond the
that are outside the normal scope of their experience limits of personal sensory experience are the findings
and personality. At the time these strange items are of modern psychotherapists. The pertinent evidence
experienced they are indistinguishable from the mem- comes clearly to the fore in the work of Stanislav Grof.
ories, feelings, and related sentiments of the therapists In reviewing findings gathered in the course of more
themselves; it is only later, on reflection, that they than three decades, Grof suggests that the standard
come to realize that the anomalous items stem not cartography of the human mind needs to be complet-
from their own life and experience, but from their ed with additional elements. To the standard bio-
patient. graphic-recollective domain of the psyche we should
It appears that in the course of the therapeutic add a perinatal and a transpersonal domain. The
relationship some aspect of the patients psyche is pro- transpersonal domain, it appears, can mediate connec-
jected into the mind of the therapist. In that location, tion between our mind and practically any part or
aspect of the phenomenal world (Grof, 1988). this experience, despite the feeling of being fused with
Grof s experience derives from work with nonor- another, the patient retains an awareness of his or her
dinary altered states of consciousness (ASCs) own identity. Then, in the experience of identifica-
induced in his patients either by psychedelic drugs or tion with other persons, the patient, while merging
holotropic breathing. ASCs embrace a large part of the experientially with another person, has a sense of com-
human psyche; the states of normal waking conscious- plete identification to the point of losing the awareness
ness are but the tip of the iceberg. As over a hundred of his or her own identity. Identification is total and
years ago William James had noted, complex, involving body image, physical sensations,
Our normal waking consciousness...is but one special emotional reactions and attitudes, thought processes,
type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from memories, facial expression, typical gestures and man-
it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of nerisms, postures, movement, and even the inflection
consciousness entirely different. We may go through of the voice. The other (or others) can be someone
life without suspecting their existence; but apply the in the presence of the patient or someone absent; he or
requisite stimulus, and at a touch they are all there in she can be part of an experience from the subjects
all their completeness. (1902/1929, p. 378) childhood, his or her ancestry, or even a previous life-
People in primitive and classical cultures knew time.
how to apply the requisite stimulussome tribes, such In group identification and group consciousness
as the !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari desert, could there is a further extension of consciousness and melt-
enter altered states all at the same time. In many parts ing of ego boundaries. Rather than identifying with
of the world, ancient peoples combined chanting, individual persons, the patient has a sense of becoming
breathing, drumming, rhythmic dancing, fasting, an entire group of people who share some racial, cul-
social and sensory isolation, and even specific forms of tural, national, ideological, political, or professional
physical pain to induce altered states. The native cul- characteristics. The depth, scope, and intensity of this
tures of Africa and pre-Colombian America used them experience can reach extraordinary proportions: peo-
in shamanic procedures, healing ceremonies, and rites ple may experience the totality of suffering of all the
of passage; the high-cultures of Asia used them in var- soldiers who have ever died on the battlefield since the
ious systems of yoga, Vipassana or Zen Buddhism, beginning of history, the desire of revolutionaries of all
Tibetan Vajrayana, Taoism, and Sufism. The semitic ages to overthrow a tyrant, or the love, tenderness, and
cultures used them in Cabalah, the ancient Egyptians dedication of all mothers toward to their babies.
in the temple initiations of Isis and Osiris, the classical Identification can focus on a social or political group,
Greeks in Bacchanalia and the rites of Attis and the people of an entire country or continent, all mem-
Adonis, as well as in the Eleusinian mysteries. Until bers of a race, or all believers of a religion.
the advent of Western industrial civilization, almost all Identification with animals goes beyond the
cultures held such states in high esteem for the remark- human transpersonal dimension: it involves a com-
able experiences they convey and the powers of per- plete and realistic identification with members of var-
sonal healing and interpersonal contact and communi- ious animal species. The experience can be authentic
cation they render accessible (cf. Grof, 1996). and convincing, including body image, specific physi-
Today, at the leading edge of the contemporary ological sensations, instinctual drives, unique percep-
sciences, research on altered states of consciousness is tions of the environment, and the corresponding emo-
becoming accepted as a legitimate part of the new dis- tional reactions. The nature and scope of these experi-
cipline known as consciousness research. The insight ences distinguish them from ordinary human experi-
that surfaces isthat altered states tend to make our con- ences; they often transcend the scope of fantasy and
nections to each other and to our environment more imagination.
evident. Grof s records of the verbal reports of his While less frequent, identification with plants
patients makes this very clear (cf. Grof, 1988, 1993). and botanical processes occurs as well. On occasion
In the experience of dual unity a patient in an patients have a complex experience of becoming a tree,
ASC experiences a loosening and melting of the a wild or garden flower, a carnivorous plant, kelp,
boundaries of the body ego and a sense of merging Volvox globator, plankton in the ocean, a bacterial cul-
with another person in a state of unity and oneness. In ture, or an individual bacterium. In the still more

embracing experience of oneness with life and all cre- processes are experienced as part of the organism and
ation an individual expands his or her consciousness psyche of the all-encompassing universe-system.
to such an extent that it encompasses the totality of life In addition to the spatially expanded forms of
on this planet, including all of humanity and all the consciousness, there are experiences that recall out-of-
flora and fauna of the biosphere. Instead of identifica- body experiences (OBEs), clairvoyance, clairaudience,
tion with one living organism, the patient identifies and telepathy. More relevant for our purposes are
with life itself as a cosmic phenomenon. experiences involving a displacement in time. Time-
Experience in ASCs can also penetrate beyond the displacement experiences range from embryonal and
sphere of life: it can include the macroscopic and fetal experiences, where the subject recalls his or her
microscopic phenomena of the inorganic world. In the intrauterine experiences as a fetus, through ancestral
experience of inanimate matter and inorganic experiences involving identification with ones biolog-
processes, patients report experiential identification ical ancestors, racial and collective experiences where
with the waters of rivers and oceans, with various those involved are not ones direct ancestors but mem-
forms of fire, with the earth and with mountains, and bers of the same race, or sometimes the entire human
with the forces unleashed in natural catastrophes such species (suggestive of Jungs collective unconscious,
as electric storms, earthquakes, tornadoes, and vol- of which more will be said later), all the way to past
canic eruptions. They can identify with specific mate- incarnation experiences. The essential characteristic
rials, such as diamonds and other precious stones, of the latter is a convinced sense of remembering
quartz crystals, amber, granite, iron, steel, quicksilver, something that had already happened to oneself.
silver, and gold. The experiences extend into the Subjects maintain their sense of individuality and per-
microworld and may involve the dynamic structure of sonal identity, but experience themselves in another
molecules and atoms, Brownian motions, interatomic form, at another place and time, and in another con-
bonds, electromagnetic forces, and subatomic parti- text. In these reincarnation-type experiences the birth
cles. Grof concludes that every process in the universe of the individual appears as a point of transformation,
that in an ordinary state of consciousness can be objec- where the enduring record of multiple lifetimes enters
tively observed can also be subjectively experienced in the bio-psychological life of the individual.
an altered state. According to Grof, the memories that surface in
The cosmic dimensions of altered-state experi- past incarnation experiences share with other transper-
ences can encompass all of the planet Earth. In plan- sonal experiences the capacity to provide instant and
etary consciousness the subjects consciousness direct extrasensory access to information about some
expands to the Earths geological substance with its aspect of the world. If so, all divisions and boundaries
mineral kingdom, and its biosphere with all its life in the universe are illusory and arbitrary; in the last
forms. The Earth as a whole appears to be one com- analysis it is only a cosmic consciousness that actually
plex organism, oriented toward its own evolution, exists (Grof, 1988, 1993, 1996).
integration, and self-actualization. In extraterrestrial
experiencesa further expanded form of conscious- Toward an Explanation
nessother celestial bodies and astronomical process- Jungs Unus Mundus
es are included. The subject can experience travelling What explanation can we give for the varied yet
to the moon, sun, other planets, stars, and galaxies; he remarkably consistent transpersonal phenomena
or she can experience explosions of supernovas, con- unearthed in controlled psi experiments and in the
traction of stars, quasars, and pulsars, even passage work of Grof and other psychotherapists with patients
through black holes. The experience can occur in the in altered states of consciousness? Just how is the
form of simply witnessing such events or of actually human psyche connected with the world at large?
becoming them, experiencing them intimately, as if Carl Jung, fascinated with this seemingly esoteric
being a part of the experienced thing or event. At the aspect of the human psyche, attempted an explanation
widest (and comparatively rare) form of this experi- in terms of a higher or deeper reality that would con-
enceidentification with the entire physical uni- nect human minds with each other as well as with
versethe subject has the feeling that his or her con- physical reality. He was led to his explanatory concept
sciousness encompasses the entire cosmos. All its by a comparison of the unconscious processes in indi-
vidualshis patientswith the myths, legends, and that two or more fundamentally different worlds exist
folktales of a variety of cultures at various periods of side by side or are mingled with one another (Jung,
history. Jung found that the individual patient records 1958, para. 767).
and the collective material contain common themes. Jung relates the subtle connections that appear in
This prompted him to postulate the existence of a col- synchronistic events involving the psyche of different
lective aspect of the psyche: the collective uncon- individuals, as well as the psyche of one person and the
scious. The dynamic principles that organize this physical world around that person, to an underlying
material are the archetypes. Archetypes are irrepre- reality that emerges in the form of archetypes. The
sentable in themselves, but have effects that make visu- fundamental realitythe unus mundusis itself nei-
alizations possible: these are the archetypal images and ther psychic nor physical: it stands above, or lies
ideas: The archetype as such is a psychoid factor that beyond, both psyche and physis.
belongs, as it were, to the invisible, ultraviolet end of
the psychic spectrum. It does not appear, in itself, to be The Quantum Vacuum
capable of reaching consciousness (Jung, 1958, para. Jungs concept points the way toward a fruitful
417). avenue of research: a deeper reality that connects mind
While in the realm of the spirit, at the upper, and mind, and mind and matter. This approach
ultraviolet end of the psychic spectrum, archetypes should enter the current stream of research on
are dynamic organizers of ideas and images, at the transpersonal information-transmission. For the pres-
lower, infrared end of the spectrum, the biological ent, most researchers seek an explanation of mental
instinctual psyche shades into the physiology of the events mainly in terms of physical processes in the
organism, merging with its chemical and physical con- brain. But henceforth the mental events to explain
ditions. As Jung noted, ...the position of the arche- should include not only the workings of the individual
type would be located beyond the psychic sphere, anal- brain but, in light of the findings of psi experimenters
ogous to the position of physiological instinct, which and psychotherapists, the subtle connections that link
is immediately rooted in the stuff of the organism and, human brains with each other and with the world at
with its psychoid nature, forms the bridge to matter in large.
general (Jung, 1958, para. 420). It seems likely that world and braincosmos and
Jung formulated his concept of the archetype in consciousnessare interconnected by a continuous
collaboration with Wolfgang Pauli. He was struck by information-conserving and transmitting field (cf.
the fact that while his own research into the human Laszlo, 1993, 1995, 1996). Such a field cannot be pos-
psyche led to an encounter with such irrepresenta- tulated in an ad hoc mannerscience must respect the
bles as the archetypes, research in quantum physics law laid down by William of Occam in the 14th cen-
had likewise led to irrepresentables: the microparti- tury: entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessi-
cles of the physical universe, entities for which no ty. New entitieswhich can also be forces or fields
complete description appeared possible. can only be postulated when doing so is the simplest,
Jung concluded, When the existence of two or the most economical and the most rational way of
more irrepresentables is assumed, there is always the explaining a given set of findings and observations.
possibilitywhich we tend to overlookthat it may A field that constitutes the simplest, the most eco-
not be a question of two or more factors but of one nomical and rational explanation of the current find-
only (Jung, 1958, para. 417). The single factor that ings may exist: David Bohm suggested, like this writer,
underlies the irrepresentables of physics and of psy- that it is the as yet imperfectly understood zero-point
chology may be the same as that which underlies the field (ZPF) that seems present throughout the quan-
synchronicities Jung had investigated: meaningful tum vacuum. In the following we shall explore what is
coincidences that tie together in an acausal connected- known about this field of the vacuum, what is current-
ness the physical and the psychological worlds. The ly hypothesized about it, and how it could account for
common factor that would underlie and connect these the subtle interconnections noted above.
worlds Jung named unus mundus. The foundation Received knowledge about the vacuum. In quan-
for the unus mundus is ...that the multiplicity of the tum physics, the quantum vacuum is defined as the
empirical world rests on an underlying unity, and not lowest energy state of a system of which the equations

obey wave mechanics and special relativity. It is con- rial world is not a solidification of the quantum vacu-
siderably more than just the state of a system, howev- um, but a thinning of it.
er. It is the locus of a vast energy field that is neither Speculations on the vacuum. A thin line divides
classically electromagnetic nor gravitational, nor yet what is already known and accepted about the quan-
nuclear in nature. Instead, it is the originating source tum vacuum and what is still speculative and contro-
of the known electromagnetic, gravitational, and versial. Here we review the relevant explorations: those
nuclear forces and fields. It is the originating source of that concern interactions between the observable
matter itself. world of matter-energy and the vacuums zero-point
The technical definitions of the quantum vacuum energies.
point to a continuous energy sea in which particles of The world of matter and the quantum vacuum are
matter are specific substructures. According to Paul known to interact. For example, under certain condi-
Diracs calculation, all particles in positive energy tions, the vacuums zero-point energies act on electrons
states have negative-energy counterparts (by now such orbiting atomic nuclei. The effects occur when elec-
antiparticles have been found experimentally for all trons jump from one energy state to another: the
presently known particles). The zero-point field of the photons they emit exhibit the so-called Lamb-shift (a
quantum vacuum is a Dirac-sea: a sea of particles in frequency slightly shifted from its normal value).
the negative energy state. These particles are not Vacuum energies also create a radiation pressure on
observablephysicists call them virtual. But they two closely spaced metal plates. Between the plates
are not fictional for all that. By stimulating the nega- some wavelengths of the vacuum field are excluded,
tive energy states of the ZPF with sufficient energy (of thereby reducing its energy density with respect to the
the order of 10-27 erg), a particular region of it can be field outside. This creates a pressureknown as the
kicked into the real (that is, observable) state of pos- Casimir effectthat pushes the plates inward and
itive energy. This is the process known as pair-creation: together.
out of the vacuum emerges a positive energy (real) par- Other interactions may exist as well. Some years
ticle, with a negative energy (virtual) particle remain- ago Hungarian physicist Lajos Jnossy assigned rela-
ing in it. Thus the Dirac-sea is everywhere; the observ- tivistic effects (such as the slowing down of clocks
able universe floats, as it were, on its surface. when accelerated close to the speed of light, or the
The quantum vacuum contains a staggering den- increasing of the mass of objects at those velocities) to
sity of energy. John Wheeler estimated its matter- the interaction of real-world objects with the vacuums
equivalent at 1094 gram per cm3 and that is more energy field. Close to the speed of light, the matter-
than all the matter in the universe put together. particles of objects rub against the force-particles
Compared with this energy density, the energy of the (bosons) of the vacuum, and this friction slows down
nucleus of the atomthe most energetic chunk of their processes and increases their mass. In this con-
matter in the known universeseems almost minus- cept the ZPF of the vacuum is a physical field that
cule: it is merely 1014 gram/cm3. interacts with the objects that move in space and time.
The vacuum itself is not material: its zero-point Currently another Hungarian, maverick theoreti-
energieswhich, according to David Bohm, exceed all cian Lszl Gazdag, developed Jnossys concept into a
the energies bound in matter 1040 timesare in the full-fledged post-relativity theory (Gazdag, 1993,
negative state. This is fortunate, for if they were not, 1995). In his theory, the vacuums energy field has the
the universe would instantly collapse to a size smaller properties of a superfluid. It is known that in super-
than the radius of an atom. (This follows from E = cooled helium all resistance and friction ceases; it
mc2, Einsteins celebrated mass-energy equivalence moves through narrow cracks and capillaries without
relation: energy corresponds to mass, and mass in turn loss of momentum. Conversely, objects move through
entails gravitation.) the fluid without encountering resistance. (Since elec-
Because the real world of matterthat is, of trons also move through it without resistance, super-
energy bound in massis so much less energetic than fluids are also superconductors.) Thus, in a sense, a
the vacuum, the observable universe is not a solid con- superconducting superfluid is not there for the
densate floating on top of the vacuum, but like a set of objects or electrons that move through itthey get no
bubbles suspended in it. In terms of energy, the mate- information about its presence. This could explain
why we, and even our most sensitive instruments, fail More than inertia, mass too appears to be a prod-
to register its presence. uct of vacuum interaction. If Haisch and collaborators
In Gazdags reinterpretation of Einsteins relativity are right, the concept of mass is neither fundamental
theory, the celebrated formulas describe the flow of nor even necessary in physics. When the massless elec-
bosons in the superfluid ZPF. This flow is what deter- tric charges of the vacuum (the bosons that make up
mines the geometrical structure of space-time, and the superfluid zero-point field) interact with the elec-
hence the trajectory of real-world photons and electromagnetic field, beyond the already noted threshold
trons. When particles of light and matter move uni- of energy, mass is effectively created. Thus mass may
formly, space-time is Euclidean; when they are acceler- be a structure condensed from vacuum energy, rather
ated, the ZPF interacts with their motion. Then space- than a fundamental given in the universe.
time appears curved. (As Russian physicist Piotr If mass is a product of vacuum energy, so is gravi-
Kapitza noted, in a superfluid only those objects move tation. Gravity, as we know, is always associated with
without friction that are in constant quasi-uniform mass, obeying the inverse square law (it drops off pro-
motion. If an object is strongly accelerated, vortices are portionately to the square of the distance between the
created in the medium and these vortices produce gravitating masses). Hence if mass is produced in
resistance: the effects of the classical interaction sur- interaction with the ZPF, then also the force that is
face.) associated with mass must be so produced. This, how-
Front-line research in physics confirms the basic ever, means that all the fundamental characteristics we
notion that underlies these assumptions. Current work normally associate with matter are vacuum field-inter-
follows up a suggestion made by physicists Paul Davies action products: inertia, mass, and gravity.
and William Unruh in the mid-1970s. Davies and In regard to the full scale of interactions between
Unruh, like Jnossy and Gazdag, based their argument vacuum energies and the micro- as well as macro-
on the difference between constant-speed and acceler- world of matter-energy, the work of a group of Russian
ated motion in the vacuums zero-point field. physicists is of particular significance. Anatoly
Constant-speed motion would exhibit the vacuums Akimov, G.I. Shipov, and co-workers developed a
spectrum as isotropic (the same in all directions), sophisticated theory of what they call the physical
whereas accelerated motion would produce a thermal vacuum. In their theory, the vacuum is a real physical
radiation that breaks open the directional symmetry. field extending throughout the universe: it registers
The Davies-Unruh effect, too small to be measured and transmits the traces of both micro-particles and
with physical instruments, prompted scientists to macro-objects (Akimov, 1991; Shipov, 1995).
investigate whether accelerated motion through the The theory, which at the time of writing has not
vacuum field would produce incremental effects. This been published outside Russia, is important and fasci-
expectation has borne fruit. It turned out that the iner- nating enough to merit some further details.
tial force itself could be due to interactions in that In standard theories, the energetic properties of
field. the quantum vacuum are generally considered in the
In 1994, Bernhard Haisch, Alfonso Rueda, and framework of quantum electrodynamics. This frame-
Harold Puthoff gave a mathematical demonstration work gives rise to elegant and relatively simple mathe-
that inertia can be considered a vacuum-based matics. But such formulas, though highly sophisticat-
Lorentz-force. The force originates at the subparticle ed, can be misleading: they may not provide the best
level and produces opposition to the acceleration of possible account of physical reality. Stochastic electro-
material objects. The accelerated motion of objects dynamics, for example, produces a more messy
through the vacuum produces a magnetic field, and math, but its tenets about the real world may be clos-
the particles that constitute the objects are deflected by er to realistic assumptions about the nature of reality.
this field. The larger the object, the more particles it In any case, quantum electrodynamics, like other sci-
contains, hence the stronger the deflectionand entific theories, can always be reconsidered or extend-
greater the inertia. Inertia is thus a form of electromag- ed.
netic resistance arising in accelerated frames from the The Russian physicists do not hesitate to undertake
distortion of the zero-point (and otherwise superfluid) this step. They take their cue from earlier work by
field of the vacuum. Einstein. In a seminal treatment, G.I. Shipov showed

that in accordance with the Clifford-Einstein program that the gravitational field is characterized by longitu-
of the geometrization of space-time, the vacuum can dinal waves, it cannot be screened, which is in accor-
be described not only in terms of Riemannian (four- dance with observation and experiment. Hence m-dis-
dimensional) curvature, but also in terms of Cartan turbance produces the G-field, much as q-disturbance
torsion. In the 1920s, studies carried out by Albert produces the electromagnetic field.
Einstein and E. Cartan laid the foundation of the the- Akimov and colleagues go further. Following a thesis
ory that became subsequent known as the ECT advanced by Roger Penrose, they represent the vacuum
(Einstein-Cartan Theory). The idea stemmed original- equations in the spinor form and thereby obtain a sys-
ly from Cartan, who at the beginning of the century tem of nonlinear spinor equations where two-compo-
speculated about fields generated by angular momen- nent spinors represent the potentials of torsion fields.
tum density. This idea was later elaborated independ- These equations can describe charged as well as neutral
ently by a number of Russian physicists, including N. quantum and classical particles. They thus allow that
Myshkin and V. Belyaev. They claim to have discov- the vacuum field is disturbed not only by charge and
ered the natural manifestations of enduring torsion mass, but also by classical spin. In that event, the phy-
fields. tons oriented in the same direction as the spin of the
Presently, Akimov and his team consider the disturbance keep their orientation. Those opposite to
quantum vacuum as a universal torsion wavecarrying the spin of the source undergo inversion; then the local
medium. The torsion field is said to fill all of space region of the vacuum transits into a state of transverse
isotropically, including its matter component. It has a spin-polarization. This gives the spin field (S-field),
quantal structure that is unobservable in non-dis- viewed as a condensate of fermion pairs.
turbed states. However, violations of vacuum symme- As a result, Akimov and coinvestigators view the
try and invariance create different, and in principle vacuum as a physical medium that can assume various
observable, states. polarization states. Given charge polarization, the vac-
The torsion field theory takes a modified form of uum is manifested as the electromagnetic field. Given
the original electron-positron model of the Dirac-sea: matter polarization it is manifested as the gravitation-
the vacuums energy field is viewed as a system of rotat- al field. And given spin-polarization, the vacuum man-
ing wave packets of electrons and positrons (rather ifests as a spin-field. All fundamental fields known to
than a sea of electron-positron pairs). Where the wave- physics correspond to specific vacuum polarization-
packets are mutually embedded, the field is electrical- states.
ly neutral. If the spins of the embedded packets have Thus the above torsion-field theory of the physi-
the opposite sign, the system is compensated not only cal vacuum can claim that all objects, from quanta to
in charge, but also in classical spin and magnetic galaxies, create vortices in the vacuum. The vortices
moment. Such a system is said to be a phyton. Dense created by particles and other material objects are
ensembles of phytons are said to approximate a simpli- information carriers, linking physical events quasi-
fied model of the physical vacuum field. instantaneously. The group-speed of these torsion-
When the phytons are spin-compensated, their waves is of the order of 109 Cone billion times the
orientation within the ensemble is arbitrary. But when speed of light. Since not just physical objects, but also
a charge q is the source of disturbance, the action pro- the neurons in our brain create and receive torsion-
duces a charge polarization of the vacuum, as pre- waves, it is not only particles that are informed of
scribed by quantum electrodynamics. When a mass m each others presence (as in the famous EPR experi-
is the source of disturbance, the phytons produce sym- ments); humans can also be so informed: our brain,
metrical oscillations along the axis given by the direc- too, is a vacuum-based torsion-field transceiver. This
tion of the disturbance. The vacuum then enters a suggests a physical explanation not only of quantum
state characterized by the oscillation of the phytons non-locality, but also of telepathy, remote viewing, and
along their longitudinal spin-polarization; this is inter- the other telesomatic effects discussed previously
preted as a gravitational field (G-field). The gravita- (CISE-VENT, 1995).
tional field is thus the result of vacuum decompensa- Torsion waves are both supraluminal and endur-
tion arising at its point of polarizationwhich is an ing. Meta-stable torsion-phantoms generated by
idea that was originally introduced by Sakharov. Given spin-torsion interaction can persist even in the absence
of the objects that generated them. The existence of enceit could open up feasible avenues of conceptual
these phantoms has been confirmed in the experi- analysis, theory-formulation, and experimental test-
ments of Vladimir Poponin and his team at the ing. For that reason, likely hypotheses of brain-brain
Institute of Biochemical Physics of the Russian and brain-universe (or, in an alternative terminology,
Academy of Sciences (Gariaev, Grigorev, Vasilev, consciousness-consciousness, and consciousness-
Poponin, & Shcheglov, 1999; Poponin, n.d.). world) interaction need to be seriously scrutinized for
Poponin, who has since repeated the experiment at the intrinsic meaningfulness, consistency with observa-
Heartmath Institute in the United States, placed a tions, and mesh with the currently known frameworks
sample of a DNA molecule into a temperature-con- of explanation. Such a hypothesis was put forward by
trolled chamber and subjected it to a laser beam. He the present writer in Cosmic Connectivity:
found that the electromagnetic field within the cham- Foundations of an Integral Science of Quantum,
ber exhibited a specific structure, more or less as Cosmos, Life, and Consciousness (Laszlo, 2003).
expected. But he also found that this structure persist- T.S. Eliot asked, What are the roots that clutch,
ed long after the DNA itself had been removed from what branches grow out of this stony rubbish? Son of
the laser-irradiated chamber: the DNAs imprint in the man you cannot say, or guess, for you know only a
field continued to be present when the DNA was no heap of broken images. Perhaps, the exploration of
longer there. Poponin and his collaborators conclude our transpersonal ties with each other and with nature
that the experiment shows that a new field structure could enable us to know more than a heap of broken
had been triggered from the physical vacuum. This images. It could help us to recognize Batesons pattern
field is extremely sensitive; it can be excited by a range that connects: the subtle connecting pattern present
of energies close to zero. The phantom effect is a man- in the cosmos and in the biosphereand likewise in
ifestation, they claim, of a hitherto overlooked vacuum the human brain and consciousness.
substructure.
Theories such as those cited here foreshadow a
major leap in the scientific world picture: the physical References
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Animal Mind as Approached by the Transpersonal
Notion of Collective Conscious Experience
Axel A. Randrup, Ph.D.
International Center for Interdisciplinary Psychiatric Research (CIRIP)
Roskilde, Denmark
The discussion of animal mind in this paper is based on an idealist philosophy contending that
only conscious experience is real, based on the transpersonal notion of collective conscious expe-
rience. The latter has earlier been explained by the author as experience referred to a group of
humans as the subject, the We. Here it is contended that also a group of humans and animals
can be seen as the subject of collective conscious experiences. The author argues that the notion
of collective conscious experience provides a possibility for studying the problems of animal mind
and the related human problem of other minds in a detailed and rational way.
n previous papers, the author has attempted to dence (observations) in science and is particularly
I develop an idealist ontology and philosophy con-

tending that only conscious experience is real
(Randrup, 1997a, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004). This view
open to new experiences, the formation of new theo-
ries, and the application of more than one theory and
set of concepts to a domain of observations (Lindsay
agrees, principally, with various brands of idealist phi- & Margenau, 1949, pp. 1-3; Randrup 1992, 1994,
losophy known from the literature (e.g., see Randrup, 1997b; Wallace 1996, pp. 25-27, 113-114, 148-150,
1997a, p. 20; Knight, 2001; Merrell-Wolff, 1973, p. 190).
145). In my view, conscious experience can only be Berger and Luckmann (1966) define reality as a
known directly or intuitively and not through the use quality associated with phenomena that we regard as
of rational explanation alone. By extension, science existing independent of our own volition; we cannot
may be regarded as a catalogue of selected conscious wish them away. I think this definition comes close to
experiences (observations) that are organized by my idealist conception of scientific reality as described
means of concepts and theories which themselves can above, and also to the definition of Wirklichkeit by
also be understood as conscious experiences. Though Diettrich.1 Berger and Luckmann regard reality as
this conception of science challenges the currently constructed and defined by social groups. This agrees
dominant materialist ontology in the natural sciences, with the emphasis on the intersubjectivity of science
it does maintain the methodological presupposition made in this paper, and I think that this position can
that all scientific research rests on empirical observa- also be regarded as close to the transpersonal idea of
tions from which concepts and theories are derived.1 collective conscious experience described below.
What conventional science usually calls material Idealist philosophy is useful for resolving inconsis-
objects or material things are regarded in my model tencies and contradictions in materialist science conse-
of science as heuristic concepts (also regarded as con- quential to the assumption of a world out there.
scious experiences) useful for expressing observations Such problems exist in mainstream science within the
within a certain domain with some of their mutual disciplines of evolutionary epistemology, neuropsy-
relations. This reinterpretation of materialist objects chology, second order cybernetics, statistics, and
allows the understanding and use of theories of mate- physics (Randrup, 1997a). In evolutionary epistemol-
rialist science without accepting their ontology ogy, a contradiction has emerged between the belief in
(Marshall, 2001, p. 60; Randrup, 1997a, section 4). a material world independent of the human observer
The idealist ontology emphasizes the role of the evi- and the equally firm belief that all our thoughts and

cognitions (including the assumption of a material instance), then each of them has a copy of that experi-
world) depend on the human cognitive apparatus in ence in his individual mind and related to his individ-
its present stage of evolution. Indeed, in the light of ual brain (Randrup 1997a, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004).
evolutionary epistemology, the assumption of an inde- Also the occurrence of egoless experiences indicates an
pendent material world appears to be self-contradicto- alternative to solipsism (Randrup 1997a, pp. 21-22,
ry. Diettrich (1995, p. 96) thinks that this assumption 1999, 2003).
is due to an untenable circular inference. This funda- Indeed, knowledge generally (as well as concepts)
mental problem in evolutionary epistemology can be cannot be individual at all. From its discovery and sub-
overcome by application of the idealist philosophy sequent elaboration, all knowledge is shaped by com-
presented here, since material reality is not part of this munication and education. This view is supported by
view. Here every immediate conscious experience has several reflections in the literature. Berger and
relations to other conscious experiences, and these Luckmanns book (1966) on the social construction of
relations are not in mutual contradiction (Randrup reality was mentioned above, and Jrgensen (1963, p.
1997a, p. 18; 2004). 176) describes in detail how two persons can arrive at
Idealist philosophy is also useful for resolving the common names of certain phenomena such as head,
mind-brain problem (also known as the hard prob- arm, green, and so forth by making observations
lem in materialist philosophy and conventional sci- together and communicating about the names. He
ence). For the materialists, it is difficult to imagine contends that originally we have all learned the names
how conscious experiences are produced by the mate- of things and their properties in this way; in science
rial brain, but in idealist philosophy it is not difficult further education and communication has led to the
to understand the formation of the heuristic materi- technical terms. In a personal letter of March 20,
al concepts (including the concept of a material 1999, Pierre Marchais asserted that the number 5 is an
brain) from observations. In fact, such formations are educational, not a subjective phenomenon, an exam-
described comprehensively in the scientific literature ple of collective knowledge. He told me that the 5
(e.g., the formation of the new concepts in quantum exists in me only because I have been taught arith-
physics; Mehra & Rechenberg, 1982). metic. These views are in agreement with the compre-
The idealist ontology of nature also readily accom- hensive work of Vygotsky, who found that social inter-
modates the intense and unitive nature experiences action has a formative role, a constructive function in
known as nature spirituality (Randrup, 1997a). These the childs development: certain types of higher men-
intense, direct nature experiences are felt by the expe- tal functions such as deliberate attention, logical mem-
rient to be essential and important, indicating that ory, verbal and conceptual thought, and complex emo-
they must be real and that nature primarily is an expe- tions could not emerge and take form in the develop-
rience. These spiritual experiences are thus felt to be in ment process without the constructive assistance of
conflict with the materialist view that nature exists sep- social interaction (Ivic, 1994; Rieber & Carton,
arate from and independent of the observer. Also, on 1987). I find that the emphasis on social interactions
more secular grounds, many people resist the alien- conforms well with the notion of collective conscious
ation from nature entailed by strict materialist realism experience.
and tend to retain a nave (direct) realism, where mate- I have often met the argument that if we kick a
rial nature is believed to be as perceived. stone, we feel an effect (maybe painful), even if we
Idealist philosophies have often been met with the have not observed the stone before. This is supposed to
objection that they lead to solipsismonly my expe- justify the supposition that material things exist inde-
riences exist. This objection, however, seems unten- pendently of our mind. I have answered that in the
able. I have argued that collective conscious experience idealist philosophy, the kicking of a stone and the
may be considered as a viable alternative or comple- effects that follow can be understood on the basis of
ment to individual experience. A collective experience regularities that exist in the occurrence of our percep-
is regarded as one experience associated with a group tions.1 Even if the first perception of pain may be
of persons as the subject, the We, and related to all the experienced as irregular or even as a surprise, we can
brains of this group. This is an alternative to the ordi- susequently have visual and tactile perceptions that
nary assumption that if several persons have the show the regularities of our perceptions in this case,
same experience (a scientific observation for including the first (painful) perception. Modern sci-
Animal Mind 33
ence has emphasized the regularities of our conscious plex syntactical language seems to be restricted to
experiences in certain domains (particularly percep- humans, but he finds that the relationship between
tions). These regularities were not so much attended to higher states of consciousness and syntactical language
in more ancient times. Thus, it is told that the Greek remains unclear.
philosopher Heraklit asserted that the same man could Humphrey (1982) gives a story of the emergence
not bathe twice in the same river. This remains true, if of consciousness in evolution, arguing that our animal
we consider all the aspects of such an experience (aes- ancestors could be percipient, intelligent, complexly
thetic, emotional, perceptual, etc.), but science motivated creatures without being conscious (clever
extracts from the whole experience certain aspects brains, but blank minds). He is most inclined to
(mainly perceptual) that are repeated (for example, the believe that consciousness has developed with humans
DNA profile of the man) and can be agreed upon only but leaves open the possibility that it may occur
intersubjectively. also with nonhuman species having complex social sys-
tems, such as the social carnivores and the great apes.
Different Views on Animal Mind Popper (1987, pp. 150-151) contends that we do not
In the present paper, I shall extend the notion of have the slightest idea, on which evolutionary level
collective conscious experience of human groups to mind emerges and writes about the difficulty, if not
embrace also humananimal groups and I shall use the impossibility of testing the conjectural ascription
this transpersonal notion as a basis for discussing ani- of mental powers to animals. Nielsen (1965, p. 75)
mal mind and evolutionary aspects of consciousness. writes with an uncertainty similar to Poppers and
This differs from nearly all the previous discussions in states that we can neither prove nor disprove whether
Western science of which I am aware. My arguments insects have conscious experiences (though he person-
are made on the presumption that if consciousness ally believes that they do). Likewise, Vorstenbosch
occurs in animals, it will be individual. Since we have (1997, pp. 33-34) argues that it is not possible to reach
no means for assessing individual conscious experi- watertight conclusions on whether animal conscious-
ences in animals directly or with certainty, it is not sur- ness exists; he thinks we have to concede that we have
prising that opinions in the literature diverge widely. no direct access to the supposed mental phenomenal
In one extreme, some authors believe, like states. Clearly, certainty or intersubjectivity has not
Descartes, that conscious experiences exist with been arrived at in this domain. In fact, and based on a
humans only (Davis, 1997; Godlee, 2001; Kennedy, firm belief in the individuality of consciousness, some
1992, pp. 24, 33; Wynne, 1999). At the opposite philosophers even regard the ascription of conscious
extreme, de Quincey (1994, pp. 218-291, 2000, pp. experiences to other humans as problematic; this is the
10-11, 2002) entertains the idea that consciousness philosophical problem of other minds (Griffin,
goes all the way down to the beginning of evolution. 1998; Harnad, 1991; Wisdom, 1965).
In between these two positions, there are authors like In the following sections I contend that the
Sande (1993, p. 92) and Varner (1998, chapter 2), transpersonal notion of collective conscious experience
who think the occurrence of consciousness is restrict- provides an opportunity to study the problems of the
ed to more highly developed animals, the animals that minds of other humans, animal mind, and the evolu-
are most like humans. tionary aspects of consciousness in a more detailed and
Roth (1999) finds it likely that most tetrapods, rational way, above the conjectural level.
including amphibia and reptiles as well as birds and Conscious Experience With a Group of Humans as
mammals, possess at least simple states of conscious- the Subject
ness such as awareness of sensory events, attention, In Western scientific and daily life, it is usually
knowledge, representation, and analogical thinking. firmly assumed that the human mind or consciousness
He thinks that higher states of consciousness, taking is individual; each person has his or her own conscious
the perspective of the other, and anticipation of future experiences separated from those of other persons. It is
events are found only in primates, and that conscious also generally assumed, however, that sometimes two
states such as comprehension of underlying mecha- or more persons may have the same experience. If, for
nisms, knowledge attribution, self-awareness, and the instance, two persons read a meter with digital display,
use of simple syntactical language seem to be restrict- they read exactly the same value, 7.6 for example. This
ed to the great apes. Roth states that the use of com- is at least tacitly assumed in mainstream science.

Indeed, an observation is regarded as scientific only In the literature, several authors have discussed
when it is repeated by other observers (a new observa- collective memory. Bryld and Warring (1998) have
tion or a new concept may originate with one person, written a book about the Danish collective memory of
but then the scienctific community will work to test if the German occupation from 1940 to 1945. They
intersubjectivity can be obtained). Based on the describe the formation of this collective memory dur-
assumption of the individuality of human conscious- ing the years after the war as being influenced by the
ness, it is supposed that the same experience, 7.6 for need of the Danish people to regard themselves as
example, is repeated in different individual minds or resistance heroes and not as collaborators. Halbwachs
consciousnesses, transpersonal unification being (1975) has written a comprehensive general treatise
obtained by means of an objective materialist entity, about the social frames of memory. He argues that the
7.6 volts for example. notion of individual memory is insufficient and needs
I think, however, that when we deal with the same to be supplemented by group memory. Halbwachs
observation made by a group of persons, it is equally employs terms such as collective perception, collec-
possible to regard this as one collective experience with tive representations, collective experience, collec-
the whole group as the subject, the We. Logically, both tive reflections, collective thought, and collective
conceptions are equally possible. Collective experi- memories. I think that these terms can be seen as
ences will, of course, be associated with changes in all transpersonal, something like collective conscious
the brains of the persons involved (persons including experience.
the I, and brains seen as heuristic constructs), while Living and acting together can also give rise to the
neuropsychology usually studies conscious experiences same experiences in a group of persons, and these may
in association with one brain only. Here, I believe, is a be regarded as collective experiences intellectually and
domain for further experimental research. also be directly experienced as such. Vaughan (1995)
In the example given above, reading of a meter, it wrote,
is only the number read that is precisely the same or The soul that empathetically identifies with both
transpersonal for the group of observers. Agreement the pain and the joy of others begins to see that in
may not be reached with respect to other features of the inner world we are not separated from each
the whole perception, such as the color and aesthetics other. Peace and joy, no less than pain and sorrow,
of the instrument. are shared, collective experiences. (p. 5)
With respect to colors, the argument has been raised And in a recent special issue of the journal ReVision
that what for one person appears as red may for anoth- entitled Intimate Relationships and Spirituality, sev-
er person appear as green (and vice versa), and this eral authors have given examples of experiences being
would not be detected by communication, because direcly experienced as collective or egoless by couples
both persons would have learned to call the grass green living and acting together in intimate relationships
and the Danish flag red. This argument does not, how- (Rothberg & Masters, 1998). Here follow some cita-
ever, affect an agreement on the two colors being dif- tions from this work:
ferent, and I will contend that this difference is a col- ... they felt they were ... one soul residing in two
lective part of the color experience. Severely red-green bodies. (p. 8);
color-blind individuals are not included in this collec- Also, a deep spiritual bondwhich may be felt
tive experience, as can readily be shown by well-known during the most routine activities and even far
tests for color blindness (color-blind people may, how- awaymay develop. Robert Bly uses the metaphor
ever, be able to distinguish colors by means of an appa- of the third body as a way of describing the
ratus). transpersonal dimension that unites a couple. It is
Since many intersubjective observations, concepts, the soul of the couple as one respondent
and theories exist in science, we may envisage that sci- expressed it. (p. 23)
entists, particularly people within one discipline, have Holding to a sense of self and to the bond feels at
a significant part of their consciousness in common, a times to be overwhelming. Repeated dancing back
collective consciousness. It is also possible to learn and forthnow self, now disappearing, wave to
from fellow humans, particularly about conceptions particle and back .... separateness and union....
and theories, and thus the collective experience can (p. 9)
become richer than the individual one.
Animal Mind 35
These examples show directly experienced, lived cultures, transpersonal (collective and relational) fea-
collective consciousness. The last example shows diffi- tures of humans and their minds are emphasized at
culties with reconciling the individual and the collec- least as much as individual features (Randrup, 1999,
tive. Personally, I have experienced such difficulties 2003). I think this fact yields significant evidence, and
too, a temporary fear of losing myself. But these diffi- I shall relate a few examples of this evidence.
culties have not been serious for me since the collective I have had some contact with Japanese psychiatry
experience is or becomes as familiar as the individual and shall quote psychiatrist Okuyama, who has prac-
experience. When an experience moves from individ- ticed both in Japan and in the United States. She
ual to collective (by communication for example), my writes about the three senses of self among the
immediate feeling is that the subject of the experience Japanese: the collective, the social, and the individual.
changes from I to We, while the rest of the experience Of these, the collective sense is seen as the most impor-
remains the same. tant and fundamental one. Okuyama states explicitly,
Based on comprehensive clinical experience, the Japanese people commonly think that the self exists
Danish psychiatrist Brandrup (1996) writes about only in relationships with others.... our mind is
overlap or amalgamation between two or more person- thought to exist in a field of relationships. The self
alities and their consciousnesses. This may happen cannot be considered separate from the relation-
between mother and child, psychotherapist and client, ship field nor having as clear a boundary, as
as well as in many other instances. Brandrup writes Western people imagine.... one of the conditions to
that such overlap may be perceived when a person tries be an adult is the ability to feel somebody elses or
intensely to familiarize himself with another person. the groups feelings. (Okuyama, 1993, p. 29)
Carl Jung has written comprehensively about the Arisaka (2001) writes in the same vein:
collective unconscious. This might be regarded as Intersubjectivity, in this light, is not a problem, but a
something different from collective conscious experi- foundational or constitutive aspect of our selfhood (p.
ence, but the Jungian analyst Bernstein writes ...the 198), and she quotes the Japanese philosopher Watsuji
collective unconsciousclearly implies a collective (1996):
conscious (Bernstein 1992, p. 25). And Bernstein My being conscious of you is intertwined with
(2000) has reported examples of directly felt collective your being conscious of me.... in the relation of
conscious experiences. Likewise Young-Eisendrath and Being-between the consciousness of the partici-
Hill (1992) think that Jungs later theory of archetypes pants are mutually permeated through one anoth-
and self is a constructivist model of subjectivity that ers. (Arisaka, 2001, p. 200)
accounts for the collective or shared organization of These views are difficult, or rather, impossible to
affective-imaginal life. Constructivism, they think, understand on the background of a strictly individual
reveals the impossibility of mental separatism and rec- concept of conscious experience. If, on the other hand,
ognizes the shared nature of mental processes that arise transpersonal collective consciousness is conceived
within an interpersonal field. intellectually and experienced directly as described
Gallagher (1970) writes about intersubjective above, this will open opportunities for understanding
knowledge and envisages direct knowledge of the these foreign views and thus be helpful in cross-cultur-
other. Referring to Scheler (1954), he considers an al studies.
important, but also very sad example: Rosenstands views on collective and individual
In some cases we may even speak, says Scheler, of self provide further help for cross-cultural understand-
one emotion shared by two selves. A father and a ing. She thinks that We all know that I am me, even
mother standing together by the body of their dead if we dont use words such as self or I. But some cul-
child have their grief in common. They are not tures consider this knowledge of minor importance
here simply two consciousnesses, but two con- (Rosenstand, 2002, p. 251).
sciousnesses sharing one identical sorrow. They Sorenson (1998) has made a sketch of the evolu-
experience it as our sorrow. In the face of such tion of Western civilization suggesting that the state of
experiences, the problem of other minds loses all consciousness and the ego have developed historically
standing. (Gallagher 1970, pp. 382-383) along with the development of agriculture. He first
I would say that the shared emotion is a part of the col- studied indigenous people living in isolated enclaves
lective consciousness of the couple. In various foreign around the world more or less untouched by domi-

nant, conquering cultures. In these people, he found a ed with that of the other person with whom they relate
state of mind which he calls preconquest conscious- through e-mail, news groups, or chat rooms.
ness. One of the characteristics of this consciousness is Sometimes I feel that experiences I have are not
an empathetic, integrative, intuitive rapport between shared or only partly shared by persons with whom I
individuals. Sorenson found their way of life to be communicate. This feeling and the corresponding
simultaneously individualistic and collective, each per- intellectual judgement are based on the behavior,
son constantly enlivening the others by a ceaseless, including verbal behavior, of the other person and
spirited, individualistic input into a unified at-one- myself. I may also wonder if the other person has indi-
ness. He felt strongly that this way of life was very dif- vidual experiences different from mine, and I may
ferent from the ways of cultures to which Western even think about the nature of such experiences. Those
Europeans were accustomed. Sorenson also observed thoughts can, however, only be conjectural. I cannot
that a rapid collapse of preconquest consciousness know specific, individual contents of other minds, but
(sometimes within one week) occurred after contact what I feel and think that we share collectively, I know
with dominant cultures. Based on his analysis, he and experience directly. This is my answer to the philo-
argues that a resketching of the civilizational process sophical problem of other minds.
virtually suggests itself. He thinks that in preciviliza- I conclude that the existence of collective con-
tional Mediterranea, people had the same type of conscious experiences with a group of humans as the sub-
sciousness, but with the advent of agriculture and later ject is logically possible and has become well founded
confinement, confrontation, and conflict, possessive- by the evidence now available.
ness evolved as a basic human trait. It is noteworthy
that in a session at the World Congress of Philosophy Conscious Experience With a Group of Humans and
in Istanbul in 2003, Sorenson openly endorsed the Animals as the Subject
notion of collective conscious experience. With a few exceptions, all the discussions of ani-
Jaynes too(1976) thinks that subjective conscious- mal mind in Western science that I know of have been
ness and its accompanying separate-self sense is a rela- made on the presumption that if consciousness occurs
tively late cultural development, occurring 2,500 to in animals, it will be individual. But since we have no
4,000 years ago. Jaynes thinks that before this develop- means for directly assessing individual experiences of
ment, people were signal-bound, that is, responding animals, these discussions suffer from a fundamental
each minute to cues in a stimulus-response manner uncertainty. We cannot judge with reasonable certain-
and controlled by those cues (p. 140). This reminds ty what an animal may experience individually, nor if
me of Sorensons description (referred to just above) of it has any conscious experience at all. This uncertainty
the rapport between people in the preconquest cul- is shown clearly by the very divergent opinions on the
tures; perhaps further research will bring alignment content and existence of conscious experience in the
between the views of Jaynes and Sorenson. various animal species mentioned above.
Experiences with the Internet have given rise to The transpersonal notion of collective conscious
new thoughts about interaction and collectivity. experience offers a new approach to the study of ani-
Gackenbach, Guthrie and Karpen (1998) find that the mal mind. I think it is logically possible to associate a
most important characteristic of the Internet is its certain part or core of a perception of mine, clearly
emergent collective properties, and de Kerckhove related to the behavior of an animal, with the animal
(1995) contends that the real nature of the Internet is as well as with myself and thus regard it as a collective
to act as a forum for collective memory and imagina- experience. For example, if I am in my sitting room
tion. He also thinks that online communications have with a dog and hear a noise outside, the dog will also
created a new kind of permanence, a new stability of react. I think that in this case some part of my senso-
mind, a collective mind, in which one plugs in or from ry experience and the alerting effect felt can be associ-
which one pulls out. ated with the dog too without entering any logical
Suler (1999), who is credited for coining the term contradiction or observational impossibility. It can be
cyberpsychology, has published comprehensive stud- reflected in detail, which part of my experience I can
ies of experiences in connection with use of the associate with the dog, and this admits of a more
Internet. Among other results, he has reported that detailed and precise determination of the collective
some people feel as if their minds are merged or blend- experience than would be possible if I tried to con-
Animal Mind 37
struct the content of an individual experience of the conception of mind she developed is a general one, not
dog. It is also posible to correct and develop initial restricted to one individual. The subject must under-
decisions about what is collective. If, after a little stand her being in pain as a particular case of a gener-
while, the dog in the example looks out of the window al type of state of affairs, someones being in pain (p.
in one direction, and I look in another direction, I 271).
cannot associate my belief about the source of the It has been stated that the animals live in the same
noise with the dog, but by further investigation by world as we humans (Lorenz, 1973). In this statement,
myself and by the dog this may become possible. the shared world is believed to be the material world.
For another example, we can go back to the dis- The material world is not a part of the idealist philos-
cussion of colors above. It has been shown by extensive ophy proposed here, but the relation between animals
behavioral and brain research that some animal species and man expressed by Lorenzs statement still has
distinguish between colors such as red and green, meaning in this philosophy. Here the common world
while others apparently do not (Backhaus, Kliegl & can be conceived of as a world of animalhuman col-
Werner, 1998; Jacobs, 1981; Sinclair, 1985). I think lective experiences. From the behavior of the various
that my own experience of the red-green difference can animal species, judgements can be made about how
be associated with those animals that do distinguish, as much of my (or of the human collectives) observation-
well as with most humans (red-green color blinds al and conceptual world can be associated with each
excluded) to form a collective experience of a group of animal species, and from that, reasoned judgements
animals and humans. can be made about the relation of consciousness to
With humans, verbal behavior and communica- evolution. I think that generally we humans can asso-
tion contribute much to the formation of intersubjec- ciate more of our experiences with a dog than with an
tivity as emphasized by the phenomenological school earth worm. However, as discussed below in the sec-
of psychology at Copenhagen University (Tranekjr tion on ethics, I still think that I can experience some-
Rasmussen, 1968). Nonverbal communication and all thing collectively with an earth worm.
forms of behavior are, however, also important with After having a collective experience, I can also
humans. For the exploration of animalhuman collec- later remember it when I am alone. I will then be the
tivity, analysis of behavior can bring us a long way. subject of the memory, but inside the memory, the
As an aside, above I have written on behalf of group (humanhuman or humananimal) will be the
myself, writing I, but when I write on matters on subject, the We. The memory may be more clear if I
which there is intersubjectivity among humans, I can am again together with the group; it seems probable
also write on behalf of a humanhuman collective that this is correlated with our brains exchanging sig-
(e.g., biological scientists) and then write We, stat- nals (visual, auditory, olfactory, etc.) and working
ing, for example, that we may extend our collective together to form a collective brain. I think there are
color distinction to comprise some animal species too. possibilities for studying these phenomena experimen-
By means of technology, we humans can extend tally. The notion of collective brain, or societies of
our own observations to share, for example, the dis- brains, is entertained by Huberman (1989) and by
tinction between two forms of polarized light with Freeman and Burns (1996). In the most recent years,
bees. If we assume individual conscious experiences, such notions have been strengthened by experience
we can imagine any number of ways the bees may with computer networks.
experience polarized light. Von Uexkll (1957) completed research on a
On a philosophical basis, Avramides (2001) number of animal species to assess the perceptual cues
expresses a remarkable concept of mind, which, I to which they react. He states that for each animal
think, comes close to the notion of collective con- species, these cues correspond to a (small) part of the
sciousness. She suggests that we understand mind in world as humans perceive and conceive it. In the con-
relation to the behavior and capacities that we share text of idealist philosophy, his studies therefore seem
with others. Avramides writes much about humans, helpful for further investigation of the extent of ani-
but since we share an important part of our behavior malhuman collective experience. As an example, the
and capacities with other species, animals (or at least female tick is a small animal that is blind and deaf, but
certain animal species) may well be included in what reacts to light because of a general photosensitivity of
she means by others. Avramides emphasizes that the her skin. She also reacts to the odor of butyric acid and

to temperature differences, but not to anything else. consciousness. He writes about intersubjective sharing
The Umwelt (phenomenal environment) of the tick of affect and also describes selective attunements,
is restricted to distinction of these three features of the where some experiences can be shared with another
much richer Umwelt of humans, so this will be what person and others cannot (Stern 1985).
we experience collectively with the tick. Von Uexkll Adams (1999) writes about the relation between
asserts that he does not ask how butyric acid smells or the poet Emily Dickinson and her dog Carlo.
tastes to the tick; he merely registers that butyric acid According to Adams, Dickinsons writings suggest that
is a receptor cue for her actions. Von Uexkll (1957) Carlo served as a selfobject for her. The term selfob-
discusses his studies of the tick and of the Umwelt of ject, taken from Heinz Kohuts self psychology, can be
other animals in more detail, and these studies have defined as the internalization and assimilation of
been further reflected on by Emmeche (1990) and another person such that they are experienced as part
Sjlander (1984). of the self.
Based on his views on the historical development Smuts (2001) describes her contact with a group of
of mind and consciousness in humans, Jaynes (1978) baboons: The baboons thorough acceptance of
reflects also on animal mind. For Jaynes, mind and me, combined with my immersion in their daily
consciousness are functional concepts, very different lives, deeply affected my identity. The shift I expe-
from my conception of consciousness as consisting of rienced is well described by millenia of mystics but
conscious experiences known directly. For the view of rarely acknowledged by scientists. Increasingly my
collective humananimal conscious experiences, subjective consciousness seemed to merge with the
Jaynes paper contains, however, valuable arguments group-mind of the baboons. Although I was still
for considering critically how much we actually share present, much of my experience overlapped with
with the various animal species and individual ani- this larger feeling entity. (Smuts, 2001, p. 299)
mals. Such valuable criticism also appears in the work Smuts (2001) writes further about the meeting and
of Searle (2002, pp. 6176), who believes that con- merging of minds:
sciousness and other forms of mental phenomena are A seventh (and final?) level develops when individ-
biological processes occurring in human and certain uals experience such a profound degree of intimacy
animal brains (p. 70). that their subjective identities seem to merge into a
Felt communal emotions with animals are well single being or single awareness (at least some of
known by a large number of pet owners, including the time). A personal example is the experience that
myself. For instance, Levinson (1980) states that Safi and I shared when we gazed for so long into
young children very readily identify with animals. each others eyes. (Smuts, 2001, p. 307)
Clinical observations in pet therapy indicate that some Safi is her dog and they had lived together for ten
children unconsciously believe that they may be trans- years.
formed into animals and that animals may become The Jungian psychoanalyst Bernstein (2000)
children. Levinson also thinks that, through identifica- reports in some detail the experiences of his client
tion with an animal, the child comes to feel stronger. Hannah as they related to animals. At first, Bernstein
He incorporates the pets strength. suggested to Hannah that she projected her own feel-
Lasher (1998) thinks that the primary mode of ings onto animals (cows, dogs) and initially she accept-
communication between human and animal is attune- ed this interpretation. However, soon she began to
ment, defined as the mutual picking up of and protest, and Bernstein too felt that something was
responding to the subjective state of another creature. missing, some part of Hannah was absent in his inter-
Lasher builds her conception of attunement on the pretation. Finally, he came to interpreting her feelings
work of Stern and states that attunement is experi- as identification with animals she experienced as
enced but does not necessarily involve the act of think- abused. Prior to her work with Bernstein, Hannah
ing about the experience. It is independent of human could not distinguish between her own feelings and
language and is a perceptual ability of human and those of the Earth and the animals, and she also said
nonhuman animals, which appears to be central to the that she could not distinguish her own pain and the
way that animal and human mothers and infants com- pain of other people. Bernstein later got other clients
municate with each other. Sterns own description of with similar feelings and coined the term Borderland
attunement comes close to what I here call collective Personality, which he regards as a normal personality,
Animal Mind 39
to be distinguished from psychopathological traits The word aura is a translation of the Japanese word
such as depression and neurosis. He states that these funiki, which here refers to the atmosphere of the
people feel (not feel about) the plight of animals that monkey group with the human observer included.
are no longer permitted to live by their own instincts In Japan, it is quite common to perform kuyo
and only survive in domesticated states. In 2004, (prayer services) for the souls of animals and objects.
Bernstein completed a book-size manuscript entitled Asquith (1983, 1990) writes about these services and
Living in the Borderland: The Pathological and the in this connection discusses various Japanese concepts
Sacred. of soul. She states that in Japanese culture, the soul is
Bernstein compares these Borderland phenomena seen to pass from humans to objects. An object (e.g., a
with what he has heard from Native American Indian bicycle), acquires soul through long use or association.
elders and healers and with the participation mys- The same occurs with monkeys, as participants in the
tique observed in various native cultures by anthro- sarokuyo (monkey service) have reported.
pologist Lvy-Bruhl. By mystic participation, Lvy- Interestingly, one researcher said he believed in the
Bruhl (1926, 1975) apparently refers to a kind of existence of souls of those monkeys he had come to
transpersonal and unitive experience where subject know, but not of monkeys with whom he did not
and object converge, sometimes becoming fused into work.
one. With this kind of experience, a person can partic- Much material on animalhuman interaction can
ipate mystically in his or her totem, which is often an be found in Anthrozos, Journal of the International
animal species but may also be a plant or a nonliving Society for Anthrozoology, which specializes in this
entity of nature. topic. Clearly, in daily life a large number of humans
In the study of the ethology of monkeys, cultural and animals are engaged in animalhuman interac-
differences between Japanese and Western researchers tions, and it may be regarded as an important domain
have played an important role. Western workers (with in the study of both animal and human ethology in the
a few important exceptions, e.g., Smuts quoted above) future.
have considered Japanese attitudes too anthropomor-
phic, while the Japanese workers have considered most Ethical Attitudes Toward Animals:
theories proposed in the West too logical and simplistic. Importance of Empathy and of HumanAnimal
The Japanese ethologist Masao Kawai has pro- Collective Experience
posed the concept kyokan to characterize the Japanese Many people who care about animal welfare
method of studying monkey behavior. Kawais work is assume that ethical attitudes toward animals depend
written in Japanese but important parts of it are trans- on the assumption that animals have conscious experi-
lated into English in the doctoral thesis by Asquith ences (e.g., animals can feel pain and joy). However, by
(1981, pp. 340-348; see also discussions by Harraway, conscious experience is typically meant individual
1989, pp. 247-252 and Montgomery, 1991, pp. 274- experience. Since we have no means to assess with cer-
275). Kawai describes the method in this way: tainty whether animals have individual conscious
At one level we fuse ourselves with the monkeys experiences, or even what they feel, this criterion for
lives and through an intuitive channel where feel- ethics remains shaky. The uncertainty about animal
ings are mutually exchanged between monkey and consciousness ascribed to individuals transfers to
man we can actually sense their lives. This we ethics.
believe is the most striking feature of the Japanese Sande (1993) thinks that only higher animals
method. It is what we call the kyokan or feel-one most similar to humans have conscious experiences
method. (Asquith, 1981, p. 344) and advocates ethical attitudes toward these animals,
By penetrating the group and sharing its living while Singer (1983) states that the moral circle should
space, we come to sense the monkeys aura. Our be pushed out to include most animals (e.g., he only
eventual cognitive knowledge of individual mon- excludes oysters and other animals very low in the evo-
keys may depend on this emotional or intuitive lutionary scale, which he doubts are capable of feeling
awareness which is perhaps based on a natural anything). Although both Sande and Singer care
empathy with the monkeys, which comes through deeply about animal welfare, there is an important dif-
sharing the experience of simply being alive. ference between their ethics, based on their different
(Asquith, 1981, p. 341) estimations of the extent of individual consciousness

in the animal kingdom. Descartes, who believed that
animals have no consciousness, did not adopt or advo- Beyond Animals: Panpsychic Views
cate a moral stance with regards to how humans In this paper, the focus has been on collective con-
should treat animals. scious experience with a group of humans and animals
The possession of individual consciousness is, as the subject, the We. But a few words on even more
however, not the only criterion employed as a founda- expanded views of collective consciousness are in
tion for ethics towards animals. Verhoog and Visser order.
(1997) base their ethical attitude on an intrinsic value It is an old saying, that mind sleeps in the stone,
of life and living creatures, not on animal conscious- dreams in the plant, awakes in the animal, and
ness. Other authors have written in a similar vein becomes self-conscious in the human. Based on the
(Carruthers, 1999; Schweitzer, 1929; Varner, 1998). notion of collective conscious experience and judged
Carruthers (1999, p. 481) concludes that the non- from behavior and inner processes, this can be
conscious desires of non-human animals are at least rephrased into I share more experiences with other
possible, or appropriate, objects of moral sympathy humans than with animals, more with animals than
and concern. with plants, and more with plants than with stones.
Ethics toward animals based on these criteria is Stones do not exhibit much behavior, but if my foot
independent of the uncertainty associated with ascrib- hits a stone, there will be some inner processes in the
ing conscious experiences to individual animals. It stone as well as in my foot and nervous system.
does not depend on the idea of humananimal collec- Views of animals, plants, and nature differ much
tive conscious experiences either, but I think it is in among cultures. In some cultures, people feel a kind of
harmony with this idea. proximity with nature that is unfamiliar for us in the
I shall relate some personal experiences which show an industrial West. Reference was made above to the felt
immediate feeling for ethics toward animals. closeness, even identity with totem objects (animals,
For many years, I have felt concerned about earth- plants, or nonliving entities of nature), and Noske
worms being dried to death on pavements when sun (1997) states that in the stories of many native peo-
follows rain. I have moved many worms to sheltered ples, men and women transform themselves easily into
places (and after I had done this for a long time, I was animals, and animals act like human beings.
told that my maternal grandfather did the same thing). Expressing American Indian views, Rser (1998)
One day, some friends said to me: You dont need to also writes about proximity with nature and extends
do this, the worms are not conscious, they do not feel his views to consciousness. He writes that Cowlitz is a
pain. Then I immediately realized that this was irrel- single consciousness born of countless generations of
evant for my ethical attitude. I now believe that my interaction among individuals, their revered ancestors,
motive is, rather, immediate empathy with living crea- and their extended families, which includes other ani-
tures, and I think this empathy conforms with the mals, plants, water sources, stones, mountains, the
opinion that my feeling of pain and adversity associat- moon, the sun, the stars, and prairies (p. 17). Rser
ed with the experience of a worm drying to death is also states that humans and other peoples share a com-
not my individual feeling, but is experienced collec- mon consciousness within the living universe. Here
tively, with the worm and me as the We. the fish, the eagle, the mountain, and so forth are
Likewise, based on his own experience, my col- regarded as peoples. Singleness of consciousness is
league, ethologist Grethe Srensen, thinks that empa- always temporary and fleeting, while the collective
thy with animals is natural, spontaneous, and consciousness is the permanent and perpetual condi-
unconditioned, and occurs independent of beliefs tion of things. Rsers text is written in English and he
about the animals capacity to experience pain and joy uses the word consciousness probably with a mean-
(personal communication, November 2001). I there- ing that has something to do with the concept of con-
fore think that abandoning all conjectures about indi- sciousness followed in this paper (i.e., consciousness as
vidual conscious experiences of animals removes the total of conscious experience).
important uncertainties in the ethical attitudes toward Jewish mysticism describes in various ways close
animals. In its place, the transpersonal idea of relations of the material world with consciousness,
humananimal collective experiences helps to attain soul, and spirit (Halevi, 1979, pp. 10-11; Meijers &
more harmony and precision in the ethical considerations. Tennekes, 1982; Scholem, 1955, p. 17; Steinsaltz,
Animal Mind 41
1980, pp. 62, 97, 114). seen not as something existing independent of
In biographical material about the Jewish mystic Isaac humans, but as a special human-made theory of
Luria it is told, Wirklichkeit. This, of course, comes close to my ideal-
his visionary gaze caught glimpses of psychical life ist description here of material things as mental con-
in all that surrounded him; he did not differentiate cepts.
between organic and inorganic life, but insisted Diettrich also realizes that a major objection to
that souls were present everywhere and that inter- constructivist approaches is that they lead to solipsism
course with them was possible (Scholem, 1955, p. (only my experiences exist). He counters this objec-
255). tion by stating that the cognitive efforts he describes
In modern Western philosophy, de Quincey maintains are human specific (p. 111) and that the fact experi-
a panpsychic view (called panexperientialism or radical ence and perception contains regularities we cannot
naturalism). As mentioned earlier in this paper, he influence is a basic experience of all men (p. 105). In
thinks that consciousness goes all the way down in this paper I deny that solipsism is an implication of
biological evolution and was always there. He also immaterialist views by invoking the transpersonal
associates consciousness with rocks, atoms, and even notion of collective conscious experience, and I think
subatomic particles and he thinks that the matter of that this is closely similar to Diettrichs argument.
the universe, its raw stuff has within itself the
essence of what we call consciousness (de Quincey,
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Animal Mind 45
All Mind? No Matter: The Self-Regulation Paradigm
Stanley Krippner, Ph.D.
Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center
In this short article, the author discusses the conflict between materialistic and transcendental
paradigms in accounting for the nature of reality. After speculating on the meaning and impli-
cations of an idealist perspective where consciousness is seen as the fundamental ground of all
phenomena, the author reframes the consciousness versus matter debate in terms of complex
systems theory. Such a reframing allows for the mutual coexistence of both matter and con-
sciousness in a manner which is nonreductive and inclusive of different epistemologies.
concludes, We all know what it stands for, even
W
hat if consciousness rather than matter
were held to be the ultimate reality, the though our descriptions may not always match in
ground of all being? What would be the every detail (p. 35).
implications for the planet, for society, and for peoples
daily lives? Over the years these questions have been The Bishops Attempt
posed in one form or another, and have prompted In 1710, the famous Irish bishop of the Church of
other questions, such as what is meant by conscious- England, George Berkeley, attempted to overcome the
ness and matter? Matter, to use a common dic- threat of atheistic materialism posed by the
tionary definition, is that of which any material Enlightenment by writing The Principles of Human
object is composed. But what is meant by a material Knowledge. In it, he argued that all impressions of
object? Do electromagnetic fields meet this criterion? material objects, in other words all sensations, are in
Do fractals and attractors qualify as matter? And the final analysis no more than ideas in the mind.
what about subatomic particles that have never been From this he concluded that the existence of an exter-
observed, but only hypothesized? nal material world is an unwarranted assumption
Definitions become even more contentious when (1952). As the cultural historian Richard Tarnas
the term consciousness is approached. Thomas (1991) summarizes, All that can be known with cer-
Natsoulas (1992) lists six contrasting dictionary defi- tainty is the mind and its ideas, including those ideas
nitions of consciousness, each with different impli- that seem to represent a material world (p. 336). But
cations. Imant Baruss (19861987) identifies seven deep reflection on this view soon leads one to wonder
meanings of the term, and each of these is a cluster of how it is that we all seem to experience the same
dozens of other descriptions. Indeed, some writers world. Berkeley dealt with this challenge by claiming
equate consciousness with self-awareness, others the reason that different individuals continually per-
with the activity of neurons and their interactions. ceive a similar world, and that a reliable order inheres
Some claim that many nonhuman animals manifest in that world, is that the world and its order depend
consciousness, and others extend the phenomena to on a mind that transcends individual minds and is uni-
the computers of the future. versalnamely Gods mind (p. 336). Berkeleys argu-
J.A. Hobson (1994) sees mind as something ments for the mental basis of sensations, and more
more fundamental than consciousness because most radically for the absence of convincing evidence in
of the information in the brain is not conscious at favor of an objective material world, are forceful and
any point in time (p. 205). Taking a radically different cogent, but this final gambit, designed to save his phi-
approach, one might argue that spirit is more funda- losophy from the pitfall of solipsism, lured few mate-
mental than either matter, mind, or conscious- rialists back to the church.
ness, a position that is implied in Ken Wilbers (1980) In fact, though unfashionable today, idealist
description of involution, the general movement metaphysics offers an elegant solution to the so-called
from spirit to matter. George Feuerstein (1987) pro- mind-body problem, especially if one passes on
poses that the idea of consciousness, like love, is Berkeleys heavy-handed theology. As a monistic
surrounded by a haze of ambivalence. Even so, he approach it is more parsimonious than Descartes

dualistic division of mind and matter, and unlike When a religious group attains political power, the
materialistic monism, it retains its advantage with- impact upon society is widespread. Not only did the
out degrading consciousness. Instead, matter is Roman Catholic Church execute Bruno, reject Coper-
reduced to mental contents in one way or another. nicus, and force Galileo to recant, but its Office of the
Peter Lloyd (1999), a recent defender of Berkeley, pro- Holy Inquisition (founded in 1542) labeled tens of
poses that the mental world is our primary reality, thousands of people heretics, and burned many of
and that the physical world is a construct that we them at the stake. In recent times, religious fundamen-
build out of our conscious experiences (p. 1). talists such as the Afghani Taliban have denied women
Berkeley engaged in a historical argument with his basic education, prohibited them from working outside
contemporary empiricists such as Locke and Hume. the home, and stoned to death those women convict-
These debates were humorously condensed into such ed of infidelity. If consciousness is accepted as the
aphorisms of that day as, All mind? No matter and ultimate reality, let us hope that fanatical religious
All matter? It doesnt mind. However, echoes of authorities are not in charge of working out its implications!
Berkeleys perspective are still to be found in the writ-
ings of such modern empiricists as Bas van Frassen Was Consciousness There First?
(2002), who argues that atoms, quarks, and similar On the other hand, a more benign series of events
entities are not to be taken literally as objects in the might include the creation of academic courses
world. Instead, they are to be understood as conven- addressing the scientific study of consciousness, and
ient means for describing and predicting observable accelerating research programs in areas such as medita-
phenomena such as those resulting from physics exper- tion, sleep and dreams, hypnosis, psychoneuro-
iments. And, to go a step further, if scientists can jus- immunology, and cognitive and affective neuro-
tify the existence of atoms because theories that postu- science. Even parapsychology might find itself well
late them provide the best explanation for scientific funded. Already, some parapsychology buffs employ
observations, why cant religion similarly justify the data from the fields of extrasensory perception and
existence of God? Despite Laplaces dismissal of the psychokinesis to buttress the argument that con-
God hypothesis as unnecessary, for many people it sciousness is primary. However, their position skips a
might provide the best explanation of the origin and logical step or two in that it can alternatively be
design of the universe, as well as the ubiquitous preva- claimed the mind that can remote view or manifest
lence of religious belief systems. clairvoyance might be an emergent quality of mat-
ter itself. In the same vein, the matter influenced at
The Empirical Stance a distance by mind (e.g., in experiments where ran-
Empirical science, however, is not about doctrines dom event generators seem to be influenced by con-
so much as about stances; it consists of attitudes, scious intention) could be no more than a denser
approaches, and methods. It involves the performing form of the very same stuff that seems to tweak it.
of experiments in order to test hypotheses. Thus, Compelling as many of the parapsychological investi-
empiricism does not claim that atoms exist; neither gations may be (see Radin, 1997), they do not consti-
does it claim that they do not exist. Nevertheless, tute a prima facie case for those who insist that con-
atomic theory explained observable phenomena better sciousness was there first.
than its competitors (Thagard, 2002, p. 971). Most Now, during the first half of the 20th century the
religions, however, do involve doctrines; they make writings of Freud, Jung, and other psychoanalysts
claims about the nature of reality and take moral posi- evoked psychological thinking among large numbers
tions that have consequences for individual and group of people, most of them Westerners who were educat-
behavior. Adherents might justify particular religious ed and well informed. Psychoanalytic perspectives
beliefs (e.g., the significance of sacred scripture) and found their way into literature, the cinema, and even a
insist that these beliefs explain phenomena better than few Broadway plays and musicals, notable examples
any rival stance. Among these stated beliefs, one often being Pauls Case, Spellbound, Desire Under the Elms,
finds the claim that divine consciousness (Berkeleys and Lady in the Dark. More recently, cosmological
Gods mind and Lloyds metamind) is the funda- ideas have replaced psychological theories as conversa-
mental ground of all creation. tion items, and have become the objects of folk rituals
What might be the outcomes of this assumption? and media portrayals such as 2001: A Space Odyssey,
Self-regulation Paradigm 47
The Black Hole, Contact, and even festivals in honor of dence of ongoing connections among all phenomena
comets. But could a paradigm shift focused on the that coevolve within the Earths biosphere, and
basic stuff of the universe alter the daily lives of men between these and the cosmos-at-large. Consciousness,
and women in any significant way? And if this para- both human and nonhuman, is a part of this network
digm shift were to occur in the laboratories of science of interconnections (Laszlo, 2000, p. 114), constantly
and the halls of academia would its repercussions soon creating and re-creating itself as it unfolds in time
affect society as a whole? It seems unlikely. (Combs, 1995, p. 135). This model, and the vision of
Venues that most rapidly catalyze social transfor- the cosmos that it evokes, could well replace
mation often involve entertainment and the arts. either/or approaches with both/and viewpoints
Consciousness themes and schema might find their that reflect a holistic, systems-oriented integration.
way into popular music, literature, television, and the
like. Video games with a consciousness focus might Connection and Communication
flourish. Virtual reality technology could simulate Because the theories of complexity are transdisci-
synesthesia experiences, out-of-body experiences, and plinary, they can help make the intricate dynamics of
even near-death experiences. Talk shows would have a human bio-psycho-socio-cultural change comprehen-
new topic for their talking head interviews, and sible. Without reducing the study of the psyche to
panoplies of overnight experts would begin to pon- physics, these approaches offer powerful conceptual
tificate and deliberate. Researchers and writers who tools to use for working toward a unified understand-
have been ignored or sidelined for most of their careers ing of the cognitive and affective dimensions of
would find themselves lionized; sales of their books human, social, and natural orders of the cosmos
would escalate from the hundreds to the thousands. (Laszlo & Krippner, 1998, p. 30). Because a complex
Consciousness would become a catchword, and system can be seen as a pattern of interacting com-
studying consciousness might become something of a ponents, both mind and matter can interact in a
fad. Berkeley would be hailed as a genius ahead of his nondualistic dance reminiscent of the Taoist yin/yang
times, and the good bishop could even become the hero concept. There is always a bit of yang in every yin, and
of films, plays, psychohistories, and television mini-series. a bit of yin in every yang; neither is primary and both
Unfortunately, it is difficult to imagine what line are necessary to each other and to the whole. New
of investigation would be able to establish the primacy properties can emerge from a system, but they remain
of consciousness. Comparing consciousness and a part of an indivisible unity.
matter is reminiscent of the apples and oranges This insight motivated J.L. Randall (1975) to pro-
conundrum. Consciousness is not a thing or an pose that systems thinking can more easily accommo-
object and does not lend itself to the sorts of com- date parapsychological phenomena than either a
parisons one typically makes between objects. Perhaps mechanistic or a dualistic approach. A complex sys-
it can be most felicitously described as a process (e.g., tems approach has also been proposed as a useful
Guenther, 1989; Husserl, 1981). If so, Peter Lloyd and means to study the transcendental potentials of the
other contemporary idealists might be well advised psyche at various levels of complexity, as revealed
to examine current work in systems theory, chaos in meditation, yoga, and various altered states
mathematics, and the sciences of complexity. Rather (Krippner, Ruttenber, Engelman, & Granger, 1985, p.
than rephrasing the chicken and the egg question, 111-112). Using insights from chaos theory, Christine
asking whether consciousness came before or after Hardy (1998) accommodates parapsychological phe-
matter, explorers in these fields tend to see both nomena in her concept of consciousness fields,
matter and consciousness as evolving processes. replacing classical notions of time and space with
In complex living systems such as plants and ani- such constructs as semantic proximity, intensity, and
mals, such processes have the capacity to self-organize, coherency (p. 194). These networks of meaning not
maintaining order in the face of internal and external only bridge mind and matter, they permit a novel
threats and creating order in the midst of chaos way of understanding such complex systems as con-
(Woodhouse, 1996, p. 265). Even in the nonliving sciousness fields.
world, order often arises spontaneously out of disor- Since its mid-20th-century conception, systems
der, otherwise how could biological life have original- theory has held that the whole is more than the sum of
ly emerged? On a larger scale of magnitude there is evi- its parts. More recent decades have added the dimen-

sion of complexity, giving birth to complex systems Berkeley, G. (1952). The principles of human knowl-
theory and offering the realization that the whole is edge. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. (Original
also different from the sum of its parts. In the mean- work published 1710)
time, chaos theorists speak of nonlinear and often Combs, A. (1995). Psychology, chaos, and the process
indeterminate bifurcations, or transitions, between nature of consciousness. In F. D.
system states. Such bifurcations can reflect revolution- Abraham & A. R. Gilgen (Eds.), Chaos theory in psy-
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Self-regulation Paradigm 49
Transpersonal Functions of Masks in NohKiDo
Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, Ph.D.
This article discusses the transpersonal functions of masks in ritual and in drama therapy as
expressed in the creative path of NohKiDo. NohKiDo, whose main components include the
Prism of Consciousness (Personal, Transpersonal, and Universal), the Rainbow Method, Action
Meditation techniques (masked meditation, etc.), and Therapeutic Noh Theater, is a therapeu-
tic system developed by the author through the redefinition and interpretation of a set of
transpersonal concepts based on Zeamis (one of the founders of Noh) original formulations for
classic Noh Theater. The most significant concepts of Ma (heightened energy through stillness
and silence), Mushin-no-kan (transpersonal projection), Ichu no kei (projective imagination), and
Riken no ken (transpersonal mirroring) pertain especially to the transpersonal functions of masks.
The main aim of a Therapeutic Noh Theater performance is to heighten the consciousness of its
actors, as well as the members of its audience, to a transpersonal level; a Therapeutic Noh Theater
performance of Born from Good Angels Tears is discussed as an example. The creative path of
NohKiDo is introduced here as a lifelong journey to the spiritual, within and without, via masks,
the arts, and creativity.
D
uring my theater studies at the University of
Helsinki in 1966, the power of masks first
captured my imagination. It was our masked
mime class. The masks we used were gray rubber
masks, yet the illusion was total. The mask was no
longer a separate artificial addition on the students
face, but a new believable character was born
(Hiltunen, 1988).
In 1967, I was introduced to the authentic
Japanese Noh Theater in Helsinki, Finland. In 1972, I
was finally able to see Noh in its own cultural setting
in Kyoto, Japan. The experience was so profound that
it changed my life and career. After returning from
Kyoto, I began the challenging task of searching for
books in English about Noh and Noh masks, and
developing my own method, called creative path of
NohKiDo. After moving to Washington, D.C. in
1977, I had many opportunities to see Noh on stage,
to find more literature on Noh, and to finally go to
study Noh in Kyoto and Nara, Japan, starting in 1988.
After all these years, regardless of how many
encounters with masked improvisations or masked
performances I have witnessed, I still get the same
thrill from the transformative powers of masks. In
order to understand why masks are so powerful and
A client with profound mental retardation performs the role
from where their magical and transpersonal connec- of a Tear in the Therapeutic Noh Theater performance of
tions originate, I will look back into the history of the Good Angels Tears.

functions of masks. How and why did the ancient peo-
ple use masked rituals? Some pertinent history of Noh
Theater and its transpersonal roots will also be intro-
duced.
The transpersonal concepts regarding the use and
the functions of masks in the creative path of
NohKiDo drew their initial inspiration from the writ-
ings of Zeami (1363-1443). At first, Zeami wrote
down the teachings of his father Kannami (1333-
1384) and later on created and documented his own
theories about the training of Noh actors (Zeami,
1970, 1975). Both Kannami and Zeami are the
founders of the classic Noh Theater, as it is still prac-
ticed today, six hundred years later.
The word transpersonal literally means beyond
mask or beyond persona. Transpersonal or spiritual
psychology acknowledges the reality that transcends
body-ego boundaries. NohKiDo as a method and
A client with Downs syndrome performs the role of the Good
process consists of multifaceted components of the Angel in the Therapeutic Noh Theater performance of Good
Projective Prism of Consciousness, the Rainbow Angels Tears.
Method and Therapeutic Noh Theater. The terms life-cycle rites, to cure illnesses, or to protect against
used in NohKiDo vary from Chinese to Japanese, thus evil forces and misfortune in general.
terms such as ki may be replaced with chi, hara Riley (1955) and Lommel (1970) talk of the pow-
with dan tien, or NohKiDo with NohChiDo. ers of masks, which were considered a magic means of
Both Japanese and Chinese terms can be used because protection against the dead. According to them, dead
NohKiDo is not exclusively Japanese or Chinese but enemies, animals, or ancestors were considered a con-
multiethnic and multicultural. This article will focus stant threat from the mysterious spiritual world.
on NohKiDo only in reference to some of the Consequently, people had to find mediators who
transpersonal functions of masks as they interplay in could directly connect to the spiritual world and com-
the components of the system. municate with the spirits, calm them down, and make
them favorable toward the living.
The Transpersonal Functions of Masks in Ritual Riley (1955) describes the worldview of the
The ancient people were aware of spirits, the spir- ancient people as one of respectful admiration, with
itual world, and spiritual powers. Their rituals were wonder and awe, toward the animate as well as the
created to connect with the spirits of animals as well as inanimate. Imagination guided the ancient people to
humans, and masks became the mediators between the see and experience lifes mysteries of birth, survival,
physical and the spiritual world. Thus there is no ques- and death with fear and respect of spirits and the forces
tion about the transpersonal functions of masks in the of nature. Masks and their magical powers of transfor-
ancient rituals. In many ancient cultures, even the mation became the ritualistic protection against the
mask making became a ritual and followed some strict threat of the unknown. Thus the mask itself also
order, with its rules, and taboos. became an instrument of spiritual magic powers.
Ritual is defined here as a prescribed order of con- Sorell (1973) indicates that, in order for the early
ducting a spiritual or transpersonal ceremony, which men and women to transform during this ritualistic
consists of drumming, chanting, and masked dancing. dance, they had to not only let go of their own identi-
In those rituals, the transpersonal functions of masks ty, but also conceal it in order to make the illusion
have been to evoke, honor, worship, and embody total. According to him, ancient persons thought of
deities, ancestors, or animal and plant spirits. Masks the spirit as living in the face of a person. Thus by don-
have also been commonly used as a part of funeral rites ning a mask, one could admit another spirit into ones
to honor ancestors, to assure fertility, as a part of other physical body. The mask made it possible for its wear-
Transpersonal Functions of Masks 51

er to become one with the mask, or at least to become the performance.
possessed by it. In Dake Kagura, the gods come dancing to bestow
Immediately after donning the mask, the incanta- their blessings of fertility, longevity, and prosperity
tion, chanting, and rhythmic drumming magically on the people, and to infuse them with their divine
transformed the tribesmen and tribeswomen into a vital energies. Dake kagura is famous for its ener-
masked god or spirit. Thus it created and evoked getic, often acrobatic, dancing and for its colorful
altered states of consciousness in the wearer of the performance. As a yamabushi kagura, Dake Kagura
mask as well as the person who was the living object of inherited the eclectic world view and the practice of
the ceremony, ritual or rite. The wearer of the mask Shugendo, the tradition of mountain asceticism, and is
became whatever the mask represented: ancestor, god, believed to possess special magical powers to ward off
or spirit, and the person who witnessed the transfor- evil and prevent calamities. (Averbuch, 1995, p.2)
mation was also transformed. The altered states of Hoff s (1978) sources are both Honda and Yamaji, the
consciousness were a shared experience. latter of whom emphasizes the fact that in spite of
being Buddhist by religious orientation, the dance rit-
The Transpersonal Roots of the Ancient uals of yamabushi monks also contained indigenous
Noh Theater Shinto performance elements. These ascetic monks
The indigenous Japanese folk ritual kagura, in spent their lives not only performing these sacred ritu-
which kagura is not a religion but a ritual in which al dances but also healing, teaching, and preaching.
masks are used, has its origin and roots in the Shinto, Their sacred performances often included such ancient
Buddhist, and Taoist religions, the synthesis of which rituals as Okina and Sanbaso, which are currently in
created this religion, both prehistoric and protohis- the repertoire of classical Noh troupes. In addition,
toric. Kagura, which is still practiced in Japan, can be there are Oshiki-mai or Okina-no-shita mai, in the
defined as dance of gods, Shinto dance and cere- beginning of which the mask of Okina is purified as a
monial ritual dance. Kagura has assumed regionally part of the performance before it is donned. So these
varying identities and practices, which can range from Okina-centered performances were presented prior to
shamanistic ritual to the blessing of a harvest. Besides Zeami by both yamabushi and sarugaku performers.
seasonal rituals, daily ritual dances are practiced in In kagura dances, the masks are removed in the
some form of kagura as a part of shrine proceedings. middle of the ritual. Sometimes on stage, dancers may,
Like folk religion almost everywhere, it places its after removing the masks while facing the curtain,
main emphasis on ritual and practice rather than on push their masks through the curtain to the dressing
ideas and doctrines, is distinctly magico-religious in room. At other times they may stick their heads past
character and preserves the most ancient shaman lay- the curtains to the dressing room, to the heavenly
ers of the native religion. Indeed, kagura is the proto- realm, while changing their appearance and trans-
type of ancient shamanic rituals in Japan (Averbuch, forming themselves (Averbuch, 1995, p. 82).
1995, p. 3). A variety of performance elements are indicated in
Hoff (1978) bases his analysis on the Japanese kagura: the use of masked performers; the use of masks
classification by Yasuji Honda, Hoff differentiates as a part of the performance; the use of boiling water
more than one hundred varieties of masked kagura, (yudate) for invocation of kami and purification; the
giving intricate details and distinctions. For the pur- use of salt for purification and objects such as a reli-
pose of this review, only some of the most essential gious wand (heisoku) or a sword held in hand during
spiritual features of kagura will be discussed. the dance (torimono no mai). In the Shishi (lion) kagu-
Kagura, in the form of the Shinto dance rituals ra, kami is present in the lion masks while the per-
still performed today in Japanese shrines, has used formers carry them about (Hoff, 1978). In the tori-
masks in distinct ways. Essentially, the invocation of mono kagura, kami is considered to be present only
Shinto gods (kami mukae) through the ritualistic temporarily during the performance.
dance and music of kagura takes place at different lev- In kagura ritual, the stage setting creates a symbol-
els. The kami may be considered truly present in the ic universe in which the deities commune between
masked dancer, he may be temporarily manifested, or their heavenly abode and the human world, and on
he may be present in the mask carried around during which the dancers are both manifestations of the

kami and the priests who summon them down to entering the stage. This ritualistic process seems to
worship them. Thus the structure of the setting date to the kagura dance, where an object held by the
itself provides the symbolic devices that render the dancer or the dancer him/herself becomes the instru-
kagura performance magically efficacious. ment or the medium of this momentary incarnation of
(Averbuch, 1995, p. 82) a deity.
In kagura, the headgear and masks are considered Noh masks are very small in size and usually
channeling devices for the deities who possess them via expose a part of the wearers actual face. They are not
the masking. In other words, masks depict not only easy to wear. The holes for the eyes are extremely small.
humans dressed as kami, but also kami dressed as Because of this, among other reasons, there are four
humans (Averbuch, p. 97). Masks are sacred objects pillars on the Noh stage to guide the masked actor and
in kagura. enable him/her to navigate without falling off the stage.
When searching for the transpersonal roots of the Noh and its highly symbolic performance style, as
classic Noh, there are many secular roots, such as saru- well as its masks, have many interpretations among
gaku, but kagura ritual dances are no doubt the most theater professionals, as well as performance theories.
essential predecessor whose transpersonal influence is According to Nearman (1984), W. B. Yeats and Paul
still so strongly seen in Noh Theater today. Claudel considered Noh and Noh masks sacred.
In general, one could say that the emotional ener- Whereas,
gy of Noh is subtle, symbolic, extremely controlled, others, like Bertold Brecht and the followers of
and rhythmically paced, gaining strength from its pro- Gordon Craig, interpreted the mask as an alienat-
found contrasts and dramatic build-ups, not unlike in ing device in accord with their own interests in
kagura. anti-naturalistic and presentational theatre. The
creatively stimulating interpretations of these poets
The Transpersonal Functions of Masks in the Classic of the theatre have in many ways obscured or dis-
Noh Theater torted both the history and the artistic intention of
In the classic Noh Theater, shite (the main or prin- No. Isolating No from its cultural setting, these
cipal character) wears a mask throughout the perform- writers often assumes that similarities in outer
ance. On rare occasions, after an initial appearance appearance were due to similarities in artistic
without a mask, the shite returns masked to express intent. (Nearman, 1984, pp. 20-21)
his/her dramatic transformation, as in the play Zenchiku Komparu, Zeamis brother-in-law, who was
Tsuchigumo (Spider Spirit). Occasionally, however, a Zen Buddhist and who wrote a very detailed, spiri-
shite tsure (shites companion) may also wear a mask. tually focused analysis of Noh, talks of the mind and
Other characters do not wear masks in the classic Noh. spirit of the Noh mask itself. According to Nearman
Yasuo (1984) enumerates about one hundred and (1984), Zenchiku does not refer to the projections of
fifty Noh masks and categorizes them into six types: 1) the actor wearing the mask but rather to projections of
Okina, the principal god mask, the oldest Noh mask; the mask makers and creators inner life inherent in
2) fierce Shinto or Buddhist Deity masks that ward off the mask itself.
evil forces; 3) Old Man masks; 4) Man masks; 5) Traditional Noh actors will, months prior to a per-
Woman masks; and 6) Spirit masks. formance, look at all the potential masks for their role
Noh masks form their own genres. Carved from and meditate on the masks.
wood and painted using ancient painting methods, the He lets the mask speak to him. The particular feel-
masks are extremely vulnerable to damage even when ings that seem to emanate from the mask as the
barely touched. The minerals and sweat from the actor turns it in various positions do not constitute
hands can remove the paints, which do not have any simply the projections in his personal, subjective
protective cover. That the masks are considered sacred responses, but appear to rise from the mask itself,
objects and treated with extreme reverence is an appar- and can therefore be considered a product of the
ent legacy from kagura dance, in which the evocation mind or spirit of the mask. (Nearman, 1984, p. 44)
of deities could be achieved through objects or by the This ritualistic process relies heavily on the actors
person performing the dance. The Noh actor puts on enlightened ability to see beyond the surface of the
his/her mask in the green room as the final act before mask. Zenchiku and Zeami alike emphasize the spiri-

tual inner development of Noh actors. Zenchiku fur- that Noh actors have to their masks. For them, the
ther explains some deeper meanings of the Noh mask mask is not just a wooden artifact but a companion
with profoundly significant psycho-spiritual and even endowed with magical and supernatural powers.
therapeutic implications (Nearman, p.45). In the ritu- According to Kanze, besides being aesthetically superi-
al of donning the mask, the Noh actor will hold the or, Noh masks are media for superhuman spirits and
mask in front of him before donning it, looking at the deities, and possess spiritual strength.
dark inside of the mask. When the mask is held against There is a special seating arrangement in Noh the-
the light, the openings for eyes, ears, nose, and mouth aters, which uniquely connects the audience with the
total seven portals of human perception, analogous to Noh stage. The minimalistic stage structure showing
the stars of the North-Pointing Constellation that act bare wood, the asymmetrical seating, the use of only
as guides to the path of human travel (p. 45). He fur- the most essential props, and a small curtain located
ther refers to the Buddhist tradition, which considers between the green room and the beginning of the
the sensory channels not only as the source and cause bridge emulate the kaguras ritualistic stage settings.
of delusions but also as guides for spiritual awakening Some costume changes regarding the outer kimonos
and enlightenment. and masks may take place on the stage itself with the
At the technical level, the Noh masks can be aid of a koken (stage assistant, who himself is often a
manipulated with slight movements of up and down Noh master). The Noh stage is build like an open
or right and left, varying the tempo. This creates a shrine or temple space. Much of the kaguras ritualistic
unique impression of the emotional change on the traditions are seen directly in the performance of
masked face from serene to sad, for example. Besides Okina, which is, in fact, performed in shrines.
witnessing the expressive changes on a single Noh The original meaning of the word for the bridge on
mask as a member of an audience, I have also received the Noh stage, hashigakari, is suspension
feedback as a performer using authentic Noh masks. bridgethat is, something aerial. Thus, the
For example, while I was demonstrating Therapeutic emphasis is more on the time-transcending jour-
Noh Theater in St. Petersburg, Russia, many viewers neys between this world and the other world of
came to me afterwards and assured me they had seen ghosts and spirits than on the daily comings-and-
the mask change its emotional expressions and asked goings of real human beings. (Komparu, 1983,
me questions about it. p.124)
Nearman points out that both Zeami, as one of There are two ways of seeing the symbolism of the
the founders, and Zenchiku, as the early Noh master, bridge: 1) as leading from the heavenly realm to the
did make it clear that technical training and practice earth, or 2) as leading from the earth to the heavenly
are essential in Noh, but more importantly the Noh realm. Takabayashi Koji, a Noh actor (Bethe, 1984)
actors are required to develop themselves creatively, states that when performing Okina,
artistically, and spiritually. Only when coupled with I walk onto the stage as my everyday self. Once I
this total approach can the Noh actor, even today, wear the mask, I am in communion with the god
impact his/her audience at the transpersonal level. inside me, with the universal part that transcends
When the technical training is pointed out, as far as the mundane. This part of me which is godlike
the movement of the head to the right, left, up, or dances and that same universal god resides in the
down is concerned, Iwao Kongoh, the Head of the mask: therefore both mask and performer are god.
Kongoh School of Noh (Teele, 1984, pp. 83-84), (p. 96)
emphasizes the importance of imagination of what is
being expressed, not just the mere movement of the Masks in Drama Therapy
head. Masks used in therapy function as the protection,
Kanze (1984), a Noh actor, talks of the power of so that the true self can be revealed. Masks in therapy
masks. He indicates that for him personally as a per- are considered first and foremost a projective device.
former, some masks have empowered him spiritually as Masks and mask making are not used only in drama
a Noh actor on stage. Instead of the common word for therapy and psychodrama (Moreno, 1999; Jennings,
mask, men, the word omote (facade) is used for Noh 1992 & 1995; Landy, 1986, 1993, & 1996; Jones,
masks. This clearly indicates the special relationship 1996; Scheff, 1979; Emunah, 1994; Grainger, 1995;

Holt, 1992; Barrager-Dunne, 1992; Shuttleworth, Chi Kung breathing methods refer to heaven, man,
1981; Naitove, 1981), but also in arts therapy (Mills and earth. There are breathing techniques that direct-
Dufrene, 1991; Gerity, 2000; Henley, 1994; Rugh, ly refer to the triad and localize them in a body
2001). The use of masks by the cited authors seem through mentally focusing on the specified body parts:
mostly to aid in addressing the body/ego problems, 1) breathing from the top of your head (heaven); 2)
needs, and shadow conflicts. For example, Landy breathing through dan tien (man); and 3) breathing
(1996) promotes the use of masks for distancing, yet through your feet (earth). This method was also taught
he considers them less distancing than puppets and to me by my Noh Master in Japan.
dolls. Jones (1996) uses masks and mask making in Zeami (1970, 1975) talks of chi in relation to
drama therapy to provide his clients an additional movement and voice. Chi is considered the heavenly
means of expressing their internal and secret roles. energy, which can be seen in a persons movement. My
Fryrear & Stephens (1988) use masks and video feed- Tai Chi master, Sifu Chao Chi Liu, demonstrated the
back to facilitate this very process of intrapsychic com- use of chi when we were touring Taiwan. He had each
munication. of his five black belt students hold an iron spear
against his throat and push it until the spears bent.
The Creative Way of NohKiDo None of the spears pierced the skin on his throat or
Nearman (1982, 1984), Ortolani (1983) and damaged it in any way. The secrets of chi have been
Pilgrim (1972) emphasize both Zeamis and known to the ancient cultures for millennia, but we in
Zenchikus expectations for the spiritual and creative the West have just recently become reacquainted with
development of Noh actors. Ortolani and Pilgrim state it and with the belief that energy is a transpersonal
that there is a way or path of Noh. Pilgrim (1972) reality.
discusses the spirituality of Noh Theater as grown
from the spiritual traditions of Japan. According to Talent
him, Noh Theater does not differ from the better- This term is used to replace the term shadow in
known and long-established spiritual practices as paths order to widen it and make it inclusive of a positive
to enlightenment, namely the tea ceremony (chado), component. Talent was a unit of money in ancient
the way of painting (gado), the way of poetry (kado), Greece, Rome, and the Middle East. Coins have two
the way of calligraphy (shodo), the way of swords sides; consequently the word talent is used to ampli-
(kendo) in the martial arts, and the way of archery fy the two-sidedness. Shadow is defined as the
(kyndo). Throughout much of Japanese tradition, repressed and denied part of ones psyche; whereas tal-
artistic discipline, artistic form, and aesthetic sensitivi- ent is defined as consisting of both the repressed neg-
ty have been important ways of attaining spiritual or ative failed lessons from one incarnation to another
religious goals as well as expressing and experiencing and the positive inherited skills and talents brought
sacred Reality (Pilgrim, 1972). from one incarnation to the current one.
NohKiDo is also a path or a way to obtaining
higher consciousness via creativity and the artistic pur- Creativity
suit of expressive excellence. Like kagura, the predeces- I consider creativity to be a divine gift inherited by
sor of Noh theater, NohKiDo emphasizes ritual and all human beings. The major components of everyday
practice. The vitalization of the performer, as well as creativity are flexibility, feasibility, and originality. The
the audiences, of the rituals or performances with ability to synthesize and create a new combination
transpersonal insight or energy, is the goal of based on the existing components is also a part of cre-
NohKiDo practice in the Rainbow Method as well as ative processes. Inspiration and intuitive knowing can
during Therapeutic Noh Theater performances. lead to transpersonal creativity. I have developed a
method of Meditative Vail Painting using deliberately
Chi (energy) the variant vail for veil in the term. As an example
The essential energy flow in Noh dance radiates from of intuitive knowing leading to transpersonal creativi-
the dan tien (energy center below the navel). Ancient ty, I painted a meditative vail painting entitled
roots connect the three styles of meditative movement Healing hand opens the heart chakra six years before
of Chi Kung, Tai Chi, and Noh dance. The ancient I had the actual experience in Brazil. As creativity can

also create a pathway to the Divine, one must be care- no explanation will do. This is to say that the examples
ful, because it can also lead to the unholy side of spir- of the transpersonal concepts presented in this article
ituality. The choice is ours, to use our gifts in the serv- are based on inspiration, intuitive knowing, and per-
ice of humanity or for our own personal gain. sonal experiences.
NohKiDo Transpersonal Functions of Masks in NohKiDo

The Creative Way of NohKiDo as a method con- I have been developing my creative arts therapy
sists of the Projective Prism of Consciousness, The approach for almost four decades. Since 1966
Rainbow Method, and Therapeutic Noh Theater (Hiltunen, 1988) I have had an increasing interest in
training, practice, and performances. The Prism of the use of masks as a major projective therapeutic
Consciousness identifies from where one is projecting device. I have witnessed the transformative power of
(e.g., Personal, Transpersonal and Universal; Hiltunen, masks both in training professionals and as an intricate
2001, 2003a, 2003b). part of my therapeutic theater, which consists of an
All of the previously listed components of the integrated ensemble of artist volunteers (actors, visual
method are interwoven as categorized by the Projective artists, musicians, writers) and actors with mental
Prism of Consciousness and the color/chakra spectrum retardation and developmental and multiple disabilities.
of the Rainbow Method. Creativity is the essence of I can still recall vividly many of the improvisations
the way. It connects via intuition and inspiration to in my workshops all over the world (Finland, Canada,
ones higher self. The Finnish mythological epic of Japan, Switzerland, Russia, Lithuania, and the USA).
Kalevala and many ancient Finnish traditions have The projected imagery created by masking is like a
inspired the use of lamenting (Hiltunen, 2003a) and film strip which I am able to recall, not in detail, but
the creation of the Seven Stages of Womanhood Ritual by its powerful emotional energy and expression pro-
(Hiltunen, 2001), which are also a part of NohKiDo. jecting from deeply personal, sometimes transperson-
In addition, NohKiDo is centered on many Action al, conscious or unconscious, inner sources.
Meditation and creative arts practices, some of which A collection of my earlier papier-mache masks were
utilize masks. The term Action Meditation refers designed to depict the four major races of the world:
here to meditative practices that do not require sitting white, black, reddish brown and yellow. In my work-
still as in Zazen, but rather aim to reach a meditative shop in Canada, at the University of Calgary in 1983,
stage through engagement in some form of action such a student of the creative arts therapies selected the yel-
as the movement meditation forms of tai chi, chi low mask, which also has a tragic emotional expres-
kung, Noh dance, Zen dance, walking meditation, sion. She was able to get in touch with her own sup-
Masked Meditation or haiku meditation, and eating pressed grief, yet among the viewers her expressions
meditation. NohKiDo draws its spiritual foundation transcended the projection of her personal pain. They
not only from Zen and other ancient spiritual created associations, among other things, to the
approaches, but also from mystic Christian concepts Vietnam War and its burn victims caused by napalm
and practices. This article will not address the latter, as bombing. Her fiveminute improvisation consisted of
it is the topic of another article. a simple set of mimetic self-expressions, connecting
The awareness of our contemporary minds varies honestly and mercilessly to her own inner pain and
as far as spiritual reality is concerned. Thus my own mediating this powerful moment not only for her but
acceptance and acknowledgement of transpersonal also for us in the audience. It exemplifies profoundly
reality is based on a lifelong search for the spiritual and the power of masks to enable not only the wearer, but
on actual experiences in it, for example, encounters also the members of the viewing audience, to project
with my deceased grandmothers spirit and some of my from a transcended perspective.
mystical experiences with Christ. The scientific valida- During therapy sessions and the masked improvi-
tion of personal and spiritual or transpersonal experi- sations, an ability to select the mask that draws our
ences is not easy. It is up to the reader to accept or attention is the first and most crucial step in successful
reject them. It could be said that for those who have masking. Our honesty in responding spontaneously to
experienced transpersonal or mystical realities, no the associations, memories, and emotions elicited by
explanation is necessary; and for those who have not, that very mask is a prerequisite for the creation of a

moment of seeming unity with the mask and the wear- Masked Meditation
er. Finally, the power of the improvisations will rely on Transpersonal communication does not always
the directness of the connection with our uncon- need language, because it is able to step above and
sciousour suppressed and denied ideas, thoughts, beyond ordinary perception and comprehension.
memories, and feelings (Hiltunen, 1988). The masked When the higher self is receiving information
improvisations are an essential part of the training in through intuition and not through the ego, the per-
both the Rainbow Method and Therapeutic Noh ception and comprehension transcend the egos
Theater. It may start at Personal level (guilt, fear, or demands for intellectualization, analysis, and reason-
anger) of the Prism of Consciousness, yet transcen- ing. The language needs of the higher self (transper-
dence and transformation to forgiveness, courage, sonal) may directly be met through mythology,
faith, or love will enable the wearer to transcend dreams, and images, rather than by linear, logical rea-
body/ego needs and perceptions and reach the soning.
transpersonal in his or her projections. Masked Meditation as a technique has evolved
Ancient men and women believed that ones face over the years. Actually, two years ago, when I was
was the gateway to the transpersonal. Consequently, teaching a summer course in a college in Finland, my
when a mask was donned, the passage from the per- international students began acting with the masks in
sonal to transpersonal took place almost automatically. such a wide range of busy activities, accompanied with
Chanting and dancing were also an important compo- a lot of verbal expressions, that I decided to invite
nent for the final transformation. In NohKiDo, masks them to stop totally and begin to meditate on the
still have the same potential to create the passage from essence of their mask. When they had an opportunity
personal to transpersonal. When the baggage of the to slow down, through stillness and silence, they were
personal body/ego is unresolved and too heavy, the able to discover most amazingly simple but powerful
masked person is unable to transcend personal prob- expressions for their own personal growth. I used the
lems, and the take-off is not easy, or may not even same basic steps and the technique with a mirror as
be possible. The content of the baggage may be with the masked improvisations (Hiltunen, 1988).
assessed by using the Prism of Consciousness tool. With Masked Meditation, however, the focus shifts
In the overall process of NohKiDo, masks do not from activity to nonactivity.
always function at the Transpersonal level. In the The appeal of a specific mask and the reasons that
beginning phases of the Rainbow Method, when the the student chooses it are often caused by unconscious
chakras that are considered to function at the Personal identification with a specific quality, emotion, or char-
level (base chakrared, sacral chakraorange, and acteristic of the mask. The Masked Meditation gives
solar plexus chakrayellow) are the focus of the inter- an opportunity to excavate and bring to conscious
vention, it is essential that plenty of time be given for awareness that special chosen quality. The stillness and
the participant to explore their body/ego needs and silence will enable the masked person to own it, accept
issues. Initially, rainbow-colored masks and scarves it (even if the quality is not acceptable for the con-
representing each chakra are used to identify the needs scious mind), and transcend it. The Masked
of participants. However, since the Rainbow Method Meditation as a process may take only five minutes
as a whole is still being developed further, no detailed but, depending how deeply students are willing to dive
description of the use of the rainbow-colored masks is into their own being, it can also take up to thirty min-
given here. When the participants are ready and will utes. It is potentially a very powerful method, and as
have an opportunity to perform with the Therapeutic in all methods, the outcome depends on the willing-
Noh Theater, the Transpersonal will become the focus ness of the students to explore their inner life, and
of the intervention. Even after engaging in the their strength and security in their own vulnerability.
Therapeutic Noh Theater, only the main characters In the Masked Meditation, the focus is on only
wear authentic Noh masks. one isolated aspect of the mask. Projective Imagination
is used to mediate the aspect through nonaction and
awareness of the here-and-now moment. The term
Projective Imagination will be defined later on in this
article.

The Projective Prism of Consciousness same ambiance as the authentic Noh masks, some of
The Projective Prism of Consciousness is used for which are termed universal. These non-Noh masks
the Ritual of Seven Stages of Womanhood (Hiltunen, may have been collected from all over the world
2001), for lamenting (Hiltunen, 2003a), and as an from Finland, Italy, China, and Indonesia. In most
intuitive assessment tool for poetry therapy (Hiltunen, cases the non-Noh masks represent so-called character
2003b). In general, the Projective Prism of masks, which are used in the Rainbow Method as well
Consciousness identifies the source of projections as as in the early phases of the Therapeutic Noh Theater
Personal (ego/body concerns), Transpersonal (beyond training. The Rainbow Method and the early phases of
ego/body concerns via transcendence and transforma- Therapeutic Noh Theater training use many masking
tion), and Universal (unity, or no-self consciousness exercises, most of which address the Personal side of
via transcendence and transformation). This article the Prism of Consciousness, namely the issues of body,
examines the functions of masks in NohKiDo as pro- ego, or talent. Occasionally, a transcendence and trans-
jections from the Transpersonal side of the Prism of formation may lead to Transpersonal perception,
Consciousness. All of the previously listed applications which can be assessed by the Prism of Consciousness
of the Projective Prism of Consciousness may be used tool. When an actor or a participant in NohKiDo
for the assessment of the functions of masks in the training has evolved and is ready to participate in the
Rainbow Method as well as in Therapeutic Noh Therapeutic Noh Theater rehearsals and performanc-
Theater. The three sides of the Prism of Consciousness es, the Transpersonal side of the Prism of
(Personal, Transpersonal, and Universal) in poetry Consciousness is the aim of all of the experiences.
therapy are as follows: Either actively or more passive- Later on in this article the Transpersonal concepts will
ly projected through five major domains, the first three be defined and discussed.
of which are the different modes of thinking: 1) As applied in NohKiDo, transpersonal psychology
Intuitive, 2) Contemplative 3) Rational/Analytic, 4), transcends extensive focus on negative values, weak-
Affective and 5) Somatic. The therapeutically signifi- nesses, problems, and pathology and, without ignoring
cant roots, content and outcome of the poetry can fur- challenges, draws its strength from positive values,
ther be divided into the following categories: 1) wellness, and creativity. It does not focus only on the
Pathological, 2) traumatic 3) negative, 4) realistic/nat- shadow or pathology, but on talent, previously defined
uralistic, 5) socially conscious, 6) humorous, 7) as both the strengths and weaknesses of each individ-
metaphoric/symbolic 8) imaginative, 9) insightful, 10) ual. It raises questions about the true purpose and
creative, 11) authentic, 12) courageous, 13) visionary, meaning of ones life on earth. Furthermore, it aims to
14) positive, 15) inspirational, 16) nurturing, 17) connect participants via creativity and intuition to
compassionate, 18) cathartic, and 19) purgative. Via their higher selves, simultaneously aiming to strength-
transcendence resulting from acceptance, understand- en their ability to be present in and aware of each
ing, forgiveness and love, transformation may take moment.
place and consciousness shifts from a personal to a
transpersonal perception. The transpersonal or univer- The Rainbow Method
sal contents and outcomes differ in degree and are This method consists of the use of the rainbow
identified in the checklist, which is presented after a colors as identified in Chakras, or the seven sacred cen-
basic model is introduced. ters in a human body. One of the methods, which I
In addition, the Bereavement Prism of developed and use as a part of the Rainbow Method, is
Consciousness (Hiltunen, 2003a) will be useful when Meditative Vail Painting. Mandala painting also
assessing the use of masks as transpersonal projective accompanies each color/chakra. (Since this article
devices. Masks and masked rituals were a means of focuses on the use of masks, further examination of the
reaching altered states of consciousness for ancient painting components is beyond its scope.) As the
men and women. In NohKiDo, masks are treated with color/chakra spectrum is central in this method, masks,
respect and awe, because of their sacredness. and vails of colors representing each chakra are used.
There are, however, masks that are used exclusive- The Rainbow Method is divided into the compo-
ly for training in Therapeutic Noh Theater or as a part nents of the color/chakra spectrum, starting from the
of the Rainbow Method. These masks do not have the Personal: 1) base chakra, red (body); 2) sacral chakra,

orange (ego); 3) solar plexus chakra, yellow, including transpersonal growth, and healing. A Therapeutic Noh
black and white (related to talent, metaphorically Theater performance is actually a ritual, with its previ-
taken from an ancient coins sides with heads referring ously defined components.
to gifts/skills and knowledge brought from one incar- The aims of Therapeutic Noh Theater are to teach
nation to another on one side and tails to lessons to be discipline, physical self- control, stillness of ones
learned in this incarnation on the other side); 4a) heart mind, and expansion of ones awareness from the
chakra, green (heart; body/ego/talent), the gatekeep- Personal to the Transpersonal through connecting and
er to the Transpersonal projections; Transpersonal: 4b) communicating with the audience. It culminates in
thymus chakra, turquoise, not always included in lists theater productions that consist of ancient music and
of chakras (acknowledged as the transitory chakra and chanting, basic and expressive sacred dance and move-
color from green to blue and from heart to throat ment forms, and mime, and utilize glamorous cos-
chakra); 5) throat chakra, blue; 6) brow chakra, violet tumes and masks. It aims to touch deeply and
(third eye); and Universal: 7) crown chakra, magenta. transpersonally not only its participating actors but
When transpersonal functions of masks in also its viewing audiences.
NohKiDo are discussed, the Prism of Consciousness In 1996, after the Therapeutic Noh Theater per-
creates the framework and provides the assessment formance of Good Angels Tears, the audience was asked
tool. The Rainbow Method provides the chakra/color to respond in writing about their experience. Sean
framework for the training, practice, and therapy to Schultz, a young man who gave permission for his
enable the participant to work from Personal and then name to be used after seeing the performance, com-
transition to Transpersonal, and eventually to the mented: The last time I was moved in this way was
Universal perception of life. when my son was born 2 months ago. The feeling was
Therapeutic Noh Theater also offers training, so similar but different in many ways. But since I have
rehearsing, and preparation for the actual performanc- been asked to describe this is the only way I can. This
es, which aim to operate at the Transpersonal level. is an example of the transpersonal impact.
The three components of NohKiDo interweave and The reference to birth is remarkable, since birth
cannot be totally discussed as separate practices. rituals were honored in many ancient cultures. Thank
Poetry writing is also an essential component of you for opening my heart was another response to the
the Rainbow Method. Both haiku and renku poetry, as same performance. However, oftentimes, the audience
well as free form, are used. This eventually leads to members reported that they could not find the exact
playwriting or dramatization of stories for Therapeutic words to describe what they had experienced.
Noh Theater. The poetry itself may also be used for
Noh kata recitals as it is chanted to accompany the The Use of Masks to Create Transpersonal Impact on
dance recital at the Personal level of training. Mask Participants and Audience
making is also a part of the NohKiDo training, and In the Therapeutic Noh Theater, unlike in its clas-
masked improvisations are a very significant method at sic counterpart, masks are used by most of the actors.
the same level. The masks are prepared so that emo- However, in the Therapeutic Noh Theater, only the
tions, negative and positive, are expressed in their col- main character or his or her companion may use the
ors. As this portion of the method is currently being classic Noh masks. Others may wear masks from all
developed further, this discussion of the transpersonal over the worldfrom China, Indonesia, or Italy.
functions of masks will mostly focus on the Therapeutic Noh Theater training begins at the
Therapeutic Noh Theater. Personal level of the Prism of Consciousness. Body-
centered training begins with relaxation, tai chi, chi
Therapeutic Noh Theater kung, Zen dance, walking meditation, masked
Therapeutic Noh Theater, a form of transpersonal improvisations and basic Noh kata. Chanting, mask
drama therapy developed since 1966, synthesizes making and the introduction of the Expressive Noh
ancient theater, rituals, mythology, and spiritual tradi- kata will culminate in masked dance recitals.
tions of Japan, Finland, and other ancient cultures The Creative way of NohKiDo is founded on the
with contemporary theater and healing practices to spiritual aspects of not only Noh but also other ancient
produce catharsis, positive change, personal and and spiritual traditions. Some of the following con-

cepts were inspired by Zeami and Zenchiku, who member of the group, as a thank-you or an excuse-me.
introduced many important concepts: gassho; donning
of the mask; ritual of mask removal; ma; mushin no Donning of Masks
kan; ichu-no-kei; and riken-no-ken. No English transla- The importance of the ritualistic donning of a
tions for the Japanese terms are given here, because I mask, especially a Noh mask, cannot be overempha-
have specifically defined them and will introduce and sized in Therapeutic Noh Theater. In classic Noh
define the terms later in this article. Other transper- Theater, a Noh actor bows before the mask before
sonal concepts of NohKiDo, such as talent and the donning it in the green room, which is just behind the
mystic spiritual connection of the practitioner of entrance curtain. The adjustment of the mask to the
NohKiDo, are concepts not necessarily based on or correct angle on the face is also very crucial in maxi-
inspired by Noh. Combinations of Buddhist and mys- mizing the impact of moving of the head while on stage.
tic Christian concepts are inherent in NohKiDo as
well (Hiltunen, 2003b). For the sake of the short for- Ritual of Mask Removal (Acceptance)
mat of this article, not all of the concepts will be dis- Sometimes masks are removed in kagura during the
cussed in depth. ritual. Sometimes in Classic Noh Theater, shite may
The impact of Noh masks or the masked actors on change his mask during the performance, when his
their audience plays an essential part in the often non- back is turned or he is otherwise not directly in view.
verbal and even transpersonal communication that The Ritual of Mask Removal is authentically created
takes place between the actor and his or her audiences. for the Therapeutic Noh Theater and it has proven to
The profound catharsis I experienced as a member of be a powerful means of awakening for audience mem-
the audience at my first Noh performance in Japan bers to a different perception of reality. The mask may
and the experiences described by a spectator at a Good be removed as a part of the performance, particularly
Angels Tears production seem similar. My recollection with actors with mental retardation, in order to illus-
of my initial cathartic experience in Kyoto, Japan, in trate to the audience the importance of acceptance. It
1972 at a Noh theater (Hiltunen, 1988) was rekindled is easier to accept a person behind a mask without
not only by the written evaluative comments on Good judgment or prejudice. When the mask is removed,
Angels Tears but even more profoundly by the verbal the reality is revealed. This enables the audience to
comments made by the spectators after the perform- become aware of their prejudice and reassess their per-
ances. Their deeply and positively felt emotional com- ception of persons with mental retardation.
ments made me understand that Therapeutic Noh One of my professors, after viewing the video of
Theater has been able to capture some of the original Good Angels Tears, expressed her initial shock when she
sacredness of the ancient Noh Theater. realized that the part of the Angel was not performed
by me, as she assumed, but by an actress of
Gassho (Honoring) Therapeutic Noh Theater with Downs syndrome. She
Gassho is the general greeting by the students of became acutely aware of her own prejudice.
NohKiDo and the members of the Therapeutic Noh Transpersonal mirroring had taken place.
Theater. When practicing Zazen in a Japanese
Sanshoji temple, I was given a handout that defined Ma (silence, stillness, and heightened awareness)
gassho as follows: Hold the palms and fingers of both According to Pilgrim (1972), the development of
hands together. Gassho is an expression of respect, faith ones own inner vision and mental/spiritual/emotional
and devotion. Because the two hands (duality) are (kokoro) resources, the transcending of the function-
joined together, it expresses the One-Mind. Hands al, intending, object-oriented mind in attainment of
are raised in front of the chest while stopping to bow. no-mind or true Mind (mushin), and an art rooted
When one enters the space for the Keiko Komatsubara in spiritual power and vision or in an experience of the
Noh Stage at the Art and Drama Therapy Institute in Great Nothingness (mu) and expressing the ultimate
Washington, D.C. for training, rehearsing, or per- mystery of depth of reality (p. 142) are prerequisites
formances, one honors the space and everyone in it by for the expression of ma. Ma is the moment of no
gassho at the door. This ritualistic honoring is done also action, the stillness and silence, which is filled with
at other times, when respect is expressed toward a more powerful energy than the moments of action on

Noh stage. Komparu (1983) talks of stillness and functions of fans.
emptiness, or quiet stillness, when referring to ma.
In the Therapeutic Noh Theater, the ma Riken no ken (transpersonal mirroring)
moment on stage is experienced by the audience Riken no ken was actually initially used by Zeami
when a masked actor/dancer is able to be totally pres- only for transpersonal detachment. In Therapeutic
ent in stillness and silence and projects transpersonally Noh Theater, riken no ken has been defined in more
beyond his or her body/ego consciousness (mushin-no-kan). expanded ways as a reciprocal process between the
masked actor/dancer and his or her audience consist-
Mushin-no-kan (transpersonal projection) ing of multiple facets: transpersonal detachment,
For a masked actor/dancer, moments of total silence transpersonal projection, and transpersonal intromis-
and stillness that occur in between the dance move- sion. The initial term came from Zeami. Yet this is
ments gives an opportunity for transpersonal projec- actually an expanded term drawn at first in practice
tion. It is a powerful moment, which cannot be meas- from my work with persons with mental retardation
ured easily. The written audience feedback after the and then applied to Therapeutic Noh Theater. I real-
performance has been the only measurement used. ized that Zeamis initial term expressed very well what
When the actor/dancer on stage is able to be totally was observed in the actual therapeutic interventions
present in stillness and silence and transcend body/ego with clients with mental retardation. Later on, it
awareness, it is an empowering moment, during which became apparent that in Therapeutic Noh Theater, the
a sense of peace enlarges the space of awareness around term translated into the exchange between the masked
the dancer. actor and his or her audience.
I have written a symbolic story about persons with
Ichu no kei (projective imagination) mental retardation called Born from Good Angels
Iwao Kongoh identified in classic Noh the impor- Tears. It indicates that persons with mental retarda-
tance of the use of imagination by Noh actors, when tion are our teachers of patience, compassion, and
technically moving their head down, for example, to love. I have personally been the recipient of their
express looking at a river. It is not enough to perform teachings through transpersonal mirroring. Many
the technical movement; the actor must accompany it times, when I have tried to correct their behavior in
with the imagination. In Therapeutic Noh Theater, public, they have turned it into a learning experience
this has been termed as projective imagination (ichu for me. Instead of my being able to teach them some
no kei). In projective imagination, the actual scene is behavior or skill, they have been able to set a mirror in
visualized in the actors minds eye and projected in his front of me and show me my weaknesses.
or her dance kata. Both Noh and Therapeutic Noh I have encountered the perception and notion,
stages are bare, and a limited number of realistic props even among professional therapists, that working with
are used during performances. Thus the masked persons with mental retardation requires very little
actor/dancers use of projective imagination is essential skill or intelligence owing to their limited intelligence
in order to transmit visualized images to the audience. and skills. Because of their limited verbal communica-
During the Therapeutic Noh Theater training, tion skills and lack of ability to rationalize, it is more
rehearsals, or performances, projective imagination has challenging to decipher the roots of their problem
been tested through audience feedback and, based on behaviors. It is my experience and philosophical stance
their written or stated comments, it seems to work. that persons with mental retardation are our teachers
The audience can visualize what is being chanted bet- and that they have chosen to incarnate as persons with
ter if the actors are able to use their projective imagi- mental retardation. Furthermore, they have chosen to
nation during the scene. In Therapeutic Noh Theater, learn the ultimate lessons by taking humiliation,
fans are used not only to accompanying the dancers ridicule, disrespect, and treatment as invisible mem-
kata as indicated in the basic dance kata, but also in bers of our society. Yet I consider them my humble
the expressive Noh kata in which fans stand for a vari- and generally unacknowledged spiritual teachers.
ety of props, from vessels to rakes and swords. Thus it Transpersonal mirroring in Therapeutic Noh
is most essential that the projective imagination by the Theater will take place when audience members are
masked actor/dancer be used to reinforce the unusual able to receive from an actor/dancer some deeper mes-

sages about themselves or their lives, to intromit into ness, which makes transcendence and connection with
their consciousness and awareness something that was the audience at a transpersonal level possible.
not acceptable before. Often, however, audience mem-
bers do not even have words to express what they have
experienced. When transpersonal mirroring takes Conclusion
place, it can be said that Therapeutic Noh Theater has Transpersonal reality was present in the masked rituals
retained some of the original transpersonal power of of numerous ancient cultures. In drama therapy, masks
ancient Noh Theater. are mostly used for the personal or the body/ego and
When an ancient man wore his mask in a ritual, shadow healing. Ancient Noh Theater emulates many
he became the spirit or the deity he was dancing as. aspect of its spiritual predecessor, kagura, and has
When kagura dancers or Noh actors performed a retained up to the present many transpersonal ritualis-
dance of a god or a spirit, they became that deity or tic dimensions in its performances. The Creative Way
that spirit. When an actor/dancer in the Therapeutic of NohKiDo consists of the Prism of Consciousness
Noh Theater puts on his or her mask and enters the tool, which lends itself as a useful assessment tool both
Therapeutic Noh Stage, he or she descends from the for the Rainbow Method and for Therapeutic Noh
earth and enters the sacred and the transpersonal. Theater processes and practices.
Thus hashikagari (the bridge between the curtain and In the Creative Way of NohKiDo, as was the case
the Noh stage) provides the transitional time and space in classic Noh, the spiritual development of the partic-
for the actor. While on stage, it is the aim of ipants via artistic/creative training is the essence. The
actor/dancers in Therapeutic Noh Theater to be able experience of an actor of Therapeutic Noh Theater
to first detach themselves from their body/ego aware- may vary greatly depending on the actors ability to be
ness, from the Personal, and project from the present. In Therapeutic Noh Theater, meditative
Transpersonal to see themselves in the eyes of an audi- dance accompanied with ancient music and chant can
ence. This transpersonal detachment is an essential be a powerful experience both to the actor and to the
component of riken no ken. If and when the audience members of an audience. The numerous Action medi-
members are open and ready to receive, they can par- tation methods imbedded in the NohKiDo all prepare
ticipate in the process of transpersonal mirroring by the participants for their engagement in the
their own transpersonal intromission. It is not easy to Therapeutic Noh Theater training, rehearsals, and
describe or prove if and when that happens. That is public performances.
why the audience is often asked to provide written The spiritual transformative powers of masks vary,
feedback after the performance. They may do it depending on how they were made and how they are
anonymously or may state their names. used. Ancient men and women, as well as Zenchiku,
Because of the small size and placement of the eyes believed that the spiritually evolved mask maker would
in Noh masks, I have experienced, while in a leave his or her spirituality imprinted into the masks
Therapeutic Noh Theater performance on stage, a he or she carved. Masks are made mostly from papier-
type of seeing as if through only one eye of a Noh mache, carved wood or molded leather. Compared to
mask in the middle of my foreheadwhich has creat- masks made of other materials, the carved masks seem
ed a spiritual sense of seeing the world through a third to have more power onstage, yet there are no absolute
eye. This refers to the brow chakra, which is consid- distinctions between the seeming powers of carved
ered the transmitter of the Transpersonal in the Prism masks and those of the others.
of Consciousness. This is my personal experience and Therapeutic Noh Theater performances take place
I believe worth reporting. Noh masks create an addi- mostly once a year, owing to time limitations as well as
tional meditative and centering effect on the wearer the performers need for extended rehearsals.
because the wearer does not experience the general NohKiDo as a method is my lifelong pursuit. All of its
feeling of being protected, which is typical of other concepts and methods are being developed further. I
types of masks. As a result, Noh masks seem at first to dream of the day when I can dedicate my full-time
redirect the wearers awareness toward their inner attention to NohKiDo, teaching and practicing it as
sight. After the initial meditative period, the attention well as performing in Therapeutic Noh Theater.
seems to be redirected away from the body ego aware- When I consider functions of masks in the masked

ancient rite and ritual dances and then compare them ence depends on each individual and his or her ability
with the functions of masks in NohKiDo, I realize that to be totally present and to detach transpersonally. It
both NohKiDo and Therapeutic Noh Theater have also depends on the individuals total dedication to his
received the heritage of the ancient sacred masked or her path.
dance traditions. This heritage is not complete nor
inclusive of all the different functions, but bears the
unique premise that masks are sacred objects and the Author Note
potential transmitters of their wearers consciousness NohKiDo, The Creative Path of NohKiDoh,
from personal to transpersonal realities. and Therapeutic Noh Theater are the trademarks of
Contemporary actors of ancient classic Noh Theater Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, Ph.D., Ed.D., RDT-BCT,
are still today holding onto the spiritual traditions. ATR, LPC, MT.
They accept the high demands of the actor/dancers
personal growth as an artist and as a creative individ-
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tional education of Native American healers with directed to Dr. Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, The Art and
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Journal, 20-64.

Metaphysical Tracking: The Oldest Ecopsychology
David Kowalewski, Ph.D.

Alfred University
Ecopsychologythe use of nature for understanding and healing the soulhas become accept-
ed as a legitimate tool by theorists and practitioners alike. Yet one important dimension of the
field has been ignored: metaphysical tracking. This article brings to light a number of mystical
phenomena that trackers, ancient and modern, have experienced, and suggests their common
root in the so-called energy body. The implications for psychospiritual growth are then
described. Finally, alternative explanations and new avenues for research are discussed.
When you see . . . a footprint you do not know, the implications for psychospiritual growth. Finally, it
follow it to the point of knowing. evaluates the alternative explanations that skeptics
might bring forward and offers a few avenues for
Uncheedah, future research.
grandmother of Lakota sage Ohiyesa
(Nerburn, 1993, p. v) The Energetics of Tracking
Modern humans who take up trackingsome-
T
he field of ecopsychology is rapidly being times called the oldest profession because of its utility
accepted as a legitimate mode of psychothera- to huntersoften discover they are engaged in a far
py (Roszak, Gomes, & Kramer, 1995). The more mysterious endeavor than simply a new hobby or
use of nature to understand and heal the soul has an occupation. While gathering left-brain data about
ancient lineage (Harner, 1990), but currently has gaits, T-steps, and so on, they also start picking up
taken some postmodern, metaphysical, New Age strange right-brain information that leads them to
twists (Gray, 1995). This paper looks at one such twist, start questioning the very nature of nature. During
namely metaphysical tracking. It shows how the these experiences, they appear to transcend space-time
ancient skill of tracking wildlife, now being rediscov- and fall into a mystical flow, tapping into heretofore
ered in its physical dimension, has opened to contem- unknown powers (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). As one
porary practitioners a metaphysical, soul-awakening Kalahari tracker put it: When tracking is like a dance,
dimension as well. Tracking can serve as a crash course you are like a god (Foster, Foster, & Hersov, n.d.). For
in natural mysticism. this reason, primitive trackers have astounded modern
This paper surveys the ways that trackers, while observers. Amazonian trackers, according to one
absorbed in the physical technique of the art, also report, seemed to know by some special extra sense
experience its mystique. Based on several sources just where to find the game they sought (Lamb, 1971,
ethnographic literature on hunter-gatherers, my own p. 64).
training by professional trackers, the reports of my stu- Until recently, modern trackers who themselves
dents, my own experiences, and stories around wilder- entered this zone kept their experiences in the clos-
ness campfiresit focuses on the three most common et. But with the growing acceptability of the
metaphysical experiences: remote tracking, auric Primitive Renaissance, parapsychology, and New
residue tracking, and spirit tracking. It posits their Age movements, they are increasingly speaking out in
common root in the so-called energy body, which pre- workshops (Brown, 1996), lecture tapes (Young,
sumably enables trackers to transcend the limitations 1995), books (Rezendez, 1998), journals (Kowalewski,
of the physical or space-time dimension. It then shows 2002b), and other venues. Even hard-nosed search-
Metaphysical Ttracking 65
and-rescue trainers, who would seemingly be very bizarre by modern humans, they are increasingly being
reluctant to allow their responsibility for the lives of supported by quantum physics (Goswami, 1996),
their quarry to depend on worthless practices, strong- biology (Sheldrake, 1981), and other disciplines
ly recommend that their tracking students listen to (Kowalewski, 2000; McTaggart, 2002).
intuition (Fuller, Johnson, & Koester, 2000, p. 24). Thus, I propose, when trackers experience mystical
The experiences of these trackers suggest that phenomena, their energy bodies somehow connect
something metaphysically energetic is going on. The with the energy body of the creature being tracked,
more deeply trackers engage in the art, the more fre- enabling them to learn about it in ways inexplicable by
quent and profound the experiences. Seemingly, the the space-time data of the physical senses. The inter-
more personal energy they invest in the absent crea- section of the energy bodies of the tracker and tracked
tures tracks, the more they connect with its present is seemingly observable in three common experiences:
energyand beyond. As one practitioner of Native remote tracking, auric residue tracking, and spirit
American arts has put it, Indian knowing is entering tracking.
into a personal relationship with the energy of the craft Remote tracking might be called a type of non-
(Peat, 1995). physical bilocation, or what has come to be known
Yet this notion remains vague about exactly how a as remote viewing, a phenomenon well documented
tracker can transcend the limitations of space-time. by research at Stanford and other universities (Guiley,
The key, I propose, lies in the notion of energy body, 1991; Targ & Puthoff, 1977). It has been shown to
alternatively known as the astral, etheric, or dreaming occur independently of distance or electromagnetic
body (Guiley, 1991). New Age writer Carlos shielding (Radin, 1997). Trackers located in one place
Castaneda calls it the luminous egg or luminous might be said to extend their energy body beyond their
ball (1998, p. 5). It is said to permeate but also to sur- physical body and see the creatures tracks somewhere
round the physical body (usually called the aura), else far away, an observation later verified by them-
and to constitute part of the universal energy field to selves or others. Thus, the energy body might be said
which all creatures belong (namely the Chinese chi and to track the creature while the physical body remains
Japanese and Korean ki). Humans, according to immobile.
reports, can be taught to see the energy bodys aura In recent years, remote viewing has spawned a
(Andrews, 1995; Kowalewski, 2002a). flood of literature, especially concerning its use in
Many researchers consider the energy body holo- intelligence-gathering by the U.S. government during
graphic, such that the whole is represented in every the controversial Stargate program of the 1980s
part (Gerber, 2000). While it can manifest electromag- (McMoneagle, 1993; Morehouse, 1998; Schnabel,
netically, nonetheless its effects can be observed 1997). The phenomenon, however, has a long pedi-
through electromagnetic and other shields (Radin, gree in tracking lore. One story in tracking circles goes
1997). It appears to contain all the perceptual pow- like this:
ersseeing, hearing and so onof the physical body An Englishman in Australia came across an aborig-
as well as the memory of its entire history, and has ine sitting on the ground and staring into space,
been used to explain bizarre medical phenomena such and asked, What are you doing? Tracking,
as phantom limbs and changes in organ transplant came the reply. But youre not moving, objected
recipients (Burr, 1972; Eden & Feinstein, 1998; the Englishman. I dont have to, said the aborig-
Sheldrake, 1995). Experiments of the DNA phantom ine, Im tracking out there, pointing to a distant
effect have found a similar phenomenon. Randomly hillside. He then proceeded to describe the location
scattered photons that are exposed to DNA not only of the creature and sketch all its tracks. The
form patterns, but the patterns continue even after the Englishman later verified the claim.
DNA is removed, as if they remembered its energy
body (Braden, 2000). Such lore finds more formal expression in the
This double of the physical body seemingly ethnographic literature on hunter-gatherers. One
accounts for many metaphysical phenomena such as anthropologist recorded these remote tracking experi-
precognition and out-of-body experiences (Guiley, ences of a Kalahari Bushman:
1991). While such notions are usually considered I see everything. . . . I can see hyenas, lions, and

leopards. I can even see tracks . . . far away. . . . My a red fox track. The claim was immediately verified.
eyes start turning around in my head . . . and This tracker, it should be mentioned, has solved over
[w]hen I look out to the bush, I can see a lion mak- 500 cases involving missing children, escaped prison-
ing low growling sounds, far away. I can see his face ers, lost hunters, and the like for police, park officials,
very clearly, and I tell the others, Hey! Hey! and so on (Brown, 1978, 1996).
Theres a lion out there. . . . Then later on they see I have personally been team-tracking in a hide-
the tracks of the animal and say, Kau Dwa was and-seek game when I saw our quarrys tracks in my
right! (Katz, 1982, pp. 216-217) minds eye suddenly stretch far ahead, then loop
around behind us and lead into a grove of trees. Ill
Or consider this account from Labrador: bet hes right over there, I told my partners, pointing
[T]he old hunter was looking for traces of a bear back to the grove. We went to the trees, where in fact
[that were] . . . swept away bythe icy winds and lost he was hiding. How did you know I was here without
in a deep snowdrift. All that the old hunter saw seeing the tracks? he asked me in amazement. But I
were the footprints of the bear immediately around did see the tracks, I answered. I certainly did not
him. But the footprints led nowhere. . . . The old hear or see his body moving out of the corner of my
man squatted down next to the bear tracks. He eyes, see his physical tracks in the distance, or notice
pulled his blanket over his head, creating darkness my fellow trackers detecting him or his tracks far
. . . [and] gaze[d] on the footprints. He began to ahead. Similarly, one tracking teacher tells his students
see . . . prints . . . leading in a certain direction. The to meditate on where a known cougar in the vicinity is
old man got up, followed the prints he had seen, presently moving; they then go out and find its tracks
and soon found the bear and killed it. (Speck, at the spot they saw them in their minds eye (Young,
1935, p. 160) 1995).
Since trackers, while in remote-viewing mode,
Of course, one might dismiss this and similar seem to be transcending space-time, they appear to see
accounts as mere braggadocio, lying, or other false- tracks made far away and long ago. In my university
hood. But for hunter-gatherers, tracking is a serious, course on psychic policing, I once asked students to
even sacred, business, and not a subject for frivolous remote-view a crime scene of a recent mystery case (the
jokes (Brown, 1978). They must produce results, Jon-Benet Ramsey murder on Christmas eve in
physically or metaphysically, otherwise hunger is not Colorado) while they were sitting in our classroom in
far away (see Liebenberg, 1990; Lyell, 1929, p. 36). New York state. One student drew the entire crime
Certain such trackers, as in the Blackfoot nation, scene perfectly (house faade, snow-covered moun-
claim to see the tracks while asleep. They say they track tains, Christmas presents and stockings, and so on),
an animal in their dreams and then, after waking phys- including tracks leading away from the house. Reports
ically, find the tracks at the place where it was moving of the crime indicated that tracks had indeed been
at the time they were sleeping (Peat, 1995). According detected at the scene (see also Cortesi, 1987; Druffel
to another report, & Marcotte, 1983).
Some Dene could rely on their dreams and spiritu- Remote viewing, like other metaphysical skills, can
al traveling to . . . locate food. . . . They could see make ones physical life much easier. It can save the
where their path would cross with an animals on tracker endless time and exertion. Some trackers sim-
the physical earth and then could go to that spot ply stare at a track in a state of trance and envision the
and make the kill easily. (Meili, 1991, p. 126) creature moving away from them, thus avoiding the
need to see every track. The skill, therefore, may have
Such reports should not be too surprising, given the life-saving consequences in law enforcement and
amount of research supporting the notion of precogni- search-and-rescue efforts, when time is of the essence.
tive dreaming (see Guiley, 1991). Indeed, since it undoubtedly contributed to hunting
I once saw a master tracker dispatch a new student success among ancient peoples, we can speculate that
to a thick patch of woods 30 yards away, tell him to evolution hard-wired the ability into our psyches to
place a stick in the ground just behind his foot, then enhance survival chances.
claim that the stick was now at the back of the heel of Thus, apparently, trackers have the ability to see
footprints made beyond the here and now, presumably Indeed, some modern ecologists have claimed that
by connecting their energy body with the energy body the special feel of a place is caused by longstanding
of the tracked creature. Judging from the evidence, by networks of crisscrossing auric trackways.
far the easiest way to track is to do nothing, or more Each path and track has its own sensitivity and psy-
accurately, to let ones energetic scout do the work. chic existence, shaped by the consciousness of
For good reason have Native-American trackers been those who have made it and used it. That is why
traditionally used as scouts by the U.S. military. Do some old roads have a strong energetic personality
less and be more, as some New Agers have said, may and can give rise to certain states of being, making
be the appropriate maxim for a tracker. one open to the inspiration of the spirit of the
place. (Vogt & Vogt, 1999, p. 35)
Auric Residues
Auric-residue tracking might be defined as the The ethnographic literature is also full of stories about
gleaning of information from metaphysical tracks, auric-residue tracks. In one report on Australian abo-
namely, detecting the energetic traces left by feet on a rigines,
substrate. According to one ancient belief, the soul The tribal members . . . recognize at a glance
substance of a creature adheres to all physical things themarkson the sand.Theycan tellif
with which it has been in contact (Kalweit, 1988). the person is feeling well or[ill].Their percep-
Thus, for the metaphysical tracker, the creature tion is developed well beyond the limitations of
appears to leave energetic remains on everything its people growing up in other cultures. Their senses
body has touched. seem to be on superhuman levels. Footprints
Such auric residues are commonly said to be read have vibrations that tell much more than merely
by psychometrists helping police solve crimes from what one sees on the sand. (Morgan, 1994, p. 59)
objects touched by victims and perpetrators at the
scene (Elkin, 1994; Hibbard & Worring, 2002; Such accounts might be dismissed as simple imagin-
Ostrander & Schroeder, 1997). Similarly, according to ings, except for the simple fact of quantum physics
a compendium of research on alternative healing, of which these primitive trackers were undoubtedly
objects touched by powerful healers affect patients unaware in the formal sensethat the universe at its
thousands of miles away (Benor, 1992). deepest level consists of vibrations (Goswami, 1996;
Auric residues appear to carry, holographically, the Guiley, 1991; Jenny, 2001).
entire psyche of the creature, and hence the tracks are One can also find reports of auric-residue tracks
sometimes termed signatures (i.e., the creatures left by presumably nonphysical creatures on physical
unique metaphysical fingerprints) (Brown, 1996; substrates. Lakota visionary Black Elk noted such an
Murphy, 1992). Since the creatures energy body is occurrence in his description of an Elk Ceremony:
said to be the seat of its memory, the residues appear The virginswentback to the tipiThen the
to contain its entire history. These energy traces seem six elk men went into the tipi. After we got into
responsible for the common statement made by track- this sacred place we could see tracks of all kinds of
ers, Tracks are a window into an animals soul. These animals in therespirit tracks. (De Mallie, 1984,
trackers seem in effect to be following creatures ener- pp. 243-244)
gy paths, on a substrate that acts much like a crime-
scene object psychometrized by a police psychic. In Wet footprints are often reported as appearing
short, the substrate appears to remember the crea- mysteriously in the bathrooms of haunted hotels and,
tures that stepped on it, containing information about as is well known in psychic circles, beside the swim-
them that the tracker can access. ming pool of the Queen Mary.
The traces seemingly remain linked to the crea- Auric-residue prints have also been seen by humans
tures energy body. Thus each track appears energeti- while awake but deliberately tracking on the other
cally connected to its maker at the end of the path. For side, in the metaphysical realm. It is said, for exam-
this reason, perhaps, some First Nations teachers say ple, that the shaman who journeys into nonordinary
that if you step on a bear print, the bear will get angry reality to retrieve lost soul parts, or to find unconscious
because it literally feels your foot. or comatose or deceased souls, may follow their ener-

getic tracks or spirit trails to establish contact !Xo hunters maintain that ifthey feel a burning
(Ingerman, 2001). sensation in the middle
Trackers claim to pick up many sensations on an of their foreheadsthentheir quarry is just
auric pathway, yet the perceptions vary widely depend- ahead. Somesathat this feelingis accom-
ing on personal history, culture, and other variables panied by perspiring under the arms. (Liebenberg,
(Guiley, 1991). Common experiences, however, 1990, p. 93)
include luminous orbs, silver and gold ribbons, fuzzi-
ness, itching on solar plexus and kidneys, tingling, Presumably it is these sensations that gave rise to the
heaviness, sponginess, pressure, magnetic pulls, and popular expressions, warm trail and hot on the
pulses (Young, 1995). In the words of one tracker, trail.
One nightI noticed a much more As in proven cases of crimes solved by police psy-
heightenedawarenessthan Id normally had. chometrists, the residues are said to contain a wealth of
[T]he trails were talking to meI was literally information about the creature being tracked
hearing things from the forest around me. I was (Hibbard & Worring, 2002). A belief among the
having a lot of really intense instinctive experi- Lakota claims that we can talk to the animals through
ences, knowing things before they happened. I their trails (Young, 1995). While holding their hands
was definitely walkingin alpha state, if not a over a track and consciously trying to read its energy,
deeper statewhere I was able to seethe animal my students regularly perform better than chance
trails all around me as shimmering light. (Young, would predict in determining the creatures sex, age,
1999, tape 4) hunger, thirst, sleepiness, points of origin and destina-
tion, disease, and other characteristics. When an
One night while I was tracking a deer, the trail sud- Akamba tracker was asked why he was looking so
denly lit up like a silver ribbon. My logical mind intently at a track, he replied,
immediately interjected that I was probably just seeing I can look into this track and see this
moonlight reflected off crystal-like grains of moist animalwhere it is nowthe condition that it is
sand. However, I looked up and saw only a dark and in. I know what it is doing right now. I know it
overcast sky, and the substrate was dry. The next morn- is lying down, looking out across the countryside. I
ing I returned to the site and saw no white sand but can see it there in the grass. I can see the size of it.
instead a dark and dull trail of leaves, twigs, and other I can tell who it is. (cited in Young, 1995)
debris.
One tracker I met feels electric shocks in his palm These flashes of where the animal is located at the
when its held over a track. Others experience vibra- time, which are later verified, undoubtedly help
tions, which, as suggested above, are what connect us account for the term talking trails:
all. The intensity of the experiences also varies, the key Isawsilver lines going across the landscape
determinant being apparently the emotionality of the three distinct silver lineslike duct tape.So I
creature at the time it made the track. Psychometrists said to my friend, Hey, what are these lines on the
working on police cases regularly detect, and indeed ground? and she said, What lines?We contin-
experience, strong emotions from the objects left at the ued on our way. I was trying to see foot-
scenes of violent crimes. printsbut you couldnt see a footprint because
Yet perhaps the most common experience is heat. the ground was baked hard. All of a
In the coldest days of winter, trackers in the zone suddenthree deer butts appeared right in front of
(i.e., trackers actively and efficiently using auric my eyesas if someone was flashing a video.
residues to track an animal) report feeling hot and You could reach through them, they werent real-
shedding their clothes despite subfreezing ambient ly there. I sawthree deer butts, moving away
temperatures. While teaching, I commonly see my stu- from me, laying down the silver lines. I found
dents, after a long afternoon of intense tracking in myself jogging down these three lines. When we
freezing temperatures, walking home with their hats enteredinto a little valleythree deer jumped up
and heavy parkas draped over bare arms. Among the out of their day beds and bounded away. (Young,
Bushmen of southern Africa, 1995)
According to a Mohawk belief, as soon as you look tracked a buffalo for so long that he became one. Spirit
at a wild animals track, it will raise its head and look tracking is thinking, feeling, and reacting exactly like
back over its shoulder (Young, 1995). the creature being followed. According to one tracking
Thus, the trackers energy body appears to operate teacher, one must become the animal that is being
like an antenna picking up the waves or vibrations tracked in order to become a master tracker (Brown,
emitted by the residues of the creatures energy body. 1996). Some tracking schools teach their students to
Quite easily, it seems, the energy body of the tracker role-play the creature to be tracked, in order to experi-
connects with the residues of the energy body of the ence the landscape as it does. Certainly this method
tracked. helps to physically understand the tracks of a given
species. But once spirit tracking happens, as my own
Spirit Tracking experience indicates, one is already way beyond any
Spirit tracking is said to occur when the tracker is game of lets pretend.
seized, or possessed, by the soul of the creature. The first time spirit tracking occurs, most trackers
According to reports, it is becoming so engaged in the start questioning their sanity. For instance, Brown
energetics of the pathway that the physical tracks are (1996) has noted that when vegetarians engage in fox
forgotten and one shapeshifts into the creature, mov- tracking, they experience a desire to eat rabbit. The
ing over the landscape as it did at the time. This phe- students I train to spirit-track deer suddenly want, in
nomenon is said to enable the tracker to experience the their words, to bed down under some pines or
world as the creature did at the time it was making the munch on some buds (Smith, 1998). I have tried to
tracks. As one First Nations tracker, Charles dismiss these reports as mere imaginings or simple
Goodfoote, has put it, A track is where the spirit of acoustical or other natural happenings (e.g., sounds
the tracked, and thetracker, meet (cited in carry farther at night). Yet, in my judgment, the feats
Hanratty, 1997, p. 55). were too unusualand in many cases verifiedand
One afternoon while in the zone tracking a red experienced by too serious a group of students to be so
fox, I suddenly started smelling wood smoke behind easily disregarded.
me. This seemed very strange, since I was tracking into Spirit trackers, in short, seem to know exactly what it
the wind, there was no sign of fire anywhere, and I was is like to be another species. For good reason, it seems,
far from any human dwelling. I continued on for a First Nations peoples have always claimed that wild
while, then started returning home by the same route. animals are our best teachers. Or, as I heard one mod-
On the way back, I passed the site where I had smelled ern tracker say, deer can teach you more about deer
the smoke; then a few minutes later looked up and than any biologist ever could.
saw, above me, smoke rising straight up from a farm- Yet spirit tracking, while certainly fun, was hardly a
house chimney several hundred yards away. Since I trivial pursuit for native peoples, who traditionally
had been tracking into the wind, and since the weath- used it to better survive (e.g., to sense danger farther
er was mild with no erratic prestorm winds, it seemed away than their limited physical sense perceptions
highly unlikely that the smoke had been carried by the could reach). Spirit tracking, as with all metaphors of
breeze. It was difficult not to speculate that I had native peoples, seems much more than simple poetry;
smelled the smoke with the same olfactory power as specifically, it seems to be about survivalas individ-
the fox I had been tracking. uals, peoples, and indeed the human species.
Such experiences could still be dismissed as fantasy, Further, because of the intensity of the experiences,
were it not for recent breakthroughs in humananimal some spirit trackers recommend metaphysical or auric
communication. Some experienced veterinary scien- shielding, especially when tracking humans (see
tists, for example, now speak of a magical connection Braud, 1984). Since they seem to feel exactly what the
between species. Humans, they say, can create spiri- tracked creature felt at the time, trackers may unknow-
tual bonds with animals (Schoen, 2001, pp. 154, ingly pick up negative feelings and suffer the emotion-
203). al consequences. One afternoon in the woods a friend
When spirit tracking occurs, one appears to cross and I followed human tracks that led to a pile of litter
the species barrier. The experience presumably left from a drinking party the night before. The place
accounts for the Lakota legend about a boy who once reeked of beer from broken bottles. Within seconds we

were laughing uncontrollablyapparently a kind of tantamount to losing ones human identity and expe-
metaphysical contact highyet the place had a men- riencing the world as another species. The trackers
acing feel as well. That night we both had dreams energy body, we might say, connectsor better,
about physical violence. The next day we learned there mergeswith the energy body of the tracked. Perhaps
had almost been a fight at the party. In a similar vein, for this reason, the wild animals we track one day often
during hunting season I have occasionally felt the pain show up on our porch the next.
of wounded animals whose blood trails I was follow-
ing. Although such impressions might be written off as Soul Shift
paranoia, fantasy, or just good guessing, they were only Tracking, therefore, seems to present a doorway to
experienced while tracking and certainly felt otherwise transcendence. Indeed, experiences of metaphysical
in body and soul. tracking often result in psychospiritual transformation
At the same time, spirit tracking seems an easy way to of the deepest kind in the soul of the tracker. Like
ecstasy. Spirit trackers claim to lose egoic self-absorp- near-death experiencers, trackers often undergo a
tion, stepping out of ordinary reality to experience metamorphosis resulting in substantial life changes
oneness with another creatureindeed with another (Moody, 1975, 1977, 1988). Stories abound in track-
species. According to one Bushmen tracker, er circles about abandoned jobs, marriages, friend-
Tracking is like dancing, because your body is ships, residences, and so on. After telling a Paiute
happy. The hunter becomes the prey and knows tracker about seeing these kinds of soul shift in my
where it is.When I was running, I really was a friends, he confirmed: Yup, your life changes a lot
kudu.You feel it in your body.When you feel when you really start looking. The mountain recluse
you are getting close, you feel a tingling in your of today may well be the tracking novice of yesterday.
armpitsyou have taken kudu into your own As a result, many teachers feel obligated to advise their
mindyou see through its eyes. (Foster et al., n.d.) new students, Do not leave your day job!
Why the transformation? The key lies, I believe, in
The feelings appear to become more elaborate as the energetics of tracking. It is one thing to follow
the tracker closes in on the quarry, as another account physical tracks; its another thing entirely to follow
of Bushmen trackers reveals: energetic ones. When doing so, the creatures trail on a
The hunterwould say that a springbok seemed landscape becomes a metaphor for ones own life path.
to be coming, for he could feel the black hair (on After following creatures energy bodies with ones
the sides of the springbok).The hunter could feel own, one gradually becomes an expert tracker of ener-
a sensation in the calves of his legs when the spring- gy itself. Before long, unsurprisingly, one begins to
boks blood was going to run down them, for he track ones own energy, ones inscape, and eventually to
would always feel blood when he was about to kill compile an energy audit of ones life. One starts to
a springbok.He would have a sensation in his track oneself.
feet as he felt the feet of the springbok rustling In particular, a wild creature exposes civilized ills, as
through the bushes. The hunter would have a sen- trackers compare its awareness, and especially its sheer
sation in his face on account of the blackness of the exuberance, with their own. They begin to find, as one
stripe on the face of the springbok, and he would teacher put it, the wild within (Rezendez, 1998; see
feel a sensation in his eyes on account of the black also Plotkin, 2003). According to the many stories I
marks on the eyes of the springbok. (Liebenberg, have heard, the process goes something like this. These
1990, p. 94) trackers no longer feel comfortable energetically with
their old lives, and begin to long for a new oneone
Such accounts, again, are often verified: the spring- of maximum energy, which some metaphysical teach-
bok was in fact closer than before, and the observers ers might call the path toward their destiny. In short,
dined on wild steak that night. they begin to track their lifes purpose, and many part-
Spirit tracking seems, in short, an intimate way to ners, colleagues, friends, and the like no longer fit on
know a species. When First Nations peoples refer to that path. Or, in a Jungian word, they track down their
wildlife as all their relations, they appear to be truly rejected wild soul parts and reintegrate them into their
talking about their energetic kin. Spirit tracking seems psyche, such that they literally become new energetic
beings at odds with their old lives. Civilization itself ences.
becomes increasingly intolerable after de-domesticat- Third, some skeptics will claim that the reports
ing and re-wilding themselves. After engaging the wild simply result from an acquired ability to read very sub-
soul parts they abandoned for civilization, they start to tle physical cues on a landscape. This objection must
realize the ecstasy they had been missing. They see that be taken seriously. After years of dirt time, trackers
they have sold their destiny for a civilized illusion. The do in fact show a heightened physical awareness,
wild trail, it seems, is a royal road to authenticity. enabling them to see tiny signs like leaf nibbles, over-
Yet usually this realization is only a temporary dark turned pebbles, and the like, to which the average civ-
night of the soul. When trackers discover that the very ilized human is totally oblivious. Yet this awareness
wildlife whose energy they have come to experience so remains at the physical level and does vary strongly
intimately is threatened by that very civilization they with amount of time spent tracking. Metaphysical
were starting to reject, most choose to delay the moun- tracking, on the other hand, seems completely inde-
tain-man lifestyle for one of service to save that wildlife pendent of years of experience and may occur at very
from that civilization. Their psychology leads to ecol- young ages. According to a compendium of research
ogy. Put another way, they become ecopsychologists on metaphysical phenomena, At an early age, most
(Roszak et al., 1995). As one tracker told me, Native Americansexperience the supernatural
Tracking is finding the rest of yourself. At that point, communicate with animals (Guiley, 1991, p. 389).
they realize that human destiny is a mighty crooked Consider, for example, this English trackers account
roadand one that leads full circle. from Africa:
[T]he best native trackersact more from instinct
Conclusion than reasoning.I have seen aten year-old who
Without doubt, such claims will cause some skep- was a marvelous tracker. His eyes were as sharp as
tics to rub their hands in glee. Yet the following points needles.I have never seen his equal.Such a
may bring a little sobriety. First, skeptics have to youngster could not have had time to learn much
explain the cross-spatial and cross-temporal continuity in his short life, so his proficiency must have been
of accounts. Metaphysical tracking phenomena seem instinctive. (Lyell, 1929, pp. 35-36)
universal, having being reported across the world
across the centuries. How so? Did all these respondents I myself, as suggested above, have enabled at least a few
somehow meet in secret just to put one over on the completely neophyte young trackers to experience
anthropologists? (If they did, the fact alone might con- such phenomena.
stitute corroborating evidence.) More likely, humans Fourth, some skeptics will claim that the reports
are hard-wired for metaphysical tracking and similar simply arise from an unconscious familiarity with a
phenomena via the brains ability to produce the alpha landscape after years of living there. Yet I have heard
and theta waves generating altered states of conscious- many accounts from trackers, including my own stu-
ness to serve survival. Metaphysical tracking, it seems dents, of metaphysical experiences that occurred on
clear, can make the hungry human truly awesome at totally or fairly new landscapes. Indeed, these accounts
huntinga basic survival skillregardless of personal are consistent with findings from studies of the para-
physical limitations, difficult substrates, weather dis- normal. Metaphysical experiences are in fact more like-
turbances, or other banes of the tracker. Metaphysical ly in new than old situations, where the well-known
tracking, one could hypothesize, is evolutions way of decline effect from boredom sets in (Guiley, 1991). In
serving our species. short, metaphysical tracking experiences are more like-
Second, some skeptics will claim that the reports ly on unfamiliar than familiar landscapes.
simply reflect a magical thinking of primitives. Yet Finally, some may claim that the experiences result
the most modern and scientific of todays humans, from telepathic communication with other trackers.
including computer technicians, biologists, engineers, While this cannot be ruled out in group tracking situ-
and the like, are perfectly capablealbeit to their great ations, all the types of mystical tracking also occur
surpriseof tapping into metaphysical tracks. These while tracking alone.
humans would have loathed being called magical Still, some skeptics will demand more conclusive
thinkers, yet they still had the metaphysical experi- evidence, preferably in the form of scientific studies.

Such research could easily be designed. For example, Elkin, A.P. (1994). Aboriginal men of high degree.
two groups of equally experienced trackers could track Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.
the same landscape; one group, however, could be Foster, C., Foster, D., & Hersov, J. (n.d.). Great dance:
trained in the skills of remote viewing (Guiley, 1991), A hunters story [Videotape]. Cape Town, South
seeing auras (Andrews, 1995), and the like. The suc- Africa: Refinery.
cess rates of the two groups, such as percentage of Fuller, G., Johnson, E., & Koester, R. (2000). Man-
tracks detected, could then be statistically compared. trackers and dog-handlers in search-and-rescue.
Likewise, trackers could be surveyed to measure (1) Charlottesville, VA: dRS.
metaphysical experiences and (2) number of major life Gerber, R. (2000). Vibrational medicine for the twenti-
changes. The two variables could then be correlated eth century. New York: Harper Collins.
for statistical significance. Goswami, A. (1996). Quantum consciousness and the
Some skeptics, however, will remain unconvinced. future. [Audiotape]. San Francisco: New
I invite them to just start tracking. In any case their Dimensions.
doubts, undoubtedly, will fail to bring an end to Gray, L. (1995). Ecopsychology and shamanism.
reports of mystical tracking. The landscape will con- Workshop at Rowe Conference Center, Rowe,
tinue teaching trackers about their inscapes. MA.
Guiley, R. (1991). Encyclopedia of mystical and para-
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WA: Taweya.

The Trans/Trans Fallacy and the Dichotomy Debate
Burton Daniels
This paper presents an integration of transpersonal structural theory. It is claimed that a

dichotomy debate is currently taking place within transpersonal psychology, which involves
what Wilber has called the pre/trans fallacy (1993) and the ascender/descender debate
(1995). The pre/trans fallacy states that early, prepersonal life experiences are confused for
transpersonal experiences of higher consciousness. Yet Grof (1985, 2000) and Washburn (1995)
contend that early, prenatal, life experiences are legitimate sources of transpersonal experience,
and can be thought of as the presence of deeper consciousness. Consequently, it is suggested that
confusing prepersonal life experiences for prenatal life experiencesas well as preferring higher
stages over deeper stages of transpersonal consciousnesscommits the trans/trans fallacy.
Finally, it is claimed that Avatar Adi Das (1997, McDonnell, 1997) spiritual revelation provides
the missing link whereby transpersonal structural theory can be integrated: the conjoining of
the prenatal and prepersonal selves.
erhaps the greatest difficulty for transpersonal one over the other is simply a mistaken notion, one
P psychology at this time is that it is embroiled in

a dispute that can be described as follows: a
dichotomy debate. Actually, dichotomy debates are
that can exist only as an exclusive attachment or pref-
erence for one over the other. Either way is a grievous
mistake, necessarily committing individuals to a par-
taking place all throughout society, among all kinds of tial understanding of reality.
people and within all types of professions. A dichoto- Wilber puts the difficulty this way:
my debate can be described as follows: taking one end The great dualism of all dualisms, I have suggested,
of a particular continuum and arguing on its behalf is between this world and an other world. It has
to the exclusion of its polar opposite (if not, indeed, infected our spirituality, our philosophy, our sci-
some other aspect of the continuum). However, ence; it runs as equally through the repressive
because the opposite end (or other aspect) still actual- Ascenders who wish only the other world of eter-
ly exists, one is committed to fabricating some sort of nal release, as through the shadow-hugging
alternative to it, to account for itwhile yet denying Descenders, proper troglodytes each and all, who
it exists all the while. Unfortunately, dichotomy want salvation solely in the passing glories of this
debates all too often form the basis of academic argu- world. It slices through every Age of
ment, where participants only end up working their Enlightenment with its upward-yearning Reason
own side of the street.1 and every Romantic reaction that seeks instead to
A troublesome dichotomy debate currently at issue explore every downward-turning darkness and
within the field of transpersonal psychology has been depth. It governs where we seek our salvation, and
characterized by Wilber in two ways: the pre/trans fal- which world we will ignore or destroy in order to
lacy (1993), and the ascender/descender debate get it. It is the cause of bitter, bitter acrimony
(1995). In this debate (and fallacy), Wilber claims that between the two camps, with each formally accus-
prior periods of development are confused for higher ing the other of being the epitome and essence of
periods of development. In other words, most develop- evil (literally). And they are both right. Or, we
mental theories fail to appreciate the integral nature of might say, they are both half right and half wrong.
reality. Both sides of the debate are necessary for the (1995, pp. 345-346)
overall process to occur (Puhakka, 1998). To choose
Trans/Trans Fallacy 75
Wilber suggests that the positions represented here specific contributions have been acknowledged: Jung,
are untenable and essentially based on mistaken Maslow, Assagioli, Grof, and Wilber.
notions about what it means for the individual to Indeed, Washburn is also a significant contributor
develop and grow. Wilber states that an immense, all- to the debate and compares the positions of the partic-
inclusive hierarchy (i.e., holarchy) outlines the various ipants this way:
possible levels of being. He maintains that the devel- Similar to the views of Jung, Grof, and Levin,2 the
opmental purpose of human beings is to ascend and view presented here is one that postulates the exis-
evolveby integrating and enfolding the various lev- tence of an original dynamic, creative, spontaneous
els of being as they go along. Consequently, the indi- source out of which the ego emerges, from which
vidual is thought to scale a great ladder of being, in the ego then becomes estranged, to which, during
which her/his various levels spread out in an ascending the stages of ego transcendence, the ego returns,
continuum overhead, reaching ever higher into lofty and with which, ultimately, the ego is integrated.
states of awareness and consciousness. Jung, Grof, Levin, and I differ in the specific ways
However, others contend that the reverse is actual- in which we describe the basic source of the egos
ly the case (Washburn, 1995; Grof, 1985, 2000): the existence and the egos spiral journey of departure
developmental purpose of human beings is to descend from and higher return to this source; nevertheless,
and recover lost aspects of themselves somehow jetti- the underlying paradigm is substantially the same.
soned in the process of their coming into being. Thus, Basically, I think Wilber loses sight of the transper-
in the process of growth, the individual invariably loses sonal potentials of the deep unconscious and con-
aspects of his/her being (perhaps due to repression, if sequently mistakenly conceives of the course of
not some form of dissociation). Consequently, the (ontogenetic) development as a straight ascent to
purpose of individuals is to heal these divisive higher levels rather than as a spiral loop that, after
wounds and, in the process, recover those aspects of departing from origins, bends back through origins
being that have been split off from awareness on the way to transpersonal integration. (1995, p. 4)
again, integrating their various levels of being as they
go along. In so doing, the individual actually regains In other words, whereas Wilber advocates ascend-
the original and pristine states of consciousness buried ing to higher consciousness (a view extending the
deep within, from which they are otherwise estranged. basic position of Maslow), Jung, Grof, and Washburn
The essential dynamic of the dichotomy debate (not to mention Assagioli, in a manner of speaking)
could perhaps be put this way: one persons apex is advocate descending to deeper consciousness.
another persons apogee. The two exist diametrically However, neither side represents a more accurate por-
opposed to one another, heading in opposite direc- trayal of consciousness, because both are actually two
tions, in fact. Yet, no matter how at odds they might sides of the same reality. Perhaps better said, the two
be, they can never escape the fact that each inheres sig- are not properly conceived of as alternatives to one
nificantly in the other. Certain aspects of each are as another. Rather, the essential dynamics of existence
true for one as for the other. Nonetheless, reconciling encompass them both. Indeed, an essential task for
the dispute is not easy to do. Certain aspects of their transpersonal theory will be to set Wilbers paradigm
positions are also unacceptable. Perhaps better said, in dialogue with those of Grof (1985) and Washburn
each side of the dichotomy debate is threatening to the (1995), currently the two most substantial alternatives
other, for good reason: it represents the antithesis to Wilbers paradigm (Kelly, 1998, p. 128). At pres-
and, therefore, annihilationof the other. As a result, ent, the respective positions can be contrasted as fol-
they end up mortal enemies, utterly at cross-purposes lows: whereas Washburn/Grof understate the case for
to one another. This explains a good deal of the debate the levels of being involving involution and the deep-
currently taking place in transpersonal psychology. er Self, Wilber overstates the case for the levels of being
To address this issue, a review of the debate is involving evolution and the higher Self. Indeed, the
offered, focusing on those theorists who most exempli- debate results precisely from the fact that each side
fy its dynamics. Most of the notable insights have defines the transpersonal Self according to whether it
come from a handful of theorists already identified in is thought of as deeper or higherand that over
a previous review (Washburn, 1995), in which their against the portion of the individual typically referred

to as the lower self. Consequently, the amalgam of is to retrace ones steps and return through this chain,
lower self and deeper Self can be best indicated by the ascending and recovering the lost elements of their
following nomenclature: the S/self. compound being that have been jettisoned, or else ren-
However, this dichotomy does not fully encompass dered unconscious, along the way. In involution, each
the debate. An important piece is left out. Although level is utterly pertinent to every other level, subsum-
Wilber, Washburn, and Grof engage in an exhaustive ing the next descending level that has, itself, passed
review of transpersonal and spiritual literature, they do through each of the others along the way.
not include a specific spiritual master whose revelation Wilber explains the progression this way:
contributes significantly to the discussion: The According to the perennial philosophyor the
Ruchira Avatar, Adi Da Samraj. Nonetheless, of equal common core of the worlds great wisdom tradi-
importance to the notion of the Dynamic Ground and tionsSpirit manifests a universe by throwing
involution and evolution is Avatar Adi Das (1997, itself out or emptying itself to create soul, which
McDonnell, 1997) revelation on the conjoining of the condenses into mind, which condenses into body,
deeper and gross personalities (i.e., deeper and lower which condenses into matter, the densest form of
S/self ). This conjoining is the link that closes the gap all. Each of those levels is still a level of Spirit, but
between the positions of Wilber and Washburn/Grof. each is a reduced or stepped down version of
Without this link, there is no basis for a reconciliation Spirit. At the end of that process of involution, all
of their positionswhich only leaves transpersonal of the higher dimensions are enfolded, as potential,
psychology embroiled in a seemingly intractable argu- in the lowest material realm. And once the materi-
ment over provincialism and perennialism (Ferrer, al world blows into existence (with, say, the Big
2000). Indeed, at times, their differences seem almost Bang), then the reverse processor evolution
acrimonious. It is precisely this distinction (and rift) in can occur, moving from matter to living bodies to
transpersonal psychology that the present work is symbolic minds to luminous souls to pure Spirit
intended to overcome. itself. . . . In other words, each evolutionary unfold-
ing transcends but includes its predecessor(s), with
The Trans/Trans Fallacy Spirit transcending and including absolutely every-
Wilbers (1995, 2000) account of human develop- thing. (1999, p. 10)
ment can be seen to elaborate upon and offer further
refinements to the peak experiences at the top of This process has been called the Great Path of
Maslows (1964, 1971) need hierarchy. His spectrum Return by Avatar Adi Da (2000b, in press). As can be
theory of consciousnessthe nesting of various levels seen, the compound human is composed of five fun-
within a hierarchyalso has a strong correlation with damental levels (or sheaths) of being.3 Evolution
an arrangement in consciousness posited by Advaita could be thought of as occurring when the lower lev-
Vedanta (Deutsche, 1966) and Mahayana Buddhism els integrate into a single, unified whole. As a result, an
(Suzuki, 1968; Conze, 1962). In these spiritual tradi- opening to higher consciousness is awakened. In pass-
tions, the vertical development of evolution, climbing ing through this portal, individuals are inexplicably
up the ladder of ascentitself resulting from a prior, transformed into the very spiritual levels of being that
vertical deployment of involution, sliding down the lad- preceded them as the deeper Self. The experience of
dercan be traced through a hierarchy involving sev- the higher levels is ineffable and transcendental to
eral levels (or else sheaths) of being. In other words, ordinary awareness, and generally said to be utterly
reality most fundamentally exists as an involution/evo- and exquisitely blissfulalthough visitations to these
lution hierarchy: whereas involution indicates preexist- realms, without proper preparation, can be intensely
ing states of deeper consciousness, evolution initiates painful and terrifying as well.
states of higher consciousness presently coming into Overall, Wilber sees the progress of evolution as
being. something like a rubber ball, bouncing back up the
In this sacred tradition, human beings are thought same trajectory outlined in the course of involution.
to descend through a sequence of causal, subtle, and However, the linearity of this position presents a prob-
vital manifestations as they enter the material realm of lem for evolution, in as much as simply moving back
substantive being. From there, ones spiritual objective up the ladder of prior involution and descent is
untenable. In fact, numerous difficulties attend ones the subtle realms and beyond it, it does not follow
rising up through the hierarchy, starting from the very a linear trajectory, but in a sense enfolds into itself.
beginning with birth (Kelly, 1998; Rothberg, 1998). (1985, p. 137)
Repression is practically the first obstacle to greet indi-
viduals as they begin their ascent, whereby they jetti- However, Wilber does not see this criticism as a dif-
son further aspects of self to join those already lost in ficulty with his model and has sought to assuage Grof s
involution. Precisely because of the enormous difficul- concerns in a number of ways. But most of these
ties the self encounters as it struggles with incarnation, efforts have been unsuccessful (see Wilber, 1996; Grof,
one cannot simply recover the self and retrace 1996), as Wilbers comments on linearity are actually
through evolution their prior steps of involution. The beside the point to answering Grof s concerns. The
point of ascent commonly attained by humanitythe context in which Grof is using the term linearity (and,
personal, self-conscious selfis only tentatively affili- therefore, enfold) is entirely different from that of
ated with the involuted levels of being, given that Wilber. Nonetheless, their dispute can be easily
much of the evoluted self has been lost to repression. resolved by making use of nomenclature already laid
In fact, by this time, the evoluted levels have very little out in the pre/trans fallacy. In countering Grof s claims
to do with the involuted levels at all. Indeed, these lev- regarding the interpenetrated nature of reality, such
els have come ever more undone the further evolu- that individuals are seemingly transposed to states of
tion has proceeded. superconsciousness the deeper into their unconscious
Consequently, the real question for Wilbers theory they delve, Wilber describes the pre/trans fallacy this
is this: How does the self get to the position where it way:
can enter the transpersonal realm of higher conscious- Not a single prepersonal structure can itself, in
ness, if the very involuted rungsthat is, vital, ether- itself, generate intrinsic transpersonal awareness,
ic, mentalupon which it must climb are something but it can become the object, so to speak, of
from which it is repressed? Perhaps better said, why did transpersonal consciousness, and thus be reen-
we leave the involuted levels of being in the first place? tered and reworked, and it then becomes a type
And, therefore, why dont we just leave them again, as of used vehicle of transpersonal awareness, but
soon as we recover them? Everything about repression never its source. The pre/trans fallacy, however
indicates that we have no intention of simply climbing occasionally paradoxical, remains firmly in place.
back up the involuted ladderno matter how com- (1995, p. 743)
pelling the potential benefits for doing so. In reality,
the individual wants no part of development or evolu- However, in this passage, Wilber has side-stepped
tion. The very nature of humanity is to enter into the the nature of the transpersonal Self that Grof has pro-
process of growth and maturity kicking and scream- posed. Although his comments are true enough, they
ingas parents guiding their childs development will do not address the nature of the transpersonal Self as
surely attest (e.g., terrible twos, adolescent angst). Grof intends it. Grof and Wilber each conceive of the
In fact, the very nature of the psyche acts as an transpersonal Self in different ways. Grof s schema
impediment to evolution. Grof suggests that this involves a triphasic S/self, taking place on three levels:
greatly impacts things: transpersonal, perinatal, personal. Wilbers schema, on
Finally, I should mention Wilbers emphasis on lin- the other hand, involves a triphasic self taking place on
earity and on the radical difference between a different three levels: prepersonal, personal, transper-
prephenomena and transphenomena (prepersonal sonal. In other words, their dispute comes down to a
versus transpersonal, or preegoic versus postegoic). simple misunderstanding: the two schemas do not
As much as I agree with him in principle, the match. The transpersonal Self of Grof is pre-
absoluteness of his statements seems to me too perinatalthat is to say, pre-prepersonal. Although
extreme. The psyche has a multidimensional, holo- Wilber rightly states that the prepersonal self has no
graphic nature, and using a linear model to transpersonal qualities (at least in and of itself ), Grof
describe it will produce distortions and inaccura- is suggesting that another aspect of self altogether is
cies. My own observations suggest that, as con- transpersonalthat which is prenatal.
sciousness evolution proceeds from the centauric to Wilber claims that the transpersonal attributes of

the higher Self arise and exclusively reside in the post- Self obviously has relevant applications as well. Wilber
personal domain, which forms the ascending end of his maintains that the transpersonal Self is actually the
triphasic self. In other words, their controversy can be higher Self about to come into being. Consequently,
put this way: they see the transpersonal Self as if book- Wilbers use of the term transpersonal, although
ends, on opposite ends of ones lifeeither prior to phenomenologically appropriate enough (as can also
birth or else subsequent to adulthood (i.e., ones pres- be said of Grof s usage), nonetheless, seems out of
ent developmental status, in most cases). place in comparison. Therefore, more appropriate
Consequently they are each talking about the transper- nomenclature is required. It is suggested here that the
sonal Self in two entirely different ways, at cross-pur- subtle and causal aspects of ones levels of higher Self
poses to one another. As a result, whereas Wilber sees should be referred to as transcendental.4 It is precise-
Grof as committing the pre/trans fallacy, Wilber can ly in the sense of transcendence that Wilber speaks of
rightly be seen as committing the trans/trans falla- entering the higher stages of evolution. In sum, where-
cyapplying the attributes of transpersonal Self sole- as the preexisting deeper Self structure of ones involut-
ly to the evolution of higher consciousness, while ed levels of being is most properly thought of as
excluding entirely the involution of deeper conscious- transpersonal, that is to say, extending beyond the per-
ness. sonal (and prepersonal), the higher Self structure of
the evoluted levels about to come into being is most
These two schemas can be contrasted as follows
_________________________________________ properly thought of as transcendental, that is to say,
_________________________________________ extending beyond both the personal and transperson-
TIME OF
DEVELOPMENT GROF WILBER al. In this way, there is no confusing the two.
_________________________________________
before birth transpersonal Consequently, Grof and Wilbers schemas can be
combined as follows: Before birth: transpersonal;
birth perinatal birth: perinatal: 17 years: prepersonal; 721 years:
personal; and beyond adult: transcendental.
1-7 years personal prepersonal
The Return of the Repressed
7-21+ years personal personal At times, Wilber quotes Wordsworth, suggesting
that the infant enters the world trailing clouds of
beyond adult transpersonal glory (2000, p. 141), such as the involuted remnants
_________________________________________
_________________________________________ of the deeper Self might be thought to be. However,
this is a limited account of the actual state of affairs for
Obviously, the question for their schemas is this: the infant. As Grof (1987, 2000) has indicated, the
How can the transpersonal realm both be before birth deeper into the repressed memories of infancy one
and beyond adulthood? As mentioned, this ambiguity goes, the more full and expansive these clouds of
has become a troublesome dichotomy debate for glory actually become. This greatly impacts the
transpersonal psychology in which the deeper and prospects for ones development. Although Wilber
higher Selves are confused for one another. allows for the significance of recovering and repairing
Nonetheless, given Grof s use of nomenclature, a clar- infantile repressive states (i.e., curative spiral), he
ification is possible. It is suggested that the term does not really appreciate how far into infancy one
transpersonal should be used exclusively for the must go to really do the job.
deeper Self, as it applies to the entire range of involu- It could be said that the individual actually has two
tioncausal, subtle, mental, etheric, and vital levels of childhoods, the recovery of both being critical to fur-
being; while the terms prepersonal and personal ther growth and development. The situation for indi-
should be used exclusively for the lower self, as it viduals could be put like this: they are separated and
applies to the evoluted levels of vital, etheric, and men- estranged (i.e., repressed) from the involuted levels of
tal being. In addition, perinatal should be used as is beingas a condition of events leading to birthand
already generally agreed uponthe period of transi- become even further separated and estranged as they
tion involving birth. evolve through their present levels of being.
However, Wilbers depiction of the transpersonal Consequently, there are two orders of repressionone
for involution and one for evolutionand both need Jungs distinction between ego and the self.
repair.5 (Moncayo, 1998, p. 402)
This set of circumstances can be diagramed as fol- The deeper Self is what comprises the individuals
lows (see Figure 1): fundamental subjectivitymost of which, however, is
Wilber is correct in stating that the individual diluted in egoic consciousness (Axis II). Yet this situa-
develops up through evolution (Axis II)at this tion is unstable, because repressed contentfrom both
point, to the level of rational, self-conscious awareness. Axis I and Axis IIIcontinually seep into awareness
However, in doing so, they only partially reclaim the and could, therefore, be rightly referred to as the
axis of the involuted levels (Axis I). A portion of the return of the repressed (Lacan, 1966). As a result,
involuted self remains separated from Axis II, resulting individuals do not merely exist in a conflictual tension
from involuted repression. Further, attenuating this between repression and the return of the repressed
original estrangement, evoluted repression peels away they do so from two sides. Wilbers clouds of glory
additional aspects of the self and deposits them into could be thought of as the return of the repressed that
the personal unconscious, creating Axis III in the enters into conscious awareness from the transperson-
process. To proceed with further development beyond al unconscious, the presence of which created in the
the mental level, therefore, one must recover aspects process of involution.
from both realms of unconsciousnessthat which is But these concurrent processes require a careful
personal and that which is transpersonal. And, in so reworking to be understood properly. This situation
doing, one ultimately returns to ones prior, involuted can be best explained by comparing Washburn and
substratewhich has been waiting on him/her all the Wilbers theories of development. A number of things
while. can be said about Washburns (1994, 1995) formula-
This concept of repression has precedence in con- tions. First of all, except for his regression in the serv-
temporary psychoanalysis: ice of transcendence (i.e., U-turn), his schema is
Using Lacanian theory one can distinguish essentially in agreement with that of Wilber. Both
between the ego and the subject. The ego is the indicate that the mental/rational ego goes through an
small mind-self of Zen Buddhism, while the sub- emancipatory process, wherein personal (i.e., pri-
ject of the unconscious is the Big Mind-Self. This mal) repression is set in place. Further, both suggest
distinction corresponds to a large degree with that an integration potentially takes place at this point
Figure 1. The two orders of repression.

in development, whereby the repression is overcome relations, the pre stages and the trans (or post)
and unconscious material emerges into awareness. The stages have very little in common. The evidence for
real difference between the two is whether the ego this is almost overwhelming, so it is rather hard for
stays put, so to speak, and allows the previously me [to] see how Washburn states that this view is
repressed material to enter into its sphere (i.e., unproved and questionable. (1990, p. 131)
enfold/unfold), and thereby be integratedor
whether the ego regresses and enters into the ids However, Wilber is, in a sense, comparing apples
sphere (i.e., return/recover), and thereby becomes inte- with oranges. The reason he finds Washburns position
grated. Once it is integrated, however, Washburn and so hard to see is his commitment to the transpersonal
Wilber are, again, essentially in agreement about it: the Self as being solely a later stage of development (i.e.,
integrated ego continues its ascent. trans/trans fallacy), as was also the case with his argu-
However, of course, their disagreement over the U- ment against Grof. All of the examples given by Wilber
turn that takes place in Washburns regression in the in this passage compare one level of evolution to anoth-
service of transcendence is precisely what makes the er. Yet (at least in part), Washburn is suggesting that
difference.6 Washburn comments on their disagree- the transpersonal (i.e., transegoic) Self is a component
ment this way: of an entirely different structural process: involution.
Wilbers argument against the U-turn notion begs What makes this so difficult to see is that Washburn
a central question, namely, whether preegoic and neither refers to nor conceives of the Dynamic Ground
transegoic correlates have anything necessary or in terms of the involuted levels of beingwhich, as
essential in common. However, Wilber does not Wilber rightly points out, is a principle failing of his
establish this point; he merely assumes it. He offers theory.
no argument that refutes the possibility that pre Further, Washburn describes the Dynamic Ground
and trans share common ground or derive from a as being a part of the prepersonal unconscious:
common source. Accordingly, his argument against The unconscious that is created by primal repres-
the U-turn notion is faulty. It assumes a major sion is the prepersonal collective unconscious, so
point at issue. . . . The spiral view denies that pree- called because this deepest realm of the uncon-
goic and transegoic correlates have only illusory scious is made up of species-wide powers, poten-
affinities . . . and advances the contrary position tials, and predispositions that derive from the
that these correlates are intimately related, indeed nonegoic or physicodynamic pole of the psyche as
that they reflect the very same potentials at two dif- it is repressively organized in pre- form. The
ferent levels of expression. (1990, p. 94) first and most basic level is the Dynamic Ground,
the source of psychic power: libido, energy, spirit.
Wilber, however, rejects this claim, replying as follows: (1995, p. 119)
But if this is soif pre and trans are the same thing
at two different levels (a strange notion itself )it Consequently, the regression in the service of tran-
is true in no other area of development that we scendence and regeneration in spirit that Washburn
know. For example, pre-conventional and post speaks of involve prepersonal structures of uncon-
conventional moral stages have virtually nothing in sciousness and the overcoming of repression set in
common; they are poles apart; they are most defi- place by the prepersonal ego. Indeed, Washburns sec-
nitely not the very same potentials at two different ond, and final, stage of regression in the service of
levels of expression. This would be like saying a transcendence specifically refers to an encounter with
Hells Angel and Mahatma Gandhi are really doing the prepersonal unconscious. Nonetheless, he clearly
the same thing from a different angle. Likewise, intends to include realities of a truly spiritual nature as
pre-operational and post-operational (or formal part of the Dynamic Ground, defining the preperson-
operational) cognitions share virtually no poten- al, psychic powers as follows: Contrary to the
tials at all, any more than, say, pre-school and grad- Freudian view, then, according to which spirit is only
uate school are the same thing seen differently. And sublimated libido, the view I am proposing is that
similarly in the development of object-relations, libido is repressed spirit (Washburn, 1995, p. 129).
motivation, ego development, and interpersonal The real difficulty with Washburns position is
twofold: He has conflated the evoluted and involuted Nonetheless, if Washburns position incorporated
dimensions of prepersonal, vital being into a single the entire continuum of the involuted levels of being
domain, which he calls the Dynamic Ground, and he into his concept of the Dynamic Ground, it would be
has conflated the entire continuum of involuted able to overcome these difficulties and provide a more
transpersonal being into the involuted side of this accurate account of the individuals psychic structure.
domain. Although Wilber is entirely correct to point If Washburns position were expanded to include the
out a violation of the pre/trans fallacy in Washburns idea that ones progression through involution and
attempt to derive a common source for both preegoic evolution results in the formation of dual continua,
and transegoic (i.e., transcendental) structures, his then it could properly be said that the transpersonal
own commitment to the trans/trans fallacy seems to and prepersonal (and personal) S/selves end up exist-
prevent him from noticing an even graver transgres- ing side by side in precisely the manner Wilber finds
sion: Washburns account of spirit (i.e., transpersonal so curious. They are, indeed, the same thing at two
Self ) is an utterly truncated and impoverished affair. different levels, for they participate in the exact same
Indeed, it is hardly the tip of the iceberg of the invo- levels of beingmental, etheric, and vitalalbeit
luted levels of being. In a manner of speaking, it is within their respective continua, either that of involu-
nothing more than the precipice of the descending tion or that of evolution. In fact, they are actually the
apex of involution, from which the lowest levels of the same thing at three different levels, for there are three
deeper Self make their leap into the vital level of evo- continua overall (i.e., the three Axes). The continua of
luted being. Referring to the Dynamic Ground as transpersonal and personal unconsciousness surround
spiritual, especially given that he affiliates the the continuum of conscious awareness like shadows,
Dynamic Ground with the prepersonal self, is exceed- comprising the eschewed and jettisonedyet still inti-
ingly inadequate. mately connectedcontents of the personal (and
Further, Washburns account of the process of prepersonal) self. Only by understanding these con-
regeneration in spirit that leads to integration gives a nections between the continua can Wilber and
similarly tepid account of what the traditions of spiri- Washburns theories be reconciled.
tuality typically refer to as enlightenment. In fact, the
enlightenment (i.e., integration) that comes from Conjoining the S/self
Washburns regeneration in spirit closely resembles the Wilbers dispute with Washburn comes down to a
level of evolution that Wilber refers to as the centaur: particular point of contention: whereas Wilber claims
Integrated people are the true individuals so laud- we have completely recovered the transpersonal levels
ed in existentialist literature. As we have seen, of vital, etheric, and mental being along the Great Path
only a small minority are prophets, saints, or mys- of Return, Washburn rightly asserts that the recovery
tical illuminati. The only requirement for attain- has only been partial thus far, that some returning is
ing integrated existence is that one have an ego that still left to do. Grof also agrees that a need to recover
is strong enough to reunite with the Ground. lost aspects of ones S/self is required in order to recon-
(1995, p. 248) cile the two stages of separation and alienation.
However, the process whereby this might be done is
However, all this does is conflate the different lev- not easy to comprehend. Indeed, it is rife with para-
els of the transcendental Self, ascribing entire ranges of dox. As Grof puts it, if individuals go deep enough into
extraordinary spiritual attainment into a kind of post- their unconsciousness, they suddenly pop out the
script to or subset of the self-actualized level of the per- other end into higher consciousness (i.e., super-con-
sonal self (ala Maslow). Although Washburn clearly sciousness). This situation is something like the worm-
wants to indicate an extraordinary spiritual potential holes that contemporary physicists speculate exist
with his concept of the Dynamic Ground and regen- inside black holes, where the gravitation is so immense
eration in spirit, his depiction of the resplendent that the universe itself is sucked into it, such that
beings at this stage of development pales in compari- somehowventuring into one suddenly traverses one
son to other accounts offered in the spiritual traditions to the other side of the universe.
(see Lee, 1987; Steinberg, 1990). In fact, his depiction Perinatal experiences seem to represent an intersec-
hardly enters into the spiritual realms at all. tion or frontier between the personal and transper-

sonala fact reflected in their connection with emerges. Yet for this to occur, the lower self must
birth and death, the beginning and end of individ- maintain its basic structure, thereby enjoining the
ual existence. Transpersonal phenomena reveal basic structure of the deeper Self to evolve into that of
connections between the individual and the cos- the higher Self. The lower self provides a kind of plat-
mos that seem at present to be beyond comprehen- form for the deeper Self, guiding and directing its
sion. All we can say in this respect is that, some- eventual progress. Indeed, a reciprocal interaction
where in the process of perinatal unfolding, a takes place between the two, in which each gives way
strange qualitative Mbiuslike leap seems to occur to the other. Grof puts it this way:
in which deep exploration of the individual uncon- In this process, the individual returns to earlier
scious turns into a process of experiential adven- stages of development, but evaluates them from the
tures in the universe-at-large, involving what can point of view of a mature adult. At the same time,
best be described as the superconscious mind. he or she becomes consciously aware of certain
(Grof, 1985, p. 127) aspects and qualities of these stages that were
implicit, but unrecognized when confronted in the
In other words, deeper and higher consciousness context of linear evolution. (1985, p. 137)
are inextricably bound together, for the one leads to
the other. Consequently, the idea of return and recov- In a manner of speaking, therefore, the relationship
ery is really something of a misnomer, for individuals between involution and evolution is not so much that
dont have to pursue higher consciousnessdeeper of climbing a ladder as it is zipping a zipper. The two
consciousness is already seeking them out. Thus, the indi- are separate lines of development that get meshed
vidual need not literally return and recover any- together in the process of integration, as their shared
thing, because the deeper Self is already in the process features fold together. Simply put, zipping is how the
of emerging from within. Indeed, such a use of lan- Great Path of Return does its process of return.
guage is somewhat misleading. What is really required However, two notable contingencies attenuate this
is that the individual simply submit to (i.e., stop resist- analogy: 1) there are all kinds of kinks (e.g., repres-
ing) a process that is already taking place. The process sion) that prevent a smooth meshing of the two,
of an already existing emergence is actually the indi- requiring considerable resolution along the way; and
viduals impetus toward evolution. This is precisely 2), more importantly, the evoluted side of the zipper is
why spiritual transmission and the use of altered states not entirely existent, for the higher Self has yet to
of consciousness are so universally recommended for emerge. In other words, the higher Self comes into
spiritual growth (Kasprow & Scotton, 1999). They being precisely because of the two sides of the zipper
facilitate the process. joining together. Consequently, the evoluted side
Wilber occasionally speaks in similar terms: remains only a partial (i.e., potential) zipper, as the
At each stage of this process of Spirits return to higher Self, so to speak, waits on the joining of its
itself, weyou and Inonetheless remember, per- lower and deeper parts.
haps vaguely, perhaps intensely, that we were once For this to happen, the process of development
consciously one with the very Divine itself. It is must return to its base, the vital levels of being, and
there, this memory trace, in the back of our aware- begin its integrating ascentzipping the two sides
ness, pulling and pushing us to realize, to awaken, together. However, doing so is not a strictly linear
to remember who and what we always already are. process, as Wilber has so often noted. The zipper can
In fact, all things, we might surmise, intuit to one mesh at any point along the way. Nonetheless, it must
degree or another that their very Ground is Spirit return to its vital base at some point for the process to
itself. All things are driven, urged, pushed and be complete. Grof indicates the dynamic at work at
pulled to manifest this realization. (1997, p. 9) this incipient level of development:
The perinatal level of the unconscious thus repre-
Consequently, recovery is probably better thought sents an important intersection between the indi-
of as reparation. This is what non-linearity (i.e., Grof s vidual and the collective unconscious, or between
enfold into itself ) really means for the individual: traditional psychology and mysticism or transper-
integrating the lower self with the deeper Self as it sonal psychology. It proved very usefulto pos-
tulate the existence of hypothetical dynamic matri- cept of the BPM at length for being a prototype, the
ces governing the processes related to the perinatal real issue is actually its being a portal. Apparently
level of the unconscious and to refer to them as because of his commitment to the trans/trans fallacy,
Basic Perinatal Matrices (BPM). (1985, p. 100) Wilber has overlooked the fact that the spiritual affili-
ations of Grof s BPM are transpersonal in nature,
There is every indication that the BPM provide the reaching into the involuted domain of the overall
integrative dynamic operating at the vital level COEX system. But, more importantly, what Wilber
which corresponds to the foundation level referred to and Grof have both overlooked is this: How can that
by Wilber (1986, 2000) as fulcrum-0.7 The BPM are happen? What is the dynamic by which there is a por-
likely the conduit that connects the involuted and evo- tal between the lower self and the deeper Selfand,
luted realms at their vital base (Bache, 1996). more to the point, where is it located?
However, the BPM are intended by Grof to refer to The deeper personality [i.e., deeper Self ] is the
three entirely separate dynamics of being: the portal reincarnate, or the reincarnating personality. Like
between the personal and transpersonal continua of the gross being, it is also a karmic entity, a product
unconsciousness, the memories of a specific sequence of cosmic exchanges. Just as the body has a karmic
of experiences within the birth process, and the proto- destiny by virtue of its lineage, so also the lineage
type for the COEX (Condensed Experience) 8 system of the deeper personality determines its karmic des-
of death and rebirth experiences for the individual tiny. In the birth of any individual this deeper
throughout life. The BPM are primarily a prototype. personality conjoins with a gross personality [i.e.,
Grof s (1975, 1985) research and clinical practice indi- lower self ], but it functions outside the brain,
cate that individuals go through four distinct phases in appearing as tendencies and destinies that it adds to
the birth process, each one of which is intimately relat- the gross personality. Thus, although this body has
ed through COEX systems to death and rebirth expe- inherited many qualities that are like its parents,
riences throughout their life. Yet more than this many other qualities have been demonstrated in
sequence of experiences is remembered by individual the Lifetime of this apparent personality that are
as they are subjected to Grof s holographic rebirthing nothing like My mother and father. That deep-
techniques. Indeed, extraordinary spiritual motifs and er personality also has its own destiny, and it has
encounters with mythological beings and events are been showing its own signs throughout this life.
likely to attenuate the actual biographical memories. (Adi Da, 1989, p. 46)
Grof sees the motifs and encounters taking place
within the BPM as a prototype, linking experiences As a result, human infants conjoin with the spir-
spread throughout the personal (and prepersonal) and itual being of the deeper Self. Together, they embark on
transpersonal domains: the journey of ones life. The gross, lower self is com-
The perinatal unfolding is also frequently associat- posed of genetic material and any congenital features
ed with various transpersonal elements, such as that might have been formed throughout the gestation
archetypal visions of the Great Mother or the period. Soon added to the born human being are the
Terrible Mother Goddess, Hell, Purgatory, displays of the physical world, impressing upon
Paradise, or Heaven, mythological or historical her/him their necessity and urgency. Therefore, it is
scenes, identification with animals, and past incar- the self aspect of the S/self that can be thought of as a
nation experiences. The perinatal matrices also tabala rosa. Yet the deeper Self has been present, too.
have specific relations to different aspects of the Indeed, it is within the deeper Self that all this impres-
activities of the Freudian erogenous areasthe sionable display arises. This experiential bombardment
oral, anal, urethral, and phallic zones. (1985, p. occurs, initially, as a figment of the deeper Self s imag-
101) inationprecisely because the lower self hardly even
exists, at this point, except for the merest filaments of
These events suggest that there are COEX systems genetics. The one exists within the otherbut only for
and, indeed, fulcrumsalong both the involuted and a while, for the lower self quickly begins to breed
evoluted axes. and take over the deeper vehicle (McDonnell, 1997).
Although Wilber (e.g., 1996) criticizes Grof s con- Although Grof makes much of the biological birth

process, the conjoining (i.e., portal) can take place at or follow biological birth (1985, p. 435). Therefore,
any point during the gestation period, indeed, perhaps associating the portal of the BPM with the perinatal
not even until well after biological birth (which great- period is appropriate so long as the events immediate-
ly compromises the individuals chances for surviving ly preceding birth include the entire gestation period
his/her birth or developing properly). This raises two following conception, and even extend for at least
points that significantly impact the discussion. First, some period beyond the actual birth itself. It is during
the portal and the prototype of the BPM are not the this window of opportunity of the perinatal period
same thing, as the stages of biological birth are very spe- that the deeper Self conjoins with the lower self.
cific and focused in a particular, physical act, while the However, the deeper Self must be understood to be
conjoining of the lower self and deeper Self involves a an entirely separate process (i.e., entity) from the
transpersonal act, which can take place at any point lower self, with whom it conjoins during the perinatal
along the perinatal continuum. Second, Wilbers con- period. The deeper Self includes everything that is
ception of involution can be seen to take a startling called the subtle dimension of the being and every-
turn at this point, for the progression of the involuted thing that is called the causal dimension of the being
levels of being does not quite reach the vital level of (McDonnell 1997, p. 38). Consequently, the deeper
being. This situation has enormous implications for Self includes the entire continuum of involuted levels
both the BPM and the Great Path of Return. of beingexcept for the vital. That is to say, the deep-
Avatar Adi Da describes the portal aspect of the er Self includes the causal, subtle, mental, and etheric
BPM, and its relation to the process of birth, as fol- levels of involuted being. It is this composite that con-
lows: joins with the lower self (i.e., gross personality), which
All right, here comes the definitive statement. includes the vital, etheric, and mental levels of evolut-
[laughter] The ego, or what is traditionally pre- ed being.
sumed to be an entity, is an activity. The entity is Altogether, these sets of relations can be dia-
not a something, but a process. That process is grammed as follows (see Figure 2). As can be seen,
reflected in the causal realm, in the subtle realm, confusing the higher Self for the lower self commits
and in the gross realm. The so- called entity, or the pre/trans fallacy; while confusing the higher Self
process, does not connect with the gross, bodily life for the deeper Self commits the trans/trans fallacy.
of a birth until it begins to dream, or conceive figure
of, 2 p85 w27
Figure 2. The relations between the lower self, the deeper
that form.
self, and the higher self
There is no fixed date for that event because it
is not an entity which enters the body. Rather, it is Deeper Self Higher Self
a process of associating with, conceiving of, even (transpersonal) (transcendental)
hallucinating the gross form. . . . Not everyone
enters into association with the physical being at
Involution Evolution
the same point in his or her development. In
general, it does occur within the fetal development zips
state. It can correspond to conception. It can
Causal (Causal)
correspond to the point in which the heart begins
to work. It can correspond to the development of Subtle (Subtle)
the physical body itself around the sixth month, or
Mental Mental
to the mental accretions in the last three months.
The entity may become associated with the body at Etheric Etheric
any of those periods of development. (1997b, p.
Vital
53)
Grof defines the perinatal period as follows: The Lower Self

prefix peri- means literally around or near, and (prepersonal/personal)
natalis translates as pertaining to delivery. It suggests Dynamic BPM Great Path

events that immediately precede, are associated with, Ground (conjoining) of Return
As a portal, the BPM represent the conjoining of structure in the process of being created presents its
the lower self and the deeper Selfitself representing own difficulties. Indeed, these realities represent two
the Dynamic Ground of being. As a prototype, the entirely different situations for the individual, which
BPM are best thought of as the initiating instance of a could, therefore, be thought of as different kinds of
pattern (i.e., the various fulcrums) of death and rebirth spiritual emergence-ies.
that is replicated throughout the Great Path of Return. Consequently, Wilber, Washburn, and Grof can
As can be seen, the two sides exist in tandem. The each be seen as providing a different piece of the clin-
Dynamic Ground and the Great Path of Return both ical picture:
have their place, surrounding the conjoining interface 1. Grof: One must descend through the stages of
of the BPM. evolution and return to the initiating breach sus-
tained in birth (i.e., BPM), to heal the trauma
inflicted in that process.
Conclusion 2. Washburn: Having thus descended and reunited
Obviously, these circumstances have significant with the spiritual auspices of the Dynamic Ground
implications for clinical practice. If the presence of (via the conjoining), one must then continue ones
spiritual experience in prepersonal awareness is under- ascent through the stages of evolution.
stood to be the presence of deeper states of conscious- 3. Wilber: In continuing ones evolution, one must
ness, then there is a possibility for the return of the do so by virtue of tracing out the exact same struc-
repressed of the transpersonal unconsciousor what tural dynamics created in the process of involu-
could be called spiritual emergencies (Grof, 1985, tionwhich originally produced the Dynamic
2000). In a sense, the positions of Wilber and Ground and, therefore, ones birth in the first
Washburn/Grof represent a staking out of the territo- place.
ry, with each, in his own way, siding with the emanci-
patory ego. That is to say, each sees the developmental As can be seen, Wilber, Washburn, and Grof have
process from the point of view of the ego, as it engages simply split up the territory among them, with each
in the arduous ordeal of emancipation and ultimate emphasizing the particular continuum (i.e., Axis) he
recovery. Yet, the real significance of the process must prefers. In other words, the dichotomy debate is
be seen from the point of view of the deeper Self, try- extremely insidious and easy to make. The ascension
ing to regain admittance into the poor circumstances aspect of the individuals evolution has held much of
of the rational egos limited awareness. The deeper Self humanity captive in its allure throughout history, sug-
is a living entity unto itself, with its own awareness and gesting the primacy of an other-worldly paradise, apart
identity (Adi Da, 1997, McDonnell, 1997). In other and away from the travails of this world. Traditional
words, developmental theory presupposes issues of explanations of spirituality tend to see this process as
clinical practice. The transpersonal Self has been an immense hierarchy, with God residing at the top,
injured in the process of involution. The dynamics tak- His intervention into human affairs descending down-
ing place in evolution are not merely those of develop- wardwhile the individuals spiritual ordeal is to
ment but also those of healing. Only upon these aus- ascend upward, toward that God pinnacle (e.g.,
pices can further development be engaged (Daniels, Griffiths, 1991). Consequently, men and women have
2003a, b). frequently sought out this reparative succor, while
Grof s entire purpose is to heal the breach created repudiating the pleasures of this world. Those interest-
during birth that allows the transpersonal unconscious ed in furthering their ambitions to include higher
to seep into awareness during such emergencies. states of consciousness have frequently attempted to
Ideally, this healing involves a reparation with the climb the ladder of ascent, aspiring to the beckoning
transpersonal unconscious, much in the way of realms of consciousness ahead that await us.
Washburns regression in the service of transcen- On the other hand, the descension aspect of the
dence. In these cases, spiritual reality emerges into individuals involution has beguiled some men and
awareness from prior psychic structure already present women to forsake the genuine progression of develop-
within, as opposed to higher psychic structure in the ment for levels already acquired, mistaking them for
process of being created. Nonetheless, higher psychic realms of highest aspiration (see Wilber, 1995). Lower

levels can, indeed, be misunderstood to be the sole In this view, the entire expanse of existence is a single
instance of an unspoiled, pristine purity, unsullied by systemic reality, incorporating both tracks of develop-
later developments that only serve to corrupt their ment by virtue of a simple fact: they are really just two
innocence. However, such romantic notions of unde- sides of the same coin.
filed beauty can exist only as instances of naivet, at Perhaps the easiest way to tease out the distinction
best, simply overlooking the obvious, carnivorous between deeper and higher consciousness is to
down-side of such increasingly vital realms, departed realize that they are not really so much a distinction in
in the first place precisely because of their unsavory kind as they are a distinction in point of view. In other
aspects. Such wistful remembrances can be held only words, the prior sequence of involuted, transpersonal
in an atmosphere subscribing to the notion that igno- being is most properly referred to as deeper, whereas
rance is bliss, for true understanding, obviously, reveals the subsequent sequence of evoluted, transcendental
more complex realities than this. being is most properly referred to as higher.
One must release the deeper Selfto become the However, as it turns out, to get higher, one must go
higher Self. Yet, the reverse is equally true: one cannot deeper. It is the relationship of the individual to these
hope to reach the higher Self, if one holds the deeper different realities that is significantly different,
Self at bay. In psychology, doing the latter is known as depending on whether the Self is conceived of as com-
denial. On the other hand, preferring an imaginary ing into being before or after the lower self. Therefore,
world over that which is real also has its psychological neither aspect of the Self rightly deserves prominence
designate: delusion. One way of outlining the differ- over the other, for both are equally essential to human
ence between ascenders and descenders is their rela- growth and, perhaps more to the point, both equally
tionships to hierarchy. For the ascender, reality consists inhere in reality. The two are really nothing more than
of a single hierarchy, headed one-way overhead into the twin prongs of a single, all-inclusive expanse of
the higher stages of life. However, the descender finds Being.
this ascent insufficient to account for all aspects of
reality and, if this is her/his only choice, prefers no End Notes
hierarchy at all. But, of course, this situation results in 1. For example, in the field of psychoanalysis, the
nothing but a dichotomy debate. Consequently, to dispute between Freud and Jung is well documented
give reality its due, a greater understanding must take (e.g., Freud & Jung, 1974). Further, Carl Rogers and
place. Manifest reality is actually this: two hierarchies, B.F. Skinner actually engaged in a formal, public
headed in opposite directions. As a result of this basi- debate of their respective positions. Skinner claimed
cally isometric situation, humanity is in a truly unen- afterwards to have intentionally reinforced Rogers
viable position: caught in the middle. behavior during the debate, by smiling and nodding
However, Wilber has attempted to resolve the his head at certain intervalsrather than attending to
dilemma: Rogers comments and integrating them with his own
In my system[t]he relation between levels is hier- point of view.
archical, with each senior level transcending and 2. The author believes that Levin (1985) does not
including its juniors, but not vice versaand that contribute particularly to this discussion; therefore, his
not vice versa establishes an asymmetrical hierar- theory is not included.
chy of increasing holistic capacity (which simply 3. Indeed, the ego could be understood as fol-
means that the senior dimension embraces the jun- lows: when the Selfin either its sentience or volition
ior, but not vice versa, so that the senior is more aspectbecomes identified with the lower three
holistic and encompassing). (2000, p. 31; emphasis sheaths, dominated by the body and sensual/perceptu-
in the original) al experience. In this case, the Self is no longer able to
operate as simple witness consciousness (or even the
In other words, Wilbers spectrum theory actually aug- native intelligence taking place at the level of volition)
ments the ascender/descender aspects of the debate, by but, rather, mistakenly sees itself implicated by the
offering a tertiary option: the enfolder. This option interests and concerns of the body/mind and its fun-
suggests that integrating the entire range of involution damental imperatives: survival and the pleasure princi-
and evolution in an all-encompassing fold is possible. ple. These are the directives governing the operation of
the ego. For a further account of this process, see tends, Washburn is led falsely to postulate the state
Daniels (2003a, b). of maximum alienationi.e., distance from the
4. Indeed, the term Transcendental Self has been Ground/Spiritas occurring at the mental-egoic
applied by Avatar Adi Da to the very highest instance level. (Goddard, 1997)
of the causal Self: And only the Transcendental
Witness-Consciousness, ItselfIs the true turiya Yet both are partly right. Whereas separation and
state, or the true fourth state (beyond the three ordi- alienation are greatest at birth for the involuted levels
nary states, of waking, dreaming, and sleeping). And of being, separation and alienation are greatest at the
only the Transcendental Witness-Consciousness, Itself mental-egoic level for the evoluted levels of being. The
Is the Domain of the only-by-Me Revealed and two are really just different stages of an overall process
Given seventh stage Realization of the True Divine of separation and alienation.
Self, Which Is the Self-Evidently Divine Self- 7. Wilber sees the course of development as taking
Condition, and Which Is the One and Only True place throughout a succession of fulcrums, each one
Divine State of TuriyatitaBeyond the fourth of which represents a milestone of the
state, and, thus Beyond all exclusiveness, and Beyond enfolding/unfolding continuum. Fulcrum-0 begins
all bondage to illusions, and Beyond point of view (or the ascent and is grounded in the processes of the
egoic separateness) itself, and, therefore, Beyond all infants birth, ultimately progressing from there
conditional efforts, supports, and dependencies through a developmental sequence to the realms of
(2000a, p. 204). From this point of view, the higher consciousness, ultimately represented by the
Transcendental Self is Realized prior to the causal knot subtle and causal levels of being.
that defines the separate being, and pertains exclusive- 8. The COEX system includes all embedded struc-
ly to that level of spirituality, as opposed to the entire tures that are products of a primary or core experience,
range of spiritual being possible. which can be negative or positive. In order for this core
5. This account addresses the concerns of Wilbers experience to be the ground of a COEX system, it
critics who believe his theory is too linear. For example: must significantly impact the individual. As a result,
If all levels of the Great Chain manifest the same the COEX system establishes highly defined expecta-
principles of holarchical integration, why is it pos- tions for and responses to similar experiences. I
sible for transpersonal influxes to occur at any lower coined for them the name COEX systems, which is
level of organizationwhereas it is impossible for short for systems of condensed experience
someone at, say, cognitive stage 2 (preop) to expe- [COndensed EXperience]. Each COEX has a basic
rience, again however fleetingly, an influx from theme that permeates all its layers and represents their
cognitive stage 4 (formop)? (Kelly, 1998, p. 122) common denominator (Grof, 2000, p. 7).
However, this confusion is easily resolved. Two kinds

of transpersonal states exist: involuted and evoluted. References
Those of involution involve the return of the repressed Adi Da. (1989). The Love-Ananda Gita (the wisdom-
of the deeper Self, whereas those of evolution are actu- song of non-separateness). Middletown, CA: Dawn
ally incipientindeed, perhaps even precocious Horse Press.
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appear within the prepersonal and personal levels and Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press.
is easily confused with the another (i.e., trans/trans fal- Adi Da. (2000a). Aham Da Asmi (Beloved, I Am Da).
lacy). In The seventeen companions of the true dawn horse
6. Wilbers objection to Washburns theory is not so (Book One). Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press.
much the presence of a U-turn as its location. In other Adi Da. (2000b). The seven stages of life. In The sev-
words, Wilber has a U-turn in his theory too. enteen companions of the true dawn horse (Book
Wilber puts the point of maximum separation Ten). Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press.
from the ultimate Ground at conception, following Adi Da. (in press). The unique sixth stage foreshadow-
involution, modeling the entire trajectory of evolu- ings of the Only-By-Me revealed and demonstrat-
tion as the path of return. Furthermore, he con- ed and given seventh stage of life. In The basket of
tolerance. Middletown, CA: Dawn Horse Press.

Bache, C. (1996). Expanding Grof s concept of the Levin, M. (1985). The bodys recollection of being.
perinatal: Deepening the inquiry into frightening London: Routledge and Kegan-Paul.
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Conze, E. (1962). Buddhist thought in India. London: ences. New York: Viking
Allen and Unwin. Maslow, A. (1971). The farthest reaches of human
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the ego in psychology and spirituality and its implica- McDonnell, M. (Ed.) (1997). The scale of the very
tions for clinical practice (Vol. I: The abundant ego). small. Clearlake, CA: The Vision of Mulund
Lincoln, NE: Writers Showcase. Institute.
Daniels, B. (2003b). The Apex Paradox: The role of Moncayo, R. (1998). True subject is no-subject: The
the ego in psychology and spirituality and its implica- real, imaginary, and symbolic in psychoanalysis and
tions for clinical practice (Vol. II: The aberrant ego). Zen Buddhism. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary
Lincoln, NE: Writers Showcase. Thought, 21(3), 383-422.
Deutsche, E. (1966). Advaita Vedanta. Honolulu, HI: Puhakka, K. (1998). Contemplating everything:
East-West Center Press. Wilbers evolutionary theory in dialectical perspec-
Ferrer, J. (2000). The perennial psychology revisited. tive. In D. Rothberg & S. Kelly (Eds.), Ken Wilber
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 32(1), 7-30. in dialogue (pp. 283-304). Wheaton, IL: Quest
Freud, S., & Jung, C.G. (1974). The Freud/Jung letters Books.
(W. McGuire, Ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Rothberg, D. (1998). How straight is the spiritual
University Press. path? In D. Rothberg & S. Kelly (Eds.), Ken
Goddard, G. (1997). Airing our transpersonal differ- Wilber in dialogue (pp. 131-145). Wheaton, IL:
ences. Internet: Members.ams.chello.nl. Quest Books.
Griffiths, B. (1991). Vedanta and Christian faith. Steinberg, J. (1990). Love of the God-Man. Clearlake,
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York: Viking. London: Routledge and Kegan-Paul.
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University of New York Press. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 30(3), 84-112.
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NY: State University of New York Press. choanalytic perspective. Albany, NY: State University
Grof, S. (1996). Ken Wilbers spectrum psychology: of New York Press.
Observations from clinical consciousness research. Washburn, M. (1995). The ego and the dynamic
ReVision: A Journal of Consciousness and ground (2nd ed.). Albany, NY: State University of
Transformation, 19(1), 11-24. New York Press.
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Home.att.net. reply to Washburn. Journal of Humanistic
Kasprow, M.C., & Scotton, B.W. (1999). A review of Psychology, 30(3), 113-136.
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practice of psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego (pp. 124-
Practice and Research, 8, 12-23. 130). Los Angeles: Tarcher.
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sciousness. In D. Rothberg & S. Kelly (Eds.), Ken London: Shambhala.
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Shambhala.
Correspondence on this article should be directed to

author at Daniel_Sleeth@adidam.org.

A Secret Poem for You
Jorge N. Ferrer, Ph.D.

California Institute of Integral Studies
In this paper, the author presents a poem entitled Plenitude. The poem, originally written by
the authors father (Jos Antonio Noguera Gimenez) in Spanish, is offered by the author as a vehi-
cle for the exploration of self, life, spirit, and nature. Both the Spanish and English versions of the
poem are provided.
want to share a secret poem with you today. I call parents where we can many times find the pearls that
I this poem secret not because of its hermetic or

esoteric meaning, but simply because it secretly
held me for years, giving me strength and hope in
offer our souls the guidance they are longing for. And
what a magnificent miracle it is to discover that as we
walk that path, not only the dreams but also the
times of crisis and difficulty. My father, its author,1 dreamer can at a deep level begin to be realized.
was born and raised in the orchards of Murcia, that Although containing many layers of meaning, this
fertile region of the south of Spain that prides itself is a very simple poem. My father, as Charles Bukowski
in that charmingly exaggerated way so defining of the once said of himself, does not have grandiose
Murcian spiriton providing fruits and vegetables for thoughts, or thoughts of a philosophical nature, and so
the rest of the European continent. As my father when he writes poems, they tell us about very ordinary
moved to the culturally vibrant but highly industrial- things. As do many visionary texts, however, this poem
ized city of Barcelona to work and start his new mar- lures us into a journey. But this is not an invitation to
ried life, essential seeds of his soul apparently decided the heros journey, where a masculinized self leaves its
to stay at the orchards. And, as so often happens with- motherland, encounters pitfalls and battles monsters,
in the poets heart, versed beauty began to sprout from and triumphantly returns with a renewed sense of
the pain and isolation of a dismembered soul. empowered solar identity. I believe that this poem tells
This is why the poem you are about to read was us about a much lesser known kind of initiation,
originally called Solitude. Some years ago, with the where the soul leaves her social, psychological, and
authors consent, I changed its title from Solitude to even spiritual routines to delve anew and without
Plenitude, for a poemas is true of anything that struggle into the deeper sources of life, of spirit, and of
carries meaning for what mattersis never an indiffer- nature, so that we can return in peace, with the flavor
ent or static object, but rather a living presence whose of the winds, between our hands.
inner nature metamorphoses as it encounters a recep- But before I leave you to enjoy the poem, let me
tive heart. As I rescued those essential seeds that my tell you another secret. For its magical power to be
fathers soul left in Murcian soil, it became obvious conjured, this poem needs to be read out loud, and
that a change of title was not only justified, but actu- with both tenderness and passion. So I invite you to
ally called for by the poem itself. In these times of ram- take a deep breath, drop deep into your heart, and
pant uprootedness from ancestry and tradition, we allow these words to perhaps narrow the gap between
often forget that it is in the unfulfilled dreams of our you and your own boundless potential.
A Secret Poem 91
Plenitud
Si un da no me encuentras Oir la voz que viene de lejos

no pienses que me he vuelto loco del campesino que canta
sino cuerdo. coplas de amor a su amada,
y las campanas de bronce
Bscame lejos que suenan en el lejano pueblo,
donde los hombres vuelan como pajaros oir la voz de los rboles,
sobre los valles inmensos, de la brisa y del agua
donde los tristes escarabajos
baan su cuerpo de roco Estrenar ojos nuevos
y se visten de terciopelo negro. para mirar a mis anchas
donde cantan los grillos,
Bscame lejos donde duermen las cigarras
donce las vacas dan leche a cantaros
y lnguidas ovejas se agrupan Y cuando t me encuentres,
como nubes blancas, besar tu aliento
donce los bueyes te miran con ternura con ms calor humano,
y los caballos de cola pacifica y te contar lo que me ha enseado,
sienten la caricia del viento, el viento, el da, la noche,
donde mi frente descanse la luz y las estrellas,
sin reloj que mida el tiempo y aprenderemos juntos de una vez para siempre
montaa arriba a vivir en paz
hacia la luz y el silencio. con el sabor de los aires
entre nuestras manos
All me encontrars
tendido en la yerba
con la flor de tomillo entre labios,
mirando al condor
y a las aguilas reales volar
y volar
All me encontrars
aprendiendo a vivir de los insectos
y de las aves silvestres,
de los animales domsticos,
aprendiendo de los pajaros
(No me da vergenza!)
Y puede que hasta aprenda

el cuelo de las abejas,
a dormir con las gallinas
y a conversar con lagartos
y respirar libre, al viento,
por los picos mas altos.

Plenitude
If one day you cannot find me I will listen for the voice from afar
do not think that I have gone crazy, of the countryman who sings
but sane. love songs to his beloved,
and the bronze bells
Look for me far away sounding in the far village,
where men fly like birds I will listen to the voice of the trees,
over immense valleys, of the breeze, and of the water.
where the sad beetles
bathe their bodies in dew I will use my new eyes for the first time
and clothe themselves in black velvet. to look as far as my gaze roams
where the crickets sing,
Look for me far away where the cicadas sleep
where the cows give milk in abundance
and the languid sheep gather And when you find me,
like white clouds, I will kiss your breath
where the oxen gaze with gentleness, with human warmth,
and the horses with peaceful tails and I will tell you what they have taught me,
feel the caressing of the wind, the wind, the day, the night,
where I lay my head down the light, and the stars,
without a watch measuring the time and we will learn together for all time
up the mountain to live in peace
towards the light, and the silence. with the flavor of the winds
between our hands
There you will find me
lying in the grass
with thyme blossoms between my lips,
gazing at the condor
and at the royal eagles flying
and flying
There you will find me

learning to live from the insects
and from the wild birds,
from the domestic animals,
learning from the birds
(I do not feel ashamed!) End Note

The poems author, Jos Antonio Noguera Gimenez, is
And it may be that I even learn a retired Spanish artist and poet based in Torrevieja,
to fly like the bees, Spain.
to sleep with the hens
and to converse with the lizards
and I will breathe freely, against the wind, Correspondence regarding this article should be
through the highest peaks. directed to the author at JorgeNF@aol.com.
A Secret Poem 93
A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale
Jerome J. Tobacyk, Ph.D.

Louisiana Tech University
A 26-item Revised Paranormal Belief Scale is introduced which provides a measure of degree of
belief in each of seven dimensions: Traditional Religious Belief, Psi, Witchcraft, Superstition,
Spiritualism, Extraordinary Life Forms, and Precognition. Improvements from the original 25-
item Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) include adoption of a seven-point rat-
ing scale as well as item changes for three subscales: Precognition, Witchcraft, and Extraordinary
Life Forms. These improvements provide greater reliability and validity, less restriction of range,
and greater cross-cultural validity.
major emphasis of current theory and research 1987b; Tobacyk, Nagot, & Miller, 1987).
A in transpersonal psychology is the investigation

of spiritualityits nature, phenomenology, and
assessment (MacDonald, 2000; MacDonald,
Paranormal phenomena are defined as those that, if
genuine, would violate basic limiting principles of sci-
ence (Broad, 1953). An example of a basic limiting
Friedman, & Kuentzel, 1999; MacDonald, Kuentzel, principle is It is unlikely that a mental event can direct-
& Friedman, 1999; MacDonald, LeClair, Holland, ly affect a physical event except for one in the experients
Alter, & Friedman, 1995). An essential requirement own brain. Thus, psychosomatic and hypnotically
for the empirical investigation of spirituality is the induced phenomena are not classified as paranormal,
articulation of the structure or dimensionality of this but psychokinetic phenomena, if authentic, would be
construct. MacDonald (2000) has reported a factor so classified.
analytic investigation of the structure of spirituality The PBS provides a separate score on each of seven
that demonstrates five robust dimensions: Cognitive factorially derived subscales, with each subscale reflect-
Orientation Toward Spirituality, Experiential/ ing a major dimension of paranormal belief. The PBS
Phenomenological Dimensions, Existential Well- subscales are Traditional Religious Belief, Psi,
Being, Religiousness, and Paranormal Beliefs. This Witchcraft, Superstition, Spiritualism, Extraordinary
article reports the development of a Revised Life Forms, and Precognition. Respondents indicate
Paranormal Belief Scale that can be used to assess para- degree of belief for each of 25 items by using a five-
normal and religious beliefs, allowing the researcher to point rating scale.
examine the nature of these beliefs and their implica- Although the original PBS shows satisfactory relia-
tions for spirituality. bility and validity, a Revised Paranormal Belief Scale
Considerable research concerning paranormal (R-PBS) has been constructed with changes in the rat-
beliefs has employed the original Paranormal Belief ing scale and in item content for three subscales. More
Scale (PBS; Tobacyk & Milford, 1983), a measure of specifically, these changes involve (1) use of a seven-
self-reported degree of belief in paranormal phenome- point rating scale, (2) construction of a new
na. Much evidence supports the reliability and dis- Precognition subscale, (3) replacement of two of four
criminant validity of the PBS and its subscales Witchcraft subscale items, and (4) replacement of one
(Tobacyk, 1983; Tobacyk, 1984a; 1984b; Tobacyk & of three Extraordinary Life Forms subscale items.
Jones, 1984; Tobacyk & Milford, 1984; Tobacyk, These changes were made to lessen restriction in range
1985a; Tobacyk, 1985b; Tobacyk & Mitchell, 1987a; and to improve subscale reliability and validity, partic-

ularly cross-cultural validity. Precognition Subscale
The original Precognition subscale had the lowest
Seven-Point Rating Scale test-retest reliability of the seven original PBS subscales
Some restriction in range occurred on the original (rtt = .60 over a four-week interval). The three PBS
PBS, particularly on the Traditional Religious Belief Precognition subscale items are as follows:
and Superstition subscales. To reduce restriction in Item 1 Dreams can provide information about the
range, a seven-point rating scale is used with the R- future;
PBS. Table 1 lists the means, standard deviations, and Item 2 Some people have the ability to predict the
maximum and minimum scores for both the original future; and
PBS and the R-PBS. Item 3 The idea of predicting the future is foolish.
As indicated in Table 1, the minimum and maximum
mean item scores for each of the R-PBS subscales sug- Each of the PBS Precognition subscale items is
gest that respondents generally use the full seven-point ambiguous and could be endorsed for reasons that do
rating scale. Also, as indicated in Table 1, the standard or do not reflect belief in paranormal precognition.
deviations have approximately doubled for four sub- For example, regarding Item 1, a dream could pro-
scales: Traditional Religious Belief, Psi, Witchcraft, vide accurate information about the future simply
and Spiritualism. A seven-point rating scale allows owing to coincidence or through normal cognitive
respondents to more precisely describe their beliefs, processes (e.g., remembering the location of a lost
and will lessen restriction of range. object in a dream). Thus, endorsement of Item 1
Table 1
A Comparison of Norms on the Original and Revised Paranormal Belief for University Students
in the Southern United States
_____________________________________________________________________________
Original Paranormal Revised Paranormal
Belief Scale Belief Scale
PBS Score (n=460) (n=217)
_______________________________________________________________________
M SD Min Max M SD Min Max
______________________ _______________________
Full Scale 72.9 11.1 41 104 89.1 21.9 40 165

Subscales
Traditional
Religious Belief 4.5 0.6 1.0 5.0 6.3 1.2 1.0 7.0
Psi 2.8 0.7 1.0 5.0 3.1 1.5 1.0 7.0
Witchcraft 2.5 0.8 1.0 5.0 3.4 1.7 1.0 7.0
Superstition 1.7 0.7 1.0 4.0 1.6 1.2 1.0 5.0
Spiritualism 2.4 0.7 1.0 5.0 2.8 1.4 1.0 7.0
Extraordinary
Life Forms 2.4 0.8 1.0 5.0 3.3 1.3 1.0 7.0
Precognition 3.5 0.7 1.0 5.0 3.0 1.3 1.0 7.0
________________________________________________________________________
Note. Mean scores refer to sum of item scores for Full Scale and mean item scores for subscales.
Paranormal Belief Scale 95

might or might not reflect belief in paranormal pre- racy of predictions made by such scientifically validat-
cognition. Concerning Item 2, trained scientists (e.g., ed prognosticators as medical diagnosticians or meteo-
meteorologists, medical diagnosticians) use scientifi- rologists. Item 3 is also ambiguous in meaning. For
cally validated procedures to predict future events. example, are all human attempts at predicting the
Thus, endorsement of Item 2 might reflect either future foolish, including saving for retirement or pur-
belief in paranormal precognition or belief in the accu- chasing insurance policies? Alternatively, Item 3 might
Table 2
Revised Paranormal Belief Scale

___________________________________________________________________________________
Please put a number next to each item to indicate how much you agree or disagree with that item. Use the
numbers as indicated below. There are no right or wrong answers. This is a sample of your own beliefs and
attitudes. Thank you.
1=Strongly Disagree 2=Moderately Disagree 3=Slightly Disagree

4=Uncertain 5=Slightly Agree 6=Moderately Agree 7=Strongly Agree
1. The soul continues to exist though the body may die.

2. Some individuals are able to levitate (lift) objects through mental forces.
3. Black magic really exists.
4. Black cats can bring bad luck.
5. Your mind or soul can leave your body and travel (astral projection).
6. The abominable snowman of Tibet exists.
7. Astrology is a way to accurately predict the future.
8. There is a devil.
9. Psychokinesis, the movement of objects through psychic powers, does exist.
10. Witches do exist.
11. If you break a mirror, you will have bad luck.
12. During altered states, such as sleep or trances, the spirit can leave the body.
13. The Loch Ness monster of Scotland exists.
14. The horoscope accurately tells a persons future.
15. I believe in God
16. A persons thoughts can influence the movement of a physical object.
17. Through the use of formulas and incantations, it is possible to cast spells on persons.
18. The number 13 is unlucky.
19. Reincarnation does occur.
20. There is life on other planets.
21. Some psychics can accurately predict the future.
22. There is a heaven and a hell.
23. Mind reading is not possible.
24. There are actual cases of witchcraft.
25. It is possible to communicate with the dead.
26. Some people have an unexplained ability to predict the future.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Note. Item 23 is reverse scored. Traditional Religious Belief = Mean of Items (1, 8, 15, 22);
Psi = Mean of Items (2, 9, 16, 23); Witchcraft = Mean of Items (3, 10, 17, 24);
Superstition = Mean of Items (4, 11, 18); Spiritualism = Mean of Items (5, 12, 19, 25)
Extraordinary Life Forms = Mean of Items (6, 13, 20); Precognition = Mean of Items (7, 14, 21, 26).

be construed as meaning that only paranormal meth- Forms subscale was replaced by the item There is life on
ods of predicting the future are foolish. Thus all three other planets. Although the item Bigfoot does exist had a
items comprising the Precognition subscale on the stronger factor loading than the replacement item in
original PBS are problematic. the original factor analytic study (.74 versus .41), the
In a study of the cognitive dimensions used in pre- new item was also a marker variable for the
dicting future events (Tobacyk & Nagot, 1987), 349 Extraordinary Life Forms factor. This change was nec-
college students rated 60 beliefs about predicting essary because familiarity with the Bigfoot phenomena
future events. The 60 items were intercorrelated and appears largely limited to the United States. The
factor analyzed, revealing seven basic dimensions used revised Extraordinary Life Forms subscale has a four-
to predict future events. The two clearest marker items week test-retest reliability of .91, compared to .82 for
were selected from each of the two largest paranormal the original subscale.
precognition dimensions to form a new Precognition It is noted that Extraordinary Life Forms is the
subscale. These dimensions and items were only paranormal belief dimension that does not strict-
Paranormal Divinatory Systems (Astrology is a way to ly conform to the paranormality criterion violation of
accurately predict the future. The horoscope accurately a basic limiting principle of science (e.g., the mere exis-
tells a persons future.) and Psychically Gifted Persons tence of extraterrestrial life would not violate a basic
(Some psychics can accurately predict the future. Some limiting principle). However, belief in extraordinary
people have an unexplained ability to predict the future.). life forms is often considered a component of a more
These four new Precognition items replaced the three general paranormal or occult ideology (Zusne & Jones,
original PBS Precognition items. The test-retest relia- 1982) and was therefore included as a paranormal
bility of this revised Precognition subscale over a four- belief dimension.
week interval was .81, a substantial improvement over
the reliability of the original PBS Precognition sub- Revised Paranormal Belief Scale Items
scale (rtt = .60). The remaining 18 items from the original PBS
were retained in the R-PBS. The four-week test-retest
Witchcraft and Extraordinary Life Forms Subscales reliabilities for the remaining R-PBS subscales for a
Changes were made in the Witchcraft and sample of forty university students are as follows: Full
Extraordinary Life Forms subscales to improve cross- Scale .92, Traditional Religious Belief .95, Psi .71,
cultural validity in Western cultures. Research with the Superstition .89, and Spiritualism .91.
original PBS in Finland, Germany, and Poland,
showed that many European respondents were unfa- Validity Issues
miliar with such ostensibly paranormal phenomena as Although there has been some disagreement about
voodoo and Bigfoot. Therefore, on the Witchcraft the nature and number of the belief dimensions
subscale, the two items concerning belief in voodoo assessed by the R-PBS (Lawrence, 1995a, 1995b,
(Voodoo is a real method to use paranormal powers. There Lawrence, Roe, & Williams, 1997; Tobacyk, 1995a,
are actual cases of voodoo death.) were replaced with two Tobacyk, 1995b, Tobacyk & Thomas, 1997), this scale
items that more generally concerned witchcraft appears to be a conceptually and psychometrically sat-
(Through the use of formulas and incantations, it is pos- isfactory measure of paranormal beliefs.
sible to cast spells on persons. There are actual cases of
witchcraft.) It is noted that the two replacement
Witchcraft subscale items were marker variables defin- Summary
ing the Witchcraft factor in the original factor analyt- The original 25-item, five-point PBS was modified
ic PBS study (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983), loading .68 into a 26-item, seven-point R-PBS. The changes
and .55 respectively on the Witchcraft factor. The test- include replacement of the three-item PBS
retest reliability of the revised Witchcraft subscale is Precognition subscale, replacement of two of the four
.93 over a four-week interval, while that of the original PBS Witchcraft subscale items, and replacement of
Witchcraft subscale is .69. one of the three PBS Extraordinary Life Forms sub-
Also, to improve cross-cultural validity, the item scale items. In total, seven new items replaced a total
Bigfoot does exist from the original Extraordinary Life of six original PBS items. These changes are expected
Paranormal Belief Scale 97

to improve reliability and validity, reduce restrictions 217218.
in range, and increase the cross-cultural validity in the Tobacyk, J. (1985a). Paranormal beliefs, alienation,
measurement of paranormal beliefs in Western cul- and anomie in college students. Psychological
tures. It is recommended that researchers in the areas Reports, 57, 844846.
of paranormal beliefs and spirituality consider the use Tobacyk, J. (1985b). The paranormal belief scale and
of the R-PBS in their investigations. social desirability. Psychological Reports, 57, 624.
Tobacyk, J. (1995a). What is the correct dimensional-
ity of paranormal beliefs?: A reply to Lawrences
References critique of the Paranormal Belief Scale. Journal of
Broad, C. D. (1953). The relevance of psychical Parapsychology, 59, 2746.
research to philosophy. In J. Ludwig (Ed.), Tobacyk, J. (1995b). Final thoughts on issues in the
Philosophy and parapsychology (pp. 43- 63). Buffalo, measurement of paranormal beliefs. Journal of
NY: Prometheus. Parapsychology, 59, 141145.
Lawrence, T. (1995a). How many factors of paranor- Tobacyk, J., & Jones, G. (1984). Paranormal beliefs of
mal belief are there?: A critique of the PBS. Journal high school students. Psychological Reports, 55, 255-
of Parapsychology, 59, 3 25. 261.
Lawrence, T. (1995b). Moving on from the PBS: A Tobacyk, J., & Milford, G. (1983). Belief in paranor-
final reply to Tobacyk. Journal of Parapsychology, mal phenomena: Assessment instrument develop-
59, 131-140. ment and implications for personality functioning.
Lawrence, T., Roe, C., & Williams, C. (1997). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44,
Confirming the factor structure of the Paranormal 648655.
Beliefs Scale: Big orthogonal seven or oblique five? Tobacyk, J., & Milford, G. (1984). Superstition and
Journal of Parapsychology, 61, 13-31. intentionality. Psychological Reports, 55, 513-514.
MacDonald, D. A. (2000). Spirituality: Description, Tobacyk, J., & Mitchell, T. (1987a). Out-of-body
measurement and relation to the five factor model experience status as a moderator of effects of narcis-
of personality. Journal of Personality, 68(1), 153-197. sism on paranormal beliefs. Psychological Reports,
MacDonald, D. A., Friedman, H. L., & Kuentzel, J. 60, 440-442.
G. (1999). A survey of measures of spiritual and Tobacyk, J., & Mitchell, T. (1987b). The out-of-body
transpersonal constructs: Part oneResearch experience and personality adjustment. Journal of
update. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31(2), Nervous and Mental Disease, 175(6), 367-370.
137-154. Tobacyk, J., Nagot, E., & Miller, M. (1987).
MacDonald, D. A., Kuentzel, J. G., & Friedman, H. Paranormal beliefs and locus of control: A multidi-
L. (1999). A survey of measures of spiritual and mensional examination. Journal of Personality
transpersonal constructs: Part twoAdditional Assessment, 52(2), 241-246.
instruments. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Tobacyk, J., & Thomas, A. (1997). How the big
31(2), 155-177. orthogonal seven is really the oblique seven.
MacDonald, D. A., LeClair, L., Holland, C. J., Alter, Journal of Parapsychology, 61, 337-342.
A., & Friedman, H. L. (1995). A survey of meas- Zusne, L., & Jones, W. H. (1982). Anomalistic psychol-
ures of transpersonal constructs. Journal of ogy. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum.
Transpersonal Psychology, 27(2), 171-235.
Tobacyk, J. (1983). Paranormal beliefs, interpersonal
trust and social interest. Psychological Reports, 53, Correspondence regarding this article should be
229-230. directed to the author at the following address:
Tobacyk, J. (1984a). Death threat, death concerns and Louisiana Tech University, Department of Psychology
paranormal belief. In F. R. Epting & R. A. and Behavioral Sciences, Box 10048, Ruston,
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29-38). New York: Hemisphere.
Tobacyk, J. (1984b). Paranormal belief and college
grade point average. Psychological Reports, 54,

Lightly Swimming

Earthrise, Thora, NSW, Australia
Essays on consciousness and the contents of consciousness are generally written in conventional
prose. Academics and scholars tend to write that way and in the present tense or the past tense
and sometimes in subtle mixes of tenses. Literary styles may also be appropriate to such writings
and consciousness writing (in literary fiction) seems both relevant and appropriate. The two prin-
cipal forms and techniques of consciousness writing are interior monologue and free indirect
style. Interior monologue represents the thoughts of a character as if narrated by a character as
I. In free indirect style the thoughts of a character are represented as reported speech in the third
person, past tense (after Lodge, 1992). An author may use one or both forms, and combinations
of the forms together with conventional styles of narration. William Jamess stream of conscious-
ness is implied in this essay.
riters write, many will insist, because they walk. Sometimes complete sentences arise innocently
W cannot help themselves. At Sounion, a bus

ride from Athens, there are the remains of a
column, lapped by the ocean, and chiselled darkly into
from the writers busy brain and whirl about demand-
ingly until the scribe scribbles them determinedly on
something. Frequently, wordless images will appear in
the marble is the inelegant but artistic word BYRON. the picture-show theatre of the mindand be so com-
Paul Auster (1992) begins an essay (Native Son) with pelling as to cause the writer to attempt their capture,
these words: to fix them with those symbols that we call words.
America swallows up its poets, hides them away, Some of the fleeting amalgams of images and words
forgets them. Except for the few who become rushing by in the stream of consciousness become
famous (often those of meagre talent), the poet rounded up and written down, and sometimes, if the
with no axe to grind or vogue to follow can expect writer is good enough, a reader of those written words
little but neglector, at best, the admiration of his will also be able to see something of the imagery that
peers. No one is to blame for this. We are simply came first into the mind of the journeyman writer.
too vast, too chaotic to notice everything that pass- Writers want that to happen, especially the fiction
es before our eyes. Much of the finest poetry writ- writers and the poets; they want the reader to see the
ten today is published by small presses and seen by images that the writers words may trigger or engender
no more than a few hundred readers. (p. 140) or inspire: whether or not the idea is fully in their
awareness, the writers want to share contents of con-
Auster might as easily have written writers for sciousness with readers.
poets because writings are works of artlike poems Shapiro, Grace, and Gross (2002), in discussing
and pictures and sculptures and music and even graffi- transpersonal psychologya major field in the
ti. Often, writings are the extended consequences of transpersonal domainshowed that the notion of
solitary ideas alighting as if from nowhereor are the consciousness is important to scholars and
results of intentional reasoningand they may be researchers. Defining consciousness has always been a
inspired by contrary or paradoxical notions: a quirky huge difficulty for all who ponder the mystery. It was
sentence in a text, a particular television news item, or William James (1890/1950) who thought about and
an overheard fragmented conversation on a busy side- wrote about consciousness as a stream and the
Lightly Swimming 99
notion has long been associated, too, with a particular being at sea in a tumult of words as symbols in which
genre: consciousness writing. Lodge (1992) offers this there is little sense of control or discipline. A variety of
explanation: styles will always be available to writers. When the
The stream of consciousness, was a phrase coined writer gets the syntax right and employs a relevant and
by William James, psychologist brother of the nov- appropriate style, meaning and often accompanying
elist, Henry, to characterise the continuous flow of imagery will jitter into the awareness of the reader and
thought and sensation in the human mind. Later it may even enable the reader to enjoy a range of experi-
was borrowed by literary critics to describe a partic- ences: aesthetic ones, happy and sad and fearful and
ular kind of modern fiction which tried to imitate excited feelings, and the reader may become aware of
this process exemplified by, among others, James profound feelings that move him or her to tears,
Joyce, Dorothy Richardson and Virginia Woolf. thanks to the writer having written particular arrange-
The novel always was, of course, noted for its ments of words. For the writer, the task, magically, is
interiorised rendering of experience. Cogito ergo to organize words in ways such that these diverse sym-
sum (I think, therefore I am) could be its motto, bols, these many disparate parts comprising the writ-
though the novelists cogito includes not only rea- ing, become not only an emerging whole, but may
soning but also emotions, sensations, memories seem ultimately to the reader to also be a whole which
and fantasies. Defoes autobiographers, and is much more than the sum of the word parts when
Richardsons letter-writers, at the beginning of the even some of the those words seem almost to be that
novels development as a literary form, were obses- which they describe.
sively introspective. The classic nineteenth-century
novel, from Jane Austen to George Eliot, combined An Illustration of Consciousness Writing
the presentation of its characters as social beings He knew he would remember much because the
with a subtle and sensitive analysis of their moral Bellinger flowing by was means enough, at least for
and emotional inner lives. Towards the turn of the him. Once in it the flow would open lines to memory
century, however (you can see it happening in and real connections to imagination. The river was like
Henry James), reality was increasingly located in that. Perhaps it was like that for everybody who got
the private subjective consciousness of individual into the flow or perhaps it happened only in this river
selves, unable to communicate the fullness of their and only on hot days. He would keep it in mind.
experience to others. It has been said that the Over the salad-green lawn he went, carefully
stream-of-consciousness novel is the literary expres- watching for any lone snake in the still-damp grass
sion of solipsism, the philosophical doctrine that where it remained shady. Snaky days became warm
nothing is certainly real except ones own existence; early and hot in no time. Although it was barely mid-
but we could equally well argue that it offers some morning when he stepped down to the grey metalled
relief from the daunting hypothesis by offering us road the heat smote him in the face heavily. It remind-
imaginative access to the lives of other human ed him of being hit by a fist inside a pillow glove. Like
beings, even if they are fictions. (p. 42) that, he thought, gasping ah!
Because researchers and scholars exploring that For him memory was as odd a thing as could be
which is transpersonal are concerned with conscious- imagined. It was also sometimes certain and sure and
ness and with the contents of consciousness, there may at other times memory faltered, usually in the short
be good reasons for them to make some explorations term, but sometimes the old images looked a bit
via so-called consciousness writing. While the form ragged around the edges too. Despite age and accom-
and process are best known in literary fiction, they also panying occasional confusions most of his memory
lend themselves to essays that appear as subjective or was instantly available, or so he thought, and it was
biographical. Whatever writers use to construct lan- also as clear as crystalas shining, as sparkling as flick-
guagethe syntax or grammar, all of the lexical and ers of early morning sunlight twinkling downstream
rhetorical tools in their armamentariumthey employ on the dark surface of the river. He supposed that the
one style or another, including mixes of styles. Style flickering of light was universal and that it would
may not seem everything to a writer but without a probably be a reasonable sort of general description of
defined or a developing style the writer may experience the universe. How could that be explained to some-

body from a different universe? We have light here: it had been looking for trouble. There was that time in
shines and beams and glows and illuminates and flick- far-off Durban when he damned near shot himself
ers. Is it like that where you come from? What would coming out the back door to find the black mamba
the other being sayassuming that were possible? because the mechanism was faulty and the shotgun
Probably: Yep, weve got that stuff too. Something discharged as he closed the breech. Damn, that was
like that, he supposed. Humans seemed always so close. What was it old Daniel Defoe wrote long ago:
anthropocentric and that kind of thing seemed the good die early, and the bad die late? He knew he
absolutely like a human signature, a Homo sapiens wasnt entirely bad or completely good but somewhere
footprint in the cosmos. Could the other guys not be in between as most people surely were and he knew
anthropocentric also? Perhaps they could be in their that he was continuing to amass experiences of many
own particular ways. kinds. What could one do with amassed experiences all
The heat was a stifling blanket descendingand it so varied, if not use thembut how best to use them
kept coming down. He had had to interrupt his think- if they were to be used at all? That was the question.
ing because extreme heat made him concerned about Well thenthere were various answers to that but he
animals trying to survive extreme weather. At least knew exactly which one he invariably wanted to
there was no desert here. Here there was abundant employ because it was obvious, easy and wonderfully
growth and rich forests. There were subtropical rain- compelling: to write from ones experience, ones expe-
forest creeks. There was everything that most creatures riences, rather. Indeed, yesand not forgetting to do it
neededbut now global weather was extreme and creatively. There were probably many other answers to
here the heat was stifling. There were billions of the question, but the writing one worked for him.
microbes in the baking soil. There were infrequently It was still warm, the river, from yesterdays com-
seen birds trying to survive. Brush turkeys continued fortable run down the valley although at first it seemed
to stalk his garden like black peacocks. Wallabies still cool on his skin and then in no time at all it was
bounded across the early morning lawns. They had acceptably cooling and soothing because ones whole
that thick fur though. Night and dawn were better for entire body would be in it, moving, and the water
them. Bandicoots liked the night and the fruit bats moving too, against one or with one if onewho is
always worked in the cool dark. In September the this silly one? Never mind that for now. There were
damp air flashed greenly with fireflies. That green conventions in all things. There had been only storm
glowing seemed hot to his mind. He was projecting his rains to keep it moving moderately and the fresh run-
own concerns onto creatures more sensibly adapted ning through the black rock rapids bubbled brightly
than he was. He would have to be more aware about and went rushing away to the dark of the forest down-
that, more knowing. stream. The mainstream flow swirling through the
He went slowly over the timber bridge, by his reck- rocks looked full and felt good once he got close to it
oning feeling about 150 years old and wilting, then he and could feel its swirl against his legs. More years fell
carefully stepped down to the water on the other side from him and seemed swept away flowingly, like flow-
of the river, shedding years. He again wondered about ers cast memorially. The lower the river was the slow-
snakes in places variousthey could appear suddenly, er it travelled and the more it was warmed on its pas-
even on a reasonably clear path at any time of the day sage. Today the fresh was pointing to the left, to port
or night and in all kinds of weather. Strangely, and as you might say, pushed that way by the channelling
although predicting the manifestations of snakes, he mainstream that came out angled in a metre-deep
knew, would never be a science, exact or otherwise, trench through the bedrock. On days when the river
there certainly were (in his experience, anyway) days got up higher the fresh was conducted across to star-
that were undoubtedly snaky. On a snaky day there board, to the right, and sparkled a lot moremore
would be early heat in the air, usually dry heat, but not widely, more expansively, the front of it waving from
invariably. He would walk extremely carefully on those side to side like a big questing creature. And in the
days, obsessively so, and use his eyes excessivelyand early morning it was also a beautiful white from the
sometimes hed have been correct: there would have rapids.
been a snake and hed have avoided it. The snake usu- He would step in from the sloping gravelled bank
ally reacted in much the same way. Neither of them and wade so far until the mainstream pushed him out
Lightly Swimming 101

of control and then he might dive, barely a teenager reminded him of the Welcome Swallows cutting
again, eyes open to see the coloured sand and gravel through their other pockets of air down at
made more clear by rounded pieces of singular white Richardsons, the next bridge along the road. The swal-
quartzor he would breast it in the strong morning lows seemed to be feeding on the wing but there was
sunlight feeling the caressing cool as it swept up his surely some free time too, some need for flighted
protective old T-shirt ballooning it for moments while games perhaps, an ego-like thing that compelled flying
the swirl tried to shove his hat off. He always wore a displayseven under the bridge they swooped and
hat and T-shirt and old tennis shoes as well as a fancy then dashed straight up before breaking away like Air
pair of black trunks he once bought for a float in the Force acrobatic teams. The yellow garden butterflies
Dead Sea. There was nothing dead about this river: it bobbed differently and so surprisingly fast, changing
was full of lifeeven the exposed bedrock pieces that direction, seldom solo and almost always there were
made the rapids had small creatures ambling about on two, three or four of themand sometimes more than
them. Dressing up to have a swim always made sense that. At such frantic rates of climb and darting
in New South Wales. There was the roasting sun and manoeuvre they were hardly feeding and what they
there were spiky creatures with spines that broke off in seemed to be doing in their 10 to 20 metres of altitude
your foot. He often thought the same thing repeated- and airspacenever higher, strangelyaround the
ly: the river is more than its surface, moving. This mar- gardens was being intent on mating and maybe evad-
vellous live thing has length and width and depth. It ing mating. Was that like flirting? They were really
was necessary to be in it, it was essential to penetrate fast. Maybe the gardens were a sort of butterfly reserve
that surface to experience it properly. There were a few or a trysting place, a pick-up joint for yellow butter-
magic places in the windowed house where if he stood, flies. And maybe the Welcome Swallows were mating
barely breathing, and squinted a bit, he could just too. Would they do that in winter, which was when he
glimpse the upriver bend beyond the bridge, see also saw them being most active? He didnt think so. Were
the bridge in front of him, see the pool as well, and, those yellow butterflies choosing to mate in the late
straining his eyes to the right, see the green top of it summer, in the hot and humid February? He simply
rolling down to the next bend through the forest. He didnt know the answers. He had lived there for 20
was surely the only human standing in one of those yearslonger than he had lived anywhere in the
cosmic places where so much of the river could be seen worldand although he had learned a few things in
in one breadth of seeing. It was quite the same, he that time he really knew very little. In the house he
decided, as having divine powers. Why else had seeing sometimes reflected on a river-stone paperweight on
been bestowed upon us? But that was from up there his table when he paused in his writing and he would
in the house. Once you were in it the experiencing was see laminations and striations and little pinprick holes
penetratingly different. and think mudstone or maybe sandstone and won-
In the late summer days of humid February and der why the original strata were not all paralleland
contained by a few airy metres above the water there he would always enjoy the colour and the clean surface
were white butterflies that moved slowly, bobbing untarnished. How had it come to be? For all his varied
gracefully, even languidly, and they sometimes came experience he knew how little he really knew about
lower toward the surface but never touched, never anything but he daily thanked God that he was able to
landed and there were whirring dragonflies, heads see the world.
down like dipping helicopters, always really close to The butterflies and the remembered swallows also
the water, seeming to touch it every so often and they reminded him of the big pool next to Jasmine below
all flew about like that, whenever he glanced at the Richardsons where several hundred years ago, it
water, all through the day. Although they all moved seemed, he and the Gestalt group always swam and
endlessly and were busily alive they also all seemed after the last session of the day there were often one or
movingly embedded in the supporting air. The butter- two who did some river-work therethose who
flies reminded him of other ones, yellow, so much were blocked or stuck in resistance and they were
quicker, that bounced, bobbed and weaved for most of invited to pose for themselves appropriate liberating
the late summer days up there over his garden, sta- questions then dive deep to the bottom and stay there
tioned in different, waterless air and they in turn till they had their answers and after a while theyd burst

up to the surface, gasping. Those were the days of Thus, having exclusive use of the riverand on a
express-like ways to super-quick awareness. How use- hot Saturday afternoonwas a surprise to him. Where
ful the wise river could be! River-work always succeed- were they all and was there something demanding
ed, spectacularly. (tennis perhaps) on TV to have kept them away? For
Theres the big pool here too, he kept thinking. We then he could do exhibitionistic laps and he could
used to call it the Champagne Pool because there were swim in place at the edge of the mainstream, his face
bubbles in front of the rapids and you had only to dive in the water, his soaked hat keeping the sun off his
under, eyes open, to have a champagne experience, head, seeing down to the bottom of the flow where
tickled. there were snags and sunken logs in the gravel, some-
In the water swimming or floating in and out of times the flash of a small fish going by. When he float-
sunlight and shadowsparticularly in the changing ed he sometimes had the company of little fish that
lights of mid or late afternoonhe sometimes imag- flopped about on the mainstream surface, always the
ined himself upstairs in the house, writing and pausing mainstream rather than the smaller flows burbling
between sentences and when pausing glancing out the through the rapids running right across the river and
window to see the white top of the water and lines of curiously the bright silver flashing of the fish remind-
light across its surface, depending on the time of day. ed him of his cabin boy days on the old Bencleugh
When he was in the river swimming he would some- and the time when she was hove to on a still
times look up to where his writing window was and Caribbean, the south part of it, near Venezuela and
even seem to see himself sitting there thoughtfully because it was deep there and the boy was fascinated
looking out and down to the watereven imagining more than fascinated: in thrall, to and by the deep
then that he could also see himself down there in the oceanhe begged some empty flat cigarette tins from
river as well. He knew too that being too free with his the crew, opened them out, skipped some over the rails
well-connected imagination was wildly narcissistic but into the sunlight to see them flutter down to the fear-
he ignored that because he knew that in the years of some dark, reflecting the sun briefly, winking then
being alivebutterfly, bird, water dragon, manthe dwindling to the black abyssyet here the deepest
contents of all lives lived were also lenses, windows on pools were only three metres or so except there by the
the world, the universe, everything. One had to be not rapids (the stepping-stone rapids also much used by
only there, but fully present too. The imagination was hopelessly addicted fishermen who absolutely had to
not something to be stifled, or even attenuated. It had hop over and across if they could without slipping and
always made sense to use what could be used. It had falling or hooking themselves in one of his riverside
always seemed almost a duty. trees because they always paused and perched and
If he timed his river visits well he sometimes had tried, unbalanced, to cast a lure) and just below the
the place almost to himself. He allowed his own high same rapids, if it were quiet enough and not too many
river banks to remain well covered in everything people going by in cars or walking he could prop him-
growth-full that might deter crazed fishermen from self on part of the bedrock right in front of the rapids
plunging along them or up and down them struggling and hang out there getting buffeted and patted and
withsnakes for exampleor other unknown hor- massaged on the back because he had to face down-
rors. But that seldom worked well because the fisher- stream bracing himself, his feet up against another big
men (one seldom saw a fisherwoman) would simply broken part of the bedrock so he wouldnt be swept
scramble over his stone river wall and invade his gar- away. Then in the later afternoon with the light pat-
denover the gravity wall he had intended as a stone terns changing constantly shade from the garden trees
fence, coming in determinedly from the road and then high up on the starboard bank and the big 80 metres
marching with profane aplomb through his private eucalypts casting blurred shadows he could sink down
paradise. Damnthe nerve of some people! The a bit in the swirl of green water and see what life there
River was popular with visitors, naturally, who often was in that narrow zone 200- or 300-millimetres above
turned up in droves (it was everybodys rivernobody the surface (the yellow butterflies had more degrees of
had personal swimming rights except all the creatures freedom): there were the dragonflies and other kinds
of the natural world who lived in it, on it, over it), of fly that reminded him of his trout fishing daysfly
especially in the summer holidays. fishing in the Snowy, all over New South Wales and

before that in Africa. Exciting it all was but deadly for a surprising orange and had only two or three bars of
the fishand that was why he stopped fishing alto- it left but in the early days of spring and summer when
gether. In that narrow band of air he could see there the stinging flies were hunting tasty humans, this little
was a wonderful variety of winged small life moving dragon became almost tame, using the mans boot as a
constantly, drawn to the moving water, flitting in and hunting perch. He sometimes fed a kill to the dragon
out of the dappled light. and chatted a bit, casually swinging his leg, the dragon
There was something moving on him, on his arm. looking up at him, unblinking, while boot riding. The
He bent his head solemnly, straining to see politely dragon was most friendly, he thought. He knew that
and without fuss, without making too great a demand reptiles werent invariably badeven the younger
on focus. Now his chin rested on the top of his T-shirt goannas (who ate big snakes for breakfast) were decent
where squinting he could also see part of the faded enough not to single him out for a snack. Respect, the
green design where the words Gestalt Training man thought guardedly, (and always keeping a sensibly
Centre, Wollongong remained a solemn, teasing and safe distance), respect was the key.
faded emblem. Somehow a tiny green spider had man- Now in the late afternoon and during the third
ifested on his left forearm, plodding through and or was it the fourthswim of the day with the surface
across and along his curved hairs, seemingly uncon- water quite warm and the lower levels of the river deli-
cerned and perhaps blown down from the banks or ciously cool and still nobodyamazinglyarriving to
possibly even brought to this unexplained and surpris- join him the sun had turned widely and now was cast-
ing meeting, midstream, an unexpected traveller along ing its late afternoon light through the old trees high
what must have been an oceanic river, and so feeling on the crest of the hill downstream and he remem-
compassion and care flow through him he floated bered that of course it was the end of February and the
away considerately to the port-side bank, arm up dry light at that time of year was always wondrous because
to the dry shore and let himor possibly heroff when the late sun glowed reflectively on the down-
where the wee beastie might be safer, perhaps stream surface the soft colours made the rivers surface
although in this wild world who could say if the spider in long stretches seem like beaten gold, like gold leaf
might have been happier left alone? He remembered with some soft green there too. What might that look
that days ago in midday heat he had met a snake swim- like from beneath the surface, eyes open, looking to
ming toward himnot that he knew what it was until heaven? Drunk with words he could see that the lights
close because there was only this odd little upstart head of the late afternoons of late Februaries were seeming-
like a periscope that made him veer to starboard to ly beyond words.
find out and of course it was a black snakegasp He swam again through the swirling fresh, remem-
but only a metre or so long so hardly a monster yet and bering the little spider now further removed in its great
it seemed that the snake had much the same idea travels, and from the corner of his eye, splashing
because of its breaking away to starboard too and so it through the surface he saw in clear light a bigger perch
came for a closer look and they each in their own odd jump, not once, but some five or six times, high like a
ways checked each other out, in passing (in the mans trout and coming upstream toward him but on the far
mind, at least) and then resumed their courses and side of the river in the sunlight and he thought of see-
swam on. Mutual curiosity. Perhaps that was how one ing salmon running in the bigger rivers and greater
should exchange courtesies with snakes, both on land torrents of Vancouver Island, long ago, and trout in
and in rivers: simply smile and nod politely and keep the Cowichan, in the Princes Pool downstream from
going (although that water-borne snake had not the cabin in the woods long ago, and then he made a
smiled). Meetings with snakes were otherwise fraught, slow breast-stroking swim toward the shadowing
he mused in the embracing water. For really, there had rapids and changed halfway to the old side-stroke that
been no problems at all with the young black snake his father used when they all went swimming in the
it seemed almost a congenial encounter. Four metres of Cowichan in the mid-30s and by 1937, when swim-
thick red-bellied black snake in the waterthat would ming too in the Blyde, high in the Transvaal, long,
have been somewhat different. Up above on the river- long ago also, and then he got to the rapids again and
side edge of his lawn where he frequently sat there was was about to perch himself there once more for the
very often a single water dragon who began the season cool refreshing feelings offered by the familiar river of

the 80s and 90s and the new century present and so Correspondence regarding this article should be
without realizing it at first he felt the rapids efferves- directed to the author at don@midcoast.com.au.
cence running giddily up his legs, the lighted bubbles
at the head of the pool by the rapids that so irresistibly 2005 Don Diespecker
enabled he and Olejay to call that part of the river the
Champagne Pool, so then he stopped, remembering
images, and then turned around carefully again,
remembering his way anew into that layered ambient
place that seemed less well remembered a mere 20
years before, that lively zone of filled space now unmis-
takably visible immediately over the water in 04,
immersed in the luminance of it, the luminosity of
whirring life, the greens of designer bodies, the
translucent blues of wings, the congregation of tiny
creatures blurring without collisions, the multi engage-
ments of the aerial micro-world there in the rivers
aurasomething he was a part of and also in
because when he used his eyes gratefully he saw that he
was seeing a divine world transparent, a filled thin
space he could both see and also be part of seeing into
and through life that was only as high as his head in
the water in that long lighted place like a glowing por-
tal that was simply a living layer of the earth and an
ambient window too, that was filled with flying life
flying in and out and along and through a long lens of
afternoon air just above the surface of the river on a
late sunny afternoon in February and so he continued
moving about in it instead of sitting and watching
apart from it all because he knew he could never be
separate from any of it and then he also knew that he
knew much more because he could see he was lightly
swimming in light
References
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interviews and The Red Notebook. New York:
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James, W. (1950). The principles of psychology. New
York: Dover. Originally published in 1890.
Lodge, D. (1992). The art of fiction. London: Penguin
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Shapiro, S. I., Grace, W. L., & Gross, P. L. (2002). The
essence of transpersonal psychology:
Contemporary views. International Journal of
Transpersonal Studies, 21, 19-32.

SPECIAL TOPIC:
TRANSPERSONAL STUDIES APPLIED TO ORGANIZATIONAL/CULTURAL CHANGE
Images of the Intrapersonal Organization:

Soul Making at Work
Mary Ann Hazen, Ph.D. and Jo Anne Isbey

In this paper, the authors use archetypal theory to explore the relationship between personal and
organizational development and the role of tacit knowledge and active imagination in such devel-
opment. The authors claim that organizational change occurs within each person as well as at the
more frequently studied levels of small group and large system; and that individuals and their rela-
tionship with work and the organization as experienced develop concurrently. The authors posi-
tion is illustrated through a case taken from a larger qualitative study using methods of data col-
lection and analysis rooted in an interpretive framework.
he postmodern organization calls us to per- modifies the perceptual screen through which infor-
T ceive, appreciate, and even cherish variety, dif-

ference, heterogeneity, and conflict. Multitudes
of images and voices exist in each organization. Each
mation about the organization is filtered. We illustrate
our assertions through a case taken from a larger qual-
itative study using methods of data collection and
person embodies many voices, perspectives, stances, analysis rooted in an archetypal transpersonal para-
emotions, ego states, and ways of understanding. digm.
Grounded in the body, formed by experience, and First, we define the terms from archetypal psychol-
shaped by perception, this multiplicity challenges us to ogy that we will use in our case study. We then review
see, hear, and feel who we and others are as we work the organizational literature regarding spirituality and
together. An archetypal, transpersonal framework, archetypal theory in the workplace. We describe the
which goes beyond postmodernism to embrace the qualitative methodology used and portray the case that
spiritual aspects of the person, can support such aware- we have chosen to illustrate our claims, with the analy-
ness. sis based on an archetypal framework.
In this paper, we use an archetypal perspective to
explore the relationship between personal and organi- Terms from Archetypal Theory
zational development and the role of tacit knowledge In this section, we define the terms from archetyp-
and active imagination in such development. We claim al theory that we use in the following case analysis.
that organizational change occurs within each person Jungian psychologists understand soul as the
as well as at the more frequently studied levels of dyad, human process that connects the pleasures and pains
small group, and large system; and that the person and of material existence with that which transcends them,
his or her relationship with work and the organization allowing people to find meaning. Soul is midway
as experienced develop concurrently. Such organiza- between understanding and unconsciousness. Its
tional change happens when an individual becomes instrument is the imagination. The soul integrates
aware of knowledge about the organization that was spirit and matter and prevents them from polarizing
previously unconscious, integrates this learning, and so (Moore, 1992, p. 232). Soul making is the work that

holds and bears the tension between opposites, creat- tioners and managers, emphasizing dialogue as a large-
ing spaces for the transcendent function. group phenomenon that occurs in stages with speci-
The transcendent function is the symbol-making fied behaviors in relationship, the accent in this paper
action of the psyche that reconciles and integrates con- is on dialogue as an interpersonal phenomenon in
scious and unconscious material (Moore, 1992; which the ongoing present moment is vital. From
Hollwitz, 1992; Olson, 1990). In 1916, Jung (in whatever perspective dialogue is viewed, it leads to a
Read, Fordham, Adler, & McGuire, 19531979) flow of meaning and creativity. Dialogue allows the
described the ground of the transcendent function as soul to work.
not only intellectual knowing but also a way of under- In the following two sections, we give an overview
standing through experience. of organization literature related to spirituality and
Individuation is the process of development and archetypal theory that is applicable to our case analysis.
maturation through which a person integrates and
binds aspects of the inner and outer lives to the core of Spirituality and the Workplace
being. When an individual realizes, recognizes, or Spirituality and work have been examined exten-
remembers those aspects of the self that have been lost, sively in the management literature. Cavanagh (1999)
overlooked, denounced, silenced, or hidden in shad- observed that a recent bibliography listed 72 books on
ow; and listens to their stories, heeds their desires, or business and spirituality, 54 of which were published
meets their needs, that person changes and individu- between 1992 and 1998. Fornaciari and Dean (2002)
ates (Hillman, 1983). The ego broadens and deepens noted that at least two management journals, the
through individuation. Journal of Organizational Change Management and the
Active imagination is a process that was developed Journal of Management Education, have devoted special
by Jung and elaborated by Progoff (1975) and issues to the topic of spirituality and organizations, in
Hillman (1983). When it is applied, a person becomes 1999 and 2000, respectively.
aware of, listens to, and learns from the various aspects Definitions of spirituality at work differ. For exam-
of the self. It supports the process of individuation. ple, Burack (1999) held that spiritual growth involves
Active imagination is entered into in a variety of ways. mental growth and reflects the fulfillment of higher-
For example, active imagination is used when a person order individual needs such as achievement and
remembers and pays attention to a dream and heeds its belonging. Mitroff and Denton (1999) reported find-
message. In another use of active imagination, Jung ings from a study of human resources executives and
(1965) drew and asked his patients to draw mandalas, managers, who defined spirituality as the basic feeling
squared circles that represent the whole self. Moore of being connected with ones complete self, others,
(1992) and Hillman (1983) proposed using the imag- and the entire universe (p. 83). These managers dif-
ination to attend to the meaning of the bodys pain, ferentiated between religion and spirituality, saying
symptoms, and disease. Progoff (1975) suggested a that religious expression was out of place in the work-
journal writing method in which an aspect of ones life place, while spirituality was appropriate for discussion.
is imagined as a person with whom one engages in dia- While emphasizing that religion and spirituality are
logue. not necessarily synonymous, McCormack (1994), in
As it is used in this paper, dialogue is the symbolic his discussion of workplace spirituality, looked at spir-
interaction that happens between people when they ituality as the experience of a person in relationship to
name their experience in a relationship of mutuality, that which is transcendent. In this paper, we draw
reciprocity, and co-inquiry (Hazen, 1987). This means from these definitions and understand spirituality to
that each person perceives the self and the other as able be related to belonging and being connected to that
to change, learn, and teach the other in the relation- which transcends the ego, and to seeking or finding a
ship. Further, each recognizes that a rich understand- sense of meaning in ones life.
ing of a situation includes the perceptions of each per- Gozdz (2000) wrote that the worldview of
son in the situation, not only ones own. Although transpersonal psychology, with its emphasis on spiritu-
Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, and Smith (1994) and ality, has much to offer to the field of organizational
Isaacs (1999) have portrayed a model of dialogue that learning. It is with this emphasis in mind that we use
is popular among organizational development practi- the lens of archetypal theory to more fully understand
Soul Making at Work 107

the way that organizational change takes place within development at the intrapersonal as well as interper-
the individual. sonal levels. We explored individuals images of their
organizations and their discourse about them.
Archetypal Theory and the Workplace Fornaciari and Dean (2001) set forth two concerns
One stream of literature regarding spirituality, regarding the increasing interest in research in spiritu-
work, and organizations is related to archetypal theo- ality and the workplace: the inadequacy of the tradi-
ry. Management theorists have used an archetypal tional, monological tools of positivist social science to
framework to shed light on leadership (Frost & Egri, examine spirituality and business, and the possibility
1990; Egri & Frost, 1991; Smith & Elmes, 2002), that knowledge about this area could be used to
organizations (Moxnes, 1999), organizational culture manipulate employees. They suggested that research
(Kaarst-Brown & Robey, 1999), organizational devel- sustained in a framework of dialogue speaks to both of
opment and change (Olson, 1990; Goldberg, 2001; these concerns, as it recognizes the complexity of the
Starr-Glass, 2002; Carr, 2002), and organizational whole person and defies short-term, easily quantified
environments (Matthews, 2002). results. In our study, the qualitative methodology, the
Regarding the person at work, Stein (1992) methods of data collection, and the process of data
declared that organizational life as a spiritual practice analysis of this study are grounded in dialogue and
offers opportunities for individuation and develop- respond to such concerns. Further, they are consistent
ment. Hollwitz (1992) examined individuation at with not only the values of dialogue but also the pur-
work, identifying organizations as sites for soul mak- pose of the research.
ing. Palmer (1994) emphasized the importance of ele- Each of the three groups that participated in the
vating the value of inner work, such as journaling, larger research project represents a different organiza-
reflective reading, and meditation, in work organization and was made up of members of that organiza-
tions. tion. The three organizations included one whose mis-
Others have applied the technique of active imagi- sion was to educate about justice; another founded to
nation in organizations. Barry (1994) used the cre- inform people about the work of Jung; and an under-
ation of sculptures by work groups as a way to elicit graduate university writing class that met at a manu-
organizational change on a military base. Wisely and facturing site.
Lynn (1994) described ways to cultivate hospitable Data were collected through individual written
spaces for disciplined reflection in organizational life exercises as well as observations of group meetings at
(p. 103). They list dialogue, story telling, reading which extensive notes were taken. Progoff (1975), a
together, and considering mission and history as ways follower of Jung, developed a complex journal writing
of doing so. process to engage active imagination. As one means of
This paper extends such work. We report part of a data collection to study the role that active imagina-
study of three organizations. We use concepts and tion can play in understanding organizational process-
methodology founded in archetypal theory to explore es and change, the first author developed an exercise
how individual and organizational change can happen based on this journal writing process (see Appendix).
concurrently. We show how the use of a dialogue- The purpose of the exercise was to allow each partici-
based journal writing technique evoked images that pant to consciously process his or her images of work
represent archetypes, creating soul and activating the using intrapersonal and interpersonal dialogue.
transcendent function to integrate unconscious and Additional data were collected through observation of
conscious material and support individuation. the group dialogues centered on the results of the writ-
ing exercise. Data from the first workshop were the-
Methodology matically analyzed by the first author, and then por-
Organizations can be understood as socially con- trayed to the participants in the second workshop.
structed systems of stories, discourses, or texts (Boje, Participants either consensually validated the
1991; Boje & Dennehy, 1993; Denzin, 1989) that are researchers interpretation or offered differing analyses.
interpreted. This research project uses an interpretive The group on which we focus in this paper is the
or constructivist paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, first, the organization founded to educate about jus-
pp. 2022) to understand organizational change and tice. At the time of the research project, the organiza-

tion was rethinking the relationship among various spectives are valuable to people working in and study-
membersrecipients of their services, board, and paid ing organizations and contribute to knowledge about
staff. Three staff members and a member of the board organizational change and personal and managerial
participated in both workshops. At the first meeting at development.
which data were collected, participants wrote a state-
ment of their relationship with the organization at the Results
present moment, surfaced an image of the organiza- The process in the workshops allowed organization
tion as a person, listed ten steps in the organizations members to imagine their organizations in a way that
history, then imagined a dialogue with the organiza- is somewhat uncommon and to engage in group dia-
tion. Participants volunteered to read aloud what they logue about their images, thoughts, feelings, and intu-
had written. The group then identified common itions about the organization. Images and dialogues
themes among the pieces that they had written. generated during the second workshop were different
Participants gave their written work to the researcher from those that emerged in the first. Amplification of
(the first author of this paper), who completed a more these images using archetypal theory indicated that
detailed thematic analysis of their responses. change was evident in many individuals relationship
Several weeks later, the group met again. The with their organization. One pattern emerged from all
researcher fed back to them a tentative analysis of their three organizations: many of the images generated in
work. They discussed these findings and offered alter- the second workshop tended to be more grounded,
native interpretations. The group members then human, and differentiated and less numinous or up in
repeated the journal writing exercise and the researcher the air than those in the first, suggesting that these
again collected and thematically analyzed the written individuals and their relationships with their work and
work. Later, the two authors of this paper reviewed the one another had developed concurrently. This process
written data and used an archetypal framework to also contributed to organizational development, as
interpret and amplify the images, histories, and dia- people dialogued with one another about their images
logues. A similar process was followed with the other and the implications that they had for their collective
two organizational groups, each of which was also fac- life, which was in a state of transition. In this paper, we
ing changes. concentrate on one case that represents this pattern.
The interpretation of the data grew from carefully The individual has been given a fictitious name in
considered dialogue between the two authors. The first order to ensure confidentiality.
author is trained as a Gestalt therapist and earned a
Ph.D. in organizational behavior, which she teaches at Illustrative Case
a university business school; the second author is an Douglas was a staff member with the organization
English professor and has a deep knowledge of and whose mission was to educate about justice. He wrote
extensive experience with Jungian analysis. In our that, although his workplace was not the primary
interpretations, we have used the Jungian and arche- organization with which he was affiliated, [i]t
typal concepts indicated earlier, our own experiences hasenlightened, enlivened, and moved me
with the practice of active imagination and dream [and]has allowed me expression, growth, and affir-
work, and our knowledge of the people and organiza- mation.
tions involved in this research. We acknowledge that In the first exercise, he imagined the organization
our interpretations of these data are shaped by our as a dancing woman who expresses grief, struggle,
own professional and personal backgrounds, and oth- hope, and solidarity. The dance ends with the body
ers might differ in their interpretations. Since we are arched heavenward, hands outstretchedin connec-
working within an interpretive or constructivist para- tion between earth and heaven.
digm, we make no claim that our results can be gener- In dialogue with this image, he wrote: Sometimes
alized to other organizations. However, we are confi- I feel like I am working in a vacuum. You seem most
dent that our results are credible and that others could associated with me when we have a common success. I
use similar methods in other organizations and discov- think you are ready to support and connect yourself
er individual and organizational changes particular to with me when you like my work and when that work
their situation. We believe that our insights and per- is successful. At other times, I feel like our relationship

is floundering. She replied, Part of my problem is read and discussed the images and dialogues that they
that I have so many voices in my head and so many had generated, several tensions and issues emerged
dreams, ambitions, preoccupations, and responsibili- that, they reported, had not been fully voiced and
ties. I dont feel so unified. . . . Its as if my cells are explored among them. They revealed a sense of mys-
exploding in hundreds of tiny directions. He reflect- tery, adaptability, and flexibility. They noticed patterns
ed that he felt frustrated and tense about the direction about which they had not been aware previously. They
of the organization, and identified several conflicts shared dilemmas, values, and beliefs that had been
and perspectives. unspoken among them. This conversation probably
Two weeks later, at the second workshop, Douglas influenced the images of and dialogues with the organ-
described his relationship to the organization in this ization during the second meeting. When the organi-
way: Over and over again these past six years I have zation was at a crossroads, each member listened to her
been amazed and thankful for this job. I really love this or his own spirit and to the creative life of the others.
work, this place, this style! The image and dialogue There was also some evidence of collective change
that he generated during the second workshop were following the second workshop. For example, the
quite different than those of the first workshop. He homogeneity of the staff was talked about. The two
described his image: staff members hired after the workshops reflected
I see a circle of hundredspeople, predominantly greater diversity. Also discussed was the relative
women, gathered aroundlarge picnic shelters, in emphasis of the organization on one urban area of the
a small sunny village in Guatemalaat a barn rais- state. Later, projects reported in the newsletter pro-
ing., at a mass rally in [Africa]. I see bright duced by the organization portrayed somewhat less
colors, sunshine, happiness, children, musicians, emphasis on the urban region and more on rural issues
large tables of native foods. and other geographical areas of the state.
While Douglas and his colleagues were members of
He imagined that he heard the organization speak the same denomination, none of the images that
in a series of voices, remarks coming from every direc- emerged in the workshops were specifically related to
tion. He wrote that he felt overwhelmed but still their religious tradition. This suggests that the process
wanted to hear it all. He ended by writing, I love the of soul making in organizations, linking spirit and
way you continue to teach me by your word and exam- matter, mind and body, is a spiritual one that is not
ple. I am proud to be part of an organization that necessarily linked to a specific religion and can be rel-
includes [many individuals that I respect]. At the end evant to all people in a variety of organizations.
of the exercise, he described feelings of peacefulness, The images of the workplace that emerged, the
satisfaction, happiness, excitement, mystery rather ensuing intrapersonal dialogues, and the interpersonal
than confusion, creative diversity rather than conflict. dialogues among organizational members that fol-
Douglas statements of relationship expressed both lowed were soul-making. They facilitated the integra-
connection and detachment. His first image, the danc- tion of conscious and unconscious material about the
ing woman, was numinous, almost goddess-like. Their organization and Douglass relationship with work.
dialogue expressed ambiguity, confusion, and conflict. They enabled Douglas to create meaning individually
His second, more multifaceted but less ambiguous as well as collectively with his peers. The workshops
image, of a vibrant circle of hundreds, focused those provided space for the rational and the imaginal to
voices, dreams, and responsibilities. It is as if they play together and acted as a vessel for the process of
moved from their existence in the dancers head to individuation in the person and for the development
have a life of their own. Douglas was in the center of of soul.
the image, at the heart of the vital, diverse, noisy gath-
ering he imagined. This second image is less god-like, Discussion
more human, and more differentiated. Douglas is Of the four people who participated in the two
more fully a part of it. workshops from this organization, three of them
demonstrated a pattern of development in relationship
Organizational Results to the organization similar to Douglas. The fourth per-
In both workshops, when participants in the group son, another full-time staff member, was leaving the

organization to do other work; her results indicated sion and belonging. Such a sense of meaning and
emotional disengagement. We noticed similar patterns belonging can help them to connect to that which
among many of the participants in the other two transcends the ego. The person and her or his relation-
organizations that we studied. ship with work and the organization develop concur-
The participants tacit knowledge of their organiza- rently.
tions was evoked by their engagement with the images When we envision ourselves and organizations as a
generated in this exercise, as well as the interpersonal pandemonium of images, we know ourselves and see
dialogues about the images among people who worked our world from a variety of perspectives (Hillman,
together. The material was first expressed in numinous 1983). If we conceive of ourselves, our work relation-
archetypal images and then in more realistic, complex, ships, and organizations as many voices and dia-
balanced images that allowed for adaptation to the loguesas polyphony we hear differences and pos-
external world of the workplace. Uncovering the sibilities within and among us. We discover that each
archetypal ground of the organization and surfacing person, each perspective, each voice, is one center of
the individuals lived relationship to that workplace any organization (Hazen, 1993). It is from each of
created space for the transcendent function, thereby these dynamic centers that collective change can flow.
transforming mundane ordinary activity into extraor-
dinary soul making. Specific experiences of the ego, in
this case the conscious processing of the archetypal Author Note
images of work, activated the transcendent function. The authors wish to thank co-editor Douglas
That symbol-making action of the psyche reconciled MacDonald and two anonymous reviewers for their
and incorporated conscious and unconscious material, helpful suggestions. Earlier versions of this paper were
creating not simply intellectual comprehension but presented in 1994 at the National Academy of
also apprehension, that is, understanding through Management Meeting, Organizational Development
experience. The intrapersonal and interpersonal dia- and Change Division, Dallas; and the Conference on
logues helped people to feel more included in their Organizational Applications of Jungian Analytical
organizations and to find meaning in their work. Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha. Research
Organizational change and development is fre- was supported in part by a Summer Research Grant
quently studied at the levels of the small work group from the College of Business Administration,
and the organization as a whole. The data presented University of Detroit Mercy.
and interpreted in this paper suggest that organization-
al change can be investigated at the personal level of
the organization, as well. We suggest that using a qual- References
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addressed to Mary Ann Hazen, Associate Professor,
Management College of Business Administration,
University of Detroit Mercy, 4001 W. McNichols
Road, P.O. Box 19900, Detroit, Michigan 48219-
0900. Phone 313.993.3356, Fax 313.993.1052, Email
hazenma@udmercy.edu
Appendix
Dialogue with Your Organization
1. Relax. Close your eyes and let the chair and floor
support you. Breathe deeply. Do not go into a deep
meditative statejust relax enough to enter your
imagination. (5 minutes)
2. Write a statement of your relationship with this
organization at the present moment. (5 minutes)
3. Imagine the organization as a being with whom you
can communicate. Use all of your senses. What
does this individual look like? What do you hear?
Smell? Taste? Sense kinesthetically? If the image
shifts or changes, that is fine. Just note it. When
you are ready, write down your description of the
organization as you have imagined it. (10 minutes)
4. Now give this being a voice and a history. Using the
first person, write down the eight or ten most
important events in his or her life, beginning with
the words, I was born . . . (1015 minutes)
5. Imagine the organization again. Now imagine a
conversation or dialogue with this being. Begin by
introducing yourself. Write down your conversa-
tion as if it is a dialogue in a play. (1520 minutes)
Bring your conversation to an end. If you are not
finished, agree to complete the dialogue later.
6. Relax again. Read what you have written. If you
would like to add or take away anything, do so
now. (10 minutes)
7. How are you feeling? Of what are you aware now?
Write your feelings, thoughts, and observations. (5
minutes)
8. Decide what you will read aloud to others in the
group.

Integral Psychology and Foreign Policy:
Lessons From the Fulbright Scholars Program
Daniel Holland, Ph.D.

University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psychological principles have many applications for social
and foreign policy, but concrete examples are needed to illustrate this connection. The Fulbright
Scholars Program represents one concrete example of an effort in U.S. foreign policy that closely
reflects the values of humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psychology. The implications that
such a program has for the purposeful involvement of humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psy-
chologists in other social policy efforts is discussed. The need for integral psychologists to expand
beyond the traditional boundaries of professional psychological practice into such realms as for-
eign policy is emphasized.
It is the task of education, more than of any Arkansas who, in 1945, began to seek a plan for the
other instrument of public policy, to help close the promotion of peace following the destruction of
dangerous gap between the economical and tech- World War II. Senator J. William Fulbright arrived at
nological interdependence of the peoples of the an idea that involved an exchange of scholars from
world and their psychological, political, and throughout the world communityscholars who
spiritual alienation. would foster good will and nonviolent international
U.S. Senator J. William Fulbright (D-AR) solutions by gaining a greater understanding of cul-
1963 tures outside their own. Fulbright believed that by
promoting cross-cultural understanding, even (or par-
When we seek the well-being of one country ticularly) among nations with sociopolitical tensions,
at the expense of other countries, it leads to future conflicts, and even wars could be avoided. This
exploitation and imperialism. As long as we understanding would be gained, according to
think exclusively of our own country, it is bound Fulbrights vision, through a process of direct experi-
to create conflict and war. ence in other nations and cultures. The result of this
Krishnamurti idea has been the most prominent cross-cultural
1963 exchange program in the world, a program that repre-
sents a hybrid of foreign policy and humanistic princi-
he suggestion that a particular element of U.S. ples that are well represented in humanistic, transper-
T foreign policy constitutes a clear example of

humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psy-
chology might initially sound like a forced juxtaposi-
sonal, and integral psychology. This hybrid policy can
serve to encourage the integral psychologies to seek
involvement and influence in realms far removed from
tion. It is the case, however, that one of the most suc- those typically associated with professional psychology
cessful innovations in U.S. foreign policy was con- or clinical practice. A profile of the Fulbright Scholars
ceived as a humanistic mission, and was largely articu- Program provides evidence that the same principles
lated in psychological, as well as educational, terms. that inform humanistic, transpersonal, and integral
This effort, the Fulbright Scholars Program, was psychology also informed the development of this
shaped 58 years ago by a freshman U.S. senator from exemplary effort in foreign policy, suggesting more

overlap between these domains than is typically recog- law, and with the Fulbright Act, the Fulbright Scholars
nized, and suggesting that integral psychologies have Program was born.
the potential to influence other aspects of social policy Since its inception, the Fulbright Scholars Program
if those who are invested in this realm of psychology has grown significantly, weathering numerous threats
pursue these opportunities. to its existence from those who consider it a risk to
national security or an unnecessary expenditure (the
The Fulbright Scholars Program Fulbright Program is now funded by the U.S.
The idea for the Fulbright Scholars Program Information Agency, as well as through public funding
emerged in 1945, when Democratic Senator J. provided by participating
William Fulbright of Arkansas began looking for a countries). By 1995, the Fulbright Scholars Program
means to promote peace and mutual understanding in had provided more than 210,000 scholarships, with
the wake of World War II. Fulbright reflected upon his 72,000 Americans and 140,000 international scholars
own experience as a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford and as receiving them. Approximately 140 countries have
an American participant in a 1944 conference on the participated in the program, and alumni include high-
restoration of Europes educational system (Powell, ly distinguished names in diplomacy, journalism,
1996, p. 43). Based on these personal experiences, he health care, and education from across the globe
began to consider how international collaboration and (Powell, 1996, p. 456). The Fulbright Scholarship
exchange might occur among scholars from many Program has come to represent a highly visible exam-
countries, across many disciplines. His vision was one ple of successful international cooperation and cross-
of a program that would foster a constant search for cultural exchange based on humanistic principles.
understanding among all peoples and all culturesa
search that can only be effective when learning is pur- The Fulbright Programs Relationship to
sued on a worldwide basis (Powell, 1996, p.45). This Humanistic, Transpersonal, and Integral Psychology
search for understanding would occur through When considering the broadest goals of humanis-
American scholars studying or teaching abroad for tic, transpersonal, and integral psychology, the
extended periods, and scholars from other nations Fulbright Program serves as an example of how the val-
coming to the United States to do the same. ues that inform these psychologies have virtually lim-
Fulbrights idea was dependent upon public fund- itless application. Ken Wilber (1981) has pointed out
ing, but he also knew that proposing a new budget in his last chapter of Up From Eden, entitled
item appropriation would meet with resistance, partic- Republicans, Democrats, and Mystics, men and
ularly for what was already likely to be a controversial women are unfree not primarily because of horrid
program during the post-war period of heightened appetites or oppressive institutions, but because they
nationalism, ongoing economic recovery, and emerg- manufacture both of those forms of unfreedom as a
ing McCarthyism. Fulbright therefore proposed that substitute for transcendence (p. 338). If this is so,
the massive amount of tangible American surplus then it becomes necessary to identify those occasional
assets still stored in other nations from during the institutions that have been created to be anything but
wartrucks, jeeps, railroad equipment, bulldozers, oppressive, and that serve to promote various forms of
and so forth.represented a significant amount of transcendence rather than pander to hollow substitu-
potential currency located abroad (Arndt & Rubin, tions for it. The Fulbright Scholars Program is one
1993; Powell, 1996, p. 46). If the countries in which such example, and therefore serves as a useful case
this surplus equipment was stored were given the study of the form and function some policy institu-
option of purchasing it with their own currency, that tions might take if guided by humanistic, transperson-
source of revenue would serve to support much of the al, and integral psychological perspectives.
Scholars Program, and would circumvent the need for In the case of the U.S. Senator from Arkansas, it
appropriations from the treasury (Powell, 1996 p. appears he shaped his ideas for an international
463). Paradoxically, then, it was largely surplus war exchange program based on ideas and principles
equipment that served to initially fund a humanistic drawn from liberal arts education; a value for personal
program to promote education and peace. On August growth through direct experience; and the belief that
1, 1946, President Truman signed Fulbrights bill into mutual respect and understanding are bred through
Integral Psychology and Foreign Policy 115

the promotion of empathy, even (or especially) on an nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism, sexism, homo-
international and cross-cultural level. These are some phobia, or religious fundamentalism.
of the same core principles upon which integral, I do not propose here to take a tolerant atti-
transpersonal, and humanistic psychologies have been tude toward the manifestations of any of these
built. This fact suggests there is a potential for integral hateful behaviors. To be compassionate toward the
psychology to influence seemingly distant realms of people involved does not mean accepting their
endeavor, including social welfare and foreign policy, behavior. A central element in a meaning-oriented
when the potential application of humanistic values is strategy for societal healing is compassion. If one
present in those realms. In other words, what appear can learn to see oneself, ones parents, and eventu-
on the surface to be distantly related realms of endeav- ally all people as having been denied the opportu-
orintegral psychology and foreign policy, in this nity to actualize their most fundamental ethical
casemay actually be quite closely related when they and spiritual needs, one can develop this compas-
share the same underlying humanistic convictions, sionate attitude. (p. 156)
intellectual roots, and goals of transcending the typi-
cal. It follows, then, that by continuously identifying In advocating meaning-oriented change in our politi-
other realms of endeavor that might share these values, cal and social system, Lerner is essentially promoting
integral psychologists can become engaged in efforts an integration of humanistic, transpersonal, and inte-
that do not look much like the practice of profession- gral psychological principles into public life. One
al psychology on the surface at all, but in fact benefit could point to this proposal for social change as one
tremendously from the involvement of integral psy- that depends upon an interdisciplinary knowledge of
chologists in their conceptualization and execution. (at least) spirituality, sociology, political science, and
The unwittingly close correspondence between the psychology for sustenance. It is also a contemporary
values promoted by both the Fulbright Scholars proposal that is highly consistent with the aims of the
Program and humanistic, transpersonal, and integral 58 year-old Fulbright Scholars Program, since both
psychology serves as an example of the relevance these approaches advocate the need to improve widespread
psychologies might have for something as presumably cross-cultural understanding through individual trans-
far afield as a foreign policy program. formative change, and both draw upon the same intel-
As pointed out by Art Lyons (2001), If humanis- lectual and moral roots as do the integral psychologies.
tic psychology is going to make a profound impact on The point here is that since the Fulbright Scholars
the way in which citizens of the world live their lives Program can be conceptualized as representing one of
during the 21st century, then it must focus on the larg- the first Anglo-American examples of an integral psy-
er social arena in some fashion (p. 633). Indeed, this chologyoriented effort at foreign policy, the potential
will not require unwanted visitation on the part of the for greater involvement of integral psychologists in the
humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psychologies in shaping of foreign policy must be recognized. So,
public affairs, since an increasingly vocal call for the while the Fulbright Program was never explicitly
greater inclusion of psychology into realms such as defined as an extension of humanistic, transpersonal,
social policy, including foreign policy, is already evi- or integral psychology, it can, based on the principles
dent. For example, the Rabbi Michael Lerner (1996) that inform it, be defined as such now. Furthermore,
articulates an approach to political and societal healing current proposals for innovative social policysuch as
that is very much in concert with humanistic, Rabbi Lernerssome of which are more or less
transpersonal, and integral psychological principles: descendents of Fulbrights efforts, are explicit in their
Many of the distortions of daily life are rooted in promotion of humanistic, transpersonal, and integral
our responses to misrecognition and the denial of psychological concepts. Therefore, the possibility can
our desire for meaning, and in our accommodation be said to clearly exist for integral psychology to
to a society based on selfishness and materialism. If become more explicitly involved in contemporary for-
one could look at all other people, and oneself, as eign and social policy efforts, building upon
having lives that are in part shaped by this dynam- Fulbrights intuition and foresight, recognizing Ken
ic, one could then take a much more compassion- Wilbers proposed etiology for why so many institu-
ate attitude toward people drawn to xenophobic tions lack a transpersonal purpose, acknowledging the

urgency of Lerners contemporary proposal for mean- makes involvement in an interdisciplinary realm like
ing-oriented politics, and fulfilling Art Lyons call to foreign or social policy an ambitious but natural step.
social action. Furthermore, as the need for new perspectives on
Humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psycholo- broad and complex social issues becomes increasingly
gists, however, will need to be highly attentive in order urgent, humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psy-
to recognize potential avenues for social policy chologists will have an obligation (indeed, possibly a
involvement. They will also need to be open to engag- moral imperative) to become engaged in the promo-
ing in these endeavors, which have not traditionally tion of quality of life across many realms and at many
been defined as pertaining to professional psychology. levels. Fortunately, the realm of integral psychology is
This evolution of perspective and action will require well suited to such evolution, even when the profes-
an extension of the interdisciplinarity that marks the sion of psychology in general remains turf-bound. The
field of humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psy- challenge at this time, however, may be convincing
chology, as well as a relaxation of professional identity. humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psychologists
This relaxation of professional identity will need to themselves that their relevance extends far beyond the
occur during a period when the profession of psychol- boundaries circumscribed by the conventions of any
ogy as a whole is actually engaged in efforts to further single profession.
cordon off professional turf and fortify professional
identity. Interestingly, this professional siege mentality
is not unlike some aspects of the political environment References
in which Fulbright found himself when he first pur- Arndt, R.T., & Rubin, D.L.(Eds.). (1993). The
sued his idea for the Fulbright Scholars Program, when Fulbright difference, 19481992. New Brunswick,
American nationalism served as a potential barrier to NJ: Transaction Publishers.
gaining support for a cross-cultural scholars program. Lerner, M. (1996). The politics of meaning. Reading,
As in Senator Fulbrights case, however, only a willing- MA: Perseus Books.
ness to break with convention, and pursue collabora- Lyons, A. (2001). Humanistic psychology and social
tion rather than isolation, will result in the innovative action. In: K. J. Schneider, J.F.T. Bugental, & J. F.
change that is most needed. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychol-
ogy (pp. 625-634). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Powell, L.R. (1996). J. William Fulbright and his time.
Conclusion Memphis, TN: Guild Bindery Press.
The point in reviewing the nature of the Fulbright Wilber, K. (1981). Up from Eden. Boulder, CO:
Scholars Program in the context of humanistic, Shambhala Press.
transpersonal, and integral psychology is to emphasize
the potential reach of these psychological principles
into foreign policy programming, and to provide a Correspondence regarding this article should be
concrete example of a foreign policy effort that reflects directed to the author at Department of Psychology,
these principles. If an innovation in foreign policy University of Arkansas at Little Rock, 2801 South
such as the Fulbright Scholars Program can reflect University Ave. Little Rock, AR 72204. Email dchol-
integral psychological principles, the potential clearly land@ualr.edu
exists for integral psychologists to
contribute to social policy and foreign policy endeav-
ors in various ways. While this involvement will likely
require additional interdisciplinary knowledge for
those psychologists who choose to pursue such direc-
tions, humanistic, transpersonal and integral psycholo-
gies have the advantage of already being unusually
interdisciplinary in their perspective and adventure-
some in their orientation. The unusual breadth of
humanistic, transpersonal, and integral psychologists
Integral Psychology and Foreign Policy 117

Reframing the Conflict in Fiji:
Economic and Transpersonal Frameworks for Peace

Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center
Reframing is presented as a psychological technique applicable to facilitating change leading to

conflict resolution and the achievement of peace. The current conflict in Fiji is discussed as a case
study of one such application. Fijian problems have been commonly attributed to racial and eth-
nic divides that are not easily amenable to change. An intervention providing an alternative
understanding of these conflicts, namely that they are better seen as due to competing economic
models, is described. The scientific transpersonal perspective is presented as another alternative
framework, seen as especially applicable to religious conflicts, which potentially provides an inclu-
sive way to reconcile differences. It is concluded that reframing might be useful in a wide range
of conflicts through providing integrative frameworks that change the level and content of divi-
sive discourse.
atzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch defined (1985) expanded this notion into action identification
W reframing as to change the conceptual

and/or emotional setting or viewpoint in
relation to which a situation is experienced and to
theory in which an existing equilibrium, such as a sta-
ble worldview, must first be disrupted in order to have
a meaningful change that allows regaining a new equi-
place it in another frame which fits the facts of the librium. A recent example demonstrating how this can
same situation equally well or even better, and thereby be applied is the work of Davis and Knowles (1999) in
changes its entire meaning (in Segal, 2001, p. 90). which reframing is shown as effective in influencing
Reframing has been used in many counseling and psy- behavioral change.
chotherapy interventions, most notably Eriksonian In this paper, I discuss reframing as a psychological
approaches (e.g., Haley, 1973), and has important tool to address some of the complex difficulties in Fiji,
implications for facilitating peace. When oppositional a nation demographically polarized and torn by result-
sides become polarized to the point where violence is ing conflicts, in order to facilitate peaceful solutions of
seen not only as a viable but perhaps the only available its many problems. The approach offered stems from
option, often the underlying dynamic is an impasse in my research (e.g., Van Deusen, Mueller, Jones, &
the worldviews of the participants in the conflict. Friedman, 2002) and consulting involvements over
These require more than mere bargaining in which the past decade in Fiji, including my involvement as
conflicting sides are compromising. Rather they one of the founders of an organization in Fiji that has
require solutions changing the dynamics from provided intensive training to the majority of the cur-
loselose, which are always part of mutual compro- rent Fijian cabinet members, as well as to many of the
mise, into winwin outcomes. Reframing is a tech- countrys top business leaders. This consulting has
nique that can provide such synergy. focused on designing and implementing appropriate
One research approach to understanding how this models for economic development at the local and
can operate stems from the classic model proposed by national level. I also speculate about the possible role
Lewin (1951) in which successful change involves of transpersonal psychology in providing an overarch-
three stages: unfreezingmoving to the new ing perspective through which reframing religious
leveland freezing (p. 228). Vallacher and Wegner conflicts, some of the most daunting bases of global

strife, could lead to a more peaceful world. Finally, I ities of their rituals, frequently disparaging each others
discuss how the type of solution applied in Fiji can be fire walking as inauthentic. For example, there were
expanded, for example to the Israeli-Palestinian con- accusations from the native Fijians that the coals used
flict, in ways that could be similarly useful. by the Fijian Indians were prepared in a way such that
they were not really very hot (by being covered with
Background on Fiji ashes) and corresponding accusations from the Fijian
Fiji has a bifurcated ethnic composition in which a lit- Indians that the native Fijians used a protective balm
tle more than half of the population are native Fijians on their feet.
and slightly more than 40 percent are Fijian Indians, When first visiting Fiji while involved in consult-
based on an estimated population of under a million ing to the hospitality industry during the early 1990s,
people. There are also various minorities, including I met with a group of Fijian hotel workers and imme-
Chinese, Europeans, and other Pacific Islanders. These diately hit the impasse between the two cultures.
demographics are the consequence of British colonial- When, in a team-building group I was facilitating, I
ism, in which indentured Asian Indians were brought referred to a Fijian Indian using the term, Fijian
to Fiji to work in agriculture and other industries Indian, I was rebuffed, as follows: Sir, I am not a
since the native Fijians could not be coerced into such Fijian Indian, just a Fijian. My family has lived in Fiji
roles. Native Fijians typically resisted Westernization, for many generations. In contrast, a native Fijian
pursuing more traditional village ways, while the Fijian replied, I partially agree; you are not a Fijian Indian.
Indians emulated the Britishresulting in the emer- You are an Indian whose ancestors were brought to my
gence of two divergent Fijian cultures. country by the British. And you are a guest in my land
When the British left Fiji, many conflicts ensued. who must recognize you are neither Fijian nor Fijian
For example, the Fijian Indians became, as a group, Indian, just Indian. Similarly, I noticed how the
more Western in culture, and controlled the majority prevalent division of labor in hotels mirrored rifts in
of professional and business endeavors in the nation. Fijian society. For example, tourists who come to Fiji
However, the majority of native Fijians retained their are often greeted by native Fijians in traditional garb
traditional village lifestyle, as well as collective owner- with warm Bulas, the indigenous hello and good-
ship by villages of more than 80 percent of the land bye. Likewise, the majority of the front office workers,
(Finin & Wesley-Smith, 2001). This disparity became wait staff, and others who interact directly with visitors
the basis for much of the ongoing national conflicts. are native Fijiancommunicating the sense of place
Although the majority of the Western press, as well as to tourists. However, the Fijian Indian workers, who
many Fijians (both native and Indian) attribute the perform the majority of the professional and technical
various crises in Fiji as due to racial and ethnic ten- functions, mainly worked behind the public scene.
sions, there are other more useful interpretations. With the recent coup in Fiji, in which a democratical-
It is undeniable, however, that racial and ethnic ly elected Fijian Indian leader was replaced with a
factors are at play in these conflicts. For example, the native Fijian, conflicts have reached precipitous pro-
differential appearance of the two peoples is striking. portions. Without going into the complex dynamics
Though both tend to be dark skinned, the native behind the change in government, it is sufficient to
Fijians are a large people among whom males are com- state that the situation there is extremely difficult and
monly heavily muscled and females are admired for both sides of the divide have legitimate concerns and
their size. In contrast, the Fijian Indians are, on aver- grievances.
age, a small and slender people. This lends to ready
stereotyping across the two cultures. Also, despite that Reframing the Fijian Conflict
there are some noteworthy cultural similarities, ethnic When problems are blamed on immutable racial
differences are often magnified by members of the two categories, there is no room for reconciliation.
groups. For example, both cultures share in the rich Similarly, when difficulties are blamed on ethnicity,
religious tradition of fire walking. However, this is the situation is also change resistant. In the case of Fiji,
often seen as a source of contention rather than being if the conflict remains defined as one of race and eth-
perceived as common ground. Specifically, I witnessed nicity, little positive is likely to emergesince these are
both sides, rather than mutually respecting the similar- deeply ascribed characteristics not amenable to
Reframing Peace 119

change. One potentially useful strategy is to reframe the native Fijian behavior through the stereotypes of
these problems into a less emotional discourse through Western culture as laziness (i.e., not individually will-
looking for common ground to synergistically pose ing to do a full days work for a full days pay).
solutions. Adding to the problem of competing economic
Much of my work in Fiji has focused on reframing models is a deep Western-based ethnocentrism that
the fundamental differences between the Fijian tends to deprecate native Fijian culture. I previously
Indians and native Fijians as due to culturally different illustrated this in a case study comparing native Fijian
and competing economic modelssince such models ways of fishing with modern ways embraced by Fijian
can be discussed relatively dispassionately, and recon- Indians (Friedman, Glover, & Avegalio, 2002).
ciled, whereas discussing racial and ethnic attributions Traditionally, all able-bodied members of a native
is typically counterproductive. This work has occurred Fijian village will collectively go into the ocean, form-
in a variety of settings, including in one-on-one coach- ing a large circle as the tide recedes. Gradually they
ing, small groups, and large workshops. Specifically, I close their circle, trapping the fish as they become
have advocated that the primary differences between stranded with the withdrawing tide; then, all that is
the Fijian Indian and native Fijian groups are better needed is to gather the fish. This method provides
seen as due to a conflict between individual and collec- much greater yield than using individual fishing poles
tive capitalism (Friedman, Glover, & Avegalio, 2002). and is likely one of the worlds most productive
In this sense, the traditional collective economy of the resource-gathering techniques. Yet many Indian
native Fijian village, despite the ever-growing influ- Fijians scoff at this primitive fishing technique.
ence of modernism, is currently a form of collective Valuing cultural differences, rather than devaluing
capitalism. In contrast, the Fijian Indians have them, is essential for the type of reframing that can
assumed a British individualistic form of capitalism. lead to peace. In Lewins (1951) model, which starts
These competing economic models result in many with unfreezing, first the ethnocentric belief that
conflicts that are too easily misattributed to racial and my way is the best way has to be challenged. Again,
ethnic causes. it is easier to challenge, or unfreeze, economic models
I previously illustrated this in a case study through that are less central to core worldview than assump-
describing how a Western expatriate manager in Fiji tions about race or ethnicity. However, I am not
perceived problems with the native Fijian work ethic implying that these are easy to confront, since they are
(Glover, Friedman, & Jones, 2002). The manager stat- implicitly held, but they are less value-laden than attri-
ed he had asked a local village chief to send three men butions based on race or ethnicity.
to clear a field, with each man to receive a payment for Applying reframing, during Lewins (1951) second
eight hours work. However, the entire group of 40 stage of establishing change, I have advocated that Fiji
able-bodied men from the village showed up. The needs to free itself of the burden of other cultures eco-
expatriate wanted only three and consequently asked nomic models and create its own unique unifying
the chief to send the remainder back to the village. The model that is sustainable among all of its constituents
chief, however, requested that all 40 could do the work (Friedman, Glover, & Avegalio, 2002). This is quite
quickly and the payment could be made to the com- different from accepting uncritically the extant
munal fund that helped all in the village collectively. Western models that are culturally inappropriate for
Not understanding this collective approach, the expa- Fiji. I have illustrated this by presenting a number of
triate sent all the men away and, instead, hired three alternative economic models to those prevailing in the
Fijian Indian workers from the city who were more Westsuch as ones that are demonstrating success in
comfortable with an individual model of capitalism, non-Western cultures (e.g., the government-directed
illustrating the clash of different work values and pro- capitalism of Singapore) or that are emerging with
ductivity models. The result was that the managers promise of success (e.g., the modified Communist
selection of the Fijian Indians fueled mutual resent- model in the Peoples Republic of China). Hopefully,
mentsfrom the native Fijians toward both the man- as a uniquely Fijian economic model emerges, the divi-
ager and the Fijian Indians whose competing labor siveness within Fiji will ameliorate, facilitated through
deprived the village of needed resources, and back reframing the bases of Fijian conflict as primarily eco-
from the manager and Fijian Indians, who perceived nomic.

Reframing Using a Transpersonal Perspective focused on the study of humanitys highest potential,
Economics, however, is not the whole story. The and with the recognition, understanding, and realiza-
role of spirituality is also crucial to any successful tion of unitive, spiritual, and transcendental states of
reframing of Fijis conflicts. For example, Williksen- consciousness (p. 91). Braud (1998) aptly described
Bakker (2002) recognized that, though economic dif- the meanings of trans in transpersonal psychology
ferences underlie many of Fijis conflict, this fact has to with a metaphor:
be viewed in a wider frame than economics as usually The visible parts of trees in a dense forest seem to
understood in the West. For example, the importance be separate entities until one looks beneath the sur-
of the native Fijian sense of vanua, emphasizing a face of the earth and finds the extensive, intercon-
spiritual connection between people and the land, has nected root systems that bind the trees together.
to be considered, in contrast to the more Western The peaks of mountains shrouded in mist seem iso-
notion of land held by most Fijian Indians, which lated and unconnected until the mist melts away,
views it primarily as a resource from which to profit. revealing the common lower continuities that pre-
The implications of these differences are profound viously had been obscured. (p. 39)
when it comes to decisions such as whether or not to
timber old-growth forests. Congruent with these approaches to transpersonal
Similarly, Ewins (1998) emphasized how the Fijian psychology, I proposed a transpersonal construct called
conflicts have roots in deep traditions more than in self-expansiveness both to describe the potential of
race or ethnicity. Likewise, Brison (2001) discussed personal identity to expand through self-conception
how native Fijian identity is constructed through such and to provide a corresponding empirical method to
traditions, particularly the kava (yaqona) cere- research the self-concept from such a perspective
moniesand, incidentally, how native Fijians use (Friedman, 1983). Studies done to critically examine
reframing as a traditional way of reconciling regional, the validity of the construct and its associated measure
tribal, and social class conflicts. Bosson (2000) also (i.e., the Self-Expansiveness Level Form; Friedman,
explored the role of traditions, mainly through festi- 1983) have generally provided support for its scientif-
vals, as part of nation-building and reconciliation in ic utility (e.g., Friedman & MacDonald, 2002;
Fiji. And Norton (2000) discussed how reconciliation MacDonald, Gagnier, & Friedman, 2000).
at the Fijian national level must occur through dia- I have become increasingly convinced that the
logue that allows for accommodation of contending human capacity to construct itself in ways that tran-
worldviews. Thus there are a number of convergent scend individualistic limitations is salient to addressing
strands of thought pointing in a common direction for Fijian conflicts. Specifically, there are no limits to how
healing the rifts in Fiji, namely through the use of we conceptualize ourselves. As we can identify with
reframing emphasizing the role of spirituality. only our isolated selves, as biological beings, we can
I speculate that transpersonal psychology, which also narrowly identify with our allegedly racial or eth-
addresses spirituality from a scientific perspective, pro- nic roots. Alternatively, we can learn to identify in
vides a possible avenue for establishing the most solid more expansive ways, such as with a sense of national
common ground on which to deeply reframe Fijian patriotismwhich could unify a conflicted nation
conflicts. The focus of transpersonal psychology such as Fiji.
involves an expansion of the perceived self as being The construct of self-expansiveness also allows
beyond (trans) the individual or personal to encom- understanding how to expand our identity beyond the
pass wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche, and cos- limits of what is typically understood as the personal
mos (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993, p. 3). Grof, for exam- self, and even beyond the collective self of national
ple, discussed his view of transpersonal psychology as identity, in a way that can have profound implications
involving a temporal-spatial expansion of the self for peace. The model I developed for understanding
beyond that of the corporeal-physical boundaries of this uses space-time cartography. From this approach,
the skin-encapsulated ego existing in a world of sepa- individuals can identify in the present with just their
rate beings and objects (1992, p. 91). After reviewing own behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and physical bod-
37 definitions of transpersonal psychology, Lajoie and iesthe usual Western sense of isolated self. They can,
Shapiro (1992) concluded that they commonly however, also expand their identification in enlarged
Reframing Peace 121

or contracted spatial ways. One could manifest an Conclusion
enlarged spatial identification through, for example, I have discussed the potential of the psychological
embracing others as a component of ones sense of self, technique of reframing for addressing cultural dilem-
as in love, or could manifest a contracted spatial iden- mas in Fiji related to resolving conflicts and achieving
tification through feeling resonant with body parts, peace. I presented my efforts in Fiji to reframe differ-
such as identifying with ones heart feelings. ences widely perceived as based on race and ethnicity
Individuals can also expand their identification in into being seen as due to competing economic models,
temporal ways, through feeling identified with their enabling a less divisive discourse to emerge. I also pre-
pasts or with their anticipated futures. When such sented what I consider the widest possible lens that can
identification, either spatial or temporal, goes beyond be used to reframe conflicts threatening peace, the
connections with the individual as customarily under- transpersonal perspective. When I think about the
stood in the West, it may be said to transcend the iso- many current conflicts that are leading to so much suf-
lated individual level and enter into a transpersonal fering, I surmise that it is time to begin to reframe
domain. Examples of such include identifying with antiquated identifications into more universalistic
possible future descendents who might be citizens of a understandings. I advocate unfreezing and reframing
unified world or even with the environment as a whole these identifications in ways that support innovative
that sustains all life on earth. This transpersonal per- dialogue, equally honoring the narratives of different
spective allows for a way to reframe narrow identifica- peoples as both truebut in limited senses that need
tions fueling much of the pain in the world. to be transcended to find a deeper commonality.
Consequently, a transpersonal reframing could involve The discussion about reframing these dilemmas in
native Fijians and Fijian Indians finding ways of hon- Fiji can also apply more broadly. For example, similar
oring their past identifications, or differences, without conflicts are found in other South Pacific nations
rigidly holding on to them, leading to an expanded (including in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon
transpersonal identification that would include but Islands, and Vauatu). In addition, conflicts based on
also transcend the more limited identifications. similar dynamics also occur in other societies in which
In the case of Fiji, there are strong extant spiritual the British introduced indentured Indian laborers,
traditions, both among the native Fijians, who now are such as in Trinidad and Tobago. Finally, perhaps all
mostly Methodist Christian but also adhere to many conflicts that are currently framed as ethnic or racial
traditional beliefs (Katz, 1999) and the Fijian Indians, can be seen in similar ways. Using the Israeli-
who are mostly Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh. These tra- Palestinian conflict as an example, as long as Israeli
ditions are clearly related to their other prevailing Jews somehow see themselves as part of a distinct
worldviews, including competing economic models, Jewish state or promised Jewish homeland, they sepa-
and are germane to the nations conflicts. One clear rate themselves from their Palestinian brethren in ways
advantage of a transpersonal perspective is that it could that cannot be sustained, and vice versa. One possible
lead to reconciliation based on a scientific integration approach is to look for common ground within the
of religious divisiveness through providing a common divergent Jewish Israeli and Muslim Palestinian views
ground. Many have called for seeking peace through of history and destiny so that each side can come to
scientific understandings (e.g., Fliestra, 2002) and appreciate the differences of the other. It is asking a lot,
some have hypothesized how this could possibly hap- however, to encourage simultaneous belief in contra-
pen (e.g., Burnell, 2002). Transpersonal psychology dictory stories or respect for ones story that demeans
has made significant progress in scientifically exploring anothers. For example, the current IsraeliPalestinian
some areas (e.g., MacDonald & Friedman, 2002) and conflict has been widely seen as due to religious differ-
I have previously suggested how this could occur more ences, though both sides have essentially the same
broadly, including its potential practical applications scriptural base and worship the same deity. Some have
to areas such as peace (Friedman, 2002). In this vein, argued that the similarities of the traditions should be
perhaps reframing the most daunting cultural dilem- stressed, for example, through focus on the common
mas into transpersonal perspectives would facilitate agreed-upon ancestor, Abraham, to facilitate peace
the emergence of peace in Fiji. (Biema, 2002). Unfortunately, both traditions inter-
pret Abrahams role in mutually disadvantageous

lights. Instead, perhaps an economic reframing of the Burnell, J. (2002). The peace hypothesis. Science and
two traditions might be more useful, similar to what I Spirit, September-October, 37-42.
have used in Fiji. Clearly, Westernized Jews who are Davis, B., & Knowles, E. (1999). A disrupt-then-
dominant in Israel have different implicit economic reframe technique of social influence. Journal of
models than the Muslims who are dominant among Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 192-199.
the Palestinians. Likewise, both sides are economically Ewins, R. (1998). Changing their minds: Traditions
suffering because of the continuing conflictsa situa- and politics in contemporary Fiji and Tonga.
tion that could provide a powerful motivational basis Christchurch, NZ: MacMillan Brown Center for
for accepting such reframing. However, for the most Pacific Studies.
potent reframing of this conflict, I suggest a transper- Finin, G., & Wesley-Smith, T. (2001). More than eth-
sonal perspective in which both sides can be encour- nicity behind Fijis unrest [Electronic version].
aged to understand a deeper view congruent with the Population Today, 29, 10.
highest teaching of both traditions. Fliestra, R. (2002). World religions seek peace through
The world is filled with conflicts among peoples science. Research News & Opportunities in Science
who hold on to narrow identifications. In some ways, and Theology, 3, 1, 28.
Fiji is a microcosm of the wider conflicts that are most Friedman, H. (1983). The Self-Expansiveness Level
globally threatening. As an insular nation, it is some- Form: A conceptualization and measurement of a
what less subject to the immediate influences of transpersonal construct. Journal of Transpersonal
adjoining nations and, in this sense, I have come to Psychology, 15, 37-50.
appreciate island nations as natural laboratories for Friedman, H. (2002). Transpersonal psychology as a
studying phenomena related to social change, particu- scientific field. International Journal of Transper-
larly involving issues such as social justice, sustainabil- sonal Studies, 21, 175-187.
ity, and peacesince external influences, though Friedman, H., Glover, G., & Avegalio, F. (2002). The
always present, are usually less pressing. Consequently, burdens of other peoples models: A cultural per-
extrapolating from the methods of reframing I have spective on the current Fiji crisis. Harvard Asia
used in Fiji, and my speculation about the potential Pacific Review, 6, 86-90.
worth of reframing into transpersonal perspectives, Friedman, H., & MacDonald, D. (Eds.). (2002).
may have relevance to conflicts elsewhere. It is my Transpersonal measurement and assessment. San
hope that reframing in this fashion could lead to rec- Francisco: The Transpersonal Institute, 2002.
onciliations among those most threatened in our great- Glover, G., Friedman, H., & Jones, G. (2002).
ly challenged world, namely all of us. Adaptive leadership: When change is not
enoughPart One. Organizational Development
Journal, 20, 15-31.
References Grof, S. (1992). The Holotropic mind: The three levels
Biema, D. (2002). The legacy of Abraham. Time, of human consciousness and how they shape our
September 30, 64-75. minds. New York: Harper.
Bosson, C. (2000). Festival mania, tourism and nation Haley, J. (1973). Uncommon therapy: The psychiatric
building in Fiji: The case of the Hibiscus Festival, techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. New York:
1956-1970 [Electronic version]. The Contemporary Norton.
Pacific, 12, 123-154. Katz, R. (1999). The straight path of the spirit: Ancestral
Braud, W. (1998). Integral inquiry: Complementary wisdom and the healing tradition in Fiji. Rochester,
ways of knowing, being, and expression. In W. VT: Park Street.
Braud & R. Anderson (Eds.), Transpersonal research Lajoie, D., & Shapiro, S. (1992). Definitions of
methods for the social sciences: Honoring human transpersonal psychology: The first twenty-three
experience (pp. 35-67). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage years. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24, 79-98.
Publications. Lewin, K. (1951). Frontiers in group dynamics. In D.
Brison, K. (2001). Constructing identity through cer- Cartwright (Ed.), Field Theory in Social Science (pp.
emonial language in rural Fiji [Electronic version]. 188-237). New York: Harper.
Ethnology, 40, 309-327.
Reframing Peace 123

MacDonald, D., & Friedman, H. (2002). Assessment
of transpersonal and spiritual constructs: State of
the science. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
42,102-125.
MacDonald, D., Gagnier, J., & Friedman, H. (2000).
Transpersonal self-concept and the five-factor
model of personality: Evidence for a sixth stable
dimension of personality. Psychological Reports, 86,
707-726.
Norton, R. (2000). Reconciling ethnicity and nation:
Contending discourses in Fijis constitutional
reform [Electronic version]. The Contemporary
Pacific, 12, 83-122.
Segal, L. (2001). Brief psychotherapy. In Corsini, R.
(Ed.), Handbook of innovative therapy (pp. 86-94).
New York: Wiley.
Vallacher, R., & Wegner, D. (1985). A theory of action
identification. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Van Deusen, C., Mueller, C., Jones, G., & Friedman,
H. (2002). A cross-cultural comparison of problem
solving beliefs and behaviors: Helping managers
understand country differences. International
Journal of Management and Decision Making, 3, 52-
66.
Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). On transpersonal
definitions. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology,
25, 199-207.
Williksen-Bakker, S. (2002). Fijian businessa bone
of contention. Was it one of the factors leading to
the political crisis of 2000? [Electronic version].
Australian Journal of Anthropology, 13, 72-87.
Correspondence regarding this article should be direct-

ed to the author at harrisfriedman@floraglades.org.

READERS COMMENTARY
Surfing the Absolute:

Comments on Volume 22 of the IJTS

Earthrise, Thora, NSW, Australia
Here and there in the woods I come across something special and something extra from the
such beautiful rocks, covered with such soft green writing. When reading essays that are academic and
mosses that they make me want to lay my face scholarly (and are not memoirs of doing ordinary or
against them. even adventurous work) we can expect to visualise less.
John Jerome Remember Butch and Sundance peering anxiously
(in Stone Work, 1989, p. 143) toward the oncoming posse? Who are those guys?
The approaching riders had this in common: they
ld academics and scholars who once were could all ride and they were all bent on catching the
O experimental psychologists and who now live

in the bush where they build hand-made
houses and stone walls and paddle canoes when not
bad guys. When we look at a journal-full of academic
and scholarly writers, they may all have been intent on
achieving publication, and what they all share is writ-
writing fiction are almost certainly not to be trusted in ing. There are many kinds of writers making many
such a journal as the IJTS. Not only do we pretend to kinds of writing. It takes some doing to write well
have retired and to have slipped away into obscurity, enough that the reader can see what the writer sees.
but we sometimes talk cheerfully to water dragons and This is not to suggest that scholars should write more
coaxingly to rosebuds, we secretly read esoteric and vividly or that they emulate the movie scriptwriters
even scholarly journals, and some of us continue the it is to decry scholarly writing that is mindlessly bur-
hopeless struggle against being opinionated. This is an dened with jargon and is flowery, confusing, and com-
opinion piece and I suggest that should it be published posed of tortured language. Surely these academic and
in Reader Comments. I may not be entirely alone as scholarly writers are not as precious as their writings
a writer of opinionsthis means that I am including often imply? Surely they are not in the terminal stages
the Volume 22 authors as writers of opinions too. of hubris? Or is there a scholarly conspiracy to write
I have been rereading John Jeromes Stone Work impenetrable prose?
because I like the writing and because I, like Jerome, In my opinion Volume 22 of the IJTS looks good
build stone walls too. Building gravity walls from river and even feels goodI measured itand it not only
stones is not a kind of work. As the publishers blurb is about 4 mm shorter than the preceding volume, it
indicates: it is not so much an account of stacking seems less likely to flop about when held limply. The
stones as it is a meditation about mind and matter, design and layout and the subheadings in the text
obsession and compulsion, and the shifting seasons. I (which succeed in not interrupting the narratives)
want to suggest that when we read about a man build- indicate very good design and editing. While I did like
ing stone walls in the countryand written by a writer some of what I read, most of the essays were difficult
who is both eloquent and lyricalwe will be com- for me to adequately comprehendperhaps because I
pelled to visualise some of what he describes. To see was often speed-reading through fear of being over-
what an author has been seeing is to magically derive whelmed by prose that was sometimes dense and
Readers Commentary 125

sometimes convoluted. It gives me no pleasure to write subordinate the primacy of direct experience to mate-
thatbut then much of the text gave me no pleasure rialism. (p. 36).
to read. Most of these materials were not entertaining First, let us proceed to the matter of evolution,
and I see no reason on earth why scholarly essays asking specifically whether psychological ontogeny
should not also entertainwhatever else they do. To recapitulates phylogeny: does the course of individual
put this differently: the writings in Volume 22 have psychological development follow a pattern similar to
been made to look their best through good editing and that seen in the history of the human mind? (p. 52).
production processes. Let us again note, as well, that no matter what
While the quality of references listed at the end of state of consciousness, or realm of being, an individual
each essay generally is impressive, the quantity of ref- might experience, we can expect that upon returning
erences appears excessive. Academics and scholars to ordinary waking consciousness he or she will inter-
(A/Ss) are confidant as well as competent researchers pret that experience according to his or her own level
and all have opinions. We are all free to state opinions of development. (p. 57).
and to argue for points of view without needing so Before I begin with this, however, I ought to
much backup. define exactly what (or who) I mean by primal peo-
Further, the writing styles of some Volume 22 ples. (p. 63).
scholars also contain some unnecessary authorial con- However, I must first say that in some respects I
ceits and silly self-indulgences. If it is appropriate for agree with Wilber and Habermas. I believe that its jus-
A/Ss to chide, as well as praise, other researchers, it is tifiable to say that primal peoples were at a pre-ration-
surely OK for an ex A/S to criticise critical A/Ss. I do al level, or at least did not possess rational-logical
so. Some A/Ss have either passed away or will not have powers to the same extent that we do. (p. 63).
read Volume 22 . What we really need, in order to fully substantiate
For example: Elaborating somewhat from what we the argument of this essay, are two things. First, we
wrote elsewhere, below are some of the elements that need a different view of spirituality, which could
would seem to be characteristic of the eidetic cosmol- account for the fact that primal peoples are spiritual
ogy, and hence may serve in differing degrees to pat- and pre-rational at the same time. (p. 73).
tern the content of various world views around the These excerpts, taken unfairly out of context, are
globe. (p. 9). not, in my opinion, dazzling insights into anything.
What Durkheim failed to grasp, however, was that They are, rather, fanciful and pretentious phrases and
the ritual procedures that produced collective efferves- sentences presumably intended to demonstrate schol-
cence, produced adherence as much to physical reali- arship.
ty as to social reality. (p. 10). Some of these writings were easy to read and were
Our argument is fairly complete and reasonably also informative (e.g., Walshs essay), and the Valpy
straightforward. Let us briefly summarize the high quotation from The Globe and Mail (in Hunts essay)
points of the theory, and then we can close with some was like a breath of fresh air. The Llabrs description
few inferences drawn from it. (p. 19). of Transpersonal so interested me that I read it a sec-
Inner-worldly mysticism in the modern west has ond time.
its historical shadow in Hellenistic Gnosticism, for In studying transpersonal studies I want also to
Weber the multifaceted spiritual response of disenfran- read for pleasure. I want to see A/Ss words so
chised educated classes to Roman hegemony. (p. 27). arranged, after their having been found, as to afford
From the point of view of the unitive, nondual mys- me more opportunities to see images, to experience
ticism of Plotinus, those he called Gnostics were something of the pictures that once were in the writ-
unwittingly enshrining and fixating a spiritual pathol- ers minds. All too often when I read scholarly articles,
ogy. (p. 29). I resort to seeing images of my own simply because
Of course, a transpersonalist like Ken Wilber the scholars mode is one that spins words past me in
(1995), working from the more inclusive spiritual picture-less jumbles. Where is there any pleasure in
monism of Plotinus and Vedanta, rightly labels all leaden and twisted prose?
such cognitive and neuropsychological approaches as a As if that were not bad enough, I caution myself
subtle reductionismor worsesince they falsely (from habit) when glancing at About our

Contributors because I want to know a part or two of there too? If those writing about consciousness and
the A/S that is human enough to be somewhere that which is transpersonal are going to flit about
beyond ego. Sigh. And I suspect that we have all writ- wordily at different levels when there are expectations
ten inflated and arrogant paragraphs about ourselves of their being steadfast at one level, then those exam-
that make us seem less like spiritually inclined scholars ining transpersonal writings may begin to suspect that
and more like ambitious gunfighters. Is this one a some scholars will experience conflicts of interest. This
philosopher who enjoys canoeing? Does she photo- is not to say that our A/Ss should always wear flow-
graph dewed spiders webs at sunrise? How might I ing robes and emit golden light or that they ought to
recognise a certain A/S who wrote a particular essay chant and pray a lot, as respite from the elevated work
should I meet him or her? What hope do I have when of scholarship, but that they become more aware of
they catalogue, not their loves or attributes or recre- how they present their essays, as well as increasing their
ations but only their publications? Indicating many awareness of how they describe themselves.
articles means only that the author is saying, I wrote Being an A/S is an honourable profession. Those of
this essay and I have written many other essays. So us who once were A/Ss and now are simply writers of
what? Several essays and books, over 50 articles, one kind or another will perhaps want transpersonal
chapters and books related to consciousness, several studies scholars to be more respectful of that level of
essays and some 20 books, numerous empirical and identity (and awareness)and to please treat the
theoretical articles, written, edited, co-authored, or English language more lovingly.
co-edited over 1,000 articles and 15 books, author or There is no special place for writers on the spec-
co-author of about 140 articles are ego-level examples trum of consciousness. If there were, then writers,
of A/S madness. What does he has been involved in including academics and scholars of transpersonal
the transpersonal movement in a holistic and integral studies, would, I would hope, take a greater interest in
way really mean? How exciting or possibly strange that form of creative writing called literary fiction. In
might it be to practice psychoanalysis and psy- literary fiction there is a kind or a category of writing
chotherapy with a transpersonal approach? This called consciousness writing, of which there are two
makes psychotherapy seem a monster having one foot principal techniques: (1) interior monologue; and (2)
cemented at the ego level and the other foot seeking free indirect style. Interior monologue enables us to
purchase somewhere in the transpersonal bands. Less share the most intimate thoughts represented as
would certainly be more in some of these biographical silent, spontaneous, unceasing streams of conscious-
romances. I would applaud the editors presenting just ness of characters (Lodge, 1992, p. 47). The free indi-
one About our Contributors which is entirely free of rect style renders thought as reported speech (in the
noted publications. Let us know the authors by other third person, past tense) (Lodge, 1992, p. 43). These
of their qualities, by their quirks and foibles, by any- are not only appealing and creative ways in which to
thing that is endearing or surprising (always wears write; the writer may become so engrossed as to expe-
black clothes, keeps a pet wolf, builds lute-harpsi- rience a state of consciousness other than consensus
chords, glides, is a throat singer, a sculptor, reality or ordinary consciousness. I mention this
grows Venus fly traps, restores vintage motor because Im inclined to think that some of my A/S col-
cycles, dances the tango). Is writing scholarly essays leagues will be attracted to sometimes write different-
and opinion pieces all that A/Ss do? ly. We can all learn something from each other.
Readers familiar with Wilbers (1979) spectrum of Writing creatively by novelists and by academics and
consciousness model and of there being therapies scholars may be the experience of appreciating a differ-
appropriate to the different levels of consciousness will ent state of consciousness. We all have writing in com-
recall that schools and techniques of psychotherapy mon. Are there scholars who might experiment with
offer possibilities of effecting change in ones con- consciousness writing?
sciousness. A/Ss, like everybody else, live at one or Golden, golden, the woods are golden now. The
another of these levels. A/Ss, it seems, do not all dwell days stretch on into Indian summer, the air gone
at the same level (neither did Freud and Jung). Would plummy with woodsmoke and windfall apples,
it be unreasonable of those attempting to live within Stradivari air (Jerome, 1989, p 139).
the transpersonal bands to expect that our A/Ss live If you see what I mean.

References
Jerome, J. (1989). Stone work: Reflections on serious
play and other aspects of country life. New York:
Viking Penguin.
Lodge, D. (1992). The art of fiction. London: Penguin.
Wilber, K. (1979). No boundary: Eastern and Western
approaches to personal growth. Los Angeles: Center
Publications.

directed to the author at don@midcoast.com.au.
2005 Don Diespecker

Two Suitors: A Parable
Richard Tarnas, Ph.D.

California Institute of Integral Studies
he postmodern mind has come to recognize the us from pre-given structures of cosmic meaning and
T many ways in which our often hidden presup-

positions play a critical role in constellating the
reality we seek to know. If we have learned anything
purpose that in important respects had become exis-
tentially constraining, and were usually carried and
enforced by traditional cultural authorities, both polit-
from the multidisciplinary wellsprings of postmodern ical and religious. However, we are now coming to
thoughtwhether from psychology, anthropology, realize the loss as well. A disenchanted world view
philosophy of science, sociology of knowledge, reli- essentially empowers the utilitarian mindset. The larg-
gious studies, linguistics, physics, or feminismit is er cosmological context within which all human activ-
that what we believe to be our objective knowledge of ity takes place provides no encompassing ground for
the world is radically shaped and forged by a complex transcendent valuesmoral, spiritual, aesthetic
multitude of subjective factors, most of which are alto- which are therefore seen as only human constructs. In
gether unconscious. Even this is not quite accurate, for the resulting void, the values of the market and mass
we now recognize subject and object to be so deeply media freely colonize the collective human imagina-
mutually implicated as to render problematic the very tion and drain it of all depth. Such a vision (or lack of
structure of a subject knowing an object. vision) transforms what should be means into ends in
Such a recognition can engender humility, disori- themselves: Political power, financial profit, techno-
entation, or despair. Each of these responses has its logical prowess are the overriding values. The bottom
place. But ultimately this recognition can also call line rules all. In turn, anxiety in the face of a meaning-
forth in us a fortifying sense of joyful co-responsibility less cosmos creates a spiritual hunger and disorienta-
for the world we enact through the participatory, tion, an engulfing fear of death, and a major self-image
cocreative power of the world view we commit our- problem, which lead to an addictive hunger for ever
selves to and evolve with. more material goods to fill the inner emptiness, pro-
But what is the current situation? The modern ducing a manic technoconsumerism that cannibalizes
world view that first emerged during the European the planet in a kind of self-destructive frenzy. Highly
Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries still pragmatic consequences ensue from the disenchanted
effectively structures the context for most of the modern world view.
worlds activities and values. In this powerful vision, But, as we assimilate the deepening insights of our
we live in a universe that is ultimately understood to time into the nature of our knowledge of the world,
be the random consequence of exclusively material must we not ask ourselves whether this disenchanted
evolutionary processesa universe devoid of intrinsic world view is, in the end, all that plausible?
meaning and purpose, soulless and unconscious, indif- Let us consider a thought experiment:
ferent to humanitys spiritual and moral aspirations. Imagine that you are the universe, a deep, beauti-
From the time of Bacon and Descartes on, meaning ful, profoundly intelligent and ensouled universe. And
and purpose, spiritual and moral values, are all seen as imagine that you are being approached by two differ-
human qualities, and to perceive these in the universe ent epistemologiestwo suitors, as it were, who seek
apart from the human is regarded as a delusory projec- to know you. To whom would you open your deepest
tion. secrets? Would you open most deeply to the suitor
In the course of our complex history, this vision has the epistemology, the methodologywho approached
in certain respects been deeply emancipatory, freeing you as though you were utterly lacking in intelligence

or purpose, as though you had no inner dimension to human being, and that the great cosmos itself is a soul-
speak of, no spiritual capacity or value; who thus saw less void within which our multidimensional con-
you as radically inferior in being to himself (let us ran- sciousness is a random accident, reflects an invisible
domly give the suitor a masculine gender); who relat- act of cosmic hubris on the part of the modern self.
ed to you as though your existence was valuable prima- And hubris and fall are as indissolubly linked now as
rily to the extent that he could exploit your resources they were in ancient Greek tragedy. Our search for the
to satisfy his various needs; and whose motivation for true cannot be separated from our search for the good.
knowing you was driven ultimately by a desire for We need to radically expand our ways of knowing.
increased mental mastery, prediction, and control over We need a larger and truer empiricism and rational-
you for his own self-enhancement? ism. We need to move beyond the relentlessly objecti-
Or would you, the cosmos, open your deepest fying, unconsciously constructive epistemological
secrets to that suitorto that epistemology, that strategies, the restrictive empiricism and rationalism
approach to the nature of thingswho viewed you as that emerged appropriately during the Enlightenment,
being at least as intelligent and valuable, as worthy a but that still dominate mainstream science and mod-
being, as permeated with mind and soul, as endowed ern thought today, and that, in their narrowness and
with spiritual depths and mystery, as he; who sought one-sidedness, now dangerously occlude our full
to know you not to better exploit you, but rather to vision. We need to build on those, while drawing as
unite with you and thereby bring forth something well onto use a single encompassing termthe epis-
new; whose ultimate goals of knowledge were not temologies of the heart. We need ways of knowing that
mental mastery, prediction, and control but rather a integrate the imagination, the aesthetic sensibility, the
participatory cocreation, an honoring of your deepest moral faculty, revelatory or epiphanic experience, the
being, bringing an intellectual fulfillment that was spiritual intuition, the capacity for archetypal insight,
intimately linked with imaginative and poetic vision, for kinesthetic and sensuous knowing, for empathic
moral transformation, aesthetic and sensuous pleasure, understanding, the capacity to open to the other, to
empathic understanding; whose act of knowledge was listen, to listen even to our own otherour uncon-
essentially an act of love and trust, and, as it were, scious, in all its plenitude of forms. A developed sense
mutual delight? To whom would you reveal your deep- of empathyof loving, trusting, receptive observation
est interior glory? and analysisis critical if we are to overcome the great
This is not to say that you, the universe, would modern chasm between subject and object, psyche and
reveal nothing to the first suitor, under the duress of cosmos. We need to be able to enter into that which
his objectifying, disenchanting approach. That suitor we seek to know, and not keep it ultimately distanced
would undoubtedly elicit, filter, and constellate a cer- as an object. We need, in the end, to transform our
tain reality which he would naturally regard as relationship to the universe from one of I and It to
authentic knowledge of the true universeobjective one of I and Thou.
knowledge as compared with the subjective delusions Our best philosophy of science has taught us the
of everyone elses approach. But we might allow our- extent to which our epistemology cocreates our world.
selves to doubt just how profound a truth, how gen- Not only reason and empiricism but faith, hope, and
uinely reflective of the universes deeper reality, this compassion play a major role in constellating the real-
approach might be. And if this objectifying, disen- ity we seek to know. And this is perhaps the underly-
chanted vision were elevated to the status of being the ing message of our modern Enlightenments unexpect-
only legitimate vision of the nature of the cosmos ed darkening of the world: At the heart of cognition is
upheld by an entire civilization, what a loss, an a moral dimension. The progress of knowledge and
impoverishment, a grief, would ultimately be suffered, the evolution of consciousness have too often been
by both knower and known, with tragic, deforming, characterized as if our task were to ascend an immense-
and destructive consequences that would run their ly tall cognitive ladder, solving increasingly challenging
fateful course on every planeintellectual, psycholog- mental riddles, like advanced problems in a graduate
ical, social, political, economic, ecological, spiritual. engineering exam. But our hearts must be trans-
To assume that purpose, meaning, conscious intel- formed, not just our minds. We must go down and
ligence, and spiritual depth are solely attributes of the deep as well as high and far. Our world view and our

cosmology, which define the context for everything
else, are profoundly affected by the degree to which all
our facultiesintellectual, emotional, somatic, imagi-
native, spiritualenter the process of our knowing.
How we approach the Other, and how we approach
each other, will shape everything, including our own
self.
We have a choice. There are many possible univers-
es, many possible meanings, living within us in poten-
tia, moving through us, awaiting enactment. We are
not solitary separate subjects in a meaningless universe
of objects upon which we can and must impose our
egocentric will. Nor are we just empty vessels, as it
were, on automatic, passively playing out the inten-
tions of the universe, of God, of our social-linguistic
community, of our class, our race, our gender, our
unconscious, our stage in evolution. Rather, we are
miraculously autonomous yet embedded participants,
each a creative nexus of action and interpretation,
microcosms of the creative and intelligent macrocosm,
enacting a complexly and richly coevolutionary
unfolding of reality.
And critical to that participation is the capacity for
radical openness to the other, an openness to mystery,
an affirmation of the universe as Thou rather than It.
With that insight, once again our knowledge of truth
will be seen to be intimately connected with our moral
and aesthetic aspirations for the good and the beauti-
ful. Only then might we discover our deeper oneness
with the whole. Only then might we finally trust
death, in all its forms, as a threshold to the mystery of
greater life. And only then might we discover just how
thrillingly the True, the Good, and the Beautiful are all
ultimately, intricately united.

directed to the author at rtarnas@ciis.edu.
2004 Richard Tarnas

Natural Crazy Wisdom
Kidder Smith and Susan Burggraf, Ph.D.
ur craziness is our most powerful wisdom. No, Anger
O I dont mean Crazy, man, like Far out, lets

go, I mean the psychiatric disarray of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
My emotions are always right. How could it be other-
wise? They are no different in kind from my seeing,
tasting, or feeling. To question their basic wisdom is to
the dysfunctions we call psychopathology. These are doubt the ground of my existence.
precious not because they show us what most needs Yet emotions are always right in a particular way.
repair but because they are authentic manifestations of They are infallible representatives of my momentary
our native wisdom. state of being, but they can be hijacked by an elaborate
We can understand that most easily if we approach tale I tell about myself. Then my anger self-inflates and
it through the crazy wisdom that Tibetan traditions steps out to fill the world, advancing hideous verdicts
speak of. Actually, a better translation would be wise about people and things far removed from me.
crazinesscraziness gone wise. This differs from But what if I return to the immediate truth, to the
William Blakes dictum that a fool who persists in his emotion itself? What is here, before the stories begin to
folly will become wise. It is more direct: a fool fully in speak? What if I stop right now, in my body? What if,
his folly is wise already. But crazy wisdom does not whenever a word shows up to name, describe, and
mean celebrating only the symptoms, the shrieks and then explain things, I just fall back into my belly?
twitches. Those are end points of a cosmic shudder, Resting here, the struggle taking place without me.
the fast-stiffening corpses of something that is by Within the torturous compression is something huge,
nature mutable, energetic, and alive. something good, whatever else I might say about it,
If this is wisdom, then why do we suffer? Not from good past naming, vaster than aspiration or imagina-
wants and needs, our misplaced anger or delusions, tion, more powerful, yet more silent, than any of its
nor even for our attachment to any of those. It is rather manifested turbulence. It is joy, a joy from nowhere.
that so often we cannot bear our own experience. We
hope fervently that we might possess another nearby Resting here.
substitute identity, more authentic than this painful How did I accomplish this joy? Cannot. How do I
self, perhaps as blessed innocent or good intention or reach it? No: rather, it reaches out to me. But only
Buddha-nature or even as a vast emptiness. We won- when I can entrust myself to doing nothing for it.
der whether a discipline of self-withdrawal might Seeking it sets me stumping through a shallow pond to
relieve us of our suffering, because then we could find one good spot of calm: my search precludes my
adopt the right perspective on ourselves. finding. When I stop, or when I am stopped dead by
But Im not referring us to practice, means by impossibility or utter helplessness, or when I simply
which we might employ to nullify, purify, or trans- rest, I may notice, finally, a completion. It comes up
mute an undesirable state, but to how we might recog- from below, from under the ponds calm surface, licks
nize ourselves now, even in our overwhelming distress; my bowels, presses through my tender skin in all
to the ways that wisdom arises in everything, just as dimensions, out of nowhere, a silent joy that is of the
music happens through whatever instrument, mouth, nature of everything. It is more real than any suffering.
or talent is made available to it. Nor is music separate My anger arose from that. Its not just self-inflicted
from those things. Can we accept that the bliss of wis- petulant rage, its also a precise conviction that Im
dom mind, that which we seek, can be found only being cut off from my joyful beginnings. This anger
here, in our experience? Still more: that this bliss is can happen only because I already know the bigger
already present in everything we do. It requires us to truth of love. My passionate attachments are all born
do nothing. of this same innocence.

But none of this belongs to me. Nothing of it lasts I extend my hand as I extend my breath. I enter
beyond an instant. Fits of fury, all volatile emotions, your space, your body. I see your mind from its
are solar flares of wisdom mind, briefly illuminating insides, I look out at your world. We dont exchange
the spaces we inhabit. To imagine their sharp edges as our thoughts, because there is no difference between
messages that somethings gone wrong would be like us that could be bridged. Suddenly we are cry-laugh-
rushing my baby son to the hospital when he cried ing, unimpeded because we arent two of us.
from hunger because his insistent need made me for- The oak-tree growing in my yard is my own mind.
get my own lactating breast. We are hundreds of years old, we are older than this
When I simply admire their clangor, unmoving, I universe.
am queen and king. The stronger the emotion, the Only in that knowledge can I put temporary shift-
more powerful the truth. The more roiling, the more ing obstacles in the way of those who would harm my
energy, the greater realization. At base its only love. child, can I keep safely to the right of the yellow lines
And only in that knowledge am I alive in this on Main Street, can I use our English language to write
world. exquisite grocery lists with peanut butter and fresh
spinach inscribed in them.
Depression
The wisdom of depression lies in its complete aban- Self-hatred
donment of all volition. Even this act is nonvolitional: I hate. I hate myself. I hate each particle of air Im
I simply cannot do a single thing. I lie upon the bed forced to breathe. Wherever driven, I meet only pain.
(not in bed, that relationship is too intimate, but upon I lift my eyes looking for a sky and find it only five
it). Even to consider the possibility of movement is inches above my forehead, like an expanse of grey
painful. Everything has come to a halt. foam, tactile egg-crate, it compresses as I push it back,
This weightin my blood, all through my viscous but still it hovers there, presses back into its place.
thoughtis more than anything I can imagine. I have I find a desiccated memory of joy. I follow it as if it
to pee, but I am forced back down by something big- were a tatty scrap of red yarn lying on the ground, but
ger. A useful plan flickers, I launch my aspiration, and it disappears into the dirt.
it dies. I see other people smile, I cant penetrate their lips
Weighing as much as the earth, and this is my own and teeth, cant get past their distorting faces, their
weight. Its power is my power, unassailable. Its utter deliberate dissimulations.
immovability overcomes any distraction, never pulls Resting here in full-hatched hell, longing for auto-
me away from or off my ground. It is incapable of immolation, the finish of everything, and all the
wavering, blank to the fires, fears and freeze-outs of worlds pain pokes discriminantly into any feeling
monkey mind. And anything is dwarfed by the power place that still survives. How is it that Im alive at all,
of this great nothing happening. that theres any tenderness that hasnt been cauterized
The perfection of such stillness is utter relaxation, and charred and blown off into the Gobi? Whats left
the bliss of silence. I ride the earth in its diurnal rota- to feel it with?
tion, and neither one of us can be apprehended. Here All this is my wisdom mind. This intensity of pain
I am completely free. is the same capacity that can manifest with equal ease
Now I arise and act without ever leaving that space. as overpowering bliss, or casual indifference. Letting
go into its vastness, this is its power, immediate, dev-
Boundaries astating, all-consuming. Everything falls before it.
But after all, there are no boundaries. There is only It doesnt matter how such pain first came to me.
room for play. Instantly I can touch anything in the Did something once break me open, crack the whole,
universe. There is immediately here. hear my shriek, teach me that the human sense of a
This outraged assault on boundaries is my horror at personal self is lies, a monstrous fiction that is too
anything seeking to interrupt the perfect continuity of small, deforming, violent, reductive, a thing that only
space, interject itself between itself and itself, as if a brings me hatred and must be obliterated? Or did the
game of peekaboo had hardened into chess, constant earth itself open, and I leapt in and seized its sunder-
objects following predetermined trajectories to a rep- ing power?
utable, replicable conclusion. This ruination of the self is my wisdom mind, ris-

ing from a premature interment. I rest here as flames other people. Its like being really weak and lazy. I
engulf its upper structure, I am the fire and its eye of think my motives for doing absolutely everything are
silent purity, burning out illusion and impediments to other people. I cant believe how incredibly wise
illuminate the universe. A.D.D. is. Its thought of as being maladaptive, but
For all of this is love, mind refusing falsehood, thats only from the point of view of samsara, of igno-
unable to deny the goodness of my origin, of the root rance. Finding dzogchen or Buddhamind is like find-
of all existence, rapturously intolerant of lies, resting in ing the place where A.D.D. is exactly right. You walk
the true heart beauty of our world. Knowing this, I can into a meditation retreat where everyone is trying to
move through my full range and depth in fierceness, do the thing that you do naturally, and that is hilari-
nakedness, unprotected, kindly, relentless in my ous. I love the fact that theres no shortage.
nonaccommodation of deceit. Avalokiteshvara is the fruition of A.D.D. Heres how I
say his mantra, in the shower with the water coming
Attention Deficit Disorder into my mouth:
Im all over the place. I wish I could fit into the om amoga shila
lovely shoe boxes they have for good children. My sam badda sam badda
mind never goes anywhere I want. Everyone else is badda badda
solid and Im gaseous. The depressed person feels like mahashuda sattva
a solid citizen, and youre not, youre a gaseous citizen, pema bee boo shita bunsa
and nobody wants those. I wish I could be deep! My dada dada
roads dry up too easily, they end, they just go into samanta avalokita
grassy meadows. I get on a road, its like a super high- hung pay so ha
way for one hundred yards, and then it deteriorates
into this grassy, wooded field, and everybodys sitting When I first heard this, I couldnt get through it with-
around having a picnic. Thats why I like to drive on out laughing. Thats the secret part of the mantra.
real roads, because those roads go somewhere. My Write it on plastic, take it into the shower, do it fast,
mind is like the sky. The bodhisattva of compassion, and youll love me for it. This is my dream come true,
Avalokiteshvara, has A.D.D. I know this because I am my nine-year-old A.D.D. self, for the benefit of
Robert has a photograph of his son and the boys arms all beings. WHO KNEW!
were moving and it looked like he had one thousand
arms. But it was just movement, the way Crazy Wisdom
Avalokiteshvara has A.D.D., like hes always into Our wisdom mind is like the sun. Even indoors we
everything, hes all over the place, his parents are say- see by it, radiation transformed now into electron
ing this kids too much, he notices everything. Kids movement and fired into incandescence. Its the only
with A.D.D. are the first to notice things because source of, the only way we come to be the worlds
theyre very external-locus-of-control. I cant keep the shape and color. Without this wisdom mind there
stuff in the cabinets at home, it just spills out. would be no experience at all.
Everything flies around, it just becomes fluid. The Crazy wisdom is this wisdoms purest form of love.
people at the credit union just gave me a new check- It manifests inseparably from us, in total indifference
book. Money just isnt meant to have a fluid quality, to reactions that we may have to it. Whatever we are,
you have to save it in a pile. If you have money, and its it never turns away from its own sometimes horrifying
not in a pile, you are wrong, you are totally wrong, face, in full enjoyment. It couldnt care less for us, nor
right? Thats probably the worst thing you could have less than perfectly. And while we may regard it as out-
thats not in a pile. I have never since I have been an rageous, thats only for its refusal to engage the dramas
adult folded my underwear or made my bed on a day we seek to embroil it in. From the perspective of crazy
that I know no one is coming. Julie makes her bed wisdom, nothing happens. Nothing ever happens. It is
every day. Shes not rigid. I like it that way, then I can already completely good.
use the bed for other things. She thinks Im a night-
mare, but the thing that I never do is keep something
sloppy if someone has to share with someone. This is Correspondence regarding this comment should be
because my motives for things are really driven by directed to Kidder Smith (kidder@bowdoin.edu).

Toward a Participative Integral Philosophy
Daryl S. Paulson, Ph.D.
participative integral philosophy, as I view it, is ple, Sankaras Advaita Vandanta (Satchid nandendra,
A broad-based, drawing from multiple disci-

plines. It is inclusive yet discriminating in valu-
ing and ranking different perspectives. That valuing is
1997). Interestingly, this two-directional flow is also
found in the expressed thoughts of Plato (Lovejoy,
1964) and Plotinus (1992). Aurobindos integral phi-
not achieved through texts or algorithms but by each losophy was ably presented in the United States by
individual. Haridas Chaudhuri. Chaudhuri and his wife estab-
One of the first to articulate such a philosophy lished the Cultural Integration Fellowship, from which
from a psychological perspective was Roberto emerged an educational branch, later to become the
Assagioli, founder of the humanistic-transpersonal present California Institute of Integral Studies
psychology, psychosynthesis (Assagioli, 1965, 1973). (Chaudhuri, personal communication, 1992).
He envisioned psychosynthesis as a positive and partic- Chaudhuri presented the major concepts of
ipative psychology for the whole person, that is, Aurobindos work through several books, including
encompassing physical, emotional, mental, existential, Integral Yoga (1965).
social, and spiritual domains. Assagioli argued that Robert Gerard, a one-time associate of Roberto
each individual, based on his or her perspective, needs Assagioli, developed an Integral Psychology that was
to choose authentically how growth and development a blend of psychosynthesis, depth psychology, human-
will be completed. istic-existential psychology, transpersonal psychology,
In the east, Sri Aurobindo, an Indian educated in and western esoteric traditions (Gerard, 1974; person-
Britain in the late 19th century, returned to India, al communication, 2004).
became a political radical trying to oust British rule Ken Wilber has, since 1977, been a leader in
from India, and was jailed as a terrorist for a year, transpersonal thought, but has officially abandoned it
awaiting his trial (Iyengar, 1985). While in the Alipore in favor of his version of integral thought (Wilber,
jail, he had a number of transcendental experiences, 2000a, 2002a). In 1995, Wilbers book, Sex, Ecology,
and they served as a catalyst for him to synthesize Spirituality (SES) presented an expansive and inclusive
purna (Integral) yoga. Aurobindo developed purna philosophic view that included a quadrant perspective
yoga based on his interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita, encompassing Platos three life dimensions: the good
as well as other Vedanta texts. Its fundamental goal was (intersubjective dimension of shared meaning, values,
to integrate both mundane and spiritual aspects of life and beliefs), the true (empirical dimension of observ-
(Aurobindo, 1970, 1997; Sharma, 2000). Prior to this able truth), and the beautiful (personal subjective
time, yoga traditionally had been separated into vari- dimension of values, beliefs, meaning, and goals).
ous subpractices, including physical development Wilber soon expanded the concepts presented in SES
(hatha yoga), emotional development (bhakti yoga), through a series of other books, including A Brief
mental development (jnana yoga), and behavior devel- History of Everything (1996), The Eye of Spirit (1997),
opment (karma yoga) (Narvane, 1964; Puligandlar, The Marriage of Sense and Soul (1998), Integral
1975). Purna yoga blended these yogic subdisciplines Psychology (1999), A Theory of Everything (2000b), and
into a unified and balanced system that also included Boomeritis (2002b).
a two-directional life flowan ascent toward the
supermind and a descent of supermind into ones lived Integral Philosophy
life (Aurobindo, 1999). So far, we have discussed spiritual and psychologi-
Previously, yoga systems had focused on transcend- cal aspects of integral philosophy; now let us look at
ing mundane life to merge with the Divine, for exam- philosophy.

Philosophy has been defined as the pursuit of wis- Philosophies have developed, more or less, as
dom, but this seems no longer true, at least for main- closed theoretical systems, exemplified in the works of
stream academic philosophers, because they must great luminaries down through the ages. These lumi-
demonstrate proof of their philosophical progress naries and their work include Confucius; the Vedic
through publications, if they are to survive in acade- Scholars; the logic of the Sophists and Protagoras;
mia. It is far easier to accomplish this with small steps, Socrates and the dialectic process; Plato and justice,
rather than addressing head-on the ineffable what is. the state, and virtue; Aristotle and material, formal,
As James Ogilvy stated (1992, p. xv), Philosophy as efficient, and final causes; Buddha and the four noble
the love of wisdom is as ridiculous in the academy as truths; the hedonistic visions of Epicurus; the stoic
romantic love in a bordello. Nevertheless, from an visions of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; the religious
integral perspective, a theoretical philosophical goal is scholarship of Aquinas; Descartes and rationalism; the
to integrate the Good, the True, and the Beautiful into skepticism of Hume, Locke, and Berkeley; the univer-
a seamless whole. And, although the Platonic terms salism of Kant; the pragmatism of Williams James; the
good, true, and beautiful are rarely used in contempo- class struggle and materialism of Marx; the nihilism
rary discourse, the concepts are (Smith, 1997). For and will to power of Nietzsche; the existential perspec-
example, the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory char- tives of Kierkegaard and Sartre; and the relativistic
acterizes these terms as technical understanding (the themes of many postmodern advocates, such as
true); practical understanding (the good), also termed Foucault, Deleuze, Barthes, and Lyotard (Beck &
mutual understanding; and emancipatory understand- Holmes, 1968; Best & Kellner, 1991). These various
ing (the beautiful) (Habermas, 2003; McCarthy, philosophies contain interesting and important theo-
1978; Wilber, 1995). By the way, the good, the true, retical propositions, but for individual application,
and the beautiful, in this paper, correlate to three many of the concepts are too abstract.
world domains: intersubjectivity, objectivity, and sub- From the end of the Greek state to the present,
jectivity. humans have tended to value one worldview domain
Wisdom is also an important characteristic of par- over the other two (Tarnas, 1991; Toynbee, 1995;
ticipatory integral philosophy, particularly in terms of Wilber, 1998, 2002b). In fact, these domains were no
its praxis (Ferrer, 2000). It includes the ability to man- longer distinct in theory or praxis until around the six-
age secular aspects of life, in a context of knowledge teenth century. Western civilization, it seems, tacitly
and lived experience, grounded in spiritual themes viewed intersubjectivity, the domain of religion, as the
(Holiday & Chandler, 1986). Participatory wisdom, as real and ignored the other two domains. Religion
applied in contemporary life, seems to require both provided the purpose and meaning to life, codes for
pragmatism and resilience in order to work through ethical living, a justice system, and an intellectually
experiences of frustration, successfully dealing with satisfying hierarchical map of the world, seen and
existential issues in ones life. This includes dealing unseen, beginning with matter, then plants, animals,
with problems that arise and learning to revise ones humans, the clergy, the angelic hierarchy, and, finally,
own cherished concepts in light of new discoveries God. This structure was known as the great chain of
(Daniels & Horowitz, 1984; Habermas, 2003; being (Lovejoy, 1964). Subjectivity and objectivity,
Paulson, 2001). From a humanistic perspective, for the most part, seem to have been but appendages
humans want to make sense of their lives and to know of religious intersubjectivity. This is a rather general
and feel that their pursuits are both significant and statement, for there certainly was more to the intersub-
worthwhile (Washburn, 2003). Yet, participatory wis- jectivity perspective than merely church doctrine: for
dom is not the pursuit of happiness, per se. It is, example, state doctrine, which was also grounded in
instead, a knowing of what produces happiness and intersubjectivity. Individual meaning and beliefs seem
what produces results, combined with the ability and to be injunctions of church doctrine (Frend, 1984;
desire to act in relation to that knowledge (Holiday & Tillich, 1968). When people expressed this individual
Chandler, 1986). The action component is often dis- view too forcefully, they were viewed with suspicion
missed, as if the acquisition of knowledge were good and scorn, and sometimes even roasted at the stake.
enough. Action, or application, is fundamental to the Objective reality was also explained in terms of religious
practice of participatory integralism (Paulson, 2002). doctrine, which described creation (Lindberg, 1992).

Yet by the sixteenth century, a few radicals began to alists, in particularview intersubjectivity as the most
question church doctrine, not with another doctrine, real. But they also claim that there is no solid reality,
but by actually observing physical phenomena because everything is relative. For them, meaning
(Gower, 1997). To the chagrin of both they and the exists in the universe only via constructed language, a
Church, their observations of the world and the shared system of linguistic codes and signs (Best &
church doctrine describing it did not generally agree. Kellner, 1991; Culler, 1982). Humans use language to
Something had to give, and it ultimately was religion. construe meaning, not the reverse. The linguistic
Science began its ascent as the torch-bearer of reality, turn has convinced most that, to a very large degree,
grounded in observation and measurement. Over it is language, not observation or subjective awareness,
time, religion gave way to science as reality. The that constructs ones perceived reality. Inner reality is
importance of personal independent subjectivity also mediated by shared linguistic codes (Best & Kellner,
emerged, particularly in pursuits such as phenomenol- 1991; Katz, 1978). Yet, the objective world, in a fun-
ogy and psychology (Smith, 1997). damental sense, is pregiven and not dependent on
Yet, even today, proponent disciplines within each ones inner reality. Humans did not construct the
life domain have generally ignored proponent disci- objective world, but, instead, find themselves here in
plines grounded in the others, or attacked them it. No matter how linguistically one construes being
through polemic discourse (Davidson, 2001; shot in the head, the result is the same: the end. It is
McCarthy, 1978). The latter has occurred vehemently humans who construct intersubjective, social
in academia, as departments grounded in each of the realitystatus, monetary exchange, social rules of con-
three worldviews argue to justify their existence, that duct, and cultural beliefs. Let us now turn our atten-
is, funding. Objective empirical science, however, is tion to practical life concerns.
currently the main academic reality. Science, as a way
of acquiring objective knowledge, is extremely power- Contemporary Life
ful, and contemporary societies rest on its technical Our contemporary life is claimed to overload
applications. From computers to cell phones, from jet humans with information, choice, responsibility, and
travel to backpacking with global positioning systems, contingency. For many, just to pay their bills and taxes
to landing probes on Mars, science has impacted and requires holding multiple jobs. Governmental agencies
changed our lives more than any of the other two impose ever more control over citizens through sur-
domains. veillance and laws. Contemporary life requires work-
Humanistic-existential, depth, and transpersonal force members to witness the vaporization by the
psychologists often privilege subjectivity as the most thousands of traditional full-time, full-benefit jobs,
real domain, contending that subjective values and perhaps even their own, to make way for part-time,
meaning cannot be ignored without peril (Vaillant, no-benefit jobs. Contemporary life is permeated by an
1993). In fact, they point out that the majority of peo- ominous, yet elusive, threat of yet another deadly ter-
ple they counsel have become dysfunctional, rorist attack. It requires citizens to accept the tram-
depressed, anxious, unhappy, and unfulfilled because pling of ecological systems and their stewardship
of the lack of feeling genuine self-acceptance, a subjec- under the guise of progress. But what is this
tive concern (Bugental, 1981; Paulson, 2004; progress? It is unrestrained urban sprawl? Is it dump-
Schneider & May, 1995). Additionally, some argue ing industrial waste without regard for future conse-
that phenomena do not exist if there is not someone to quences?
perceive and experience them. For example, Yalom We find that the world presented to us by our par-
(1980), some years ago, realized, while snorkeling in ents, teachers, and religions does not exist, and many
the ocean, that its beautiful life forms were beautiful cannot find a substitute with merit. So, like the mass-
only because he viewed them so. Similarly, Nietzsche es described in Dosteovskys (1949) The Brothers
(1995) described Zarathustras reentry into the world Karamazov, all too often, we rely on the voice of
from a ten-year retreat as stopping before the sun and authority to shoulder the problems. Instead of accept-
saying: You great star, what would your happiness be ing freedom, choice, and the responsibility, too many
had you not those for whom you shine? (p. 9). allow todays Grand Inquisitorspolitical, scientific,
Some postmodern philosophersdeconstruction- and religious leaders, to tell them what to believe, what

is true, what to do, who is good, who is bad or evil, awareness, sense of self, emotions, goals, meaning,
what their duties are, and even who they are. Yet too aspirations, values, and memory (Wilber, 1995).
many continue to be unhappy, unfulfilled, self-depre- Wilbers upper right quadrant (the individual objective
ciated, and empty. domain) is a third-person, singular view, described in
There is no escape from our increasing responsibil- it terms. It includes ones physical body, organ sys-
ities and the risks accompanying them, but to cope, we tems, cells, and brain structures, and ones overt behav-
often need to compartmentalize many areas of our ior. The lower left quadrant (the intersubjective collec-
lives. We construct professional roles to isolate us from tive domain) is expressed in second-personal, plural,
subordinates. We ignore the homeless, even shun them we terms, representing shared values, goals, mean-
as being lazy, while knowing, deep in our hearts, that ing, worldviews, beliefs, aspirations, and language.
we, too, tragically could be there. We tend to view the The lower right quadrant (the interobjective collective
truth from a partial perspective and claim it is The domain) is described in third-person plural terms and
Truth. But too often, we cannot even find partial represents things, such as geophysical structures
truth, only a story. At some point, we tire of the sto- (mountains), geopolitical structures (India), laws,
ries and justifications provided by others. It is then social structures, social behaviors, and social systems.
that one must decide to see for oneself what is. But Each of these quadrants interacts with the others.
where does one begin? Integral philosophy states it is So reality must take into account all four domains.
within oneself, where one is situated (Assagioli, 1965; No quadrant domain can be reduced and explained
Ferrer, 2000). solely in terms of another quadrant domain. For exam-
With this said, let us return to Wilbers theoretical ple, our subjective feelings have physical biochemical
perspective, because his model has much to offer to a correlates but cannot be completely explained by bio-
participatory integral philosophy. Wilber, as does chemistry.
Arthur Koestler (1964), views phenomena as at once Wilbers quadrant model is theoretically satisfying,
both whole and part; that is, a holon. An electron, but so what? By itself, is it not merely one more way of
for example, is a whole electron but part of an atom; constructing a worldview, albeit a larger one? What
an atom is a whole atom but part of a molecule; a mol- positive applied or participative value does it provide?
ecule is a whole molecule but part of an organelle; an Wilber asserts his theories are applicable and that they
organelle is a whole organelle but part of an organ have been applied (Wilber, 2000b). This is certainly
(Wilber, 1995). Additionally, humans experience both true. This author has applied his theoretical models to
a subjective (interior) and objective (exterior) perspec- business, clinical trials of antimicrobial products used
tive of existence. Humans live as individuals, as well as in surgical environments, biostatistical research
in collectives of humans (Wilber, 1999). Moreover, the designs, marketing strategies, and near death studies
collective consists of an interior intersubjective and an (Paulson, 1996, 1998, 1999a, 1999b, 2002, 2003a,
exterior interobjective domain generally referred to as 2003b). Yet there is a problem in that Wilbers model
culture and society. Putting these concepts together, a lacks emphasis to empower an individual to authenti-
four-domain reality emerges, which can be mapped as cally coparticipate in life.
a square divided into four equal quadrants. Wilbers integral philosophy, in its theoretical
The part represents an individual human being and form, is a ready-made system, not one codeveloped by
the collective, a society. The subjective characterizes the individual participating in life through lived expe-
both the interior of an individual and that of the col- riences. It thus falls short of a participatory integral
lective (intersubjective), while the objective character- philosophy. To be a participatory philosophy and,
izes the exterior domain of both an individual and the hence, of more personally authentic value, it needs to
collective (interobjective). However, the concept of empower individuals to find their own authentic ways
collective is a relative one, for it can consist of several of knowing, learning, and dealing with life, and to
humans, a small social group, an age group, a commu- value them (Ferrer, 2003a,b; Paulson, 2001).
nity, or even all of humanity.
Wilbers upper left quadrant (the individual subjec-
tive domain) represents the first-person (I) interior
perspective, experienced through ones conscious

Conclusion Dosteovsky, F. (1949). The brothers Karamazov. New
A participatory philosophy of integralism is one York: Plenum Press.
that is to be authentically applied mindfully in ones Ferrer, J. N. (2000). Transpersonal knowledge. In T.
life process. There is the ever-present need to learn Hart, P. Nelson, & K. Puhakka (Eds.),
from other views, from other individuals, and from Transpersonal knowing (pp. 213-252). Albany, NY:
history (Tarnas, 1991). This learning can lead not just SUNY.
to the accumulation of knowledge or of construed sys- Ferrer, J. N. (2003a). Integral transformative practice:
tems but also to acquired practical wisdom. A partici- A participatory perspective. Journal of
patory integral philosophy, then, is a living philoso- Transpersonal Psychology, 34(1), 2142.
phy, one that never becomes a finished product. It is a Ferrer, J. N. (2003b). Revisioning transpersonal theory.
multi-perspective philosophy, providing an enlarged Albany, NY: SUNY.
view of what is, but a what is from the inner refer- Frend, W. H. C. (1984). The rise of Christianity.
ence of a human agent, not from highjacking textual Philadelphia: Fortress.
doctrine (Ferrer, 2003a,b; Murphy, 1992; Paulson, Gerard, R. (1974). Symbolic apperception and integral
2001). There is no one, in the end, who can own psychology. Paper presented at the meeting of the
responsibility for ones life except oneself, the individ- 9th International Congress on Psychotherapy,
ual. This paper is not a final answer but a plea for oth- University of Oslo, Norway.
ers to join into dialogue in search of developing a par- Gower, B. (1997). Scientific method. New York:
ticipatory integral philosophy. Routledge.
Habermas, J. (2003). Truth and justification. (B.
Fultner, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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ABOUT OUR CONTRIBUTORS
Burton Daniels (United States) has been a counselor Mary Ann Hazen (United States) is associate profes-
since 1987. He has had a wide range of training from sor, management, in the College of Business
psychodynamic to transpersonal psychotherapy, and is Administration, University of Detroit Mercy. She has
currently working as a family therapist. He received his published research on dialogue in organizations and
masters degrees in psychology from Sonoma State consulted with health care and service organizations.
University and Argosy University. He has also been a Her current research interests are grief in organizations
practitioner of Adidam since 1983 and currently lives and the effects of perinatal loss on womens work lives.
with his wife in the ashram of his spiritual master,
Avatar Adi Da Samraj. Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, (United States/Finland) is a
master teacher of NohKiDo and Therapeutic Noh
Don Diespecker (Australia) introduced humanistic Theater. She is a native of Finland. In 1998, she
psychology, health psychology, and consciousness as received her Ph.D. in transpersonal psychology from
teaching subjects in The University of Wollongong the Union Institute, and her Ed.D. from the Catholic
before retiring to build a house in the bush. He found- University of America in 1983. She is a registered art
ed The Australian Journal of Transpersonal Psychology in and drama therapist and board certified trainer of
1981, which has now evolved into the International drama therapy. She is a visual artist/performer, design-
Journal of Transpersonal Studies, and is the author of er, choreographer, and director. She is the co-founder,
One Mind; An Introduction to Transpersonal Psychology executive vice president of the Art and Drama Therapy
(1991). Homosapien Books (Canberra) recently pub- Institute, Inc. in Washington, D.C. She is the
lished two of his novellas, The Agreement and its CEO/president of Beyond Mask, Inc. She has a black
sequel, Loureno Marques, written in mixed styles in belt in tai chi. She has trained professionally in the
which much of the narrative is consciousness writing. United States as well as Canada, England, Finland,
Japan, Lithuania, and Russia. She has published in the
Jorge N. Ferrer (United States) teaches in the East- United States and Japan. She has founded Ilmatar
West Psychology program at the California Institute of Institute in Finland, where she will begin her
Integral Studies, San Francisco. He is the author of NohKiDo training in 2004.
Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision
of Human Spirituality (SUNY Press, 2002). Daniel Holland (United States) graduated from
Oberlin College with a degree in literature. He earned
Harris Friedman (United States) is professor emeritus a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Southern Illinois
at Saybrook Graduate School and professor of psychol- University, was an intern in clinical health psychology
ogy (courtesy) at University of Florida, as well as a at the University of Missouri School of Medicine, and
licensed psychologist. He authored the Self- a resident in clinical neuropsychology at the University
Expansiveness Level Form, and coedits the International of Washington School of Medicine. Dan was a con-
Journal of Transpersonal Studies. He has published templative practice fellow of the American Council of
mainly in the areas of transpersonal psychology and Learned Societies in 2001, a Fulbright senior scholar
organizational studies. in post-Communist Eastern Europe in 2002, and a fel-
low of the Solomon Asch Center for the Study of
Ethnopolitical Conflict in Summer 2003. Much of his
work involves identifying and creating innovative
health promotion programs that are purposefully
About Our Contributors 141

inclusive of people with disabilities, and uniting vari- Ervin Laszlo (Italy/Hungary) is the author or editor of
ous disciplines to create interdisciplinary and interna- 69 books translated into as many as 19 languages, and
tional educational models. He is on the faculty of the has over 400 articles and research papers and six vol-
Psychology Department of the University of Arkansas umes of piano recordings to his credit. He serves as
at Little Rock. editor of the monthly World Futures: The Journal of
General Evolution and of its associated General
Jo Anne Isbey (United States) is associate professor of Evolution Studies book series. Laszlo is generally recog-
English in the College of Liberal Arts and Education, nized as the founder of systems philosophy and gener-
University of Detroit Mercy, where she teaches lan- al evolution theory, serving as founder-director of the
guage and literature. Her professional presentations General Evolution Research Group and as past presi-
focus on theoretical applications to medieval literature. dent of the International Society for the Systems
Currently, she is doing phenomenological research on Sciences. He is the recipient of the highest degree in
student growth in reading and writing. Recently she philosophy and human sciences from the Sorbonne,
has been attracted to works that are more inclusive: the University of Paris, as well as of the coveted Artist
bridging workplace and community service with the Diploma of the Franz Liszt Academy of Budapest. His
academy. She has a passion and commitment to social numerous prizes and awards include four honorary
justice issues. Her dissertation topic is The Shadow doctorates. His appointments have included research
Archetype in Grettis saga Asmundarsouar. grants at Yale and Princeton Universities and profes-
sorships for philosophy, systems sciences, and future
David Kowalewski (United States) is professor of envi- sciences at the Universities of Houston, Portland State,
ronmental studies and social sciences at Alfred and Indiana, as well as Northwestern University and
University. He has taught at the University of Texas, the State University of New York. His career has also
and as a Fulbright scholar at the University of the included guest professorships at various universities in
Philippines and Nairobi University. He teaches cours- Europe and the Far East. In addition, Laszlo worked as
es on tracking, wilderness survival, deep ecology, polit- program director for the United Nations Institute for
ical psychology, and psychic policing. He has studied Training and Research (UNITAR). In 1999, he was
with many of trackings luminaries in diverse locales awarded an honorary doctorate by the Canadian
across North America and Africa. His articles have International Institute of Advanced Studies in Systems
appeared in the Journal of Environmental Education, Research and Cybernetics. Laszlo serves as president of
Green Teacher, Environmental Politics, Social Science the Club of Budapest and head of the General
Quarterly, Journal of Psychohistory and other journals. Evolution Research Group, which he founded. He is
He is the author of Deep Power: The Political Ecology of an advisor to the UNESCO Director General, ambas-
Wilderness and Civilization (Nova Science, 2000). sador of the International Delphic Council, member
of both the International Academy of Science, World
Stanley Krippner (United States) is a faculty member Academy of Arts and Science, and the International
at Saybrook Graduate School. He is a psychologist best Academy of Philosophy. He is the former president of
known for his research in such fields as altered states of the International Society for Systems Sciences. Among
consciousness, anomolous dreams, and shamanism. his most recent well-known books are Science and the
He has authored, coauthored, edited, and coedited Akashic Field: An Integral Theory of Everything; You
numerous books and articles. Among his many books Can Change the World: The Global Citizens Handbook
are The Mythic Path; The Psychological Effects of War for Living on Planet Earth: A Report of the Club of
Trauma on Civilians; Varieties of Anomolous Experience; Budapest; and The Connectivity Hypothesis: Foundations
Extraordinary Dreams; and Broken Images, Broken of an Integral Science of Quantum, Cosmos, Life, and
Selves. In 2002, he received the American Consciousness.
Psychological Assocation Award for Distinguished
Contributions to the International Development of
Psychology.

Charles D. Laughlin (Canada/United States) is an EDITORS
emeritus professor of anthropology and religion in the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton Harris Friedman, Ph.D.
University. He is coauthor of Biogenetic Structuralism Professor Emeritus
(1974), The Spectrum of Ritual (1979), and Brain, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center
Symbol and Experience (1990), all from Columbia
University Press. He has done ethnographic fieldwork Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D.
among the So of Northeastern Uganda, Tibetan lamas Associate Professor
in Nepal and India, Chinese Buddhists in Southeast
Asia, and most recently the Navajo people of the BOARD OF EDITORS
American Southwest.
Manuel Almendro, Spain
Axel A. Randrup (Denmark) earned his master of sci-
ence degree (chemistry) at the Danish Technical Jacek Brewczynski, USA
University and Dr. phil at Copenhagen University He Sren Brier, Denmark
is currently president of the International Center for
Interdisciplinary Psychiatric Research and was for Elias Capriles, Venezuela
many years head of the Psychopharmacological Michael Daniels, Great Britain
Reesearch Laboratory, Sct. Hans Mental Hospital,
Roskilde, Denmark. He has performed research in bio- John Davis, USA
chemistry and published approximately 140 articles Don Diespecker, Australia
on virus research, blood lipids, psychopharmacology,
and the dopamine hypothesis of psychoses. During the Wlodzislaw Duch, Poland
past year, he has published articles on the relations James Fadiman, USA
between science, idealist philosophy, collective con-
scious experience, and spirituality in collections on the David Fontana, Great Britain
Internet. Joachim Galuska, Germany
Jerome J. Tobacyk (United States) is a professor of Laura Boggio Gilot, Italy

psychology at Louisiana Tech University, where he has Loyd Henriksen, Norway
worked since receiving his Ph.D. in personality psy-
chology from the University of Florida in 1977. His Daniel Holland, USA
scholarly interests include topics in Jungian psycholo- Bruno Just, Australia
gy, organizational psychology, cross-cultural psycholo-
gy, and philosophical psychology. He has twice been Sean Kelly, Canada/USA
awarded a Fulbright professorship to Polish universi- Jeffrey Kuentzel, USA
ties. He has a strong interest in integrating transper-
sonal studies and traditional psychological theory and S. K. Kiran Kumar, India
research. Some of his research concerns paranormal Charles Laughlin, Canada
beliefs, implications of religious belief, and the phe-
nomena of collective religious experiences. Olga Louchakova, USA
Axel Randrup, Denmark
Mario Simes, Portugal
Charles Tart, USA
Rosanna Vitale, Canada
John Welwood, USA
Board of Editors 143

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The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Special Topics: The second section contains several
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Transpersonal studies may be generally described as a themes/topics include the following: Qualitative and
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exploration of higher consciousness, expanded contributions of specific disciplines to transpersonal
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Transpersonal

Volume 23, 2004

Then Stanley Krippner, in All Mind? No Matter:

ii The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Editors Introduction iii

Harris Friedman, Ph.D.

Douglas A. MacDonald, Ph.D.

iv The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Charles D. Laughlin, Ph.D.

The spiritual life, to which art belongs and of

Art and Spirit 1

2 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Art and Spirit 3

4 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Art and Spirit 5

6 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Art and Spirit 7

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Art and Spirit 9

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Art and Spirit 11

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Art and Spirit 13

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Art and Spirit 15

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Art and Spirit 17

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Art and Spirit 19

Correspondence regarding this article should be

20 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Ervin Laszlo, Ph.D.

A their organism enclosed by the skin and their

22 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

24 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

26 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

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30 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

I develop an idealist ontology and philosophy con-

32 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

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44 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

concludes, We all know what it stands for, even

46 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

48 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Sirkku M. Sky Hiltunen, Ph.D.

50 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Transpersonal Functions of Masks 51

52 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Transpersonal Functions of Masks 53

54 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Transpersonal Functions of Masks 55

NohKiDo Transpersonal Functions of Masks in NohKiDo

56 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2004, Volume 23

Transpersonal Functions of Masks 57