DESIGN FOR CLEANING

Introduction
In the present context, cleaning means the removal of contaminating or unwanted liquid,
solid, or semisolid matter from the surfaces of a work-piece. During manufacturing process,
cleaning of work-piece is recommended to keep the component in proper condition for
subsequent events like machining, painting, plating, or assembly. In fact, cleaning is
performed prior to storage to remove corrosives.
Work-pieces are generally cleaned one or more times either by chemical or mechanical
cleaning process.
The type of cleaning need to be carried out depends on the following factors:

The soil to be removed

The degree of cleanliness required

The cost of cleaning

In addition to these, part design is also another factor might play a role (might not be
significant) in selecting the proper cleaning agent.

Soils to be removed
In industries, the following basic types of soil are generally removed

Rust and scale (formed due to surface oxidation of hot worked mill products like

forgings, castings, and weld fillets)

Chips and metal-cutting fluids (these are residues from machining operations)

Oil and grease (un-pigmented)

Pigmented drawing compounds (mostly used in cold-finishing steel bars, white lead,
molybdenum disulfide, graphite, and soaps are the most sticky pigments)

Polishing and buffing compounds

Miscellaneous soils such as lapping residue or residue from magnetic-particle

inspection

In-process cleaning operations

Industrial cleaning processes are recommended under the listed situation.
1. Prior to various production operations like machining, forming, assembly etc. or prior
to gauging to remove grease or oil that might interfere with handling.
2. Before carrying out any surface treatment operation like phosphating, sufficiently
clean work-piece is required for the process. Various factors which affect the
phosphate coating are contaminants like drawing compounds, rust preventives, cutting
oils, and coolants.
3. Prior to painting operation, cleaning is important as paint films will not adhere
permanently if the work piece surface contains oil, dust, grease, rust, scale, water, or
salts.
4. Prior to bonding cleaning is important as foreign matter present on the work-piece and
will prevent molecular contact between the adhesive and the substrate materials
thereby reducing the strength of the joint.
5. Prior to brazing cleaning is required. Surfaces must be free of oil, grease, dirt, and
oxides. Depending on the metal to be joined, degree of cleanliness required is
decided.
6. Prior to electroplating, a higher level of cleanliness in comparison to other
applications is required. In such case, multistage cleaning process is carried out. For
example, solvent, alkaline, electrolytic, and acid cleaning comprise a typical four-step
sequence.

Cleaning processes and their applications

Mechanical processes
Brushing: Brushing is used to remove solid material such as rust, loose paint and caked dirt.
This process involves use of power driven wire or fiber brushes. In industrial products, a

wide variety of abrasive action is required and this is achieved by using different brush
materials, bristle thicknesses and lengths. Abrasive action can be mild, moderate and strong
depending on the type of bristles.
Abrasive blasting: This is a process to remove rust, scale, and other corrosion products, dry
surface dirt, and paint. Working principle of this process involves bombardment of various
abrasive particles namely, aluminum oxide, sand, silicon carbide, steel shot (hard material)
rice hulls, corncobs, nut shell, plastic beads (soft materials) etc., to the work-piece surface at
a high velocity. However, removal of grease in this process is difficult.
Steam-jet cleaning: It is a method of removal of oil, grease, and dirt from the
object/equipment which is too large or bulky (difficult to immerse in a cleaning tank). Flame
jets are preferred for the removal of scale or old paint from large iron or steel components.
Tumbling: This method is used for removing rust and scale and is generally considered to be
a low-cost method. This method can be applied for in-process cleaning and as part of a prepainting, pre-plating sequence.
Chemical processes
Solvent cleaning: In this process of cleaning, liquid hydrocarbons are used. Cleaning is
carried out with one or a combination of three application methods namely, immersion or
soak-tank cleaning, spray degreasing and vapor degreasing. Commonly used solvents are
petroleum solvents (Stoddard solvent, mineral spirits, or kerosene) and chlorinated
hydrocarbons (trichloroethylene or perchlorethylene).
Immersion cleaning: It is considered to be the most effective in-process cleaning method.
This method removes oil, grease and oil-borne dirt. However, the level of cleanliness is not
high due to rapid solvent contamination.
Vapor degreasing: This is another effective method for removal of oil and grease. Sufficient
flushing (immersion and spraying) are to be done prior to this vapor-degreasing cycle. The
following steps are followed for this type of cleaning operation. A small amount of solvent is
allowed to vaporize and the vapor is contained in the tank by the tank walls and a cooling
coil. When a work-piece is lowered into the vapor, the vapor condenses on its surface and
drips back to the reservoir below. When the work-piece is heated by the warm vapor,
condensation stops and the work-piece dries.The work-piece is then taken out from the vapor

warm and is completely free of oil and grease. Various problems associated with solvent
cleaning process are solvent disposal, toxicity and fire prevention.
Ultrasonic cleaning: It is the most convenient method for thorough cleaning of small,
intricate parts which may not be even possible with other cleaning methods. In this method,
cleaning solution agitated by ultrasonic vibrations. Commonly used cleaning solutions are
chlorinated and alkaline solvents.
Emulsion cleaning: When the work-piece contains heavy buffing compounds (cakes
materials) or grease loaded with solid particles, this method is preferred. The liquid cleaner
used for this purpose is a mixture of water, a hydrocarbon (petroleum) solvent, and
emulsifying agents (soaps, glycerol, and polyether). Usually, the cleaner is applied by spray
or immersion at a temperature of 54 to 60C and often upto 82C. If work-piece is to be
immersed then agitation of the cleaning liquid is recommended. After cleaning of the workpiece, rinsing in hot water is required.
Alkaline cleaning: It is used for the removal of oil, grease, shop dirt, and compounds from
polishing, buffing, and drawing operations. In this type of cleaning, the cleaner used is the
combination of a solution of certain alkaline salts (caustic soda, tri-sodium phosphate,
silicates, borates, or carbonates) and detergents in water. Cleaning process involves pressure
spray in soak tanks, often with agitation at a temperature of 60 to 93C and water rinsing of
the work-piece after the alkaline. This method is considered to be the least expensive and
most popular for mass production.
Acid cleaning: It is similar to alkaline cleaning process except that, the cleaner is a solution
of acids or acid salts instead of alkaline salts. Acid cleaning is used for removal of light rust,
tarnish, scale, drawing compounds, oil, and grease. Acid cleaning does not work efficiently
when heavy coatings of oil and grease are there on the work-piece.
Pickling: It is used for the removal of surface oxides, scale, and dirt from metals.This process
is stronger than acid cleaning. The cleaning solution is prepared by mixing an aqueous
solution of acid with a wetting agent. The type of acid to be considered depends on the metal
to be cleaned. For example, in ferrous metals sulfuric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acids are
used. It is essential to neutralize the effect of pickling acid and hence an alkaline rinse is
required to be performed after the process

Salt-bath cleaning: It is a suitable method for the removal of scale, oxides, sand, carbon, and
graphite from a various metals. Cleaning is done by immersing the work-piece in a bath of
the molten salt at a temperature about 440 to 524C. The salt in the bath reduces the scale and
loosen it to some extent from the work-piece surface. Further, the work-piece is placed in a
water rinsing bath and due to heat of the work-piece the water turns to steam and blasts the
scale from its surface.Often this is called sodium hydride de-scaling.
Electrochemical processes
Among various cleaning methods, alkaline cleaning, acid cleaning, pickling, and salt-bath
cleaning can be performed by using an electrolyte (electrochemical). For example, in
electrolytic-alkaline cleaning, the work-piece is taken as one electrode and the tank or a steel
plate is as other. The alkaline solution works as the electrolyte. With the supply of current,
hydrogen gas is released at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. The produced gas bubbles
provide a scrubbing action at the work-piece surface, causing the soil to break up rapidly.
Various cleaning processes and their suitable materials are summarized in Table M5.1.1.

Suitable materials
Table M5.1.1:Suitable Materials for Common Cleaning Processes. (Source: Design for
Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Process

Suitable
materials

Marginal, difficult or unsuitable

materials

Brushing

Steel, cast iron, and

most other metals,
ceramics, and glass

Plastics and rubber require soft brushes. Stainless

steel and aluminum require stainless brushes.
Magnesium requires dust control.

Abrasive
blasting

Steel and all harder

metals

Ductile metals require special abrasives. Plastics

and other soft materials may entrap abrasive.
Stainless steel, copper, brass, zinc, aluminum,
lead, and tin require nonmetallic abrasive.
Magnesium can be hazardous.

Design recommendations
1. The cleaning surface must be easily accessible for cleaning and full flow of cleaning
fluid as shown in Figure M5.1.1.

Not this

This

Figure M5.1.1: Wide path in the right side image for full flow of cleaning fluids.

2. Parts subjected to liquid cleaning operations should have some provision of hole for
hanging or a rack for supporting the part easily. (See Figure M5.1.2.)

Hook or hole for racking

Not recommended

Recommended

Figure M5.1.2: provision of hole for hanging

3. When parts are subjected to liquid cleaners, drain holes must be provided. Generally,
the part configuration or method of hanging traps the cleaning solution as shown in
Figure M5.1.3 and Figure M5.1.4.

Figure M5.1.3: Drain hole and wide space for unimpeded flow of coating material

Figure M5.1.4: Drain holes and air vent.

4. Cleaning and finishing smaller parts and then assembling is more economical than
cleaning and finishing a large single component.
5. Nest table parts may cause difficulties in some cleaning operations which involve
immersion in a bath. Advantages and disadvantages of handling nest-able parts need
to be understood.

Cleanliness specifications
The following methods can be used to specify cleanliness requirements:
1. Specifications of the maximum allowable weight of soils on a part
2. Specifications of the maximum particle size of allowable soils on a part
3. Various specifications based on some kind of performance test, e.g.,

Water-break test

Acid-copper test (electrolysis copper-plating coverage)

Atomizer test

Wiping test

DESIGN FOR POLISHING AND PLATING

Polishing and plating are generally considered to be a part of finishing process.

Polishing processes
Conventional polishing
In conventional polishing, surface irregularities are removed from the workpiece by using
abrasive particles which is glued to a flexible wheel or a belt. Often this process is referred as
flexible grinding. Roughing, fining, and oiling are common terms for three steps of polishing.
Metal removal process might be slow or rapid and causes some plastic deformation of the
metal surface. Wheels can be made up of fabric, hemp, leather, wood, or felt. Polishing belts
have contact wheels of various materials and the most common is rubber. For faster cutting,
harder wheels and for contoured shapes soft wheels are preferred. To extend the service life
of abrasive surface, different lubricants like tallow, wax, and fatty acids are used in both
wheel and belt polishing.
Buffing:
Buffing operation is carried out after polishing with a finer abrasive to further smoothen the
surface and to provide the surface a lustrous, grain less finish. Through this process a very
little material is removed from the work piece. In buffing the abrasive is generally loosely
held by the wheel.
Barrel polishing or Tumbling:
This is a deburring operation used for surface polishing. This process requires, a rotating
barrel or vibrating hopper, water, a compound (cleaners or detergents plus fine abrasives) a
medium (chunks of ceramic, stone, or metal) and the parts to be polished. When a rotation in
the barrel or vibration in the hopper is given, it causes the medium to rub against the part with
the abrasive action.
Electropolishing:
Electro polishing is a reverse process of electroplating. In this, the work piece acts as anode.
After connecting the anode and cathode to DC power source, the setup is immersed in a

conductive solution. A typical nature of the electrolytic action is that the higher points
including micro-projections are subjected to more intense electrolytic action and metal
removal is more rapid. The process is gradual, finally resulting a smooth and glossy metal
surface.

Characteristics and applications

Through polishing operations, surface imperfections like scratch marks, gates, stretch marks,
cutting-tool marks, pits, parting lines, etc. are removed thereby improving the appearance of
the workpiece. However, small dimensional refinement is also possible through polishing.
This is required for surface smoothing purpose prior to plating, anodizing, painting, or for
other surface finishes. In addition to these, few more applications of polishing are listed
below.
1. It improves the contour of a part for enhancing fluid around propeller, turbine, or fan
blades.
2. It provides clearance for assembly. It helps in the removal of burrs.
3. It prepares the surface for different operations like brazing, soldering and surface
finishing.
4. It provides better resistance to corrosion by removing pockets in which contaminants
can collect and stressed areas that could promote stress corrosion.
5. It makes the inspection of surface imperfections easier in various forged, cast and
formed metal parts. This is because such defects are more visible if the surface is
smooth.
Examples of different manufactured components having polished surfaces are plumbing
fittings, cutlery, door hardware, automotive bumpers and trim, firearms parts, wrenches,
pliers, and other tools, bicycle handle bars, golf-club heads and shafts, fishing-reel parts,
stainless-steel and aluminum panels for appliances, turbine blades, nose cones, hydraulic
cylinders, square and round tubing, bar stock, fountain pens, and cast cooking utensils. If part
surfaces look like reflectors and having mirror-like surfaces, then both polishing and buffing
must have done.

Suitable materials
All metallic and rigid nonmetallic materials with uniform and fine grained structure are
preferred for the polishing process, the most suitable being then on-ductile machinable
metals. However, ductile materials are also can be used for polishing in this method.

Design recommendations
It is recommended to have the workpiece in such a shape that the polishing wheel or belt can
contact all points of the surface uniformly without any interference. Few design
recommendations for the parts for wheel or belt polishing and buffing are listed below.
1. It is recommended to avoid compound curves, inside or outside sharp corners, deep
recesses and other irregular shapes. If it is unavoidable, mild contours need to be
provided as shown in Figure M5.2.1.

Figure M5.2.1: Avoid deep recesses, irregular shapes and sharp corners

2. Designs of parts involving hooked edges or sharp projections that are likely to cut the
polishing wheel or belt as illustrated in Figure M5.2.2.

Figure M5.2.2: Avoid designs which incorporate hooked edges or sharp projections

3. The obstructions like bosses, handles etc. which puts restriction on the free access of
the wheel or belt to the surface to be polished are to be avoided as shown in Figure
M5.2.3.

Figure M5.2.3:.Bosses, handles, and other obstructions to the free access of the
polishing wheel or belt.
4. It is recommended to avoid polishing on large surfaces.
5. It is advisable to design parts which can be easily hold by hand or fixture so as to
avoid difficulty in polishing.

In addition to these, the recommended design guidelines for barrel polishing are listed below.
1. Parts with small holes, slots and recesses are to be avoided in case of barrel-polish as
illustrated in Figure M5.2.4.

Figure M5.2.4: Small holes, slots, or recesses are undesirable in parts to be barrel-polished.

2. It is difficult to do barrel polish at interior surfaces of large holes, recesses and

shielded areas. Hence, it recommended not to specify a polished surface in this
location as shown in Figure M5.2.5.

Figure M5.2.5: Interior surfaces is not recommended for barrel-polished

3. Large flat surfaces should not be specified to be barrel polished.

Certain parts like springs and other wire or strip parts might get interlock and tangle
during the barrel finishing operation and hence care must be taken.

Recommended tolerances
Table M5.2.1 summarizes the recommended surface finish to be provided for Mechanically
Polished, Barrel-Polished, and Electro polished Surfaces.

Table M5.2.1: Recommended Surface-Finish for polishing. (Source: Design for

Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Surface finish( m)
Most economical 0.4
Normal

0.2

Finest

0.05

DESIGN FOR PLATED SURFACE

Plating is the application of a thin metallic layers coating on the surface of a substrate
material. The substrate is usually metallic. However, methods are available also to plate
plastics and ceramics.

Electroplating process
Electroplating is an electrolytic process in which metal ions in an electrolyte solution are
deposited onto cathode work part. The metal to be plated is used as anode. When the setup is
connected to the external DC supply, electrolyte (an aqueous solution of acids, bases, or salts)
conducts electric current by the movement of plate metal ions in solution. To achieve
optimum plating, thorough cleaning operation of the work material must be done before
electroplating process. Figure M5.3.1 shows the setup for electroplating process

Figure M5.3.1: Setup for electro plating process

Various equipments available for electroplating processes are listed below.

1. Barrel plating: This is performed in rotating barrels that are oriented either
horizontally or at an oblique angle (350). Many small parts are processed in a batch.
2. Rack plating: This is used for parts which are large, heavy and complex enough for
barrel plating. Racks are fabricated into suitable shapes for holding the parts and
conducting the current to them.
3. Strip plating: This method is preferred when high production is required. The work
consists of a continuous strip that is pulled through the plating solution by means of a
take-up reel.

Typical characteristics
The main purpose of carrying out plating operation is to impart certain required properties on
parts or their surfaces. The properties are improving corrosion resistance, permitting use of
base materials which would not be satisfactory without such protection, improved
appearance, greater wear resistance, higher electrical conductivity and better electrical
contact with other parts, greater surface smoothness, better light reflectance, and a more
suitable base for bonding to other materials, to change a parts dimensions or a combination
of these reasons.
In electroplating process, parts of the simplest as well as complex shapes of any size can be
used. Typical thicknesses of metal coating achieved in electroplate process ranges from a few
molecules to a maximum of 0.05 mm. Generally, 0.05 mm thickness and even thinner
coatings are preferred. Electroplating can be done on any material; however, many parts
require special processing procedures thereby increasing the overall cost.

Suitable materials
Even though any material can be electroplated, the applications are normally limited to
metals and some specific plastics. Electroplating in plastics (except very few), requires to
create a conductive surface through pre-plating operation prier to actual plating. Commonly
used electroplated plastics are acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), chlorinated
polyethylene (PEC), ABS/polycarbonate, Polyphenylene oxide, polysulfone, polypropylene,
nylon, polyester, polyacetal, polystyrene and polycarbonate. Commonly used combinations
of basis materials and plating metals are provided in Table M5.3.1. In Table M5.3.1, the

numbers 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6 represents corrosion protection, appearance, tarnish resistance,

physical properties, in-process protection, and simplification of subsequent processing
respectively.
Table M5.3.1: Commonly Used Combinations of Basis Materials and Plating Metals
Base material
Plate coating Carbon steel Zinc Stainless steel Copper Brass Alloy steel
Cadmium

1,2

1,2

Zinc

1,2

1,2

Brass

Nickel

1,2

Copper

Tin

1,2,5,6

Chromium

2
2

1,2

2
1,2

6
6

4
2

Gold

1,2

1,2,5,6
4

Silver
Bronze

1,2

1,2

Design recommendations
Surface finish prior to plating: Plating must be preceded by polishing to achieve good final
product. If the surface is rough or discontinuous, it would be reflected on the final product.
Plated area: Designer need to specify the areas which are critical and which need not be
covered.
Flat surfaces: Electroplating of completely flat surface appears hollow after electroplating,
which can be eliminated by using crowning technique. It is basically providing a positive
radius in the shortest direction across the face of flat surfaces. The rise provided is about 0.1
mm/cm of width.
Inside corners: It is recommended to avoid sharp inside corners as these receive insufficient
deposit. Plating becomes better by using larger inside radius.
Outside corners: External corners receive excess plating deposit as shown in Figure M5.3.2.
It is recommended to use generous radii on such corners to minimize this effect

Figure M5.3.2: Avoid external and internal sharp corners and use rounded corner
Grooves: If the plating is to be done on the sides and bottom of the grooves, then the required
groove depth must be less than 1.5 times the width. A through slot is recommended than a
groove as illustrated in Figure M5.3.3.

Figure M5.3.3: Groove depth must be less than 1.5 times width
Bosses and ridges: Bosses and ridges should be well rounded to avoid excessive plating build
up as shown in Figure M5.3.4.

Figure M5.3.4: Rounded Bosses, ribs, and ridges to avoid excessive plating build up
Pockets: Pockets can be thought of as stopped grooves. It is recommended to use a depth-towidth ratio of 1:1.5 with a maximum radii permitted by the design.
Holes and tubes: Screw holding bosses in die castings should have a slot in the side wall to
allow gases formed from the chemical action of the plating solution to escape easily.
Otherwise lines may appear on adjacent surfaces as shown in Figure M5.3.5.

Figure M5.3.5: Screw-holding bosses in die castings with a slot in the sidewall
Cupping: A drain hole is provided to drain the electroplating solution (or air if the part is in
the solution with its open top down) from the part. Such holes also improve overall plating in
other ways.
Other considerations: Parts must not lock together. Often parts get locked or plated together
making the disassembly difficult or impossible. It is required to have provisions for the parts

to be hung on the plating rack as shown in the Figure M5.3.6. Holes, attachment studs, spring
contacts or tabs that are required for assembly of parts are often can be used for these
connections.

Figure M5.3.6: Provision for the parts to be hung on the plating rack.

Dimensional considerations
During electroplating process, generally change in the size does not occur which will create
assembly related problems. However, in exceptional cases where the parts are to be produced
to extremely close tolerance or for which, because of sharp edges or corners, thicker-thannormal coatings are produced. It becomes more difficult with threaded fasteners. Plating
thickness can vary significantly over the area of a work piece if sharp corners and recesses
are involved. Recommended minimum electroplating thickness for nickel or chromium
finishes on steel, iron, and zinc products are summarized in Table M5.3.2
Table M5.3.2: Recommended minimum electroplating thickness for nickel and chromium
Minimum thickness
Service conditions

Nickel

Chromium Typical applications

Exposure indoors in normally 10 m

warm, dry atmospheres with
coating subject to minimum wear
or abrasion

0.130.8
m

Toaster bodies, rotisseries,

waffle bakers, oven doors and
liners,
interior
automobile
hardware

Moderate: exposure indoors in

places where condensation of
moisture may occur

0.258 m

Steel and iron: stove tops, oven

liners, home, office, and school
furniture

1520
m

Hot Dip Metallic Coating

Hot dipping is a process in which a metal substrate is immersed in a molten bath of a second
metal. After removal, the second metal is coated into the first. It is essential to have higher
melting temperature of first metal than the second. The most common substrate metals are
steel and iron and the common coating materials are zinc, aluminum, tin and lead.
Prior to coating, cleaning of rust, scale, oil, paint and other surface contaminants is required.
For coating process, immersion in the molten metal is done for periods ranging from a
fraction of a minute for small objects like fasteners to several minutes for large scale
structures. Temperature of approximately 450C and 700C need to be maintained (bath
temperature) for galvanizing (zinc coating) and aluminum coating respectively. It is followed
by a post coating treatment depending on the requirement of the coated component. For
example, slow cooling, quenching, conversion coating and painting (preceded by pre-painting
treatments) might be done.

Characteristics
Hot-dip metallic coatings can be considered to have excellent long term corrosion resistance
property when properly sealed. Corrosion resistance comes through two distinct ways.
1. The coating functions as a barrier providing shielding to the base material.
2. The coating may provide sacrificial galvanic protection.
Coatings of metals higher in the electromotive series than the basis metal will corrode in
preference to the basis metal. Protection will be provided even if there is a break in the
continuity of the coating. Table M5.4.1 provides list of common metals in accordance with
their places in the electromotive series.

Table M5.4.1: List of common metals in accordance with their places in the electromotive
series. (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Metals
Magnesium
Zinc

More Noble

Cadmium
Steel
Lead

More active

Aluminum

Tin
Copper
Gold

Thickness of coating usually dependent on both process and coating type. Consider a typical
example, in case of hot-dip-galvanized material coating, thickness is customarily specified in
grams per square meter as either a minimum or an average coating weight. Normal values
range from about 150 to 920 g/m2. This is equivalent to a thickness of 0.01 to 0.13 mm. Few
examples of hot dip metallic coating are: fence components, playground equipment, and
tubular condensers.

Suitable materials
Substrates: The most common substrate materials for hot-dip metallic coating are cast iron
and steel. Materials like high-strength low-alloy steel also used under certain situations.
Coatings: Commonly used coating materials for hot-dip coating are zinc, aluminum, tin,
lead, and terne (a lead alloy with 10 to 20 % tin). Zinc, aluminum and terne provide good
corrosion resistance under most atmospheric conditions.

Design recommendations
Access and drainage of molten metal:
Molten coating metal must be able toflow freely to all surfaces of the part to achieve
corrosion protection over full surface. Use of hollow sections for coating is a better choice
andsignificantly reduces the possibility of hidden space.Recommended guidelines to achieve
full,uniform coverage are given below.

Holes for venting and draining should be as large as possible.

Holes for venting and draining should be placed diagonally opposite at the high and
lowpoints of the fabrication which are generally not used for the coating process.

To have free flow of molten metal, corners of internal and external stiffeners, baffles,
diaphragms, and gussets must be cropped.These guidelines have been illustrated in
Figure M5.4.1to Figure M5.4.3.

Figure M5.4.1: Pipe-column venting.

Figure M5.4.2: Venting and draining of enclosed and semi enclosed products.

Not Recommended

Recommended

Figure M5.4.3: Molten-metal bath to all surfaces of welded assemblies

Minimizing distortion:
Due to high temperature, there are chances of stress relief which can lead to distortion of the
workpiece. The following recommendations are to be kept in mind to minimize the distortion:

Symmetrical rolled sections are to be preferred over angle or channel frames.

Minimum possible welds are recommended in order to reduce thermal stresses.

In case of bending of component members, a largest acceptable radius which is not

less than 3 times the material thickness is to be used.

Assemblies and subassemblies should be built in units suitable for single dipping
whenever possible.

Distortion of an assembly will be strongly dependent on the design. It can be

significantly reduced by avoiding combinations of extremes in weight and crosssection of structural members as shown in Figure M5.4.4.

Figure M5.4.4: Avoid a combination of extremes in the weight and cross section of structural
members.
Screw threads: When a threaded member has to be hot-dip-coated, the pitch diameter must
be adjusted in order to allow for the thickness of the coating. Table M5.4.2 summarizes the
recommended oversize tappings for female threads to be used with galvanized bolts.
Table M5.4.2: Recommended Oversize Tapping for threaded Holes to be used with
Galvanized Bolts (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd
Ed)
Bolt or stud diameter (mm) Minimum oversize tapping required (mm)
11 and smaller
Over 11 to 25
Over 25

+0.4
+0.5
+0.8

Post-coating treatments:Post-coating treatment is recommended for the parts which are

prone to wet-surface stain (e.g., prolonged stacking in a moist or wet environment). One of
the most effective post-coating treatments is immersion of the workpiece in a solution of
sodium dichromate.
Coating-thickness recommendations: ASTM specifications for zinc-coating weight are
summarized in Table M5.4.3. Minimum coating thicknesses for various pre-coated sheets
ranges from 0.05 to 0.08 mm, 0.006 to 0.026 mm and 0.007 to 0.043 mm for aluminum,
terne, and zinc respectively.

Table M5.4.3: Recommended Coating Weight for Hot-Dip-Galvanized Products (ASTM

Specifications) (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Class Of Material

Minimum weight of zinc coating of

any individual specimen (g/m2)

Products fabricated from rolled, pressed,and forged steel shapes, plates, bars,and strips
3-5 mm thick

550

6 mm and heavier

610

Hardware
Castings - gray iron,malleable iron, steel

550

Rolled, pressed, and forgedarticles (5 mm andover

550
in thickness and over 200 mm in length)
Rolled, pressed, and forgedarticles (under 5 mm
380
inthickness and over 200 mm in length)
Rolled, pressed, and forgedarticles (200 mm and
340
underin length and any thickness)

THERMAL SPRAYED COATING

Process
In thermal spraying, molten and semi molten coating materials are sprayed on to a substrate,
where they solidify and adhere to the surface. To do this operation, a gun is used either in a
combustion flame, a plasma arc, or an electric arc, melts and propels coating material in
finely divided form towards the part to be coated. Heating of the coating material is done
through different methods namely: oxyfuel flame, electric arc, and plasma arc. Initial form of
the coating material are either wire or rod, or powder. Examples of different

coating

materials used in this process are, pure metal and metal alloys, ceramics (oxides, carbides and
certain glasses), other metallic compounds (sulfides, silicates), cermet composites and certain
plastics (epoxy, nylon, teflon and others). Various substrate materials are metal ceramic,
glass, some plastics, wood and paper.

Typical characteristics and applications

The thickness of sprayed deposit is usually lies between 0.05 mm and 2.5 mm. Sometimes it
may go upto 6 mm and occasionally as high as 25 mm. These coatings are generally porous
in nature and the degree of porosity depends on the method of spraying. Porosity is desirable
in bearing applications as these pores provide the means of lubricants. Porosity in
combustion-flame coatings ranges from 6 to 13 %, in plasma-arc coatings from 1 to 12% and
in detonation-gun coatings from 0.25 to 1 %. Thermal-sprayed coatings are significantly
harder than the parent coating materials and hence, exhibit superior wear resistance. But these
exhibit low ductility and reduced tensile strength. There is no restriction on part size for the
applicability of thermal-sprayed coatings. Common purposes for using thermal-sprayed
coatings are employed to provide corrosion protection, wear-resistant surfaces, to salvage
worn or undersized parts, to provide electrical contact and electrically conductive surfaces,
and to provide heat-oxidation protection.

Suitable materials
Coatings:
Any material that can be melted without decomposing can be used for thermal sprayed
coating. Different categories of such materials are
1. Pure metals- Aluminum, zinc, nickel, refractory metals, etc.
2. Alloys- Steel, cobalt and nickel-based superalloys, hard-surfacing and self-fluxing
alloys, etc.
3. Compounds- Aluminum oxides and other metal oxides, carbides, cermets, and
nitrides, etc.
4. Composites and blends - Admixtures and combinations of two or more of the above in
a single powder. Cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide and nickel-clad graphite comes
under this category.
Substrates:
Commonly used substrate is metal but other materials like ceramic, glass, concrete, plaster,
carbon wood, plastic, rubber, or cloth also can be used.
Bonding coatings:
Sprayed coatingis applied over the bonding coating. In bonding coating, materials adhere to
a clean, smooth surface which will not be subjected to mechanical roughening or gritblasting. This approach has advantages of reduction in pre-coating surface preparation, which
is costly and adversely affect the workpiece. In addition, it provides resistance to bond
failure. It is important in many applications. For example, when it is necessary to machine or
grind the coating to a featheredge. Molybdenum is the major bond-coating material.
Design recommendations
The following recommendations need to be followed for providing proper coatings.
1. If the primary coat is not self-bonding, the coating is applied through the plasma gun
and a thickness less than 0.25 mm is recommended, with the use of a blasted surface.

If the application requires a coating thicker than 0.25mm, a bond coat is

recommended and then the topcoat is applied.
2. For machine-design work, when the primary coating is not self-bonding and is applied
through a wire or powder combustion gun, then it is always recommended to design
for a bond coat. If the required coating thickness is less than 0.25mm, it is advisable
to use an undercut greater than 0.25 mm to allow for the thickness of a bond coat.
3. If design requires a thick coating then, it is sometimes advisable to use a low-cost
intermediate coat between the bonding coat and the topcoat. Recommended bond coat
thickness is 0.075 to 0.12 mm. Coating materials need to be selected to avoid galvanic
corrosion between layers.

Figure M5.5.1: Avoid exposed edges of flame-sprayed coatings and also feather edges.
4. Few coatings can serve both the purpose of adhesion of bonding coatings and the
functional properties of top coatings. Separate adhesion coating is not required in such
cases. It is preferred to avoid exposing of edges of flame sprayed coatings and also

feather edges. Surfaces held by undercuts at the edges are the best. (Refer Figure
M5.5.1.)
Depth of internal surfaces that can be used for flame sprayed is to be decided based on
recommended values. In case, the opening is large enough for a spray-gun extension, no
length restriction is put, otherwise the maximum coating depth is twothirds of the
diameter of the opening, as shown in Figure M5.5.2.

Figure M5.5.2: Limitations on the depth of internal surfaces for flame spraying
5. It is advisable to design the workpiece to facilitate handling. For example, if a
cylindrical part is designed, a means must be provided by which it can be rotated:
centers, flanges, etc. A sheet-metal stamping could be partially sheared through to
allow handling a continuous strip rather than individual parts at the spraying
operation. Irregular parts should include a locating hole or other means for easy
orientation.

Figure M5.5.3: Nested parts during flame spraying to reduce over spray losses.

6. Parts are designed in such a manner that they can be nested together during flame
spraying to reduce overspray losses as illustrated in FigureM5.5.3.
To ensure adequate strength, the coated parts to be press-fitted and the coating should be
at least 0.13 mm thick. For rotating shafts, recommended minimum coating thicknesses
for average conditions of wear and finish machining are provided in Table M5.5.1.
Table M5.5.1: Recommended Minimum Thickness of Thermal- Sprayed Coatings on
Shafts (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Minimum coating thickness
Shaft diameter, mm

per side, mm

25 or less

0.25

2550

0.38

5075

0.50

75100

0.63

100125

0.76

125150

0.89

150 or more

1.0

Figure M5.5.4: Design for grooving a shaft for flame-sprayed coatings.

Coating thickness on internal surfaces should be kept low. The presence of shrinkage forces
in flame spraying has a tendency to separate thick coatings on internal surfaces from the work
piece. Further, coatings below 0.08 mm are not recommended because thickness uniformity

cannot be controlled properly. A roughened or grooved surface is advisable to ensure

adequate adhesion in flame-sprayed coating. Groove scan be either annular or helical.
Knurling at the tops of the ridges produces a dovetail undercut that further ensures a strong
bond. Figure M5.5.4 illustrates the recommended groove design for a shaft to be coated.

DIMENSIONAL FACTORS
The surface finish of flame-sprayed coatings ranges from 1.0 to 10.0 m rms. The surface
finish and the accuracy of coating thickness depend on a number offactors.

Uniformity of speed of spray-gun movement.

Nature ofsurface preparation

Shrinkage of coating material

The normal variation of coating thickness under controlled production conditions ranges
between 0.05 mm to 0.13 mm.

VACUUM METALIZED SURFACES

The process
In vacuum metalizing, mostly pure metals are first heated to transform from solid to vapor
state in a vacuum and then allowed to condense on the substrate surface. This process is
shown in Figure M5.6.1. The material to be deposited is called as source and is heated in
either electrical resistance or induction or electron beam. The common one is resistance
method. This process is carried out in a closed chamber maintaining a vacuum of 10-3 to 10-5
mbar.

Figure M5.6.1: Setup for vacuum evaporation physical vapour deposition.

Typical characteristics and applications

Important applications of vacuum coatings are listed below:
1. Decoration: A bright, lustrous metallic coating is applied to plastic components, film,
or paper.
2. Optical applications: A thin film is applied to optical glass to provide reflectance e.g.
sun glasses.
3. Corrosion protection: Less frequently used for this type of application
4. Electronics and electrical applications: Capacitors, integrated circuits, contacts, and
photo conductors utilize vacuum coatings.
5. Encapsulation of powdered materials

If the substrate surface is smooth, the resulting vacuum coating finish will be brilliant and
does not require buffing. Commonly used products in which decorative vacuum coatings are
employed, are costume jewelry, toys, home appliances, hardware, automotive trim (normally
interior), decorative nameplates, and various sheet materials. Among various optical
applications, mirrors, automobile head lights, flash lights and other reflectors, telescopes,
microscope filters, sun-glasses, optical filters and other instruments, beam splitters, and other
objects requiring some degree of light reflection are common. Most usable application of
vacuum coating is in food containers, for which tin can be applied by vacuum methods more
economically than by electroplating.
Table M5.6.1: Typical Applications of Vacuum-Deposited Coatings. (Source: Design for
Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Coating material

Function

Coating thickness(mm)

Substrate material

Aluminum

Decorative

0.0010.005

Metal

Aluminum

Reflective

0.0010.005

Glass

Aluminum

Protective

0.5

Steel

Aluminum

Decorative

0.001

Plastic sheet

Aluminum

Decorative

0.5

Aluminum

Aluminum

Electrodes

0.00050.001

Plastic shot

Cadmium

Protective

0.5

Steel

Cadmium

Electrical
resistance

0.00010.001

Glass orplastic

Chromium

Electrical
resistance

0.00010.001

Glass or
plastic

Gold

Electrodes for
piezoelectric
crystals

0.0010.005

Organic or
inorganic
crystals

Magnesium
fluoride

Nonreflective

0.004

Glass

Silicon
monoxide

Abrasion
resistance

0.004

Glass

Titanium
dioxide

Decorative;
optical

0.004

Glass

Zinc

Electrical
conductivity

0.0010.005

Paper

Vacuum-deposited coatings are generally of high purity and density. The maximum size of
component that can be vacuum-coated depends on the size of vacuum chamber available.
Tables M5.6.1 summarize different applications of vacuum coatings.

Suitable materials
Aluminum is considered to be the most common vacuum-coated material. It is found in over
90% of decorative coatings and also used for optical, electronic, or corrosion-protection
purposes also. In accordance with the decreasing vapor pressure (the most important factor in
vacuum coatability), after aluminum, selenium, cadmium, silver, copper and silicon
monoxide fall in the series. Further, another group, in order of decreasing vapor pressure, is
gold, chromium, palladium, nickel-chromium alloy, magnesium fluoride and titanium.
In fact, certain compounds of metals and other elements are also useful for coatings and can
be deposited by this method. Silicon monoxide is one of such compounds. It provides an
abrasive-resistant finish over aluminum and is often applied immediately after the deposit of
aluminum without interrupting the vacuum. Magnesium fluoride and aluminum oxide are
used in the manufacture of electronic capacitors.

Design recommendations
Recommendations are provided for vacuum-coated components based on two different
aspects.
The need for an enclosed vacuum chamber with its inherent size limitations
The line-of-sight travel path of coating vapor from source to work piece
Based on these factors, the design recommendations are given below.
1. Compact parts are preferred to enable a large number to be placed in the vacuum
chamber. Arms and other extensions that may interfere with the placement of other
work pieces or with the holding fixtures should be avoided. If possible, it is
recommended to separate large component (to be vacuum coated) into different parts
and perform assembly operation after coating.
2. Deep recesses on the surface to be coated should be avoided. (Refer Figure M5.6.1.)

Figure M5.6.1: Deep recesses on the surface to be coated should be avoided.

3. When a decorative coating is applied to the second surface of a component, ribs,
bosses, or other appendages that affect the thickness of the part as measured from the
first surface will affect its appearance. When the second surface is to be coated, the
thickness of the part between surfaces should be uniform. (Refer Figure M5.6.2.)

Figure M5.6.2: Uniform thickness of the part between both surfaces

4. Coating the interior surfaces of hollow parts is difficult unless the interior of the work
piece is large enough to contain the filament or other source of evaporated metal. It is
recommended to avoid interior surface coating if possible, as it is expensive.
5. Regular surface are preferred for vacuum coating. Irregular surfaces shown in Figure
M5.6.3 (a) require multiple sources of metal evaporation to ensure coverage of all
areas. More regular surfaces as illustrated in Figure M5.6.3 (b) are preferable and
should be specified whenever possible.

Figure M5.6.3 (a): Irregular surfaces for vacuum coating

Figure M5.6.3 (b): Regular surfaces for vacuum coating

6. One-side coatings should be specified whenever possible. The fixtures used to rotate
the workpiece for more than one side coating is costly.
7. The angle of the parts surface and the line of sight path of the vapour should not be
less than 450. (Refer Figure M5.6.4)
8. Vacuum coating can be deposited directly on the substrate without the necessity for a
pre-coat for optical parts and others with a smooth enough surface. The design should
be such that pre-cleaning solvents can drain easily from the surface.
9. Highly irregular surfaces, large flat surface are not desirable for vacuum coating. It
becomes difficult to spray a smooth coating over a large surface and maintain a
uniform appearance.

Figure M5.6.4: Minimum angle of part surface and the line of the sight of the path of vapor

Finishes
Even though the coating thickness can be controlled to close tolerance, there are normally
variations in part-to-part coating thickness and in the thickness on one workpiece. The factors
affecting this coating thickness are:

Inherent non-uniformity in the disperse pattern of vapor from the source

Irregularities in shape of the workpiece surface

Shadow effect which results when the supporting frame comes between the workpiece
and the vapor source

Thickness can be controlled by controlling the process parameters such as:

Filament size and current

Coating-metal clip size

Degree of vacuum

Vaporization time

For normal applications, the following nominal dimensional ranges are recommended:

Decorative and simple reflective coatings, 0.05 to 0.13 m

Corrosion-protection coatings, 5 to 10 m

DESIGN FOR HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is a property enhancing operation. It is secondary in sequence to other partsmaking operations. Property enhancing operations are performed to improve mechanical or
physical property of the work material. They dont alter material part geometry. Heat treatment
involves various heating and cooling procedures performed to affect the micro-structural changes
in a material, which in turn affect the mechanical property of the work part. This heating (and
eventual cooling to room temperature) either softens the material or hardens it. The results of this
process depends, on
1. Specific material
2. Temperature to which the material is heated
3. Method and rate of cooling
As the number of heat treatment processes is large and the details of each process are infinite, it
is impossible for a designer to know every property enhancing process. The designer should be
aware of the general types of heat treatment processes available and know enough of their details
so that they can make reasonable decisions as to how their parts should be heat-treated.

Heat treating process for steel

Softening processes
Stress relieving: Due to various mechanical cold working processes like rolling, forging,
drawing etc. an internal stress is developed inside the material. This stress is reduced by heating
the part to some point below the critical temperature and then allowing the material to cool
slowly to room temperature which produces some micro-structural changes in the material.
Annealing: Annealing is a process of heating the metal to a temperature above the austenizing
temperature for sufficient time as long as the material transforms into austenite or austenite-

cementite & then cool slowly at the rate of about 20C/hr. Annealing is performed to improve the
ductility of material so that it can be mechanically processed more easily by other processes.
Normalizing: This process is slight different from annealing. The process of annealing consists
of heating the metal to a temperature above the austenizing temperature, holding at that
temperature for certain time, but it is allowed to cool in air at a faster rate. The resulting structure
is uniform but not as soft as fully annealed.
Hardening processes
Hardening is the process of heating the material to a temperature above the austenizing
temperature until all pearlite is transformed into austenite, and then quenching it rapidly in water
or oil. The temperature at which austenizing rapidly takes place depends upon the carbon content
in the steel used. Depending upon the required hardened structure, different heating & cooling
operations are performed subsequently.
Surface hardening: Surface hardening refers to any of the several thermo-chemical treatments
applied to steels in which carbon or nitrogen must be diffused into the surface at an elevated
temperature and then the work piece is cooled at a rate sufficient to harden the surface. The term
case hardening is used for surface hardening. Four methods used are carburizing, cyaniding,
nitriding, and carbonitriding. The name suggests the type of material to be diffused.
Through hardening: This is achieved by heating the part uniformly for a long time to a point
above the critical temperature and finally quenching it in an appropriate medium. To provide
necessary cooling rate required to harden the part, generally water, oil, or air, with varying
degrees of agitation are recommended to be used. The grade of steel & the size and shape of the
part also affects the selection of quenching medium.
Martempering: It is a common heat treatment process that quenches the material to an
intermediate temperature just above the point at which martensite starts and then allowed to cool
slowly thereby, providing through-hardened structure with less distortion.
Austempering: In this process, the part is quenched directly into a liquid salt bath at a
temperature between 590 to 710 Fahrenheit to transform the Austenite into Bainite. The part is

then removed from the salt quench and air cooled to room temperature to produce higher
ductility.
Note: Interested reader can refer heat treatment process for other ferrous metals such as cast iron,
stainless steel etc. and nonferrous metals and their alloys such as copper and copper alloys,
magnesium alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, titanium and
titanium alloys etc.

Characteristics and applications of heat-treated parts

Case-hardened steel parts:
These parts are produced by carburizing the components surface, then quenching and tempering
the part. To achieve extra strength, hardening of the core is incorporated. Commonly used case
depths are 0.025 to 1.5 mm, and case hardness ranges up to Rc65. This combination of properties
provides wear resistance and fatigue strength at the surface, and impact strength in the core.
Surface-hardened steel parts:
These parts are produced by carburizing the components surface by using a thicker layer of
hardened surface material & then heat treated to attain higher strength & higher wear resistance
with lower surface distortion. The thicknesses go up to 6.3 mm. Typical surface-hardness values
for these parts range between Rc40 and Rc60. Flame and induction surface hardening are
frequently used for local hardening of parts.
Through-hardened steel parts
These are produced by heating the part uniformly for a long time to a point above the critical
temperature and finally quenching it in an appropriate medium to produce parts with maximum
physical properties i.e. yield strength of steel is greatly increased which is used in high-stress,
high-strain applications. Examples of through-hardened parts include metal springs, dies, molds,
and various machine parts subjected to high loads.

Hardened Cast-Iron Parts

These cast irons parts are produced mostly by flame hardening process which provides higher
strength and wear resistance. The carbon & alloy content of the austenite affects the hardness of
the cast-iron parts. By the help of tempering process at lower temperature, the strength &
toughness of iron parts increase.
Stainless Steel Parts
After the fabrication of stainless steel, it undergoes a heat-treatment process to reduce the
residual stress level by improving the mechanical properties & corrosion resistance. The
precipitation-hardening of semi austenitic steels helps in improving the tensile strengths up to
1310 MPa. The annealing process of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels help in restoring the
ductility and softness after work hardening process and it also helps in improving the maximum
corrosion resistance.
Copper-Alloy Parts
Parts fabricated from the mill need not require further treatment other than stress relief to remove
the manufacturing stress because it is already supplied in the solution-treated or age-hardened
form. Parts fabricated from solution-treated material must be age-hardened. During agehardening process, close control of parts by using fixture is required because some copperalloys
like beryllium copper distort in the direction in which they were plastically formed or elastically
deflected.
Aluminum-Alloy Parts
Generally the supplied aluminum-alloy parts are solution treated & precipitation hardened, which
reduces the ductility of parts by improving the tensile & yield strength and hardness. So, it
requires annealing process to improve the ductility which helps in providing easier fabrication
with forming methods.

Selection of material
It is recommended to use common materials that will produce improved physical properties and
would be easily available at reasonable cost. Further, it is essential to have the knowledge of

what is required for heat treatment and the expected results on the specific part under
consideration. This would again provide a limited number of grades from which a final
determination has to be made.
Low-carbon steel
Due to the case hardening heat treatment process, the low-carbon steel (up to 0.25 percent
carbon) produces a hard, wear-resistant surface.
Medium-carbon steel
The medium-carbon steels (0.25 to 0.55 % of carbon) are generally produced by throughhardening & tempering process which provides higher tensile strength ranging from 690 to 1380
MPa. Due to the lower strength of low carbon steels, designers opt for high strength mediumcarbon steels. It is widely used in parts requiring medium strength and high toughness.
High-carbon steel
Due to the higher percentage of carbon, the high-carbon steel (0.55 to 1.00 percent carbons) has
higher strength, hardness, higher fatigue & abrasion resistance. Due to difficulty in fabrication
and higher cost, it is rarely used.
Alloy Steels
Generally, alloying elements are added to plain carbon steels to provide various improved
properties like (1) better strength in larger sections (2) less distortion during hardening (3) higher
resistance to abrasion keeping the hardness same (4) higher toughness at the same hardness in
small sections or (5) greater hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. To achieve these
properties (one or more), it is required to carry out the following: (1) changing the hardening
characteristic, (2) changing the nature and amount of the carbide phase of the steel (3) changing
the tempering characteristics.
When alloying elements (expect cobalt) are added to steel, a higher hardenability is achieved.
Hardenability provides the measure of the depth of hardening produced by quenching.

Cast Iron
The combined carbon content in gray cast iron is one of the major determining factors in flame
hardenability. Generally alloy gray iron ranging between 0.50 and 0.70 % is more prone to flame
hardening process than unalloyed gray iron because of wider temperature range & greater
martensitic depth.
Stainless Steels
Heat treatment of stainless steels is mostly carried out under controlled conditions to avoid
carburization, decarburization and scaling on the metal surface. The carbon content affects the
maximum strength and hardness of material. Austenitic stainless steels can be surface hardened
by nitriding.
Copper and Copper Alloys
Stress relieving, annealing, solution treating and precipitation hardening are the various heat
treatment process i.e. applied to copper & copper alloys. Aluminum bronze, Beryllium copper,
Copper-nickel-silicon, and Copper-nickel phosphorous are produced by precipitation hardening
process.

Distortion
Due to the heat treatment process, a considerable improvement in physical properties occurs
along with some undesirable changes in size & shape. These changes in dimensions occur
mainly due to the various stresses (i.e. thermal stresses, stresses developed by the transformation
of hardened structure etc.) that are developed by the manufacturing operations. Further, some
distortions are also developed during the handling of heat treatment processes at the austenizing
temperature which is more intensified due to rapid heating and cooling. (See Figure M5.7.1)
Arrows show direction of stress. (a) Part heated uniformly throughout. Center area and surface
both are expanded. (b) Start of quench; surface contracted more than center. (c) Midway during
quench; surface transformed, center contracting. (d) Near end of quench: surface cold and rigid,
center transforming and expanding. Dimensional changes and distortion in the case of case-

hardened parts are dependent on (1) configuration of the part (2) the process used (3) previous
stresses in the part (4) grade of steel used.

Figure M5.7.1: The distribution of stresses in a typical part during heating and quenching.
However, the amount of distortion is also dependent on the design, no matter which method is
used. These distortion can be controlled by simple change in the way in which the part is handled
or using a completely different method. For example, suppose a case-hardening method causes
high distortion for a given part, then the heat treater must select a less severe method like
cyaniding to produce the specified results.

Design recommendations
The recommended principles to achieve a good design for heat treatment are:
Required properties in the heat-treated part need to be achieved without allowing the part
to be distorted beyond the acceptable limits
Heat-treated part resist external stresses during service without failure.
Keeping the above principles in mind, the following design recommendations need to
follow for heat treatment.

1. General rule is to make the part as simple as possible, keep it symmetrical, have uniform
cross-sections, and balance the weight.
2. Abrupt changes in sections of parts to be heat treated need to be avoided (See Figure
M5.7.2)

Figure M5.7.2: Avoid abrupt changes in sections of parts to be heat-treated.

3. Rounded, symmetrical cross-section reduces heat treating stress. Long, thin parts (such as
connecting rods) should have symmetrical, rounded cross sections to reduce stresses.
(See Figure M5.7.3)

Figure M5.7.3: Rounded, symmetrical cross sections reduce heat-treating stresses.

4. In symmetrical cross-sections parts having holes, it is always recommended to place the

hole at the center of the part so that the mass of metal surrounding them is equally
balanced. (See Figure M5.7.4)

Figure M5.7.4: Maintain uniform section thickness around holes.

5. The location of holes or cutouts should not be located closer than 1.5 times diameters
from the edge in order to avoid unequal mass distribution. (See Figure M5.7.5)

Figure M5.7.5: Minimum spacing from edge to center of hole should be 1.5 times
diameters.
6. Sharp internal corners, generally concentrate heat treating stresses and hence need to be
avoided. It is recommended to have all internal corners as round, and non-cutting holes
should have radii at the top and bottom surfaces.(See Figure M5.7.6)

Figure M5.7.6: Avoid sharp internal corners, which concentrate heat-treating stresses.
7. Sharp edges at the entry and exit edge of the hole need to be avoided and it is preferred to
provide radii at the top and bottom surfaces.(See Figure M5.7.7)

Figure M5.7.7: Smooth (radius) surface at entry and exit edges of holes.
8. Press-metal dies are usually heavy, flat sections designed to resist high stresses during
operation and these need extreme precision after hardening. Die section should have
balanced mass to avoid heat treating problem.(See Figure M5.7.8)

Figure M5.7.8: Die sections should have balanced mass

9. Section width of the die around large openings should be twice the thickness of the die
block (See Figure M5.7.9).

Figure M5.7.9: Minimum section width is around two times stock thickness.

Figure M5.7.10: Two-piece construction for internal corners.

Figure M5.7.11: Rounded corners at the base of gear and ratchet teeth

10. The two-piece construction is advisable to eliminate the stress concentration in internal
corners for a die section which is having unbalanced sections or irregular in shape. (See
Figure M5.7.10).
11. Individual teeth should have ample radii at the root and edges to avoid to thermal stresses
(See Figure M5.7.11).
12. Teeth should be located properly to avoid thin sections.
13. Keyways, whether external or internal, should have generous radii and be located
symmetrically. Keyways used with gear or cutter teeth should be positioned in line with
the base of the tooth so as to maintain uniform cross-section.
14. The hub of a gear is subjected to distortion in case of unbalanced mass. Generally a
sectional design is considered for a function which requires unequal mass distribution.
(See Figure M5.7.12).

Figure M5.7.12: A sectional special sprocket or gear design

15. Parts with through holes concentric with the axis provide more uniform section thickness
and reduce heat treating problem such as distortion. (See Figure M5.7.13).

Figure M5.7.13: Right side through holes provide more uniform section thickness.
16. It is recommended to specify the desired end condition in the drawing rather than the
process to maintain same standard.
17. The total case depth or effective case depth is required to specify case hardening. If the
part is to be ground, it is to be stated whether the depth applies before or after grinding. In
case depth and hardness, it is required to provide tolerance as liberal as possible.

DESIGN FOR CLEANING

Answer the following questions
1. The type of cleaning need to be carried out depends on
A) The soil to be removed

B) The degree of cleanliness required

C) The cost of cleaning

D) All of the above

2. Which type of cleaning method can be applied as part of a pre-painting, pre-plating

sequence?
A) Abrasive blasting

B) Steam-jet cleaning

C) Both A and B

D) Tumbling

3. Sufficient flushing (immersion and spraying) are to be done ________ to this vapordegreasing cycle.
A) Prior

B) At the end

C) At the same time

D) Not required

4. Which method is preferred, when the work-piece contains heavy buffing compounds
(cakes materials) or grease loaded with solid particles?
A) Immersion cleaning

B) Solvent cleaning

C) Ultrasonic cleaning

D) Emulsion cleaning

5. Cleaning is done by immersing the work-piece in a bath of the molten salt at which
temperature approximately?
A) 440 to 524 C

B) 720 to 950 C

C) 110 to 130 C

D) 1500 to 1700 C

6. In the solvent cleaning process which type of materials are used?

7. What is recommended, in Emulsion cleaning if work-piece is to be immersed?

8. What is recommended for parts subjected to liquid cleaning operations?

9. What are the suitable materials for brushing (cleaning process)?

10. Write the unsuitable materials for abrasive blasting process?

DESIGN FOR POLISHING AND PLATING

Answer the following questions
1. Buffing is which type of operation?
(a) Cutting (b) shearing (c) polishing (d) none of these.

2. Barrel polishing is which type of operation?

(a) cutting (b) shearing (c)polishing (d) none of these
3. In electro polishing workpiece act as
(a) Anode (b) cathode (c) both (a) & (b) (d) none of these
4. Which power source used in electro polishing?
(a)AC (b) DC (C) Both (d) none of these

DESIGN FOR PLATED SURFACE

(1) An electrolytic process in which metal ions from electrolyte solution are deposited onto
work part. The metal to be plated is used as part.
(2) The main purpose of carrying out plating operation is to improve such required
properties on parts or their surfaces are like (a)..(b).(c)..
(3) Typical thicknesses of metal coating achieved in electroplate process ranges from a
few molecules to a maximum of...
(4) Electroplating in plastics requires to create a. through pre-plating
operation prior to actual plating.
(5) Electroplating of completely flat surface appears hollow after electroplating, which can
be eliminated by using.. .

Hot Dip Metallic Coating

Answer the following questions

1. Temperature of around ______ need to be maintained for galvanization.

2. Terne is a lead alloy with 10-20% _____.
3. One of the most effective post-coating treatments is immersion of the workpiece in a
solution of _______________.
4. ___________ rolled sections are to be preferred over angle or channel frames.
5. Distortion in metal coating operations is caused due to __________________.
6. The least and most active metals in the electromotive series are ______ and ______.
7. Hot-dip metallic coating is considered when ___________ resistance is needed.
8. Minimum possible welds are recommended in order to reduce thermal stresses.
True/False

THERMAL SPRAYED COATING

Choose the best answer:
1) Which of the following is not used for melting of coating material?
a) Combustion flame b) reducing flame c) plasma arc d) electric arc

2) Which of the following material is used as substrate in thermal sprayed coating?

a) Pure metal and metal alloys
b) Metallic compounds of sulfides & silicates
c) Wood & paper
d) Cermet composites

3) Which of the following is false regarding porosity of coatings?

a) combustion-flame coatings - 6 to 13 %
b) plasma-arc coatings - 1 to 12%

c) detonation-gun coatings - 0.25 to 1 %

d) None of these

4) Which of the following is a bonding coating material?

a) Cermet composite
b) Tungsten
c) Molybdenum
d) Plastic

5) The surface finish and the accuracy of coating thickness does not depend on

a) Type of flame used for coating

b) Nature of surface preparation
c) Shrinkage of coating material
d) Uniformity of speed of spray-gun movement

VACUUM METALIZED SURFACES

Multiple choice questions
M.5.6.1. what should be the pressure range in vacuum metalizing process?
a) 10-3 to 10-5 mbar
b) 10-5to 10-7mbar
c) 10-1 to 10-3mbar
d) 10-9 to 10-11 mbar

M.5.6.2. which is considered to be the most common vacuum-coated material?

a) gold
b) silver
c) nickel

d) aluminum

M.5.6.3. under the design recommendations for vacuum-coated components, the angle
of the parts surface and the line of sight path of the vapour should not be less
than_________.

a) 75
b) 450
c) 900
d) 300

M.5.6.4. Which compound provides an abrasive-resistant finish over aluminum and is

often applied immediately after the deposit of aluminum without interrupting the
vacuum?
a) Silicon monoxide
b) Aluminum oxide
c) Magnesium fluoride
d) silver nitrate

M.5.6.5. Among the following, the factor that does not affect coating thickness is

a) Inherent non-uniformity in the disperse pattern of vapor from the source.

b) Irregularities in shape of the workpiece surface
c) Filament size and current
d) Shadow effect which results when the supporting frame comes between the
workpiece and the vapor source

DESIGN FOR HEAT TREATMENT

Fill in the blanks
1) ___________ heat treatment process quenches the material to an intermediate
temperature just above the martensite start temperature and then allowed to cool
slowly.
2) ___________ heat treatment process helps in transforming the austenite into
Bainite.
3) ____________ affects the maximum strength and hardness of stainless steel.
4) ____________ hardening process is used for production of cast iron.
5) The location of holes or cutouts should not be located closer than _________ times
diameters from the edge in order to avoid unequal mass distribution.

Answers:
DESIGN FOR CLEANING

1.

(D)

2. (D)

3. (A)

4. (D)

5. (A)

6. In solvent cleaning process, liquid hydrocarbons are used.

7. If work-piece is to be immersed then agitation of the cleaning liquid is recommended.
8. Parts subjected to liquid cleaning operations should have some provision of hole for
hanging or a rack for supporting the part easily.
9. Steel, cast iron, and most other metals, ceramics, and glass.

10. Ductile metals require special abrasives. Plastics and other soft materials may entrap
abrasive. Stainless steel, copper, brass, zinc, aluminum, lead, and tin require
nonmetallic abrasive. Magnesium can be hazardous.

DESIGN FOR POLISHING AND PLATING

1.
2.
3.
4.

(c)
(c)
(a)
(b)

DESIGN FOR PLATED SURFACE

(1).cathode, anode
(2). a) corrosion resistance b) wear resistance c) electrical conductivity
(3).0.05mm
(4). conductive surface
(5). crowning technique.

Hot Dip Metallic Coating

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

450C
Tin
Sodium dichromate
Symmetrical
High Temperature
Gold, Magnesium
Corrosion
True

THERMAL SPRAYED COATING

(1). b
(2). c
(3). d
(4). c
(5). a

VACUUM METALIZED SURFACES

(1). 10-3 to 10-5 mbar
(2). aluminum
(3). 450
(4). Silicon monoxide
(5). Filament size and current

DESIGN FOR HEAT TREATMENT

1) - Martempering.
2) - Austempering.
3) - The carbon content.
4) - Flame hardening.
5) - 1.5 times.