FOLDING

INTRODUCTION
Compressional stresses are especially associated with mountain building. Rocks react in
various ways to such stresses, depending on the composition and thickness of the beds and
the intensity of the stresses. When the horizontal strata of the earths crust is compressed
from side to side, the beds are bent into a series of bands or folds. Folding means
contraction in area and hence a member a number of troughs and arches are built. The
arches of the fold are known as Anticlines (upfolds) while the troughs are known as
Synclines (downfolds). Because of these anticlines and synclines, the whole crust appears
like a wave. Generally the push or compression is quite intense and from all sides. As a
result, folds of various shapes, sizes and inclinations are formed [Strahler 493, 494].
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS
Open Folds
If the push or compression is from only one side, simple arches and troughs may be formed.
The folds are low and broad. These are known as open folds or folds of the Jura type.
Narrow Folds
If the push is of sufficient intensity and from both the sides, the folds which may be formed
will be both high and narrow. Such types of folds are known as narrow folds. These folds
may continue to close up until their limbs or sides are both inclined toward one side. Such
narrow folds of parallel sides produce a fan-like structure as seen in the Alps Mountain
System.
TYPES OF FOLDS
Every fold, whether it is open or narrow, consists of two limbs or sides and it is rarely that
the two limbs of all the folds may have the same inclination. Depending on the intensity of
the movement and the rock structure, different types of folds are formed:
Symmetrical Folds
These are generally open and upright. Their axis is vertical and their sides are inclined in the
same manner.
Asymmetrical Folds
These are formed when one side of the fold is long and gradual in slope while other is
shorter and steep. In this the plane is inclined to the vertical.
One Limb Vertical Folds
If the short and steep side of a fold is so placed that it is vertical or perpendicular, a third
type is formed with one limb vertical.
Isoclinal or Overfold
It is formed when the fold is pushed over on one side so that both the sides of the fold are
inclined in the same direction. The short and steep side also dips in the same direction as a
flatter or gradual sloping side. This is also known as an Overturned Fold [Gupta 271]
Nappe or Recumbent Fold

When the overturning of the fold has gone onto such an extent that there is no symmetry at
all, the plane of axis forms a flat angle, and one side of the fold lies parallel over the other.
This is called the recumbent fold. The imposed strata or the overthrust limb of the fold is
known as the Nappe. [Gupta 272]
LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH FOLDING
The differential erosion of sedimentary rock strata that have been warped (curved) by
compressional stresses produce many distinctive types of landforms.
Cuestas
These are the most common landforms associated with folding. They are asymmetrical
ridges that have a steep slope on one side and a gentle one on the other, the latter
confirming to the slope order of the rock strata. Cuesta escarpments (elevations) with cliffed
edges comprise major surface landforms in many parts of the world. [Strahler 474]
Domes
Although most folds are caused by compressional stresses that squeeze and crumb strata,
some folds are a consequence of vertical displacement. When up-warping produces a
circular or elongated structure, the feature is called a Dome. [Strahler 472]
Basins
Down-warped structures having similar structure as that of domes are termed basins.
Because large basins contain sedimentary beds sloping at low angles, they are usually
identified by the age of the rocks composing them. The youngest rocks are found near the
center and the oldest rocks at the flanks (lateral edges, sides). [Strahler 472]
FAULTING
INTRODUCTION
Faults are fractures in the earths crust along which appreciable movement has taken place.
Compression at one place involves tension at another and sometimes when the compression
may be quite intense, it results in the fracture of the earths crust. The forces of
compression produce folds and folded mountains. The tension produces faults and joints.
A fault is a break in the brittle surficial rocks of the earths crust as a result of unequal
stresses. Faulting is accompanied by a slippage or displacement along the plane of
breakage. Faults are often of great horizontal extent, so that the fault line can be traced
along the ground for many miles. Sometimes even 100 miles or more. Little is known of
what happens to faults to at depth, but in all probability most extend down for atleast
several thousands of feet.
TYPES OF TENSION
The tension is usually of two types:
Local Tension
This type of tension may be due to intense compression and produce overthrust faults.
Regional Tensional
This type of tension, however, alternates with compression and produces faults.

TYPES OF FAULTS
Faults are categorized on the basis of the relative movement between the blocks on both
sides of the fault planes. The movement can be horizontal, vertical, or oblique.
Dip-Slip Faults
Faults having primarily vertical movement are called dip-slip faults, since the displacement
is in the direction of the inclination, or dip of the fault plane.
Normal Faults
A normal fault has a steep or nearly vertical fault plane. Movement is predominantly in a
vertical direction, so that one side is raised or upthrown relative to the other, which is
downthrown. A normal fault results in a steep, straight fault scarp (very steep slope), whose
height is an approximate measure of the vertical element of displacement.
Reverse Faults
In a reverse fault the inclination of the fault plane is such that one side rise up over the
other and a crustal shortening occurs. Reverse faults produce fault scarps similar to those of
normal faults, but the possibility of landsliding is greater because an overhanging scarp
tends to be formed [Strahler 495].
Transcurrent Fault
A transcurrent is unique in that the movement is predominantly in a horizontal direction.
Hence no scarp results, or a very low one at most. Instead, only a thin line traceable across
the surface. Sometimes a narrow trench, or rift, marks the fault line.
Thrust or Low-Angle Overthrust Faults
Reverse faults having a very low angle to the horizontal are referred to as thrust faults. In
mountainous regions, such as the Alps and the Appalachians, thrust faults have displaced
rock as far as 50 km over adjacent strata. Thrust faults of this type result from strong
compressional stresses.
Strike-Slip Faults
Faults in which the dominant displacement is along the trend of strike of the fault are called
strike-slip faults.
Transform Faults
Many large strike faults are associated with plate boundaries and are called transform faults.
Transform faults have nearly vertical dips and serve to connect large structures such as
segments of oceanic crust. The San Andreas Fault in California is a well known transformed
fault in which the displacement has been in the order of several hundred kilometers.
Oblique-Slip Faults
When faults have vertical and horizontal movement, they are called oblique-slip faults.
LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH FAULTING
Several distinctive landforms are related to faulting, or the slipping of blocks of the earths
crust along great fractures.
Rift Valley or Graben

It is a very important relief feature formed by the down-throwing of a block of country in

between two parallel faults. The lakes of Africa, Dead Sea of Israel, the Red Sea, and the
Rhine Valley in Germany are very important examples of rift valley.
The rift valley is usually long and narrow. It is seldom that only two parallel faults are
sufficient for its formation. In most of these cases, more than one fault occurs on each side
of the rift and the whole structure is quite complex in detail, although the outline is very
simple. [Strahler 496]
Horst
It is formed by the up-throwing or raising of a block of country that lies between two
parallel faults. In this case the center block is not only up-thrown but the side blocks are
also relatively down-thrown so that the whole central mass appears like a dome. [Strahler
496]
Block Mountain
It may be formed by the up-throwing of a block of country on one side of a pair of parallel
faults. Thus the up-thrown block stands like a mountain and is known as a Monocline or
Block Mountain. These block mountains are bounded by a fault scarp on one side. They
alternate with the asymmetrical fault (normal fault) valleys. These mountains have a fault
scarp face and are quite common in western North America and the Northern Pennine Chain
Mountains. [Atlas 22-D3] [Strahler 496]
TERMINOLOGY
Fault Plane
The line of breaking in a fracture is known as the fault plane and the fault so caused may be
as narrow as a few inches or as wide as several feet.
Fault Zone
If the break in the crust is distributed over a number of planes generally parallel to each
other, it is known as a fault zone.
IMPORTANCE OF FAULT MOTION
Fault motions provide the geologists with a method of determining the nature of the forces
at work within the earth. Normal faults indicate the existence of tensional stresses that pull
the crust apart. Since the blocks involved in reverse and thrust faulting are displaced toward
one anther, geologists conclude that compressional forces are at work.