9.

Compressive stresses caused by dead loads

The dead load acting on the vessel is determind by the weight and location of
all the exterior and interior attachments such as trays, overhead condensors platforms,
insulation and so on. Stresses caused by dead loads may be considered in there
groups for convience: (1) stress induced by shell and insulation (2) stress induced by
liquid in the vessel (3) stress induced by attached equipment. Stress induced by shell
and insulation. At any distance, X feet; from the top of a vessel having a constant
shell thichkness,

W shell = ( Do 2Di2 ) x X ( 9.1 )

4
Where W = weight of shell above point x, pounds
Do = outside diameter of shell, feet
Di = inside diameter of shell, feet
X = dintance from top to point under consideration, feet
x = density of shell material, pounds per cubic foot
= 490 lb per cu ft for steel construction
And
W ins =

D Xt ( 9.2 )
12 ins ins ins

Where Dins = mean diameter of insulation, feet

Wins = weight of insulation
ins = insulation density, pounds per cubic foot
= 40 lb per cu ft for most insulation
tins = insulation thickness, inches
since compressive stress is force per unit area, disregarding corrosion allowance, e.
gives :


( Do 2Di 2 ) Xx
4
Xx
dead w . t Shell =
=
( 9.3)

144
2
2
( Do Di ) 144
4
= 3.4 X

(if x = 190 lb per cu ft )

The stress due to the dead loads weight of insulation is :

dead w . t ins =

D ins ins Xt ins

(9.4)
144 D ins (t s c)

Where Dm = mean diameter of the shell, feet

Dins = Do
ts

= shell thickness, inches

Therefore,
dead w . t ins =

ins Xt ins
(9.5)
144 (t se )

Stress induced by supported liquid.

dead w . t liq =

liquid wt
12 Dm ( t s f )

(9.6)

Stress induced by attachment such as trays, overhead condensers, top head, platform,
and ladders
dead w . t attach=

weight of attachments (9.7)

12 D m (t se)

The weight of steel platforms may be estimated at 35 lb per sq ft of area, and

the weight of steel ladders at 25 lb per lin ft for caged ladders and 10 lb per lin ft for
plain ladders.
The total dead-load stress, fdx. Acting along the longitudinal axis of the shell
is then the sum of the above dead-weight stresses
fdx dead w. t shell + dead w .t ins +dead w .t liq +dead w. t attach ( 9.8)

Where fdx = the total dead load stress acting along the longitudinal axis at point
X, pounds per square inch

9.4

Tensile and Compressive Stresses Caused by Wind Loads in SelfSupporting Vessels

The stresses produced in a self-supporting vertical vessel by the action of wind

are calculated by considering the vessel to be a verticle, univormly loaded cantilever

beam. The wind loading is a function of the wind velocity, air density, and the shape
of the tower. The united states weather bureau (137) has correlated the above factors
in the following relation:

(9.9)
Where : B = barometric pressure, inches, mercury
Pw = wind pressure on a flat surface, pounds per square foot
Vw = wind velocity, miles per hour
Fs = shape factor = 1.0 for flat plate 900 to the wind
For the barometric pressure of 30 in. Of mercury Equation 9.9 bacomes:

(9.10)
The shape factor, Fs, for a smooth cylinder has been found to be 0.60 (137).
Thus the resistance of a smooth cylinder is 60% of that of a flat surface normal to the
wind and having the same projected areas as the cylinder. Projections of auxiliary

equipment loaded on the tower will cause turbulance, and the use of a value of F s
used by designers is questionable. Therefore, the value of F s used by designers varies
from 0.60 to 0.85, depending on the amount and shape of the projections on the
vessel. If a value of 0.60 is used for the shape factor then Equation 9.10 bacomes

(9.11)
The appropriate wind velocity that should be used in Eq. 9.11 is dependent
upon the location in which the equipment is to be erected. In the Gulf Coast area
winds up to 125 mph are experienced. Most other regions experience intermediate
maximum wind velocities; therefore a figure of 100 mph is often used. Figure 9.4,
published by the American Standards Association (137) is a map of the United States
indicating minimum allowable resultant wind pressures at 30 ft of elevation.
To obtain the design force, P w, the wind-velocity pressure should be multiplied
by a shape factor of 0.6 is recommended for chimnery and clean circular towers, and
a shape factor of 1.0 for rectangular buildings and structures. The height factor is 1.0
for structures having heights from 30 to 49 ft. For higher structures the height factor
varies directly as the (height/30) raised to the 34 power (138).
In using Table 9.1 reference is made to Figure 9.4 to determine the wind
pressure at an elevation of 30 ft for the locality in question. The design pressure for
the tower is obtained from Table 9.1 after one knows the height of the tower. The
value obtained from Table 9.1 should be multiplied by the appropriate shape factor, F s
for cylindrical towers. These design values are recommended as minimum and do not
provide allowance for tornadoes.
As pointed out by Bergman (140) the relationships given by the ASA (137)
presented here for use with Figure 9.4 and

Figure 9.5 Drag coefficients for circular cylinders (141). (Courtesy of

McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
Table 9.1, do not consider the effect of velocity on the drag coefficient. The drag
coefficient is similar to a friction factor and varies with the Reynolds number, Re, as
shown in figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5 shown that between Re = 500 and Re = 500.000, the drag coefficient
is fairly constant, with a value of about 1.1 for cylinders with L/D = . However, at a
value of Re equal to 6 x 10 5, the drag coefficient drops abruptly to 0.7 for roughsurface cylinders and to 0.3 for smooth cylinders. The wind pressure determined by
use of Table 9.1 is based upon the higher drag coefficient and values of Re between 5
x 102 and 5 x 105. The value of Re is equal to 9100 DV where D is the vessel
diameter in feet, and V ia the wind velocity in miles per hour (140). Thus a vessel
having a diameter of 8 ft in a wind having a velocity of only 10 mph would have a
Reynolds number of 7.28 x 105, which is above the transition value of about 6 x 105.
Therefore the use of figure 9.4 and Table 9.1 results in a wind-pressure safety factor
of about 2 to 3, depending upon the smoothness of the vessel.
The force, Pw, acts over the projected area of the column, and some designers
compensate for the turbulence caused by the projections by using an effective

diameter, deff., of the vessel and the allied equipment. This effective diameter is the
diameter of the vessel plus twice the thickness of the insulation plus an allowance for
the projected area of piping and attached equipment. For open-framed structures the
effective area is taken as twice the projected area, and an allowance of 17 in. Is made
for caged ladders (139).
Figure 9.6 shows a group of self-supported vertical vessels with caged ladders
and platforms. Note also the external piping, which increases the effective diameter
(deff.) to wind loads.
After determining the values of the wind loading and the projected area upon
which it acts, the bending moment any distance X from the top of the tower can be
expressed as:

(9.12)
Where : Mwx = bending moment due to wind at X distance from the top, inch-pounds
deff = effective diameter of vessel, inches
this equation is subjected to the limitation that the wind acts over the total distance,
X.
The stress in the extreme fiber of the shell, due to the wind, is obtained by use
of Equation 2.10:

(9.13)
At the base of the tower,

(9.14)
Where : ro = outside radius of shell, inches

I = rectangular moment of inertia perpendicular to and through the

longitudinal axis, inches4
Fwx = stress at extreme fiber due to wind load, pounds per square inch
(compressive stress on down-wind side, tensile stress on upwind
side)
In design calculations it is assumed that auxiliary equipment will add load to
the vessel but will not aid in its support; therefore, the extreme fiber is at the outside
surface of the shell.
For any values of t/r that would be encountered in vessel design, this
relationship can be simplified as follows.
The equation of a circle is:
x2 + y2 = r2
and by equation 2.8:
If the integration is performed in the first quadrant, then
Assume that the area of a thin shell is 2rt and that dA = tds. Introducing the
derivative of an arc length (38) given:

(9.15)
Table 9.1 ASA Recommended Wind Pressures for Various Height Zones above
Ground (137)

(Courtesy of American Standards Association)

Height zone (ft)
Less than 30
30 to 49
50 to 99
100 to 499
Substituting x = r sin

Wind pressure-map areas (lb per sq ft)

20
25
30
35
40
45
15
20
25
25
30
35
20
25
30
35
40
45
25
30
40
45
50
55
30
40
45
55
60
70

50
40
50
60
75

Equations 9.20 and 9.21 are limited by the following resrictions:

1.
2.
3.
4.

The wind pressure is 25 lb per sq ft.

The wind acts at the above intensity over the entire length of the column.
There are no external attachments on the tower.
The moment of inertia of the shell about its transverse axis is:

5. The mean radius of the sheell is approximately equal to the outside radius.
The general form of equation 9.19 incorporates assumptions 2, 4, and 5 above.

9.7

Streses Resulting from Seismic Forces

Earthquake phenomena in certain geographic locations result in the

production of vibration loads. Current practice in designing for these seismic forces is
empirical and is based upon the theory of vibration. In developing the relationships
for vibrational loads, it is convenient to use theories of strain energy and simple
harmonic motion.
9.7a

strain-energy Relationships

Consider the general condition of uniformly loaded beam having a distributed

load ow w lb pen lin in. each elemental load will be equal to w dx. If the load is
gradually applied, the average elemental force will be equal to (w/2) dx. The beam
will deflect a distance of y and the work done by the load on the beam is equal to the
integral.
U=

w
y dx ( 9.35 )
2

In order to slove this relationship, the deflection equation for the beam must first be
evaluated and then substituted for y in Eq. 9.35
The stress varies from a maximum tensile stress to a maximum compressive
stress, passing through zero at the neutral axis, as defined by Eq. 2.10
f=

M yc
( 2.10 )
I

Note: the term y in Eq 9.35 is the deflection of a beam, whereas the term

yc

in Eq

2.10 is the distance from the neutral axis of a beam to the fiber in question. The
maximum value of y c is equal to c.
The bending oment M varies along the length of the beam; therefore, the
stress f varies both with the distance from the neutral axis and along the beam.
Substituting Eq. 2.10 into Eq. 2.26, gives:
U=

f2 (
2.26 )
2E

M 2 yc2
U=
( 9.36 )
2E I2
2

dU =

M yc
2E I

dA dx ( 9.37 )

Integrating we obtain:
2

M yc
1
U=
dA dx ( 9.38 )

2
2E
I
2

U Total =

1
MI dx ( 9.39 )
2E

Substituting M in Eq. 9.40, by Eq.2.14, we obtain:

2

M =EI

d y
2
dx
2

U=

( )

EI
ddx y2 dx ( 9.40 )
2

To apply Eq. 9.40 to be the vibration of a vertical vessel under seismic load,
the deflection curve for the vessel must be known. A vertical vessel bolted to a
foundation behaves as a cantilever beam.

9.7b

Deflection of a Uniformly Loaded Cantilever Beam.

The moment at any point, x is :
l x
2

M = w (l x)

w
2

(l z)2

(9.41)

But
d2 y
dx 2

M = El

(2.14)

Therefore,
d2 y
dx 2

w ( lx ) 2
(9.43)
2 El

Dari persamaan di atas di integrasi dan menghasilkan persamaan :

El

dy
dx

x3
= [ l2 xlx 2+ 3 +C 1(9.44)

butdy/dz = 0 pada x = 0 ; therefore C1 = 0, integrating again gives

but y = 0 when x = 0 ; therefore C2 = 0, and therefore
y=

9.7c

w
24 El

[x4 4lx3 + 6l2z2]

(9.45)

Strain energy of a deflected vertical vessel.

If a vessel is deflected elastically from its vertical axis by seismic forces or

wind load, elastic (strain) energy is stored in the deflected vessel. By combining the
two equations, with h, the vessel height, substituted for l , the beam length, the
following relationship is obtained :

U=

d2 y
dx 2
()
h
EI

2
0

dx =

Elw 2
(hx)
8 ( EI ) 2 0

dx

(9.46)

If a vertical tower is vibrating, the maximum velocity and therefore the

maximum kinetic energy occurs at zero displacement. As the tower displacement
approaches a maximum, the kinetic energy approaches zero and the elastic energy of
strain approaches a maximum. The maximum kinetic energy (at zero displacement)
must equal the maximum strain energy (at maximu displacement) if the energy in the
system is considered to be constant. The solution of this equality involves the
evaluation of kinetic energy due to harmonic vibration.

9.7d

Harmonic Vibration.

A displacement in the earths crust produced by seismic forces results in a

sudden shift in the foundation of a vessel relative to its center of gravity. The inertia
of the vessel restrains the vessel from moving simultaneously with the foundation and
this results in an elastic deflection of the vessel.
The relationships for such a simple harmonic vibration can be derived by
considering the motion of a weight suspended on the end of a completely elastic
spring. Consider this system first in its equilibrium position.considering the force, F,
to be positive downward (increasing spring tension) and negative upward (decreasing
spring tension), we obtain :
Fdown = -Fup = ky

(9.47)

Using Newtons relationship, expressing mass as W/g and acceleration as the second
derivative of y with respect to time, t, we obtain :
F = ma =

W d2y
(
)
g dx 2

(9.48)

The general solution to this differential equation is :

Y = C1 cos pt + C2 sin pt

(9.51)

The functions cos pt and sin pt are periodic functions that repeat when the
angular displacement reaches 2. The interval of time between such repetitions is
called the period T, and the reciprocal of the period 1/T is the frequency of vibration.
Therefore
pT = 2

(9.52)

To evaluate the constant of equation consider the condition when the weight,
W has a displacement of yo from its ewuilibrium condition and is moving at a
velocity of (dyo/dt)
When t = 0
yo = C1 cos 0 + C2 sin 0

(9.54)

thereforeC1 = yo
and
C2 =

1 dyo
(
)
p dt

(9.56)

Substituting these value ofC1 and C2into Eq.9.51 gives:

y = yo cos pt +

1 dyo
(
) sin pt
P dt

(9.57)

the minor part is a vibration which is proportional to sin pt and depends upon the
initial velocity dyo/dt.
y = yo cos pt

and

dy
dt

= -pyo sin pt

using the fundamental relationship that kinetic energy is equal to one half the
mass times the square of the velocity dy/dt. Where h = tower height measured from
base.
But the maximum kinetic energy exists at zero deflection, y = 0, and when pt = /2.
Therefore
(

dy
)
dt

= p2yo2

(9.59)

The total kinetic energy of the sway is equal to the integral from 0 to h.

dy
dt
( )
h
w

2 g
0

KE =

KE =

2 h
yo
2g 0

dx

(9.63)

dx

(9.64)

For a vertical steel cylindrical tower may be simplified as follows. Let :

E = 30,000,000 psi, modulus of elasticity
l = moment of inertia of shell
g = 32.2 ft per sec2, gravitational constant
substituting gives :
T = 2.65 x 10-5

( HD ) ( wDt )
2

Where :
T = period of vibration, seconds
H = total tower height, feet (vessel plus skirt)
D = tower diameter, feet
w = tower weight, pounds per foot of height
t = tower shell thickness, inches

1/2

(9.68)

9.7e

Seismic Load Coefficients

Design for earthquake loads is primaly based upon empirical empirical

analysis of structures that have withstood severe earthquake motions are quite
complex and not simple harmonic motion as are the vibrations induced in vessels.
From Newtons relationship that force equals mass times acceleration we obtain:
a
F= W =CW ( 9.69 )
g
Where a/g = C = seismic coefficient.
A summary of recommended coefficients for various seismic zones and various
vessel periods is given in Table 9.3

9.7f

Shear and Bending Moment Resulting from Seismic Forces in Unguyed

Vessels

The seismic forces act to produce horizontal shear in vertical unguyed vessels.
This shear force in turn produces a bending moment about the base of vessel. The
shear loading will be triangular with the apex at the base, as shown in Fig. 9.11. the
center of action for such a triangular loading is located at 2/3 H. the shear force at the
base resulting from seismic forces is given by Eq. 9.69.
The shear force, Vsx (pounds) at any horizontal plane in the tower X feet down
from the top is giveb by:
V sx =

CWX ( 2 HX )
( 9.70 )
H2

Where C = seismic coefficient from previous section

W = total weight of tower, pounds
H = total height of tower, feet

The bending moment Msx (inchi pounds) at plane X resulting from the shear forces
above plane X is given by:
2

M sx =

4 CW X ( 3 H X )
( 9.71 )
H2
Msx

sx= r 2 (tsc ) ( 9.72 )

The maximum shear and bending moment are located at the base of the tower and
may be found by substituting X=H in Eq 9.70 and 9.71, respectively, or

V sb=CW ( 9.73 )
M sb =

2CWH ( 12 per ft )
=8CWH ( 9.74 )
3

Substituting Eq. 9.74 into Eq. 9.72 gives the seismic bending stress of the skirt of the
of the vessel
f sb =

8CWH
( 9.75 )
r 2 ( tsc )

Where r = tower radius, inches

ts = skirt thickness, inches