[SRG]

Project editor Lizzie Davey

Project art editor Fiona Macdonald
Editor Ann Baggaley
US editor Margaret Parrish
Senior producer, pre-production Luca Frassinetti
Producer Mary Slater
Jacket designer Laura Brim
Jacket coordinator Maud Whatley
Jacket design development manager Sophia MTT
Managing editor Paula Regan
Managing art editor Owen Peyton Jones
Publisher Sarah Larter
Art director Phil Ormerod
Associate publishing director Liz Wheeler
Publishing director Jonathan Metcalf
DK Delhi
Senior editor Sreshtha Bhattacharya
Senior art editor Anjana Nair
Assistant editor Tejaswita Payal
Project art editor Neha Sharma
Art editors Ankita Mukherjee, Devan Das, Namita
Assistant art editors Roshni Kapur, Vansh Kohli
Jacket designer Suhita Dharamjit
Jacket editorial manager Saloni Talwar
Senior DTP jacket designer Harish Aggarwal
Managing editor Pakshalika Jayaprakash
Managing art editor Arunesh Talapatra
Production manager Pankaj Sharma
Pre-production manager Balwant Singh
DTP designers Anita Yadav, Syed Md Farhan
Picture researchers Deepak Negi,
Surya Sankash Sarangi
Picture research manager Taiyaba Khatoon
Authors Sarah Tomley, Marcus Weeks
First American Edition, 2015
Published in the United States by DK Publishing
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Copyright 2015 Dorling Kindersley Limited
A Penguin Random House Company
15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001266552March 2015
All rights reserved.
Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise), without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-4654-2923-0
DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales
promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK
Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
SpecialSales@dk.com
Printed and bound by Hung Hing, China

www.dk.com
Proudly sourced and uploaded by [StormRG]
Kickass Torrents | TPB | ET | h33t

Childrens BOOK OF

Philosophy
An introduction to the worlds
great thinkers and their big ideas

Contents
10 Is the world real?
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34

What is the world made of?

Why is there something rather than nothing?
What is nothing?
Socrates
Is there a god?
Plato
How can we know what exists?
Aristotle
Is color in the mind or in the object?
What is real?
What makes something true?
Can you trust your senses?

38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62

How do I know if I am real?

Ren Descartes
Who am I?
The Flying Man
Is my mind different from my body?
Shoemakers brain experiment
How do we learn?
John Locke
How do I know what youre thinking?
Siddhartha Gautama
What is the self?
The ship of Theseus
Is there life after death?

66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84

Can we think without language?

Reasoning and arguments
Do we think like computers?
The Chinese room
Are words like signs?
Ludwig Wittgenstein
How do I know if Im awake or dreaming?
What is happiness?
Why do people suffer?
What is innity?

36 What am I?

64 Thinking and feeling

86 How do I decide whats right?

88 Who says whats right or wrong?
90 Why am I here?
92 Should we judge actions by their outcomes?
94 The streetcar problem
96 Immanuel Kant
98 Should you ever tell a lie?
100 Could I have chosen something different?
102 Difcult choices
104 Shouldnt men and women be equal?
106 Simone de Beauvoir
108 Why should we care about the environment?
110 Are humans worth more than animals?
112 Should we save the drowning child?
114 Will there ever be world peace?

116 Why do we need rules?

118
120
122
124
126
128
130
132
134

Are people naturally good or bad?

Confucius
Whats the best kind of society?
The veil of ignorance
Who makes the rules?
How do we make laws fair?
Communities matter, not individuals
Whose life is it anyway?
Is it right to censor things?

136
138
139
141

Ask yourself...
Glossary
Index
Acknowledgments

Philosophy is not a theory, but an activity.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

What is philosophy?
WHEN did
philosophy BEGIN?
Philosophy began thousands of years ago,
when people rst questioned the meaning
of life and how the world was made. The
earliest philosophers we know about lived in
ancient Greece in around 600 BCE.

Philosophers ask the kinds of questions that

science cant answerfor instance, Why is there
a world? They encourage their students to start
asking questions themselves, instead of taking
everything for granted or accepting what
other people say.

Are all philosophers

old men with beards?
Many early Greek philosophers did have beards,
but they certainly werent all oldalthough some
spent a lifetime teaching. Many of them attracted a
huge following of young fans. Today, women and
men of all ages are philosophers.

I be a
PHILOSOPHER?
Can

If you are curious about the world and enjoy asking questions,
you are probably already well on your way to being a
philosopher. You dont have to go to school or take tests,
unless you want to. You can simply enjoy using your mind.

How do
philosophers teach?

Philosophy means love of wisdom. It is a method of trying to understand

ourselves and our world by asking a lot of questions. Philosophers spend
a great deal of time thinking, wondering, talking, and listening.

Questions!
What about answers?

I learn philosophy?

Philosophers have all kinds of different ways

of tackling tricky questions. Sometimes they nd
an answer, but often philosophical questions
dont have answers. The important thing is
to continue trying to discover the truth.

Philosophy can teach you to think more

clearly and to be condent in debates
and discussions. It may even help
you to make decisions about
how you want to live.

WHY should

Isnt philosophy
a little weird?
Its true that philosophical questions can sound
slightly crazyfor example, Am I real? or Is color
just in the mind? But questions like these show that
philosophers are trying to nd out whats really
going on in the world and in ourselves.

Should I TRY out

philosophy with friends?
Philosophy is denitely for sharing. It can be lots of fun
talking about ideas and exchanging thoughts with your friends.
Youll probably nd they think about things very differently
than you do, which is a great starting point.

Is the
world real?

Some of the first questions philosophers ever

asked were about the world. Where did it come
from? Are the things in it real or are they
just thoughts in our minds?

IS THE WORLD REAL?

What is the world

made of?
The ancient Greeks were the first people to
really think about how and why the world
was made and where everything in it, living
and nonliving, came from. Some of their
ideasfor example, that our world was
originally built from water, air, or mud
are very easy to understand. But other
ideas are so complicated that even today
philosophers debate exactly what they mean.

Water
Thales (c.625545 BCE) believed that the
world developed from just one thing: water.
He could see that water changed into mist,
steam, and ice, and he thought that this
shifting could explain how things in the
world change. Thales even thought that our
planet oated on water. An old story about
Thales pokes fun at him for being so busy
wondering what was happening in heaven
that he didnt look where he was going and
fell down a well.

Air
Anaximenes of Miletus (c.585525 BCE) had
the idea that our world was created out of
thin air. He thought that in the beginning
there was nothing but air, which gradually
got thicker and changed into other things.
First, winds started to blow, then the air
became visible as
clouds, then it grew
more and more solid,
turning into water,
soil, stones, and
everything else.

Anaximenes
at work

12

Mud and mist

Anaximander of Miletus (c.611547 BCE) agreed
with Thales that everything in the world
developed from one substance, but he didnt
think it was water. He believed it was mud and
mist that was left behind as water on the newly
developing Earth steamed away under the heat
of the Sun. He also decided that something else
was needed as well. Anaximander didnt
describe exactly what this mystery ingredient
was, but he said it was unlimited and that
it made the four basic elements of earth,
water, air, and re.

What is the world made of?

The unchanging One

Constant change
Heraclitus (c.540480 BCE) found that
the problem with trying to understand
the world was that it keeps changing
all the time. He famously remarked that
you cannot step twice into the same
river. What he meant was that by the
time you take the second step, the river
has owed on, so even just one second
later the water is different. Heraclitus
suggested that behind everything that
exists there is a universal law or
master plan. Although we cant see
or sense this, it controls our lives.

Parmenides

According to Parmenides (born c.510 BCE)

everything in the world counts as a
single thing. This One, as he called it,
cant be divided into different parts and
never changes. Of course, we do see
things changing, but Parmenides said
this is just our senses playing tricks
on us. His ideas led to a lot of
discussion among philosophers,
especially his suggestion that there
is no such thing as nothing.

Four elements
The theory that everything is made of four basic materials, or
elementsearth, water, air, and rewas popular in ancient
Greece. Empedocles of Acragas (c.495435 BCE) supported this
idea. First, he claimed, re threw up formless lumps. Then, as
the elements became mixed up in endless ways, the lumps turned
into all the things we recognize, such as rocks, plants, animals,
and people. Empedocles thought the elements were controlled
by two powerful forces: love and strife, or disagreement.

Tiny building blocks

Like many other early Greeks,
Leucippus (c.500 BCE) and his
student Democritus (c.470380 BCE)
thought that whatever the world
was made from it had to be just one
thing. They decided that this must
be the tiniest of all building blocks,
a scrap too small to be divided into
smaller parts. Leucippus called it an
atom, explaining that all things
were made of atoms clumped
together in different ways.

Extra special
Aristotle (384322 BCE) wanted to
know how living things came to
exist, what they were for, and why
they are different from nonliving
objects. He thought anything alive
had a mysterious extra something
inside that was different from the
body itself. Aristotle called this
the psyche; today, many people
call it the mind and it still seems
magical. People continue to argue
today about Aristotles idea. Is the
mind just part of the body? Or is
it an entirely separate thing?

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Why is there something

rather than nothing?
After thinking about what the world was made of, the ancient Greek
philosophers questioned why there was a world at all. Why was there
something, rather than nothing? Is it possible that something has always
existed? We are so used to thinking of beginnings and endings that it is
hard to imagine that something has always been there. On the other hand,
could something such as the universe have been created from nothing?

There must
be something
Parmenides believed that things
dont just burst into existence. He
said it is impossible for things
that are not to suddenly become
things that are. Nothing can come
from nothing. He also said that it
doesnt make sense even to think
of nothing, because we cant
imagine nothing. If nothingness
is impossible then there must
be something.
Parmenides

Impossibly fast
Aristotle also believed nothingness was impossible,
and he used scientic reasons to support his
argument. He said that the speed with which
something moves through a mediumsuch as
waterdepends on how dense it is. But
nothingness would have no density, so things
would move innitely fast, which is impossible!
14

You move faster on land than in water because water is denser.

Why is there something rather than nothing?

What came first?

When we ask Why is something here? we normally
mean What caused this? For example, if you were asked
about why you are here, you might say that you are here
because of your parents. And they are here because of
your grandparents, and so on. Aristotle thought that there
must be something at the beginning of the whole human
chain, and even the universe itself, that was not caused
by anything else. He believed this rst cause was God.

Grandfather

Grandmother

Grandfather

Father

Grandmother

Mother

Me
If you look at your family tree backwardstarting
with youthen eventually you will nd
your rst ancestors. But who created them?

Story of the universe

Scientists say that the universe started with a
Big Banga powerful explosionthat caused
everything else to grow into existence. So that
would mean that Earth did not come from
nothingit came about because of the
Big Bang. But what caused the Big Bang?
Scientists and philosophers say that it is
impossible for there to be absolutely nothing.
So perhaps before the Big Bang there were
just tiny vibrations. But what caused them?

Scientists believe our universe was formed around

14 billion years ago. But what formed it?

Beyond physics
In philosophy, questions about what exists are grouped together
under the term metaphysics. The word means after physics
because one of Aristotles early works about physics sparked
debates about existence. Today, we think of it as all the kinds
of things that go beyond or above the physical and that
cant be answered by physics. Questions such as Why is
there something rather than nothing? and Is there a god?
are metaphysical questions.

15

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Ideas of nothingness
Henri Bergson
French philosopher Henri Bergson
said that nothingness was
impossible. Even in space, an
astronaut must sense something,
even if that is just blackness.
Bergson said that if we met with
a completely empty space it
would have to be contained, so
it would have edges, giving it a
shape. But if a space has edges
and a shape, it is something, not
nothing. There is, therefore, no
such thing as nothing.

What is nothing?
For thousands of years philosophers have argued
about what exists. Could it be that nothing at all
exists? Part of the problem is that we cannot imagine
nothing, since there is nothing to imagine! Is there
such a thing as nothing? How can we describe
or imagine a lack of anything at all? American
philosopher Robert Nozick asks us to try to
think it through, using the following example.

N
Henri Bergson (18591941)

Always something
Bergson said that humans start
with nothing, then start looking
for things that they needfood,
shelter, and so on. We make the
mistake of imagining that the
whole world works in the same
waystarting with nothing. But
the world does not think like a
human beingthere is always
something and never nothing.

ozick said that for there to

be nothing, there must be
something making that
nothing happen by keeping no
object or person there. He asks us
to imagine a huge vacuum cleaner
that goes around vacuuming
everything up. Eventually there is
nothing left but the vacuum cleaner
itself. For there to be nothing at
all, the vacuum cleaner must then
vacuum itself up. At this point,
however, it will have sucked
nothingness into nothingness,
and when there is no longer
any nothing, there must
be something.
If we ask Why is there something
rather than nothing? it sounds as if
we think nothing is the natural
way for things to be, and
something is a step on
from this. But maybe it is

If a black hole sucked everything

in until there was nothing left,
would it also suck in itself?

16

more natural for there to be

things, rather than for there
to be nothing? If so, we do
not have to wonder about
why there is something,
because it is natural for
something to exist.

What is nothing?

Think about it!

The meaning of nothing
Some philosophers say that when
we talk about nothing, we are
not really talking about a lack of
anything at all. We are talking about
something, but something other
than what we were looking for. For
instance, if we were to say that Jane
is not tall, it does not mean Jane
has no tallness, or no height. It just
means that Jane is something other
than tall. She may be short or of
average height. Similarly, when
we use the word nothing it is
wrong to think that the word
refers to a total vacuum.

Something is more likely

Probability looks at how likely
something is. For example, children
go to school ve days of the week
when school is in session, and on
just two days a week they do not go
to school. If someone were to stick a
pin in a calendar showing the school
year, they would be more likely to
hit a school day than a weekend.
In the same way, Nozick said, its
more likely for something to exist
than for nothing to exist at all,
because there are many possible
worlds of something, but only
one possible world of nothing. He
compared it to having a huge sack
of red balls (these are all the
possible something worlds) and
adding just one white ball (the
nothing world) to the sack: Isnt
the chance of pulling out a red ball
much higher? Thats the chance of
there being something.

17

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Biography
c.470 BCE Born in Athens, Greece,
the son of a stonemason whose
trade he at rst followed.
c.445 BCE Drafted for military
service in the Athenian army.
c.435 BCE Marries Xanthippe, with
whom he will have three sons.
c.424 BCE Takes part in a battle
against the Spartans at Delium.
c.423 BCE Portrayed as a comic
character in a new play called
The Clouds by the Athenian
writer Aristophanes.

Socrates
I cannot teach anybody anything.
I can only make them think.
Born around 470 BCE, Socrates was a Greek who lived in
Athens during the city-states cultural golden age. He
stood out among other great thinkers of the time because
of his new way of asking questions. His style became
known as the Socratic method. Despite Socrates great
influence on philosophy, he left no written work behind.
We know about him only through the work of other
people, such as the philosopher Plato.

c.407 BCE Meets the philosopher

Plato, who will later record Socrates
ideas in his own works.
399 BCE Accused of not believing in
the gods and corrupting the young
people of Athens. Found guilty and
sentenced to death. Executed by
being made to swallow poison.

Favorite student
Of all the students that Socrates
taught, the one he favored most
was a rich, spoiled young aristocrat
named Alcibiades. Socrates is said
to have saved Alcibiades life in
battle, when they were both in the
Athenian army ghting against
Sparta. They remained friends for
life, even though they lived their
lives in very different ways.
Alcibiades became a powerful
politician and does not seem
to have lived up to Socrates
ideal of putting goodness
before wealth and fame.

18

The wisest man

This 19th-century painting
shows Socrates and his student
Alcibiades talking with Aspasia,
one of the most famous
women in Athens.

People called Socrates the wisest man,

but he described himself as simply
smart enough to realize that he
knew nothing. He gave up work as a
stonemason to teach philosophy, charging
no fees for the classes he held in the
streets around the marketplace. He
was said to walk barefoot, wearing
dirty clothes, but he was
still a popular tutor.

Socrates

What is true?
All philosophers agree with
Socrates belief that we need to
nd out the true meaning of
things. We should not always
accept what people tell us.
Nor should we take it for
granted that what we say
and think is true. If we
talk about love or anger,
for example, do we really
understand what we are saying?
Socrates thought the best way to
get at the truth of anything was to
keep asking questions.

A session with Socrates

Imagine sitting on a street corner in
ancient Athens talking to Socrates.
He would ask you a questionone
to which you were sure you had the
right answer. But then Socrates
would ask another question, and
another. Gradually, you would start
to wonder if your rst answer really
was right after all. That was how
Socrates taught people to think. A
simple example of his method of
questioning is shown below.

So you think that the

gods know everything?

How do we know what love is?

Yes, because
they are gods.

How should we live?

What makes a good life?that was the most
important question for Socrates. Most people of
his time would have chosen fame, money, and
power, but these things didnt interest Socrates.
He thought that we should forget about personal
comfort and possessions and pursue the truth.
We must work out what good really means and
try to do the right things. Socrates said people
were not bad on purpose, but did bad things
only because they didnt know better.
To Socrates, trying to make other people happy
was an important part of living a good life.

Do some gods
disagree with others?

Yes, of course they do.

They are always ghting.

So gods disagree about

what is true and right?

I suppose
they must.

The death of Socrates

As his students weep, Socrates

drinks the poison that will kill him.

In 399 BCE, Socrates was accused of disrespect

to the Athenian gods and also of putting
wrong ideas into the minds of young people.
Rather than ee to avoid trial, he decided to
defend himself instead. The jury found him
guilty and he was condemned to either exile
or death. Socrates chose death, and 30 days
after his trial he was executed by being given
the poison hemlock to drink. He is said to
have taken this cheerfully, saying that he
would either have a dreamless sleep or nd
himself having interesting conversations in
the underworld.

So some gods can be

wrong sometimes?

I suppose
that is true.

Therefore, the gods cannot

know everything!

19

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Is there a god?
Ancient religions around the world took for granted that there was a god, or
multiple gods. It didnt occur to most people to wonder if there
really was a god, or whether they could prove that one exists.
But philosophy is all about asking these questions. Are there
good reasons to say that there is a god or higher
being? How could we prove that one exists?

Who created the creator?

Aristotle (384322 BCE) said that the universe must have been
made, or caused, by something. If we look around us, we can
see that everything is caused by something else. For instance,
paintings only exist because someone painted them. So
someone, or something, must have made the world, and that
thing is often called god. But what made god? Aristotle said that
God is the one thing that was not created by something else.
Zeus was the king of all the gods in
the religion of the ancient Greeks.

The greatest
The idea that God is the greatest thing ever (so great
that nothing could be greater) was put forward by the
Italian philosopher Anselm (10331109). He argued
that part of the reason that something is the best is
that it actually exists. For example, an imaginary cake
is not as good as a real cake. So if God is the greatest
thing ever, he must exist.

Is there a god?

The worlds designer

St.Thomas Aquinas

Perhaps looking around us shows us there is a god. Everything

in the world is so amazing and complexshells have very
beautiful designs, for instance, and our bodies are extremely
complicated. Italian philosopher Thomas Aquinas said that
looking around us proves that a great, supremely intelligent being
must have made everything in the world, and this being must be
God. Could the beautiful things we see in nature have been
created by anything other than a great and intelligent being?

Thomas Aquinas was a Catholic

priest and one of the most important
philosophers of his time. He wrote
a lot about Godespecially what
God is like and how God has no
beginning and no end. He was also
interested in how we judge peoples
actions to be good or bad.

Feathers

St. Thomas Aquinas

Shell

Leaf

c.1225: Born in a hilltop castle

in Naples, Italy. His parents were
a count and countess.

Does God still change things?

If there is a god who made the world, then does that
mean God still changes things in the world? The
Deists are a group of philosophers who believe that
there is a god, but that he now lets the world go on
as it is without interfering. They believe that God set
up the laws of naturesuch as the law that the Sun
rises every daybut that God lets the world develop
in its own way. So God might hear someones prayers,
but he would not step in to change anything.

c.1230: Goes to school in a

monastery and, against his familys
wishes, becomes a monk.
1243: His brothers kidnap him from
the monastery and take him home,
on his mothers orders. He is kept at
home and is not allowed to go out
until his mother changes her mind,
and he rejoins the monastery.
12441274: Goes to Rome to study
with Pope Innocent IV, then studies
in France, Germany, and Italy,
becoming a well-known writer
and philosopher.

Betting on God
Either God exists or he does not. French
thinker Blaise Pascal (162362) argued that
if we cant prove God exists we are better
off believing in him. This is because if we
believe in God, then we will go to heaven
when we die. If there is not a god, it does
not matter. But, if we do not believe God
exists, and it turns out that he does, then we
will have a lot of explaining to do when we
die and meet our creator.

1274: Has a mystical experience and

says he will not write anything else,
because everything he had written
now looked like straw to him. He
dies three months later during a
trip to see the Pope.

Pascal said it makes sense to bet

on the existence of a higher being.

21

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Biography
c.428 BCE Born in Athens, Greece,
to a rich and powerful family.
c.420 BCE Meets Socrates, who
inuences him more than any
other teacher.
c.418 BCE Studies music, poetry,
and philosophy.
409404 BCE Joins the Athenian
army to ght in the Peloponnesian
War between Sparta and Athens.
399 BCE Socrates is executed,
and Plato leaves Greece to travel
for 12 years. During this time, he
studies geometry, astronomy,
religion, and philosophy.
387 BCE Plato returns to Athens
and opens Europes rst university,
called The Academy. He starts
writing his famous dialogues there.
367 BCE Plato is invited to be
the tutor of Dionysus II, the
ruler of Syracuse.
365 BCE Returns to Athens to
teach at The Academy, where he
meets his most famous pupil, Aristotle.
361 BCE Returns to tutor Dionysus
for a while, but soon returns to
The Academy, where he continues
to write and teach.

Famous work
Plato wrote many plays and
recorded many conversations,
called dialogues, which became
very famous. Many of his works
feature a character named Socrates.
This character was probably based
on the real Socrates, who had been a
great inuence on Plato. Plato went
on to inuence many philosophers
himself, including his pupil Aristotle.

22

Plato
The object of education is to teach
us to love what is beautiful.
Plato is one of the most important philosophers of the
Western world. He was one of the first philosophers to
think about all kinds of important questions, such as
What is beauty? Philosophers today still argue about
many of the things Plato said more than 2,000 years ago.

The broad one

Platos real name was Aristocles, but he was given the nickname
Platon, which means the broad one, because his body was
broad and strong. He had a good education and went on to
become a soldier and then a politician. After his teacher
Socrates was executed for his beliefs, Plato left Athens
to travel the world. On his return, he opened The
Academy, Europes rst university.

This Roman mosaic

shows Plato with
his students at
The Academy.

Plato

Exploring the world

During his travels, Plato visited Egypt
and Italy and learned many new ideas. He
had been taught that everything constantly
changes, but in Italy he met the followers of
Pythagoras, a great mathematician, and realized
that numbers are special things that do not
change. This led Plato to wonder whether there
were other things, too, that did not change.

Plato learned about water

clocks, like this one, while
traveling in Egypt, and he
brought the idea home.

Born to reason
Plato, like many of the ancient Greek philosophers, believed that
we can only gain knowledge by thinking things throughby
reasoning. Plato demonstrated this by telling a story about Socrates
discussing a math problem with a slave boy who had never been
to school. By watching Socrates drawing diagrams in the sand, the
boy understood and learned how to solve the problem. Socrates
had not given him the answer, but the boy knew what it was.
Plato said that this story proves we are born with the power to
reason, which is the source of all our knowledge.

Socrates drew diagrams in the sand to help a slave

boy gure out the answers to a problem for himself.

The perfect state

In Platos opinion, the perfect place to live would be in a
group of people, so that people with different skills could
help each other. To help resolve disagreements there would
be soldiers to defend the people and wise rulers who would
settle arguments, make good decisions, and establish laws.
Plato believed these rulers should be trained as philosophers
from childhood, to make sure they were good thinkers.

IS THE WORLD REAL?

How can we
know what exists?
If someone asked you What exists? you would probably point
to the things around you and say Everything! If asked how
you knew, you might answer that you can see, hear, touch,
smell, or taste it all. But some philosophers think that its not
that simple. Our senses can be tricked and they might not
tell the truth. Can we ever really know whats real?

The perfect form

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato said that there are two types
of reality. One is our world, with everything we see, hear, and
touch. The second is another world full of perfect things that Plato
called forms. He said that in our world we have only imperfect
copies of forms that exist in another world. For instance, the dogs we
see are less-than-perfect copies of the form of dog. Plato believed
that we hold the idea of perfect forms in our minds, so we can
recognize the copies when we meet them.

A world of shadows
This imagined scene helps explain
Platos idea of forms. Imagine a group
of people who have been imprisoned in
a cave since they were born. They are
tied up facing the back wall of the cave,
which is all they can see. Near the cave
entrance there is a re that casts shadows
onto the back wall. Sometimes other people
walk along a path between the re and the cave.
They hold up puppets, which appear as shadows on
the cave wall. Since this is all the prisoners have ever
known, they think the shadows are real objects. Plato
said that we are like these prisoners. We think the things
we see and hear around us are real. In fact, they are like
shadows of the real things, which are the forms.
24

Plato said all things are copied

from ideal forms, as statues
are imperfect copies of people.

How can we know what exists?

Only ideas are real

Tables and tricks

Collecting information
Plenty of later philosophers disagreed with Platos ideas about reality. They
didnt believe we need perfect forms to explain how we know things, and
they suggested instead that our minds gather information. Take an apple, for
example. Our senses tell us about its particular color, shape, feel, and taste.
All this information is collected and organized in our minds. We see the fruit
and immediately think apple because thats the name we have been taught.

Just an idea?
When we see, hear, or touch
something, we form an idea of what it
is. So when we feel something uffy
and see brownness and big ears, we
might decide this adds up to the idea
of a rabbit. Rabbit is a human word
and idea. But if rabbit is just an idea
in your head, what do you really know?
You know you have an idea, but do
you really have a rabbit? And what
happens if no one is around to have
the ideais there still a rabbit?

The suggestion that only ideas are

real is known as idealism. It can
seem very odd to ask yourself how
you know somethingsay, a table
is there in front of you. Your senses
give you information about it: its
hard, wooden, has legs, and so on.
But to gure out that this object is a
table you have to use reason. Try
altering some of the information. If
the table moved, all by itself, would
you change your mind about what
it is? Magicians take advantage of
our ideas about what is real to
perform their tricks. They say, See
this? And this? But now watch
nothing is as you thought!

Is a rabbit on the grass only there because our minds say

so? If we didnt have the idea of rabbit, would it vanish?

Magicians can fool us with their tricks

because they know what we expect to
see in a normal world.

Beyond our senses

Perhaps, as the idealist philosopher
Immanuel Kant suggested, there are
real things in the world outside our
minds. Unfortunately, we have no
way of knowing what they actually
are. All we know about things comes
from what we sense about them. But
what if you had 10 different senses
instead of just ve? What would the
world seem like to you then?

25

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Biography
384 BCE Born in Stagira, a Greek
colony, to parents named Phaestis
and Nichomacus.
367 BCE Sent to The Academy in
Athens, to study with Plato.
348 BCE On Platos death, goes
traveling. During this period meets
and marries Pythias, the daughter
of one of his friends.
34340 BCE Moves to Macedonia
to tutor Alexander the Great.
335 BCE Founds his own school,
The Lyceum, in Athens.
323 BCE Flees when Athens turns
against him because of his
links with Alexander.
He settles in Chalcis
on the island
of Euboea.
322 BCE Dies at
age 63 of a
digestive illness.

Writings saved
For a long time,
Aristotles writings
were kept at his school,
The Lyceum. Some of
them were destroyed
by damp and pests,
but others were
rediscovered in 100 BCE
and moved to Rome.
Here, they were
published and much
admired. Centuries later,
in the Middle Ages,
Aristotles works again
became very important
to philosophers in both
the East and West.

Aristotle
The roots of education are bitter,
but the fruit is sweet.
Possibly the most important philosopher who ever
lived, Aristotle made a difference to people all over the
world. A great scholar, he knew a lot about a huge number
of things, from math, biology, physics, and medicine, to
farming and theater. He showed people how to use reason
to work things out in a systematic way. Aristotle wrote
about 200 short books, but only around 30 have survived.

Learning from Plato

Aristotle grew up in royal surroundings in
the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, where
his father was a court doctor. At the age
of 17, Aristotle was sent to study in
Athens with Plato, the most famous
teacher of the time. Aristotle stayed
at Platos Academy for more
than 20 years, both as a
student and a teacher. He
was such a brilliant student
that people thought he
might become head of The
Academy when Plato died.
But because Aristotle and
Plato disagreed over some
important things, the
position went to Platos
nephew instead.

In this painting, Aristotle (right) walks with

his teacher Plato down the steps of The
Academy in Athens. The two philosophers
are clearly in debate about something.

26

Aristotle

Aristotles Lyceum
When he returned to Athens after his travels,
Aristotle started his own school, The Lyceum. He
gave morning classes to his pupils and lectured to
the public in the afternoon. Aristotle taught history
and science as well as philosophy. He liked to
wander along with his students as he taught them
how to think, reason, and debate.

What is it made of?

What is the final design?

How was it made?

What is its purpose?

The four causes

According to Aristotle, everything has four
causesreasons why things are the way they
are. For each object, we must ask: What is it
made of?; What is the nal design?; How
was it made?; andmost importantly for
AristotleWhat is its purpose? For the four
causes of a house, we can say it is made of
wood, to an architects design, put up by
construction workers, to be a family home. It
is not just a collection of wood and bricks
it has structure, design, and purpose as well.

This is how a Victorian painter imagined

Aristotles school in Athens, with students
gathered together in informal groups for
lively discussions.

Really real?
Aristotles teacher, Plato, thought that the things
in our world were not real, but instead were
copies of objects that were somewhere else. His
student disagreed. Aristotle said we know whats
real from our experiences, and by thinking things
through. For example, we understand what a frog
is because weve seen lots of frogs. We recognize
their size, legs, skin, and so onthe things that
make up a frog.
Aristotle said that we
recognize things because
we see the parts they are
made of.

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Is color in the mind

or in the object?
We see the world in colorsky, trees, houses, animals,
clothes, flowers, and everything else. But philosophers
are not sure what color is or where it comes from,
and some doubt that it is there at all. Is color part of
the objects we see, or something that happens entirely
in our minds? Is a lemon really yellow, or does it just
seem yellow to us?

odern science teaches

us that the more we study
a subject the more we will
understand it. But is learning facts all
we need to do to gain knowledge?
Some philosophers think that the
most important thing is what we
sense about an object. Imagine that
you knew every single scientic fact
about the colors of the rainbow.
Would that be enough to let you
know what these colors are really
like, and how they make you feel?
Philosopher Frank Jackson
suggested that we imagine a
scientist named Mary who is
an expert on the subject of how
our eyes see color. She has read
hundreds of books and papers and
conducted lots of experiments. She
appears to know everything there
is to know about why colors are
the way they are and what
happens in peoples brains
when they see them. But,
strangely, she has never
experienced color herself. All her
life she has lived in a room where

everything is either black or white.

So does she really know everything
about color? Suppose she were
taken out of her black-and-white
room and placed in a world where
all around her were wonderful
colors. Wouldnt she gasp and be
amazed? Wouldnt she learn
something new beyond all the
scientic informationfor example,
how color can have a powerful
effect on what people are thinking
and feeling?
If someone lived only in a black-and-white
world, could they ever know everything
there is to know about color?

When color isnt there

How do we know that this lemon is yellow?

Is our mind creating the idea of yellow?

28

Many important philosophers through the

centuries have believed that tastes, colors,
and smells are all in the mind. According
to these great thinkers, a person eating,
looking, and snifng experiences things that
dont truly exist. For example, if you look at
a lemon, you will perhaps see it as yellow,
but if you arent looking at the lemon is the
yellowness still there? How can this be
explained? Perhaps something happens
between the lemon and our minds, so that
our eyes falsely tell us the fruit is a color.

Is color in the mind or in the object?

Think about it!

The question of sound
If a tree falls in the forest and theres
no one there to hear it, does it make
a sound? For centuries, philosophers
have been debating the answer to
this question. First, we need to think
about the meaning of the word
sound. When something moves,
it makes invisible airwaves, and
our ears pick up this movement.
This seems simple enough to
understandbut further thinking is
needed here. When our ears catch
the disturbance in the airwaves, they
pass the information to the brain. We
need the brain to make sense of the
information coming in from our ears
to gure out what is going on. The
processing of the airwaves happens
in the mind, not in the world around
us. So, if there isnt a mind to create
the sound, does the falling tree really
make a sound?

Should we believe our senses?

Philosophers argue that the
information we receive from seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling, and
tasting doesnt give us true
knowledge about the world. Just
because we hear something it
doesnt mean that it is a true
sound. The sound messages sent to
our brain depend on our measuring
toolsthe ears. If those ears were
made differently, who knows what
they might tell us. Is what I hear the
same as what you hear, or what an
animal hears?

Mind triggers
John Locke suggested that objects have
two kinds of qualities, or special features.
He called the rst type primary qualities.
These are things like shape and size,
which he said were built into the object.
Then he described secondary qualities,
things like color or smell, that trigger a
reaction in your brain, so that when you
see a lemon a part of your mind
immediately gets the idea of yellow.

We dont have
to stop and think
about the color
of a lemon. The
sight of the fruit
triggers a sense
of yellow in
our mind.

29

IS THE WORLD REAL?

What is real?
Philosophers have always argued about what is
real. Some believe that only ideas are realthese
philosophers are known as Idealists. Realists say that
only the objects around us are real. Another group of
philosophers, the Pragmatists, believe that what matters is not
the answer to What is real?instead, what matters is what we
believe to be real. They argue that what is true is what works.

Useful beliefs
Pragmatists say that whether a belief is
true or not depends on what happens
if someone acts on that belief. For
instance, if you believe that boiling
water is very hot and that you could
burn your hand if you touch it, you
will stay safe. But if you believed the
alternativethat boiling water is cold
and acted on that belief, your hand
would get burned. Therefore, your
beliefs are based on your experience.
These ideas were rst put forward by
US philosopher Charles Peirce in 1878.
You believe that eating cold food too quickly can hurt
because it gives you a headache.

Making sense of the world

William James, a philosophy professor at Harvard
University, said that pragmatism isnt really a
theoryit is more like a tool that we can
use to make sense of the world. Instead of
looking back to what might have made
something happen, it looks forward to future
consequences, helping us to make decisions. For
example, your beliefs about pollution and climate
change might help you decide whether to buy a
huge new car or a smaller one that uses less fuel.
William James (18421910)

30

What is real?

Modern pragmatism
Who needs the truth?

We can see that the

air inside the balloon is
hot, making it rise up.
Therefore, it is true that
the air is hot.

Pragmatism was not very popular

in the later part of the 20th century,
until it received a big boost from
American philosopher Richard Rorty.
Rorty said that modern philosophy
had become so caught up in trying
to nd the root of things, and the
exact meaning of various words, that
it had forgotten what the whole
point of philosophy is. He asked us
to look at what philosophy should
do, and suggested that it is meant
to help people make sense of their
lives. We dont need to understand
everythingjust some things.

Judging by effects
A pragmatist would say that when we talk
about something, we are really looking at
its effect on the world. For example, if we
say something is very hot, we are saying
that it will make our senses react in a certain
way. We decide whether a statement such
as the air is hot is true by seeing what
its effect on people and objects is.

Truth changes
Not all philosophers agree with
the pragmatists. They believe that
what is true is true, no matter
what. However, judging things
by their effect is much more
practicaleven scientic truths
change. Many years ago, doctors
believed that infections were
caused by bad air, but now they
know the real cause is germs.

Richard Rorty (19312007)

A world of change
Rorty said that the world we live
in is not made up of things that are
true, no matter what anyone thinks
or feels about them. Instead, he
said our lives are made up from all
the things we see, hear, feel, think,
imagine, and so on. Rorty described
the world we live in as being like
an ongoing conversation. The world
owsthings happen and affect one
another so more things happen
and we are a part of that. Our days
are made up of changes. We can
never step outside of ourselves to
nd some real truth that is out
there, so why even look for it?

Many old-fashioned medical ideas

are now known to be untrue.

31

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Discovering the truth

Seeing things happen
We sometimes make up our minds
about the truth in the same way that
researchers come to a decision about
an experiment. If the same thing
happens over and over again, we
start thinking it must always be like
this. We see the Sun rise every day
and believe it will continue to do
soeven if no one has explained
why this is the case.

What makes
something true?
We often decide what is true and what isnt true by
looking back at things that have happened in the past.
For example, you might say you know for sure that ice
is slippery because you have fallen on ice before. Your
belief seems to be true. But could it be wrong? Believing
and knowing can be two different things.

S
Learning from experience
Our experiences are an important
part of how we learn truths about
the world around us. By interacting
with the world, we discover what
different things are, how they work,
and how they react to us. For
example, we learn that snow is cold
and wet, and that sh live in water.

If you prick your nger on a

cactus once, you know that the
next time you touch it you will
be pricked again.

ometimes we have really

good reasons for believing
that something is truebut
even so, we can still be wrong.
American philosopher Edmund
Gettier (1927) said that although
such a belief may turn out to be
right, it wouldnt necessarily count
as knowledge. The following story
explains what Gettier means.
Two school friends, Ben and Sam,
have entered a race. Ben thinks Sam
is likely to win, because their
teacher says he is the best runner in
the class. Ben also knows that Sam
has three pieces of candy in his
pocket. So Ben believes that the boy
who has three pieces of candy in his
pocket will win the race.

Surprisingly, Sam does not win; Ben

does. But then Ben discovers that he
has three pieces of candy in his
pocket, too. His belief that the boy
who will win has three pieces of
candy in his pocket is true.
But although Ben turned out to
be right in believing the winner had
three pieces of candy, it was not
knowledge. The winner of the race
might not have had three pieces of
candy. It was just chance that both
Ben and Sam had the same amount
of candy in their pockets. So, Ben
was right, but his belief was not the
same thing as knowledge.

The cow-in-a-field story

Imagine that a farmer is wondering whether his black-andwhite cow, Daisy, is in the eld. He believes she is when
he goes to look, because he sees something black-and-white
in the distance. Later, it turns out that what he saw was a
large black-and-white bag, not Daisy. But the cow really
was in the eldshe was just hidden from sight in a dip.
The farmer was right that Daisy was there, but wrong in
what he saw. So, he didnt have real knowledgeit was
just a belief that turned out to be true.

32

What makes something true?

Think about it!

Truth and coincidence
We often put things together in
our heads when really they have
absolutely nothing to do with each
other. For example, if two things
happened at once we might think
one caused the other, but we
wouldnt necessarily be right. If it
rained for seven days in a row
whenever you put on your boots to
go outside, you might say Every
time I want to play outside, it starts
to rain. That wouldnt be true. It
would just be chancein other
words, a coincidence.

Testing the truth

To test our belief in the truth of
something we should look for similar
things that might prove us wrong.
Perhaps we think all sheep are
white, for exampleuntil we see
a black sheep. Then we know that
sheep can be black as well as white.
We can truthfully say all sheep are
white only if it is impossible for
them to be any other color. But
how could we ever see all the
sheep in the world?
Believing that a certain boy
is going to win the race is
not the same as knowing
that he will win.

Can a belief work for everyone?

Is scientific knowledge
true knowledge?
Scientists repeat their experiments
many times. They think that if they
nearly always get the same result,
then the idea they are testing is true.
But in long experiments, there are
often some odd or unexpected
results. Scientists ignore these,
because they decide that a theory
is true if they can prove it often
enough. Is anything completely
and certainly true?

Some philosophers have decided that true things

are the ones that everyone will nd useful to be
true. Lets return to our main story and suppose
that a lot of other people besides Ben and Sam
put three pieces of candy in their pockets. If they
all won their races it might seem true that winners
were always people carrying candy. But if some
people without candy won, we would realize that
it was wrong to believe in candy as a lucky charm.
It would be more useful not to believe in magic
candy and to look instead for other reasons why
some people win races and others dont.

33

IS THE WORLD REAL?

Can you trust

your senses?
In our daily lives, it seems obvious that the things we can see, hear, touch,
smell, and taste are really there, and we think we know a lot about them.
We can see green grass, hear music, touch our clothes, smell burned toast,
and taste a banana, and the world seems full and knowable. But our
senses can play tricks on ushow much can we really trust them?

Unreliable senses
Everyone has been tricked by their
senses at some point. Magicians
trick us by making things appear,
disappear, or oat when we know
that what we are seeing is actually
impossible. A simple trick is all it
takes to mislead your friends
peel some grapes and pass them
to a blindfolded friendwill they
believe that they are eyeballs? How
can they know that they are grapes?
Our senses are easily fooled.

In this photo it looks as if someone

is holding the Eiffel Tower, but we
know this cant be the casewe are
being deceived by our own eyes.

Can you trust your senses?

Seeing whats not there

If someone sees or hears something that
is not there they are said to be having
an hallucination. The hallucination has
nothing to do with the world outside
the bodythe problem is in that persons
mind. For some reason, the mind seems to
be receiving information, just as it would
about a physical object, except that there is
no object there. How do we know that we
are not having hallucinations all the time?
The heat of a desert can make travelers hallucinate and see
an oasis in the distance that isnt really there.

Our senses work well enough

Some philosophers say that when it comes to the senses,
the most practical way to live our lives is to believe that our
senses give us good information most of the time. These
philosophers are known as pragmatists. They point
out that our senses are our only tools for trying to
gure out what is real in the world. Some illusions
occur, but generally our senses work well.

Am I dreaming?
Perhaps nothing is the way our
senses tell us. Perhaps we are
actually dreaming all the time. How
would we know? The world of
dreams looks very much like the
waking worldthe trees, streets, and
people all seem real. Philosophers
have approached this problem in
different ways. Thomas Hobbes
pointed out that real life is not as
crazy as dream lifefor example, in
real life you wouldnt be able to y.
John Locke realized that we dont
feel pain in dreamsif you can feel
a pinch you must be awake after all.

A pragmatist would say that

if you hear music, you can
trust your senses that music
is being played.

35

What am I?

You might feel sure you know who you are

until you start wondering how your mind and
body work together. Philosophers have many
different ideas about what makes a person.

WHAT AM I?

How do I know
if I am real?
Wondering if you are real can lead to very strange
thoughts. Suppose you are just imagining
real life? Are your senses, like sight and
touch, fooling you? Perhaps a wicked
demon is trying to trick you into
believing you exist. Such worrying
ideas gave the 17th-century
philosopher Ren Descartes a lot to
think about. Eventually, he used his
reason to figure out that he did exist.

Is anything true?
Descartes thought that philosophy was
often based on things that people accepted
as true without any real proof. This wasnt
good enough for him. He hoped that by
working out things like math problems he
would discover truths about the world that
no one could argue with. So he began to
doubt everything, to see if he could nd
anything that couldnt be doubted.

Tricked by the senses

The rst problem that Descartes decided to
tackle was whether his eyes, ears, nose, and
other sense organs could be trusted to tell
him the truth. Were the things he could see,
hear, feel, touch, and smell really there? The
senses can easily be tricked. Spaghetti feels
like a bowl of worms if you touch it without
looking at it. Familiar things can look very
different when seen from odd angles or at a
distance. From far away, a big house looks tiny.
No one disagrees that 2 + 2 = 4;
it is a mathematical truth. Descartes
wanted to nd similar true answers
to philosophical questions.

38

Our senses are not always to be believed. If you stare

at this picture, the colored circles seem to move. But
they do not really movethe pattern is fooling our eyes.

How do I know if I am real?

Tricked by the mind

How do we know that what we think we

are doing is what we are actually doing?

Do our minds ever trick us? Descartes

asked himself Am I really sitting
by a re, in my bathrobe, holding a
piece of paper? He thought at rst
that there couldnt be any doubt
about it. Then he remembered how
brain injuries can cause people to have
false ideas about themselves. They think
that they are kings, for instance, or
imagine they are made of glass. If other
people could be so wrong, couldnt he
be thinking false things, too?

The evil demon

Then Descartes came up with a truly scary
thought. What if an evil demon were trying
to make him believe in things that were not
real? At this point he had a breakthrough. Even
if there were an evil demon, it could only fool
someone if that person existed. You cant fool
someone who doesnt exist. Descartes realized
that as long as he had thoughts in his head, no
matter what they were, he could be sure that
at least one thing in the world was
realhis mind. This was when
he wrote the words that are
now so well-known to
philosophers: I think,
therefore I am.
Could an evil demon make
someone believe things
that arent real?

Brain in a jar
Suppose a persons brain has been removed and kept alive in a
jar. It is linked to a computer and fed data that makes it think it is
still in a body. A modern version of Descartes evil demon idea
asks How do you know that you are not just a brain in a jar?
The answer is because you are wondering about itif someone
is controlling your brain, he or she would never give you the
ability to think those thoughts in the rst place.

39

WHAT AM I?

Biography
1596 Born in La Haye en
Touraine, France, a town later
renamed Descartes in his honor.
His mother dies when he is young,
and he and his brother and sister
are brought up by his grandmother.
160312 Educated at the College
of La Flche, Anjou, which is run
by Jesuits (members of a Roman
Catholic order). He studies
mathematics, Classics, and
philosophy, and comes to
believe that math is the only
subject worth studying.
1616 Graduates with a degree in
law from the University of Poitiers,
then enlists in military school.
162028 Travels around Europe.
In 1625, he meets Father Marin
Mersenne, a French philosopher
and physicist, who encourages
him to publish his scientic
papers and introduces him to
other philosophers.
1628 Settles in the Netherlands
and begins writing his rst work
on physics.
1637 Publishes Discourse on
the Method.
1640 Publishes Meditations on
First Philosophy, arguing that the
mind and body are different kinds
of things.
1650 Dies of pneumonia at the age
of 53 while working as a tutor at
the Swedish royal court.

Ren Descartes
It is not enough to have a good mind; the main
thing is to use it well.
One of the worlds most brilliant and original thinkers,
Descartes is often called the first modern philosopher.
He broke away from the kind of thinking that the ancient
Greeks had done and took a new, scientific approach.
Descartes said that it was a mistake to try to gain
knowledge about ourselves and the world by relying
on our senses. He preferred to figure things out, like a
mathematician faced with a tricky calculation.

Famous works
Descartes began writing the books that made
him famous in 1630. His early works were
scientic, but in 1640 he published his bestknown book, Meditations on the First
Philosophy. In it he wrote about the mind and
the differences between mind and body, and
the book includes his famous words: I think,
therefore I am. What Descartes meant by this
was that because he could think he could be
absolutely sure he existed. He also wrote
Discourse on the Method, one of the most
inuential philosophy books of all time.
Discourse on the Method was published in 1637.

Swedish downfall
Descartes steadily became more wellknown. Queen Christina of Sweden was so
impressed by his ideas that she invited him
to come to Sweden to become her personal
philosophy tutor. This turned out to be his
downfall. Not only did he have to get up
very early in the morning, which he had
always disliked, but he also found Sweden
unbearably cold. He became fatally ill and
died less than a year after accepting the job.

40

Queen Christina of Sweden and members

of her court listen as Descartes gives
a philosophy lesson.

Ren Descartes

Influencing science
In addition to inuencing generations of future
philosophers, Descartes writing also had an
enormous impact on the scientic world. People
such as the mathematician Isaac Newton and the
astronomer Edmond Halley took great interest in
Descartes work on physics and mathematics.
Descartes work on the laws of motion led to
Newtons own work on motion and, centuries later,
made it possible to launch rockets into space.

WHAT AM I?

Who am I?
Do you sometimes wonder which part of you is you?
When you say or think I, do you mean your body? Or, like
the philosopher Ren Descartes, do you mean your mind, the
thinking part of you? Maybe you agree with Descartes that mind
and body are two separate things. On the other hand, you might
feel like a mixture of both. Could there be a correct answer?

Which part stays me?

You probably cant remember being a baby. Look at a picture of your
younger self to see what you were once like. Your body is entirely
different now. You can do things like walking, running, and jumping.
Once you learned to speak you started thinking in a different way
from a baby. Has any part of you stayed the same person?

As we grow up, we change a

great deal in our body and mind.

Am I my memories?
We have many different types of memories. Some help us remember
how to do things, such as riding a bike or solving a math problem.
Others remind us of events like a friends birthday or what time a
train arrives. Still others help us discover our likes and dislikesfor
example, we remember if we enjoy the taste of chocolate.
Perhaps putting all our memories together gives
Fear
us a sense of who we are.
Disgust

Memories help us remember how to do

things, such as ride a bike.

Am I my feelings?
Memories often come with feelings attached to them.
Do you remember the rst time you met your best
friend? Does the thought make you feel happy and
want to smile? Feelings, or emotions, also help us
decide what is the right or wrong thing to do. We dont
all feel the same way about the same things. What
makes one person want to dance with happiness
may make another want to cry. Perhaps it is
our feelings that make us who we are?
Does the way you feel about things
make you the person you are?

42

Who am I?

What is the self?

Am I just a machine?
Materialists are philosophers who
think that everything about us is
made of some kind of material.
They say that even the mind is just a
collection of thought-carrying brain
cells ring away. This makes us
sound like machines, but are we?
Could a machine have feelings or
worry about something?

Nonstop mind
The things in your mind
memories, emotions, likes, and
dislikescontinue from day to
day. Maybe it is the way they
continue overlapping and
linking together that makes you
denitely you? But what if
one stops? Suppose a man
forgets everything that has ever
happened to him and everyone
he knows. But if he loves
peanut butter and dancing as
he used to, could we still say
he is the same person?

This magnied picture of brain cells shows

how they link up to carry thoughts.
Part of your self depends
on your likes and dislikes.

What came first?

Aristotle said that the most important
part of anything is what he called its
nal cause. This means the main
reason for something to exist. So a
fruit bowls nal cause is to hold
fruit, for instance. A persons nal
cause is to be that particular person,
or soul. Aristotle says the soul, which
is real, comes rst and creates the
need for a body.

Surprise

Happiness

Sadness
Anger

WHAT AM I?

The life of Avicenna

980 Born near Bukhara in Central
Asia, which is controlled by Persian
rulers called the Samanids. His
father was a village governor.
996 At the age of 16, he begins
work as a doctor. He cures the
Samanid ruler, Nuh Ibn Mansur,
of an illness and is allowed to use
the rulers library as a reward.
999 When the Samanids are
overthrown in Bukhara, he begins
traveling. He works as a doctor and
philosopher in royal courts, towns,
and villages throughout Asia.
1025 Avicenna completes his
Canon of Medicine, a collection
of all his medical knowledge.

Avicennas Canon of Medicine

The Flying Man

Known as Avicenna in the Western world, the
Arabic physician Ibn Sina was one of the most
important medieval philosophers. He wanted
to know Do I exist? centuries before other
thinkers asked the same question. In
1002, Avicenna used his Flying Man
experiment to show that our minds
are separate from our bodies.

o do Avicennas experiment,
we have to imagine a
perfectly ordinary person
who is normal in every way.
However, this person has been
blindfolded and is oating in the air.
None of his arms or legs touch
anything. He cant see, feel, smell, or
taste. There is no noise, so he cant
hear anything either. How does this
Flying Man still know that he exists?
Avicenna says that the man will
know because he is thinking. But
what exactly is the mindor self,

Common sense

Imagination

Ideas

Thoughts

Memories

1037 Dies in Hamadan, Persia.

44

as Avicenna calls itthat the Flying

Man is using to think? He cant feel
it in his head, and his sight, hearing,
and other senses arent picking up
information from outside his body
and sending it to his brain. Yet he
is still able to have thoughts. So the
experiment is a way of showing that
the mind must be very different
from the body. It can exist and think
without help from the senses.

Mind powers
Avicenna said that the mind has ve powers, or
inner senses. The rst four are common sense,
imagination, the ability to use ideas to create
things, and the power to gure out what the
thoughts and images in our heads mean.
Finally, the mind is able to store as memories
the things that pass through it. All these mindpowers let us pick up and make use of the
information we receive through our body
senses. This is how we keep ourselves safe,
for instanceat least most of the time.

The Flying Man

Think about it!

Mind and body are one
Avicenna believed that the mind was
best imagined as being like a person
operating a piece of equipment,
which is the body. However, other
philosophers say this isnt a good
way to explain things. For example,
if you hurt your arm, you notice the
pain differently from the way a
mechanic notices a fault in his
machinery. Pain is something you
feel instantly. The unpleasant
sensation is part of you, just as
much as your thoughts about the
cause of it belong to you. Your body
is you too, not just a machine
operated by your mind.

Even without his senses, the

Flying Man can still think.

No ghosts in the body

Not everyone approved of the
way Avicenna made the mind
seem so mysterious. As one modern
philosopher put it: the mind is just
the workings of brain cells and
nerves. We dont need to make it
sound like some kind of strange
ghost oating around inside the
body. Its simpler to imagine
that the mind is similar to a big
school. The school is made up
of classrooms, a library, a gym,
a science laboratory, and so on.
Theres no one place you can point
to and say thats the school. The
mind is lots of different things, too.
Like the rooms in the school, these
work together as part of something
bigger. You cant point to one part
and say theres the mind.

Using imagination
According to Avicenna, our imagination
has two parts. The rst part is what goes
on in our heads when we notice something
that interests us. Our minds take in the
details and start to wonder about them.
The second part to the imagination is a
skill that lets us change these mind-pictures
and thoughts. We might mix them all
together or turn them into completely
different ones.

We can use the power of imagination

to create works of art.

45

WHAT AM I?

Is my mind different
from my body?
Our minds and bodies mostly seem to get along fine. So do we really need
to wonder how they work together? For centuries, philosophers have
been doing just that. They have come up with a lot of different ideas. Some
said the mind was solid like the body. Others said they were two different
kinds of things. A few believed that only thoughts could exist.

Body and soul

The ancient Greek philosophers
had lots of discussions about the
soul, or mind. Some of them
thought that body and soul were
separate and when a person
died the soul was set free to live
forever. Others believed that body
and soul were joined in some way.
They said that the soul was made
of solid matter and would die
when the body died.

Split in two
After a lot of thinking and debating,
philosopher Ren Descartes (15961650) came
to the conclusion that body and mind are very
different kinds of things. The body is made of
matter, but the mind isnt. This view is called
Dualism, and it is about dividing something
into two parts. It led to some very big
questions: how can the mind make parts of
the body move? How can things felt by the
body be understood by the mind?

God in charge
In the 11th-century,
the Iranian philosopher
al-Ghazali (c.10581111)
decided that God must be in
control of our thoughts and actions. He
couldnt nd any other explanation for the
way thoughts and the body could work
together. It seemed obvious that messages
pass between the mind and body: for
example, the mind tells the body to move,
and the body tells the mind that a toe hurts.
But how is this possible? Al-Ghazali believed
that it had to be God who makes us
think about moving an arm, and then
makes the arm move.

46

Many philosophers have tried to gure out

how the mind and the body work together.

Is my mind different from my body?

Both sides of a coin

Another philosophical view is that mind
and body are like two sides of a coin.
When something happens to one,
something also happens to the other.
Imagine that a football hits you on the
head. Your body hurts and at the same
time your mind thinks A football hit
me! Baruch Spinoza, the 17th-century
philosopher who suggested the coin idea,
believed that our actions and feelings are connected
to nature, while our thoughts are connected to God.
Thomas Hobbes (15881679)

No difference
One group of philosophers believed that
thoughts are made of types of matter, just
like the body is made of matter. These
philosophers are known as Materialists.
Thomas Hobbes was a key Materialist
thinker. He said that when things happen
to the body, lots of little events occur in the
body, one after another, like dominoes
knocking each other over. So when a
bee stings you, the skin reacts, sending
a message to the brain, and ending with
the thought Ow! If this idea is right, it
suggests we arent able to control our
natural reactions.

Side by side
German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (16461716) said that
our minds and bodies are not linked. If the body wants to do the same
things as the mind, it is because God planned it. Von Leibniz thought that
the universe had two paths running side by side. On one path are things
that can be seen and touched, such as the body. On the other path are
things concerning the mind. Like two clocks ticking next to one another,
these paths run on at the same time, but never cross over.

What body?
Have you ever thought that perhaps your body isnt
there at all? Irish philosopher Bishop Berkeley
(16851753) did. In fact, he doubted that there
was anything solid in the world. As far as he was
concerned, only the mind and its thoughts really exist.
He believed that the body, and any other things we
consider real, are nothing more than ideas in the mind.

47

WHAT AM I?

Body or brain?
The shoemaker-prince
As long ago as 1689, John Locke
tried to gure out whether it is the
brain or the body that makes us who
we are. He imagined the mind of a
prince being transplanted into the
body of a shoemaker. The princes
mind was unchanged, so the
shoemaker had the thoughts,
memories, and personality of the
prince. However, the princes mind
was in the shoemakers body, so the
combined person wasnt the same as
the prince. How could he be both
the same and yet not the same?

The body counts, too

American philosopher Eric Olson
says that the body is just as
important as the brain when it
comes to determining what makes
people who they are. He points out
that a body has lived in the same
places and experienced the same
things as the mind, so they share
a history. The body also has a
nervous system that tells every part
of it, including the brain, what to
do. So, Eric Olson reasons, our
bodies count as us.

This famous sculpture is called

The Thinker.

48

Shoemakers

brain experiment
Philosophers have puzzled for a long time about the
connection between the mind and the body. The mind
is not a thing like an arm, so how does it get in touch
with the body to tell it what to do? More importantly,
which part of me is me? Do my friends know who
I am because of my body or because of my mind? The
philosopher Sydney Shoemaker came up with a thought
experiment to look at this in more detail.

s it what goes on in peoples

brains that makes them who
they are? After all, the mind
makes all the decisions that guide
us through life and seems to be in
charge of everything that we do.
In fact, most people agree that our
minds are more the real us than
our bodies. Sydney Shoemaker
thought that things might not be
quite as simple as that. He wanted
to make us think more carefully
about the way minds and bodies
go together, so he devised a
thought experiment. He came up
with the following story:
Two people, Jack and Tom, have
brain surgery. Their brains are taken
out of their bodies to be operated
on. The brains are then replaced,
but something goes wrongthey
are put back into the wrong bodies.
Jacks body ends up with Toms
brain, and Toms body gets Jacks
brain. Then, sadly, Jack dies, with
Toms brain still inside him. Tom

(with Jacks brain) recovers.

The question is: who is this
surviving person?
When friends pay a visit to
the survivor, they at rst think
of him as Tom, because he looks
like Tom. But the more they speak
to him, the more confused they get.
He seems to like and want the
things Jack wanted. He appears to
love soccer and says he wants to
go and see his team playing in
Argentina. But before the brain
mix-up Tom wasnt interested in
sports and disliked traveling. He
also remembers the things that have
happened in Jacks life. Whats more,
this person wants to go home to
Jacks wife and children. So who is
he? Tom or Jack?

If one person swapped minds

with another, which person would
be which? Both would look the
same as before, but they would
each speak and behave as if
they were the other person.

Shoemakers brain experiment

Think about it!

Moveable minds
The problem of whos who? gets
even more complicated if we
imagine that more than just two
people are involved in a mindreplacement experiment. Perhaps in
the future it will be possible to wipe
thoughts from brains, like deleting
data from a computer disk, and
input different thoughts. Suppose
we took a person's mindwith all its
memories, likes and dislikes, and so
onand copied it into blank brains
in lots of other bodies. What would
we think about these people who
now possess identical minds? Are
they really all the same or would
we see each one as different?

Why is the brain

so important?
If we think its the brain that makes
a person who they are, even
supposing it was placed in a
different body, why isnt it the same
with other organs? For instance, if a
woman has a heart transplant, would
we ever say that the real survivor is
the one who donated her heart?
The brain seems to be a special
case. It is the organ that allows us
to think in a continuous way from
day to day. We can pick up our
thoughts this morning from where
we left them last night. Mostly, our
beliefs and wishes stay the same.

Memory loss
There is yet another problem with
saying that our continuing thoughts
make us who we are. Sometimes
peoples minds stop being able
to pass on thoughts from one day to
the next. This is a medical condition
called amnesia, when people lose
all their memories. If someone cant
remember anything, are they still
the same person?

49

WHAT AM I?

How do we learn?
Philosophers are very interested in knowledge, especially in
what we know and how we know it. There is a big
philosophical debate about whether we learn things by
thinking about them or by experiencing them. One group
of philosophers suggests that we are born with some ideas
already in our heads. Others disagree completely.

Born with ideas

Ren Descartes suggested that
some of our ideas exist in our
minds even before we are born.
He said that we might not be
aware of having these ideas,
but they are like rules that we
use to make sense of the world.
They include mathematical
ideas such as shapes and sizes.
Without these ideas, Descartes
said, the world would seem like
a big, colorful, energetic mess
that made no sense at all.

Working it out
One of the ideas that Descartes said we are
born with is cause and effect. For example,
when a baby hits a mobile and it moves, what
makes him hit it again? Descartes would say it
is because the baby already understands the
idea of cause and effect, so he knows that the
force of his hand will make the mobile move.
But John Locke said this was wrong. He said
that a baby has no ideas, but is able to work
things out. So he would say that the baby just
happens to hit the mobile again, and again,
and starts to notice that the hand and mobile
movement seem connected.
50

Babies learn very early on

in their lives that hitting
a mobile makes it move.

How do we learn?

No set ideas
Locke said that if people were born with
ideas already in their minds then every
human being everywhere in the world, at
any time throughout history, would have
exactly the same ideas. But no one has
ever found an idea that exists everywhere
in this way. This seems to conrm Lockes
suggestion that we are not born with set
ideas already in our heads, but instead
have to learn everything for ourselves
as we grow up.
Locke said it is impossible for everyone
in the world to share the same idea.

Hidden ideas
To support his argument that all our ideas are learned through
experience, Locke reasoned that if we were born with ideas
already in our heads then we would know about them. Because we
dont know about these ideas, then they cant be there. However,
other philosophers say that Locke could be wrong about this.
They argue that we dont know every single one of our memories,
until we try to remember them. For example, you might have
forgotten what you did last weekend, until someone asks you about
it. Perhaps the ideas we are born with are just like our memories
in our minds, just waiting to be found?

An apple is a
bundle of simple
ideasit is round,
red, sweet, and juicy.

Making links
Scottish philosopher David Hume (171176)
said that we learn by linking things together. He
said that we use the information we get through our
senseswhat we see, hear, feel, smell, and tasteto
make simple ideas, such as the color red. Then we
link our simple ideas together to make more
complex ideas, for instance, apple.
51

WHAT AM I?

Biography
1632 Born in Somerset, England.
1642 Lockes father ghts in
the English Civil War against
King Charles I.
1652 Goes to Christ Church
College, Oxford University,
where he stays for 30 years.
1666 Works as a doctor for Lord
Ashley, who later became the Earl
of Shaftesbury, also helping him
with business and political matters.
1683 Flees to the Netherlands
after he is suspected of helping to
plan a rebellion.
1688 Returns to England.
1689 Takes up a job in the English
government, anonymously publishes
Two Treatises of Government,
outlining his ideas of natural law.
1690 Publishes An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding.
1696 Becomes the Commissioner
of Trade and Plantations.
1691 Moves to Oates in Essex.
1704 Dies at age 72.

John Locke
Where there is no law, there
is no freedom.
John Locke was one of the most important
thinkers of the 17th century. This was a
time when people were beginning to trust
tradition less and wanted to figure things
out for themselvesit was known
as the Age of Enlightenment. Locke
was an important politician as well
as a philosopher. His ideas about
power influenced people in
many countries, including the
newly formed United States.

Early years
John Lockes father was a lawyer who
fought for the Parliamentarians in the
English Civil War. His side won, and to
thank the Locke family, the Parliamentarians
paid for John Locke to study at Oxford
University. He stayed there for 30 years,
studying philosophy and medicine, and
then worked for 10 years as a doctor.

Christ Church College, Oxford

52

John Locke

Natural law
Locke believed that people have the right to
control their own bodies, and no one should
tell them what to do with them. He also said
that when a person works on something, it
becomes theirsfor example, if you were to
make a gate from pieces of wood, you would
own the gate. Locke called his ideas natural
law, and wrote about them in Two Treatises
of Government. These ideas went on to
inuence generations around the world.

The United States Declaration of

Independence includes Lockes idea
of natural law. It was signed in 1776.

Experiencing the world

Locke says that the

colors of these owers
are in our minds, rather
than in the owers
themselves.

Locke thought that people are not born with

knowledge of the world, but have to experience
the world to learn about it. He said that objects
have two types of qualitiesprimary qualities, such
as shape and size, which are in the thing itself, and
secondary qualities, such as color and smell, which
occur in our minds when we experience an object.
53

WHAT AM I?

How do I know
what youre thinking?
How can we prove that other people have
minds that work in the same way as our own? Each
of us has unique access to his or her own mind
no one can read another persons mind. But if we
dont know how someone elses mind works,
how do we know what that person is thinking?

Other minds
We cant get inside another persons mind to see what it is
like, but we can see how others behave. John Locke said
that watching other peoples behavior leads us to assume
their minds are like our own. However, these observations
dont give us actual knowledge, since they are based on
our own ideas, which are still only in our own heads!
We assume these children are
happy because they look the way
we feel when we are happy.

Why do you think

this person is
frowning?

Understanding behavior
Imagine that you see someone walk up to a store, nd
it closed, frown, and walk away. Based on your own
experience, you might assume that the person felt frustrated.
However, that persons mind and body might operate very
differently from yours. Perhaps that person frowns when
thinking hard, and therefore may not be annoyed at all.
54

How do I know what youre thinking?

Language and feelings

Is my pain the same
as your pain?

We use language to show our feelings.

The language game

German philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein
said that we have developed language to
help us share our experiences with other
people. Language lets us make our private
thoughts public, and we can only talk
if we understand what is being said.
So language proves that there are
other minds, because it represents
shared thoughtsthings that
lots of us think or feel. Without
language we wouldnt know that
we think and feel in similar ways.

Even if you explain to your best

friend exactly what happens when
you stub your toe, can he or she
really know what it is like to
experience that in your body and
mind? Its possible that if you asked
10 other people to describe the
feeling of stubbing their toe, they
would all use the word pain, but
they could all be feeling it differently.
How can we know exactly what
they are feeling?

Stubbing your toe is painful, but do

we all feel the pain in the same way?

Similar experiences

Feelings are common

If there is a word for something,
it means that many people have
experienced it. For example, if you
start using the word pain in the
wrong way, you will soon realize you
are wrong by the way other people
react to you. From a young age, you
learn to use the word to describe the
same kinds of feelings that others do.
Learning language lets you learn about
feelings that everyone has. If you use a
new word to describe something that
only you have ever felt, no one will
correct you. They just wont know
what youre talking about!

We all think we experience the

same feelings. But how do we
know we all feel the same thing
when we say we are happy, hungry,
excited, or tired? Wittgenstein would
say that this does not really matter
our experiences are similar enough.
We can understand enough about
what is happening to those people,
even if we cannot experience their
actual feelings.

55

WHAT AM I?

Biography
c.563 BCE Born under a tree when
his mother is on a journey. It is said
that he took seven steps as soon as
he was born, and a lotus ower
sprung up at every step.

Siddhartha
Gautama
There is no law that is permanent
and unchangeable.
Siddhartha Gautama became known as the
Buddha, or the enlightened one. His teachings
form the core of Buddhism, an Eastern
philosophy. Buddhism is based on the idea that
nothing in the world is permanent. The
Buddha said that human suffering is caused by
people trying to keep things as they are in a
world of constant change.

The young Buddha and his mother

c.547 BCE Gets married at the age of

16. Some time after this he leaves his
home, the palace, for the rst time.
c.547483 BCE Travels, visiting wise
people and trying to nd a solution
to human suffering. Eventually he
reaches enlightenment, under a tree.
He becomes known as the Buddha
and spends the rest of his life
traveling and teaching.
c.483 BCE Dies at the age of 80.

Early life
Brought up in a royal court, Siddhartha Gautama
didnt know what life was like outside the
palace gates. As a young man he was shocked
to discover the existence of illness, old age, and
death. He left his princely life and vowed to nd
the answer to human suffering. To try and do
this he traveled widely, learning from religious
teachers, but eventually he realized that they
didnt know the answer. He then sat down
under a tree to think and to try and nd
the answers in himself.

Siddhartha Gautama was saddened to discover

human suffering outside his palace home.

56

Siddhartha Gautama

The Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama stayed under his tree for 49 days.
Sitting under the tree, he thought about what was
important in life and how people should live. His
conclusion was that even though sickness, old age, and
death would always exist, we can change our reaction
to them. This moment of realization is known as his
enlightenment, and from this point onward Siddhartha
Gautama was known as the Buddha.
Statue of the Buddha

The Middle Way

One of the Buddhas main ideas is known
as the Middle Way. It says that truth
cannot be found in the unbending beliefs
of religions or in doubting everything,
but somewhere in between the two. The
Buddha said that we should not just
accept things the way other people say
they are, but investigate everything with
our own minds. We should become
aware of our thoughts, which arise and
disappear, like everything else in a
world that is constantly changing.
The Wheel of Law represents change
and the endless cycle of life.

Finding happiness
The Buddha said that the truth of
the world is that everything changes.
Nothing is permanentthings
arise and then disappear, including
ourselves. But even though we cant
stop things from changing, we keep
wanting things to stay the same. For
example, you might want a party to
last forever and get upset about the
idea that it must end. Buddhism
said that it is this wanting that is
upsetting you, before the party even
ends. Enjoy the party, and if you feel
sad when it ends, just allow yourself
to feel the sadness, because that will
end quickly too.

57

WHAT AM I?

What is the self ?

Philosophers have spent thousands of years
questioning what we mean by the self. How
do we know a person is that particular person?
Is a person the same as a baby and as an adult?
Buddhism says we shouldnt worry about these
kinds of questions. This is because there is
another, much bigger question to answer before
all the rest: is there such a thing as the self in
the first place?

Everything changes
According to the Buddha, if there were such a thing as a self
it would have to stay the same over our whole lives, never
changing in any way. But when we look at ourselves, we
can see that we are changing all the time. Its not just our
bodies that alter. We change our minds about things and our
thoughts can be different from one day to the next. The
Buddha said that we call ourselves I only because it makes
it easier to talk to each other and to conduct our lives.

58

What is me?
Some philosophers see the mind and body
as different types of things. They wonder
whether the mind, or soul, lives on when
we die. Others say that the mind is just the
workings of the brain. So when we die and
the brain stops working, the mind stops,
too. Both groups agree that there is a soul,
or me, in a body. But Buddhists believe
there is no such thing as a soul. They think
me is an illusion, a mistaken idea.

Buddhists believe that we are

ever-changing, just like trees.

What is the self?

We can think of ourselves

as a collection of different
parts, in much the same
way as this watch.

Explaining the self

This story is about a monk, Nagasena, explaining the
idea of the self. He tells a king that there is no such
person as Nagasena. This surprises the kinghe says
that Nagasena is a name, and names are used only
when they belong to something. If Nagasena is not
a name, it means nothing. So the monk asks the king
to explain what a chariot is. The king names parts of
a chariot, such as the wheels and seat. Nagasena says
yes, those are the partsbut where is the chariot?
The king realizes that there isnt anything called a
chariot that is separate from the parts. But, he says, it
is useful that we all know what is meant by chariot.
Exactly, says Nagasena. That is also true of the self.

Nothing but parts

Can we say what a chariot

is without thinking of its
different parts?

Many philosophers believe that each individual, or

self, is made up of all the parts of the mind and
body added together. This would include our feelings,
wishes, and thoughts. On the other hand, Buddhism
says that if you break down the self into all those
different parts, thats all there isparts. The parts may
be there, but there is no whole me. If we take away
the parts, then there is nothing left.
59

WHAT AM I?

Plutarch
The ancient Greek historian and
philosopher Plutarch wrote about
history and the famous people who
made history, such as Alexander
the Great and Julius Caesar. He
was also interested in identity,
moralsgood and bad ways to
actand how peoples characters
affected their futures.

The ship of
Theseus
How many parts can you take away from a thing
and still say that it is the same thing? Plutarch
investigated this question using the story of an ancient
ship that once belonged to Theseus, an ancient Greek
hero who founded the city of Athens. His story poses a
problem that has fascinated philosophers for centuries.

T
Plutarch at his studies.

46 Born in the village of Chaeronea,

Greece, to a wealthy family.
6667 Studies math and philosophy
at Platos The Academy in Athens.
c.7075 Travels around Greece and
to Sparta, Alexandria, and Rome,
where he becomes a Roman citizen,
with the new name of Lucius
Mestrius Plutarchus. Marries
Timoxena, with whom he has at
least one daughter and four sons.
c.75 Returns to Chaeronea, where
he becomes the senior priest at the
Oracle of Delphi, making predictions
about peoples futures.
c.96 Publishes his rst famous book,
The Lives of the Roman Emperors.
c.120 Dies in Delphi, Greece.

60

heseus was a great hero to

the people of Athens. When
he returned home after a war,
the ship that had carried him and his
men was so treasured that the
townspeople preserved it for years
and years, replacing its old, rotten
planks with new pieces of wood.
The question Plutarch asks
philosophers is this: is the repaired
ship still the same ship that Theseus
had sailed? Removing one plank
and replacing it might not make
a difference, but can that still
be true once all the planks have
been replaced?
Some philosophers argue that the
ship must be the sum of all its parts.
But if this is true, then as the ship
got pushed around during its
journey and lost small pieces, it
would already have stopped being
the ship of Theseus.
Others argue that the ship is
the ship of Theseus because of its
structure, or shape. But if this is the
case, any ship that was the same
structure or shape would be the

ship of Theseus, even if it were

made of plastic. That would mean
that there could be hundreds or
thousands of the same ship, all of
which are the ship of Theseusbut
this is impossible, since he only
sailed in one ship.
What is it that makes us able
to point to something and
say exactly what it is?

Would a ship still be the same ship

after all its original parts had been
replaced with new ones?

The ship of Theseus

Two ships or no ships?

Think about it!

If the old planks that have been

removed from Theseuss ship were
used to build another ship, would
that ship be the ship of Theseus? The
two ships cant both be the ship of
Theseus. It might be true that neither
of them is. In that case, when was
the ship of Theseus destroyed?

Personal identity

Would a second
ship made from the
pieces of the old
one be the real
ship of Theseus?

The story about Theseuss ship is

about identitywhat makes a thing
what it is? We can think about
people in the same way. For
example, we think of ourselves as
being the same person we always
were, even though our bodies make
new cells and blood all the time. Our
skin cells are replaced every seven
days, and all our body cells every
seven years. Thats like replacing all
the planks of Theseuss ship over
and over again. Are we still the same
person? And if so, in what way?

Identical people
Just as we could make an exact
replica of Theseuss ship, future
scientists may be able to clone
humans, making a new person who
is identical to someone else. It is
possible that they could even put all
the same memories into the new,
cloned person. Who is the second
person, if the two people are
completely identical?

What about consciousness?

Some philosophers have argued
that people are different from ships.
A person is more than just physical
skin and cellshe or she has ideas,
thoughts, and memories. But what
is it, exactly, that makes us feel so
sure that someone is the same
person over time? What makes
Sarah, age 8, the same person
as Sarah, age 98?

61

WHAT AM I?

Is there life after death?

We are the only animals who are aware that one day
we will die. But philosophers say that all we really know
is that one day our bodies will stop working. Could
there be a part of us that goes on after death? This
question has fascinated people for thousands of years.
Could philosophers ever prove what really happens?

Epicurus said that

the mind cant live
without the body.

Do souls live forever?

Some philosophers said that only ideas are real.
They also decided that real things last forever. So,
if I am my thoughts, and thoughts are ideas, I am
real and will last forever. My body is not an idea,
so it will die. Some cultures and religions believe
that when someone dies we can contact the idea
part of them, which lives on.

It is the custom in some religions to make

offerings to spirits. These people in China are
burning candles, incense sticks, and paper
money for relatives who have died.

Nothing lasts
A lot of people believe that the mind is part
of the body and cant go on living once the
body dies. The ancient Greek philosopher
Epicurus pointed out that this idea is very
comfortingit means that we wont be
around to know what death is like.

Is there life after death?

Everlasting mind
Some philosophers say that the mind and body
are made of completely different things. They see
the body as a machine that will eventually stop
working and die. But because the mind is not made
of anything solid, they believe that it might be
everlasting. The problem these philosophers have is
that they cant explain how mind (thoughts) and
body (a physical thing) join together. This link is
important. Our minds and bodies might be very
different, but can one exist without the other?
Could our minds live
on after our bodies?

The soul in the afterlife

Several of the worlds major religions
state that when people die their
souls live on in an afterlife. There are
various ideas about what this will be
like. Many religions include the
belief that their God will judge how
well the person behaved in the
world before letting the soul move
on to a better life.

Going to heaven
Christians believe that their souls
go to heaven when they die. Some
see heaven as a real place. Others say
that heaven is not a place, but instead
is a way of being together with God.
Muslims also believe that the soul
enters heaven, where there is
everlasting peace and happiness.

Being with Brahman

Living many lives

In ancient times, many people believed in reincarnation. This is the idea that
the soul lives on after death and is reborn into a new body. Among those
who accepted such an idea were the Greeks, Egyptians, Celts, Scandinavians,
American Indians, Chinese, and many African tribes. The Greeks believed
that when people died they went to the underworld, which was called
Hades. Then people were reborn over and over again. After many lives,
they eventually became good enough to go and stay with the gods forever.

Followers of Hinduism believe in

reincarnationthey think that they
will be reborn after death. Hindus
hope that their souls will eventually
be freed from the cycle of rebirth by
good deeds. Then they can join
Brahman, who, together with Vishnu
and Shiva, is one of the three most
important Hindu gods.

The Hindu god Shiva is associated with

the cycle of death and reincarnation.

63

Thinking
and feeling

Our minds are busy working all the time.

We have to think to solve problems and make
decisions, and we use language to share ideas.
We also have feelings, hopes, and dreams.

THINKING AND FEELING

Can we think
without language?
Among animals, humans have the unique ability
to use spoken and written language. Language
helps us express complicated ideas and allows
us to think about more than simply what we can
experience with our senses. Perhaps it is
because we can use language that we are
able to think in the way we do.

Uses of language
Whether it is spoken or written, language lets us communicate
ideas to other people. We can discuss things, agree or disagree
with other peoples ideas, and come up with new ideas of our
own. We use language to communicate with ourselves, too
having a kind of inner conversation where we discuss ideas
with ourselves in our minds.
Using language, a teacher can explain complicated
ideas to her students, and they can ask her questions.

Before they can use language, babies cant reason

they think in terms of images and sensations.

Thinking and reasoning

The word think means many different
things. But there is a difference
between having a thought or feeling,
and using reasoningthinking about
something rationally. For example, we
can think that something tastes good,
but that is not the same as thinking
through a problem. This kind of
rational thought is almost impossible
without some form of language.

Can we think without language?

Thinking in pictures

Understanding languages

There are some things that we

can think about without using
language. For example, when we
imagine a machine and how it
works, we usually think visually,
in pictures. Pictures are often more
useful than language to think about
things we can see or touch. But
pictures cannot communicate
abstract ideas such as goodness
or fairness. It is difcult to express
a complex idea, such as Jim
wont come if it is raining, in a
picture. To think about these more
complex things, we need language.

Learning language
Most of the time, we use language
without thinking about it. It seems to
come naturally, and at a very early
age. Philosopher and psychologist
Noam Chomsky (1928) says that
humans are born with a unique
natural ability to learn language.
He has pointed out that a kitten
exposed to exactly the same
language and environment as a baby
would never pick up language in the
way the baby wouldlearning
language is uniquely human.

A silent movie can deliver a simple plot, and

even express the emotions of the characters,
but it cannot tell a complicated story.

How do deaf people think?

People who have been deaf from birth
learn language differently than people
who can hear. They cannot easily learn
spoken language, but can learn sign
language, and to read and write. Deaf
people may not have the sounds of
words in their heads when they have
a conversation, or even an internal
conversation, but they do use a
language. They use this soundless
form of language to reason, just as
hearing people use spoken language.

Learning spoken language is something

that only humans seem able to do.

Do animals use language?

Animals are not able to use words
like humans. They do, however, have
ways of communicating with each
other, using sounds and signs to
communicate ideas such as danger
or food. Some people say that this
type of communication is not really
language, since it cannot be used to
express complicated ideas.

Some mythical creatures, such as the

unicorn, came from descriptions of exotic
animals that travelers had come across but
that they didnt have words for.

Limits of language
Without language, our thinking would be restricted to the things we
experience through our senses. Language allows us to use our reasoning. But
there are things that we cannot express with languagethings we havent
experienced and we dont have words for. It is difcult to think about things
we have no language for. People living in a desert, for example, might not
have a word for snow in their language. Without a word for it, they would
nd it difcult to express the idea of snow if they came across it.

Chimps use signs and sounds to

communicate with each other.

67

THINKING AND FEELING

Reasoning and
arguments
When philosophers present an idea, or theory,
they try to explain why they think it is true. They
arrive at their idea by thinking around a question
or a problem and then present their thoughts
in a logical way. Philosophers show the steps
they take from what they already know to the
conclusiontheir new idea. The rules of logic
help us to decide whether or not we are
convinced by an argument.

This 13th century

manuscript shows
Socrates debating
with his pupils.

Talking it through
The Greek philosopher Socrates spent
his time talking with other people. He
asked them questionssuch as What
is justice?as if he knew nothing about
the subject. Then he examined their
answers, pointing out when they didnt
make sense, and asked more questions. By
reasoning in this way, he showed if an
argument was strong or weak.

Figuring it out
One form of logical argument is made up from three
statements. The rst two statements are things that we
know for certain. From them we can gure out the third
statement, which is the conclusion. For example, we
know that all cats are animals. And all lions are
cats. So we can come to the conclusion that all lions
are animals. When the conclusion follows on from
the rst two statements like this, the argument is
said to be valid.

ANIMALS

CATS

LIONS

68

It must be true
Some arguments start from a
general rulefor instance, all
monkeys eat bananasand a particular
case, for example, Mickey is a monkey. We
can gure out from the general rule and particular
case the conclusion that
Mickey eats bananas. This
is an example of a
deductive argument. If
the general rule and
the particular case
at the beginning of
such an argument
are true, then
the conclusion
must also
be true.

Reasoning and arguments

Probability
Not all logical arguments lead to a
denite conclusion. Some only show
whether something is likely to be true.
Many arguments contain words such
as some or most, rather than all.
For example, we know that most
tennis players are right-handed, and that
Ann plays tennis, so it is probable
that Ann is right-handed. This statement
is not, however, necessarily true.

Exceptions
to the rule
When we come up with a general rule based
on individual cases, we are using inductive reasoning.
For example, we see many individual cats. Every cat we see
has a tail. But that does not necessarily mean that all cats have
tailsthere may be a cat somewhere without a tail. The next cat
we see is very likely to have a tail, but we cannot say
for certain that it will.

The problem with conclusions

Scientists use reasoning to develop theories. They
observe and experiment, and if they see the same
thing again and again, they say that there is a
general rule. After seeing hundreds of white swans,
scientists may conclude that all swans are white.
But this only a theoryit is not necessarily true. You
can show that all swans are white is false by
nding just one black swan. Austrian philosopher
Karl Popper (190294) said that for any theory
to be scientic, there must be a way to show
that it might be false. If it is impossible to
show that a theory is false then it is not scientic.

Two kinds of truth

Philosophers use logical arguments to try to
show if something is true or not. But Scottish
philosopher David Hume (171176) and German
philosopher Gottfried Leibniz (16461716) both
argued that there is more than one kind of truth.
We can see that some things are true just by
thinking about them. For example, that an equilateral
triangle has three equal sides and three equal
angles. But there are also things that we can only
know are true if we check the facts, such as James
lives in New York.

69

THINKING AND FEELING

Do we think
like computers?
Modern technology has allowed us to make machines and computers that
can do almost everything that we cansometimes better and quicker than
us. It often seems like machines can think, and even have personalities. But
we know that machines do not think like us. What is it that makes our
thinking different from the way machines work? Perhaps we have
somethinga mind or a soulthat machines can never have.

Following orders
In science-ction books and lms,
robots often have personalities.
But do they have minds?

We have designed robots to work for us and some are even built
to look like humans. But robots can only do what we program
them to do. Some appear to think like humansthey can make
decisions and interact with us. But can a machine really think the
way we do? Is it possible for it to feel or experience things
consciously when it is just following a program?

Do we think like computers?

Philosophical zombies

A philosophical zombie behaves just

as we do, but has no feelings.

Philosophers like to talk about zombies.

However, they mean something very different
from the zombies in horror movies. Philosophical
zombies look and behave just like normal
people. If you hurt them, they shout Ouch!
But they dont feel anything because they dont
have minds. Robots and machines can be
thought of as philosophical zombieshowever
clever they are, they dont possess emotions and
feelings in the way that people do.

The ghost in the machine

The rise of thinking

machines
1822 Charles Babbage invents the
rst mechanical calculating machine,
called a difference engine.

Babbages
difference engine

Sometimes we are tricked into thinking that

a computer can think for itself. Philosophers
say this is like nding a ghost in the
machinea mind that just isnt there.
However, some philosophers think that our
brains are like very sophisticated computers.
If computers dont have minds, how can we
be sure that we do?

1880s Herman Hollerith invents

a method of storing data on punch
cards that can be read by a machine
the rst computer memory.
1940s The rst electronic digital
programmable computer, Colossus,
appears in the UK, followed by the
ENIAC computer in the US
computers can now respond to
questions and problems.
Computers can give the illusion that
they have conscious minds. Do our
brains create the same illusion?

Are animals like machines?

For a long time, philosophers thought that
humans were different from animals because
we have a soul or mind and they dont. Ren
Descartes said that animals are not able to
reason like we can. They have no minds or
feelingsthey are like machines that only
appear to be conscious of what they are
doing. But in the 19th century, Charles
Darwin showed that humans are just
a kind of animal, and people started
to think that other animals might
have feelings, too.

Do animals have
feelings or are they
like machines?

1960s Computers become smaller

and more powerful with the invention
of the integrated circuit or microchip.
These computers can solve many
different kinds of problem, in a
similar way to the human brain.
2014 Google releases Google
Glasscomputers are smaller and
more portable than ever before.

Google Glass works from within our eld

of visionperhaps one day computers will
work as an extension of our minds.

71

THINKING
AND FEELING

Thinking machines
The Turing test
Mathematician Alan Turing invented
a test that shows whether a machine
has real intelligence. A computer and
a person are given the same set of
written questions, and both must
give written replies. Someone else
then looks at the replies, and if its
impossible to tell which come from
the computer and which from the
person, the computer passes the test.

The Chinese room

Since the invention of computers, people have been asking
Can machines think? American philosopher John Searle
doesnt believe anyone can build a thinking machine. To
show how we might be fooled into believing a computer
really is intelligent, he used the Chinese room thought
experiment. This is an example of how people, not only
machines, may appear to understand something when they
are just mindlessly obeying instructions.

S
Alan Turing (191254) was a pioneer of
computer science and articial intelligence.

Artificial intelligence
Research into articial intelligence
(AI) developed in the 1950s, when
people were learning just how
powerful modern computers can
be. The goal of scientists and
engineers working in AI is to design
intelligent machines that imitate the
way people think. Some researchers
believe that one day machines might
be able to outthink the
brainiest humans, but
others doubt that
this is possible.

We can now build

robots that imitate
what we do. There
are even some
things that robots
do better than us.

72

uppose, John Searle said,

someone who cant speak a
word of Chinese is put into a
room on his own. He is given a set
of cards with Chinese symbols
written on them and a set of
instructions in his own language
telling him what to do. Then
someone outside sends in more
cards with Chinese symbols on
them, which are questions that the
man must answer. He turns to his
instructions for help. These tell him
which of his own cards he must
send in reply to the different
symbols. Of course, he has
absolutely no idea what the written
characters mean on either set of
cards. To him they are just shapes
and patterns. But the cards he sends
out of the room turn out to be
sensible replies to the questions.
To anyone outside the room who
speaks Chinese, it appears that the
person inside understands the
language perfectly and has had
no trouble answering the questions.
In fact, as we know, the person in
the room cant understand Chinese
symbols at all, so he wasnt able to

read the questions or know what

answers he had sent out. He simply
followed the instructions.
This is exactly what happens
with a computer. By the way a
machine responds to datathe
information it is given to process
it can make us believe that it
knows what it is doing and
seems to be thinking. But, like
the person in the Chinese room,
the machine is only following a
set of instructions, a computer
program written by someone
with a real brain. Searle is
showing us that thoughts and
understanding involve a great
deal more than processing data.

To someone in the Chinese room, the symbols

on these cards have no meaning. But the person
doesnt need to know what the symbols say.
As long as he has the right instructions he
can respond to the cards correctly.

The Chinese room

Think about it!

Can machines have feelings?

Today there are computer

programs that can win games
of chess against the worlds
best players.

Complex moves
Playing chess well requires skill and intelligence. The rules of the game are
simple, but there are an almost endless number of possible moves. We can
teach a computer to follow the rules and choose moves from its memory
bank. Machines can even be programmed to plan several moves in advance.
But many people believe that a computer could never learn to have the
feeling for the game that truly great human chess players possess.

The Chinese room experiment shows

how a machine that appears to be
thinking is simply dealing with the
data fed into it. In the same way,
computers can be programmed so
that they seem to have real feelings.
For example, it is possible to make a
machine shout Ouch! if you hit it,
but, of course, it does not actually
feel any pain.

Are our brains simply

soft machines?
Computer science has helped
us to understand the way we think.
Our brains work like information
processors and have been described
as a kind of soft machine.
Computers can do some things,
like complicated calculations, better
and quicker than we can. Yet we still
feel that our brains are more than
just machines. Why should we think
that? Is it because we are aware of
having thoughts and feelings? Or
because we are creative and come
up with clever new ideas? Is it
because we have a mind as well
as a physical brain?

Can we ever make a machine

that thinks like we do?
Even the smartest machines today
are not aware of what they are doing
or thinking. We have computers that
can scan an image and recognize
different facesbut they arent really
seeing in the way we do. Perhaps
soon we will be able to make
machines that can do almost
everything people can. But they will
probably never truly be thinking
machines. And how would we
know for certain if they were?

73

THINKING AND FEELING

Are words
like signs?
Language is an important part of our everyday
lives. We use it to communicate with each
other and to think about things. Using words,
we can express our thoughts and talk about
objects and ideas. But language is only
useful if the words we use mean
something to us. What is it about the words
we speak and write that gives them meaning?

Words and meaning

This girl connects the

sound of the word
balloons in her mind with
the objects in her hand.

A system of signs

When we talk or write about

something, we use words. Each
word means something to us.
But many philosophers think
that a word doesnt actually have a
meaning. They say words are just
a sound we make or marks on a
page, but each word is like a sign
that represents an object or idea
and when we hear or see the word,
it makes us think of that object.

American philosopher C. S. Peirce (18391914)

said that when we hear a word, we think of it as
a sign representing an object. Swiss philosopher
Ferdinand de Saussure (18571913) built on this
idea with the suggestion that we keep the sound
of a word in our minds. He said this sound
represents an object or idea, and the meaning of
a word connects the sound with its idea.

This street sign

represents the
same idea as the
words Do not enter.

74

balloons

Are words like signs?

perro

Different words
Words for the same thing are often
very different in different languages.
When we see or hear a word, such as
dog, in our own language, we
know what it means. We associate it
in our minds with the animal. But to
someone who does not know English,
dog does not mean anything. And if
we see the word chien, it does not
represent anything unless we know
French. Words themselves have no
meaning unless we recognize their
connection with an object.

Language and philosophy

dog
hund
chien

gou

To an English speaker this is a dog, but

it is a chien in French, hund in German,
gou in Chinese, and perro in Spanish.

Philosophy deals with reasoning

thinking about ideas. Because we
express our thoughts and ideas in
words, many philosophers have
taken an interest in how language
workswhat words actually mean.

Logic and language

Language is especially important
in logic, since philosophical ideas
and arguments are mostly expressed
in words. Philosophers such as
Englishman Bertrand Russell
(18721970) and Austrian Ludwig
Wittgenstein (18891951) said that
to judge whether an argument
is good or not, we need to
analyze its language carefully
to uncover its meaning.

Philosophy of language

Picturing the world

Language helps us to understand the world around us. We
use language to describe the things we experience and put
everything together to build up a picture in our minds. But
our mental picture of the world is limited by the things we can
describe through language. There may be more to the world
than the words we have to describe things and experiences.

Some philosophers are interested in

language itself, instead of language
just as a way of communicating
ideas. Philosophers C. S. Peirce and
Ferdinand de Saussure developed
theories about the meaning of
words and how we interpret them
that opened up a new eldthe
philosophy of language.

We can describe this scene using words. But the

picture in our minds could never be as accurate
as seeing a photograph or the real thing.

Philosopher Ferdinand de Saussure

75

THINKING AND
FEELING

Biography
1889 Born in Vienna, Austria.
1908 Travels to Manchester, UK,
to study engineering.
1911 Becomes interested in logic
and moves to Cambridge, UK.
1918 Serves in the Austrian army
in World War I. Taken prisoner
and around this time begins
work on his rst book, Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus.
1921 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
is published. Trains as a school
teacher and starts teaching in Austria.
1926 Builds a house for his
sister along with another
architect, Paul Engelmann.

Ludwig
Wittgenstein
The limits of my language
mean the limits of my world.
Ludwig Wittgensteins books on logic, thought, and
language are considered among the most influential
works of 20th-century philosophy. However,
Wittgenstein wasnt a philosopher for his whole career.
After publishing his first book, he gave up philosophy
and did various jobs as an architect, teacher, and
gardener. He then took up philosophy again, writing
a second book, Philosophical Investigations.

Early life

The Wittgenstein Haus, in Vienna

1929 Returns to Cambridge and

resumes his work in philosophy.
1939 Becomes a professor
at Cambridge University.
1951 Dies of cancer. His
second book, Philosophical
Investigations, is published
two years after his death.

Born into a wealthy family, Wittgenstein was the

youngest of eight children, and remained close
to his siblings throughout his life. Their
father was a rich industrialist, but
was demanding and
difcult. Wittgenstein
moved to England to
study engineering,
and later went to
Cambridge to study
mathematics and
logic under the
British philosopher
Bertrand Russell
(18721970). It was
during this period that
Wittgenstein rst
developed an interest
in philosophy.

The Wittgensteins were

great patrons of Viennese
art and culture.

76

Ludwig Wittgenstein

The meaning of words

Language and the world

The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was
Wittgensteins rst major work. He wrote
it while he was serving as a soldier in
World War I. It deals with language, logic,
and the connection between language and
the world. Wittgenstein said that we can
only talk or write about things that we
can experience. He explained that
statements have no real meaning if the
words do not have a clear connection with
things we experience in the world around us.

Later life

Wittgenstein devised the beetle in a

box thought experiment to explore
the relationship between words and
objects, and between public and
private language. Imagine that there
are several people, and each one has
a box with something (or maybe
nothing) inside. Everyone refers to
the contents of his or her box with
the word beetle. No one can look
inside another persons box. Each
person knows what a beetle is by
looking inside his or her own box.
Beetle cannot be the name of a
thing, because each box contains
something different. For each person
the meaning of beetle is the thing
in my box. How is it we know what
they call beetle?

Wittgenstein believed that he had solved all the

problems of philosophy in his rst book, so he gave
up philosophy for a time. But in 1929 he returned
to Cambridge, where he began writing a book,
Philosophical Investigations, that was published after
his death. In this book he took a very different view
of languagethat we use language in many
ways, not just logically or scientically. He
said that each different use of language
has its own rules and procedures.

Beetle

Wittgenstein was rst a student and then a Professor

of Philosophy at Trinity College, Cambridge.

77

THINKING AND FEELING

How do I know if Im
awake or dreaming?
People have always been fascinated by
dreams. Just like thinking, dreaming occurs
in our minds, but it only happens when we
are asleep. In our dreams, we see and hear
things that are not actually happening,
but they seem real to us at the time. If dreams
feel real, then how do we know when we
are awake and when we are dreaming?

Imagination
We dont have to be asleep to
experience things in our minds that are
not real or happening to us in that
moment. We have memories of
things that have happened in the
past, and can use our imagination to create
new ideas. Unlike dreams, we have control
over our imagination. But we can let our
imagination wander, and sometimes this
allows us to have new and inspiring ideas.

Mythical creatures,
such as the phoenix,
are created in our
imaginations.

Dreams
The way we experience feelings
and emotions in our dreams can
feel very real.

78

In dreams we see, hear, and touch things, and even

feel emotions in the same way as when we are awake.
However, we can also experience some very strange
things, since the rules of the real world do not apply
for example, we can y, see monsters, and talk in
many languages. Our brains dont think logically when
were asleep, and we cannot control our dreams.

How do I know if
Im awake or dreaming?

Dreaming differently

Unconscious or asleep?

Zhuang Zhous dream

The Chinese philosopher Zhuang
Zhou (369286 BCE) told a story of a
dream he once had. He dreamed he
was a buttery. In the dream, the
buttery didnt know that it was
really Zhuang Zhou. When he woke
up, he was Zhuang Zhou again. But
as he thought about it, he could not
be sure if he was a man who had
just dreamed he was a buttery, or
a buttery that was now dreaming
it was a man. He said that when
we dream, we do not know we are
dreaming. We only know that we
were dreaming when we wake up.

American philosopher Norman Malcolm (191190)

pointed out a problem with the way we think about
dreaming. He said we are aware of what we are dreaming,
and we know we only dream when we are asleep. But if
we are asleep, how can we be aware? And if we are
conscious, we cant be asleep. Scientists have
answered this question by explaining that in some
stages of sleep we are not unconscious, but almost
awake, and can be aware of our dreams.
AWAKE
Conscious
awareness

Deep sleep to light sleep

REM SLEEP
Similar pattern of
brain waves to awake
STAGE 1
Light sleep; brain
waves active
STAGE 2
Brain waves
slow down
STAGE 3
Mixed fast and
slow waves
STAGE 4
Slow waves

SLEEP DURATION (HOURS)

At night, we go through several stages of
deep and light sleep. In deep sleep, our
minds slow down, but they become active
again in periods of light sleep (REM sleep),
which is when we have dreams.

KEY

Zhuang Zhou thought that perhaps life

is a dream, and one day we will wake up
and realize that it is not real.

Awake
REM sleep
Non-REM sleep

Another reality?
It often seems like our dreams take us into
another world. Scientists say that when we
are dreaming we are not unconscious, but
experiencing a different kind of consciousness.
The things that happen in our dreams seem
real, and we only recognize them as dreams
when we wake up. But does this mean they
are not real, or are they another kind of reality?

How do blind people dream?

Most people only remember the
things that they see in their dreams.
But people who have been blind
from birth have never experienced
sight, so they dream about things
they can hear, touch, and smell.
Both blind and sighted people feel
emotions in their dreams, such as
fear or happiness, and sensations
such as falling. This is because
our dreams are based on the way
we experience things when we
are awake.

If you dream you are a superhero,

could it in some way be real?

79

THINKING AND FEELING

What is happiness?
All kinds of things can make us happy. We get
pleasure from eating and drinking, or being warm and
comfortable. We also get pleasure from doing our
favorite things, for example, playing games or reading.
Sometimes it makes us happy to help others and
to know that we are doing good. Then there are the
things that spoil happiness, such as pain, sadness, or
fearbut we can be happy again if we overcome them.

Do good things
Many ancient Greek
philosophers believed that we can
only be truly happy if we lead a good
life. They didnt think it was enough
just to do the things we enjoy. We
must also do things that are good and
right. This gives us a different kind of
pleasure. It makes us feel comfortable
about how we live our lives and
content with what we do.

Finding pleasure
Everyone wants to live a good life and be
happy. The Greek philosopher Epicurus said that
pleasure and pain are the way we can measure good
and bad. Things that we like are good, and those that
hurt us are bad. To lead a good life, we must look for
what gives us pleasure and try to avoid anything
that brings us pain and suffering.

Epicurus thought our goal in life

should be to nd the most
enjoyment with the least pain.
Indian statesman Gandhi
(18691948) devoted his
life to doing good things.

Be satisfied
Some philosophers say that
happiness comes from satisfying
desires, such as eating something
when we are hungry or meeting
friends if we are feeling lonely. Others
believe that real happiness comes
not from these individual desires,
but from being satised with
life as a whole.

80

What is happiness?

The simple life

A group of Greek philosophers called
the Stoics thought that to nd happiness we
should lead a simple and natural life. They believed it
is wrong to look for pleasure by becoming rich, famous,
or powerful. We must also learn to accept that there are things
that we can do nothing about. So we must look for the good
things that happen, and not let the bad ones spoil our happiness.

Many people nd happiness in family life,

and in living and working with nature.

Experiencing
unhappiness
We would all like to be happy all the
time, but this isnt always possible. It is
normal to feel pain when we are hurt,
and to be sad when something bad
happens. We may value happiness more if
we know what it is like to be unhappy.
Perhaps we need to experience every
kind of feeling to live a full life.

Dangerous sports
like skydiving can
be very exciting.

Thrill-seeking
The things that make us happy are not always what you
might imagine. What some people nd frightening,
others enjoy as thrilling. Many of us like to feel
frightened or excited sometimes, too. We may enjoy
scary movies, or dangerous sports. Even if we have
a tough experience we can enjoy the challenge
and feel a sense of achievement at
overcoming our fears or doing
something difcult.

The experience machine

Philosopher Robert Nozick (19382002) asked whether we
really want to feel pleasure all the time. Suppose you could
oat in a tank, he said, that was warm and comfortable and
protected you from everything unpleasant. Then you are
connected to a machine that makes your brain think that
you are experiencing nice things, such as eating chocolate
or walking in a eld of owers. Would you choose the
experience machine rather than real life, where things
are not always so nice?

81

THINKING AND FEELING

Why do people suffer?

No one likes to feel pain or unhappiness. But we all suffer at some point in
our lives, and there are always people somewhere in the world who are suffering.
Some suffering is caused by people, and some by nature. There are some kinds
of suffering that we can do something to stop, but it seems the world can never
be free of it. Perhaps suffering is as natural a part of our lives as happiness?

Good and evil

Our ideas of good and evil are connected with
what gives us pleasure or pain. We think that
something is good if it brings happiness, and
evil if it causes unhappiness or suffering. When
we say that someone is evil, it may be because
he or she hurts other people or takes things
from others that they need. But other things in
the world cause suffering, too, such as oods
and earthquakes. Is it right to call them evil?

Why do people suffer?

The problem of evil

Many people believe in God. They think that God is
good, loving, and has the power to do anything. But
terrible things happen in the world, and there are bad
people. Why would God let this happen? If God were
good, he would want to prevent evil things. If he
were all-powerful, he would be able to stop evil things
from happening. So if God is good and all-powerful,
why is there suffering in the world?
When there is a natural disaster such as an earthquake, people with
religious beliefs often ask why God has allowed it to happen.

The best possible world

The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz
(16461716) tried to answer the problem of evil.
He said that God chose to create this world. Since
God is all-powerful, he could have chosen to
make any world that he wanted. And because
he is good, he chose the best world that it is
possible to make. So, the world we live in
must be the best possible world. If there
is suffering in the best possible world,
then it cannot be possible to have
a world without suffering.
Even in the best possible world there
will always be things that cause
suffering, such as volcanic eruptions.

A nurse nds
satisfaction in
helping to ease
suffering, and her
patient is happy
to nd relief
from her pain.

Is suffering necessary?
Many people believe that suffering cannot be
avoided. But there are also some philosophers who
think that it is necessary, that there is a reason for us
to suffer. Helping others with their suffering, and
learning to overcome our own suffering, can help us
nd meaning in our lives. Suffering can give us
something to ght against, and it gives us something
to contrast our happiness with. Without suffering,
perhaps we wouldnt value our happiness.

Should punishment involve suffering?

When someone does something bad, it is often something that
harms someone else and makes that person suffer in some way.
Usually, we think they should be punished for what they have done
wrong. But is it right for us to make someone suffer, even if they
have caused suffering themselves? For example, many people think
that it is wrong to smack a child if he is behaving badly, even if he
has hurt someone else. But how should we punish criminals? Should
they suffer, or is it enough to put them in prison?

THINKING AND FEELING

What is infinity?
The earliest Greek philosophers looked at the
stars in the sky and wondered about the shape
of the universe. Does it have an edge? Did it have
a beginning? Will it have an end? Or perhaps the
universe has no edges, has always existed, and will
never end. It is hard to imagine that some things
are endless or infinite. Many philosophers have
tried to understand the nature of infinity.

Counting forever
Plato and Aristotle noticed that there is more than one kind
of innity. We can go on adding to a series of numbers
such as 1, 2, 3... and it will never be complete. This is a
kind of innity that has no end. But there is a different kind
of innity that can exist within boundaries. For example,
there is an innite number of divisions between 0 and 1.
We can divide 1 by 2, and then again, and again, an
endless number of times, but we will never
reach an answer of 0.

Could a monkey write

like Shakespeare?
If you gave a monkey a keyboard, the
chances of it writing something sensible are
very small. Perhaps, by accident, it would
type a word. But if it continued hitting the
keys at random for long enough, other
words would appear. Some philosophers
argue that given an innite amount of time,
eventually the monkey would type
Shakespeares Hamlet.

The rope trick

Nothing can be longer than something innitely long.
Suppose you have the end of a rope in your hand, and it
stretches out to innity. It is innitely long. But suppose you
have the end of an identical rope in your other hand. Thats
innitely long, too. Now, if you tie the ends together, how
long is the knotted rope? Twice as long? Or innitely long? Is
there a difference between an innite rope with a beginning,
and an innite rope that has no beginning and no end?

Endless arguments
A Mbius strip is a
never-ending loop with
only one edge and one
surface. It helps us imagine
one kind of innity.

84

When we use logical reasoning to show if something

is true or false, we back up our argument with
evidence. But sometimes we need to show that this
evidence is true, too, with another argument and
different evidence. Then we have to show this
evidence is true, too, and so on. The process is neverending, and is known as innite regress.

What is innity?

When two
mirrors face
each other, they
reect each
other back and
forth endlessly.

How do I decide
whats right?

We make choices throughout our lives about what

are the right and wrong things to do. We must
decide what we think is good and bad. Sometimes,
making a decision is harder than you might expect.

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Who says whats

right or wrong?
Most of the time, we know the difference between good and bad
behavior without thinking about it. But philosophers are interested
in how we know what is right and wrong. Teachers, the police, and
the government use rules and laws to tell us what to do and
not to do, but how do they know? Is there something about all the
things that are right and good that makes them good?

Religious rules
Many people believe that God decides
what is right and wrong. In most of the major
religions, the holy books contain rules about
what is virtuous and sinful, good and bad. For
example, in the Christian Bible and Jewish Torah
there are the Ten Commandments, and in the
Quran there are the rules of shariacode of
the Islamic law. Many countries have social
laws that originally come from religious laws.
But are laws right because we believe God gave
them to us? Or have these laws remained the
same over the years because they are right?
According to the Bible, God wrote
the Ten Commandments on stone
tablets, which he gave to Moses.

The rule of law

In most countries today, laws
are decided by governments. Most
governments are elected by the
people of the country to make laws
for the society in which they live. So
the laws are based on what most
people think is right and wrong, such
as laws against murder and theft.
It is the job of the legal system
to see that laws are applied fairly.
88

Who says whats right or wrong?

Its all relative

Right and wrong

over time

Different cultures have different ideas of what is right

and wrong. For example, in some places it is usual for a
man to have more than one wife, but this is against the law in
most countries. What is right and wrong is not the same for
everyone, and laws can change with time. Some philosophers
say that what is good or bad is relative, depending
on where and when you live.

Our ideas of right and wrong are not

the same as they used to be. Some
things that were once normal seem
cruel or unfair to us now. Buying
and selling people and forcing them
to work seems completely wrong to
us today. But it was accepted as
normal for much of history, even in
civilizations as far back as ancient
Greece and Rome. There are now
international laws against slavery.

In Myanmars Kayan tribe, it is common for young girls

to wear rings to stretch their necks. Many other
societies think this is cruel.

Do we need rules?
We are taught rules and laws as we
mature and learn what things are right
and wrong. But we are also taught to
think about why certain behavior is good
or bad. Some philosophers say that we
have a natural sense of what is good and
bad and can decide this for ourselves. So
do we really need rules?

Plantation owners in the United States

bought African slaves to work in the elds
in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.

Second-class citizens
Throughout most of history, women
have been treated unfairly. They did
not have the same rights as men,
such as being able to vote, own
property, be educated, or pursue
a profession. Campaigns by the
suffragettes of the late 19th and early
20th centuries and the feminists of
the 1960s and 70s helped to win
equal rights for women in Europe
and the United States. In some parts
of the world, women are still do not
have the right to vote.

Children are
taught to reect
on why some
behavior is bad.

Are some things always wrong?

Although different cultures have different customs
and laws, most countries have similar laws against
murder, stealing, and hurting other people. But
while everyone agrees that ghting is wrong, most
people agree it would be acceptable to ght to
protect your family if it were in danger. If its all
right to ght in some situations, perhaps other
things we think are bad can sometimes be right?

Are some things wrong now?

Perhaps in the future, people will
look back at things we do today and
wonder how we could be so wrong.
For example, many people eat meat,
but others are becoming vegetarian
maybe a hundred years from now it
will be thought wrong to breed
animals for food. We are already
beginning to see the dangers of some
of our actions, such as dumping
waste and cutting down rain forests.

89

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Why am I here?
Many philosophers think about the purpose of life and what it means to be a
living person. Some believe this matters more than trying to answer questions
about the world around us. The philosophers called Existentialists say that
we should determine for ourselves what we want to be. They suggest
that each of us has a choice when it comes to deciding what is the right
thing to do, and we must all take responsibility for our actions.

Not so ordinary

Scary possibilities
The Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard
(18131855) believed that when we have
to make up our minds about something,
we are free to choose what we like. We
must take responsibility for what we do.
But knowing that anything is possible can
be frightening. It is like the scary feeling
you have when you stand on the edge of
a cliff. You may feel a strange urge to
jump off, but, of course, you dont have
to. The choice is yours.

It can be hard to decide for ourselves

what to do in life. Other people,
such as governments, teachers, and
parents may tell us what is right
and wrong. German philosopher
Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900)
thought we should make our own
choices, live life to the full, and be a
Superman rather than an ordinary
person. He said people who do this
can become great artists, thinkers, or
powerful leaders like Napoleon.

Napoleon Bonaparte

We cant know everything

A new kind of philosophy developed from
the ideas of Edmund Husserl. This German thinker
argued that there are some things we can never
know. He thought philosophy ought to be about
what we can know and see for ourselves. Husserls
philosophy made people pay more attention to
what it is like to be alive, instead of worrying
about mysterious, abstract things.
Edmund Husserl (18591938)

90

Why am I here?

Being you
Think about what it is like to be you.
It will soon become clear that you are
different from anyone else. We each
have our own special life, which has
a beginning and an end. That thought
might make us feel anxious and
uncomfortable. However, it can also
make us determined to live in the
way we think best.

Life is time
It is how we experience being
alive that interested German
philosopher Martin Heidegger
(18891976). He explained that
between birth and death we see
our lives as the passing of time.
Life ows from the past to
the present and into the future.
Heidegger thought that being
and time are the same thing.

Doing our own thing

It is up to us to choose
between two different kinds
of life. This is what French
philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre
(19051980) believed. He said
that one choice is to live in
the way that everyone in our
society is expected to do. The
other choice is to be the kind
of person who feels right for
us, and to live the life that
suits us best.
We can choose to be different
from everyone else.

Sisyphus had to roll a rock uphill

for eternity.

What does it all mean?

For Sartre, knowing who we
are gives us a chance to live how
we want and nd meaning in life.
Another French philosopher, Albert
Camus (19131960), had a gloomier
view. He said life has no meaning,
whatever we do. It seemed to him
as pointless as the task given to
Sisyphus, a king whose story is told
in a Greek myth. In the Underworld,
Sisyphus has to push a rock up a
hill only to watch it roll back down,
over and over again, forever.

91

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Should we judge
actions by their
outcomes?
Many philosophers have tried to find ways
of judging whether an action is right or
wrong. Some suggest that we can make
rules that tell us what is good and what
is bad. But others say that it is not so
simple. To decide if something is
morally right, we must look at
what will happen if we do it,
and whether that outcome is
good or bad.

English folklore character Robin

Hood is considered a hero
because he robbed the rich to
give to the poor. But was he
right to break the law?

Do the ends justify

the means?

Rules or outcomes?
There are certain rules about what is right and
wrong, and usually we shouldnt break them. But
perhaps what makes something good or bad is
the effect it has, not the action itself. Is it what
you do, or the result of what you do that really
matters? Whenever we make a decision about
what is the right thing to do, perhaps we should
consider how the outcome will affect other
people, instead of just following the rules
without questioning them.
92

Does it matter what we do or

what means we use, as long as
the outcome is good in the end?
We have to look at all the
consequences. For example, it
might be right to let one person
die to save 100 lives, but wrong to
kill 100 to save just one. Perhaps
we need to look at peoples
intentions, too. Did they do
something bad because they knew
it would have good consequences,
or was it just a bad thing that
turned out ne in the end?

Should we judge actions by their outcomes?

Outcomes through
the ages

The greatest happiness

English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748
1832) believed that we can decide the morality
of an action by looking at its outcome. He said
that what matters is how much happiness or
harm the action causes. To judge whether it
is right or wrong, we have to weigh all the
good and bad consequences. He argued that it
is the greatest happiness of the greatest number
that is the measure of right and wronga
system that became known as utilitarianism.

Epicurus
Ancient Greek philosophers tried to
discover what we mean by good or
bad. Epicurus suggested that things
that cause pain are bad, and things
that cause pleasure are good. He
said an action is morally right if it
causes the least possible pain and
the most possible pleasure.

In ancient Greece, the god Dionysus was

associated with things that give pleasure,
such as food and parties.

Pursuing happiness

Niccol Machiavelli

Bentham based his system on

happiness, meaning all the things
that give us pleasure, such as food,
shelter, and doing the things we
enjoy. Other philosophers said we
should be free to live our lives in
the pursuit of happiness, but
remember that we all have different
ideas of what gives us pleasure.

Machiavelli was an adviser to rulers

in Renaissance Italy. He argued that
sometimes it is right for a leader to
do terrible things, such as lying and
killing, for the good of his people,
even if he knows he is doing wrong.

Playing computer games is pleasurable for some

people, but it is not everyones idea of happiness.

The harm principle

We must think about the impact of our actions on other
people. English philosopher John Stuart Mill (180673) said
that something is good if it gives pleasure to other people,
but that it is not wrong to do things that make us happy,
too. He argued that something is only wrong if it harms
someone else, or stops them from
doing what brings them happiness.
In addition to the happiness
caused by our actions, we must
consider the harm principle
how much our actions hurt
other people or interfere with
their happiness.
You may enjoy listening to loud music
in public, but other people might nd
it annoying.

Cesare Borgia was the kind of ruler

that Machiavelli describedBorgia
was cunning and ruthless in pursuit of
what he thought was the greater good.

Utilitarianism
Benthams utilitarianism, the idea that
a good action is one that brings the
most happiness, inspired many others.
Austrian-British philosopher Karl
Popper (190294) changed the
original idea to say that the measure
of right or wrong is not the greatest
happiness, but the least pain.

93

HOW DO I DECIDE
WHATS RIGHT?

How should I act?

Consequences
One way to judge whether what
we do is right or wrong is by
weighing up the amount of pleasure
or pain our behavior produces.
This outcome is known as the
consequence of the action. We can
decide how to behave by choosing
actions that have the best outcomes
for the most people. This system is
not based on hard and fast rules,
such as killing is wrong. Instead,
we must consider the consequences
of everything we do.

The streetcar
problem
Choosing the right thing to do can often be
difficult. Some philosophers believe you should choose
to do whatever gives the most happiness to the most
people. But even this is not simple. In this problem,
British philosopher Philippa Foot shows that decisions
are more than just a matter of numbers.

n empty streetcar has broken

loose and is speeding out of
control down a railroad
track. Farther down the line, ve
people are tied to the tracks. The
streetcar will run them over. There is
no way of stopping it, but there is a
lever nearby. By pulling the lever
you can send the streetcar down a
different track. However, there is
one other person tied to the tracks
on the other line. What do you do?

Sometimes making a decision is a

question of balancing the consequence
of either choice.

Not black and white

However, it is not always easy to
decide what is the best outcome of
our actions. Often we dont have
time to weigh up all the possible
outcomes of what we might do.
Sometimes, our personal feelings
affect our decisions, and other
people may see things differently.

94

If you pull the lever, you save ve

lives, but the other person gets run
over. If you do nothing, you will let
ve people die. But they would be
run over anyway if you hadnt
been there. On the other hand,
if you pull the lever, you have
deliberately made the decision
to kill one person. Is killing
someone any different from
allowing someone to die?

The streetcar problem

Think about it!

The hands-on approach

The balloon

In another version of the streetcar problem,

there is only one railroad line. There is a
man standing on a bridge over the track.
If you push him off the bridge, he will land
in front of the streetcar, stopping it. You can
save the ve people tied to the track, but
the man you push will die. Should you
push him? Would pushing him off the
bridge be different from pulling the lever?
What if he were the person who tied the
ve people to the tracks in the rst place
would that affect your decision?

Suppose you are in a group of

people riding in a hot-air balloon. It
beomes clear that the balloons load
is too heavy, and you begin slowly
falling toward the sea. The sea is
full of hungry sharks. To make the
balloon lighter, you need to get rid
of one of the passengers. One
person must be thrown to the
sharks to save everyone else. But
how do you choose who to throw
out? It might be a good idea to
choose the heaviest. Or do you
choose the oldest? Perhaps one
of the passengers is a doctor, and
another a criminal. Would that affect
your decision? Is one person more
valuable than another? Would you
jump yourself to let the other
passengers live?

A friend in danger
Just as in the original streetcar problem, you can
save ve people by pulling a lever. This time,
however, you recognize the single person tied
to the second railroad track. Would your
decision change if this person were your friend
or a member of your family? You might think
letting ve strangers die is worth it to save
someone important to you. Would you feel
differently if the person were someone you
think is bad, such as a thief or murderer?

Telling tales
Three of your friends are in trouble
at school. The teacher believes they
wrote a dirty poem on the restroom
wall. You know they didnt do it, but
you dont know who did. To get
them out of trouble, you could tell
the teacher that Ann, the meanest
girl in the class, did itand youre
sure the teacher would believe you.
Your three innocent friends wouldnt
be punished for something they
didnt do, but Ann would be. Whats
the right thing to do?

The runaway streetcar will run over

ve people unless someone pulls the
lever. Should you kill one person to
save the others?

95

HOW DO I DECIDE
WHATS RIGHT?

Biography
1724 Born in Knigsberg, Prussia
(now Kaliningrad, Russia).
1734 Goes to school at the
Collegium Fredericianum, one
of the best schools in Knigsberg.
1740 Enrolls at the University of
Knigsberg to study mathematics
and philosophy.
1746 When his father dies, he
nishes his studies to earn a living
as a private tutor, but also writes
about philosophy and astronomy.
1755 Returns to the University
of Knigsberg, where he receives
a Masters degree and becomes
a lecturer.

Immanuel
Kant
Human reason is troubled by questions that it
cannot dismiss, but also cannot answer.
Born in Prussia, Kant was raised in a strict, religious
family. He did well in school, and, at just 16, he went
to the University of Knigsberg, where he later
became a Professor of Logic and Metaphysics.
He devoted his life to teaching and writing about
philosophy, becoming one of the most influential
philosophers of the 18th century.

1770 Is appointed Professor

at the University of Knigsberg.
1781 Publishes his most famous
work, Critique of Pure Reason.
1792 King Frederick William II
bans him from lecturing about
religious subjects.
1797 Retires from his job at the
University, but continues writing.
1804 Dies in Knigsberg, at the age
of 79. His last words are It is good.

Inspired many
Kant wrote books on all aspects of
philosophy, and he developed a
system of philosophy that was
revolutionary. Although his work is
very difcult to read and understand,
his ideas inspired many other
philosophers in his lifetime, and
they formed the basis for German
philosophy in particular for more
than 100 years.

96

Using reason
Unlike many philosophers of his time, Kant believed that knowledge
of what is right and wrong is not something that exists in nature, or
is given to us by God. He argued that we decide what is morally right
for ourselves by using reason. Instead of judging the morality of an
action by its outcome, Kant thought we should have unbreakable
rules of morality. If we think something is wrong, then it must be
wrong for everyone, at all times.
Kant developed his inuential
ideas in discussions with a
circle of friends and followers.

Immanuel Kant

This woodcut shows a man looking outside

the world he experiences with his senses.

Two worlds
Kant said that we know about things through our senses. But we
cannot experience things as they actually arewe only know
what we can see, touch, hear, and so on. He said there are two
different worldsthe world of things as we experience them,
and another world that we do not have any way of experiencing,
and therefore that we cannot know.

How do we know the world?

In his most important book, Critique of Pure Reason, Kant
draws connections between reason, rational thinking, and
experience, to show how we learn about the world. He
introduced ideas that changed the way people thought
about philosophy, and it immediately made him famous.
Kants Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781.

97

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Should you
ever tell a lie?
Most people agree that it is important to tell the
truth and that it is wrong to lie. Some people never tell
lies because they feel it is always wrong, whatever the
circumstance. There are, however, times when many
people think that it is acceptable to lie, for example,
if it stops someone from feeling hurt. But
are there times when it is acceptable
to break a moral rule?

White lies
Not all lies are the samesome lies
are serious and obviously wrong, and
other lies do very little harm. There
are even white lieslies that we tell
to protect people, or to avoid hurting
their feelings. For example, you might
say that the ugly sweater your aunt
gave you for your birthday is just
what you wanted. Is it really wrong
to tell a lie like that?

If you visit a friends house and are

served a meal you dont like,
should you say you dont like it, or
lie and say how delicious it is?

98

Should you ever tell a lie?

Always bad
Some philosophers argue that if something is bad, it will
always be bad. They say we must make rules about what is
good and bad and stick to them. German philosopher
Immanuel Kant said that we should only make rules that we
think should become unbreakable rules. If we decide that
lying is wrong in one case, it must always be wrong, for
everyone. Even white lies are not acceptable.

As a boy, US president George

Washington chopped down a
cherry tree. When his father
asked who had chopped down
the tree, George admitted it. He
was forgiven by his father
because he had not lied.

One rule for me

If moral rules should never be broken, when something is good
in one case, it must be good in all cases. You cannot have one
rule for yourself and a different one for everyone else. Some
philosophers say that you should not tell a lie unless you agree
that its all right for everyone to tell lies all the time. But then no
one would ever know who was telling the truth! Perhaps it is
better to say that it is always wrong to tell lies.
The golden rule
We often judge whether an action is good or bad by the effect it has
on other people. One way of looking at this is to put yourself in someone
elses place. A number of philosophers, and many religions, say that there
is a golden rule, do as you would be done by. When we do something
that affects other people, we should do what we would like them to do if
it affected us. If you wouldnt want someone to lie to you, then you
shouldnt lie to anyone yourself.

This girl thinks its acceptable to lie if she keeps

her ngers crossed, but how does she know that
others arent doing the same thing?

The snowball effect

One argument against allowing exceptions to a rule is that it can
lead to a snowball effect, where things go from bad to worse.
For example, a small lie that seems harmless at rst can lead to
more lies, and gradually the lies might become bigger
and more serious. Where do we draw the line
between an acceptable lie and one that is not
acceptable? Perhaps it is better never to lie
at all, even if this means that sometimes
peoples feelings get hurt.
99

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Could I have chosen

something different?
We spend a lot of time and effort making decisions and trying
to make the best choices we can. But how much freedom of
choice do we really have? Some philosophers say that we have
free will to make whatever choices we want, but that we must take
responsibility for our actions. Others believe that our choices and
actions are dictated for us by circumstances or by a higher being.

Free will
Choosing what is the right thing to do and
taking responsibility for what we choose seems
to be an essential part of leading a good life.
But if a good and all-powerful god exists,
would he let us make bad choices or do evil
things? Some Christian philosophers say that
free will is a gift from God. He allows us
to have the power to choose for ourselves,
even though he knows that we will not
always choose what is good.

Are we free to make our

own choices?

An illusion
Other people think that free will is an illusion. They say that
circumstances such as our upbringing, culture, and the opinions
of others shape our character, and our character determines
what we do. Some take this idea even further and believe that
everything we do is determined for us. They say that even when
we think we are making a choice, our decision is unavoidable
we could never have decided anything different.
Some people say that our actions inevitably follow each other,
like one domino making the next one fall, and so on.

100

Could I have chosen

something different?

No power to choose
People who believe that our actions are caused, or determined, by
other things are known as determinists. Some, the hard determinists,
say that we have no free will at all. They say that because we have
no power over what we decide to do, we are not responsible for
our actions. Others, the soft determinists, believe that it is only the
choices that are mapped out for us, not the outcomes. We still have
the freedom to act differently, so can be held responsible.

Making choices
The locked room
The 17th-century English
philosopher John Locke believed
that free will is just an illusion.
To illustrate this, he used the idea
of a man locked alone in a room.
The man is asleep and someone
locks the room from the outside.
The man does not know that he
has been locked in. When he
wakes up, he decides to stay in
the room. The man thinks he has
the freedom to choose to remain
in the room or go out as he
pleases. But really he has no
freedom to choose because the
door to the room is locked.

The riders on a ski lift are like people without free will,
they can travel in one direction only. But people skiing
down the mountain can choose their own direction.

Nature versus nurture

Some people believe that the most important
inuence on our moral choices is our character,
or nature. They say that we inherit our way of
behavingit is something we are born with.
Others believe that the way we behave is
something we learn. Outside
inuences, such as what we are
taught and our upbringing, or
nurture, are most important
in determining how we act.

Are our actions

programmed in
our DNA, or is our
behavior also shaped
by our environment?

Are we all like the man in John Lockes

room who does not realize that he has no
freedom to make a choice?

Does God know what

we are going to do?
In most religions God is described
as omniscient, meaning allknowing. Those who believe in
God believe that he knows
everything that has happened and
everything that will happen. But if
God knows what we will do next,
do we really have a choice or free
will? One answer to this question
is that even though he knows
what will happen, God still gives
us the freedom to choose. Danish
philosopher Sren Kierkegaard
(181355) said that God would
create us as free beings, because
the greatest good he could do for
us would be to make us free.

101

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Difcult
choices
Problems of what is right and wrong dont
just concern philosophers. We all face ethical
dilemmasdifficult choices about what is the
correct thing to do. Making the right decision
is important to the way we feel, even in small,
day-to-day situations. Philosophy can help us
make decisions about what we should and
shouldnt do. How would you react to the
situations described here?

Should I tell the teacher?

You have just moved into a new
class at school and nd that everyone
is getting better grades than you in
the weekly tests. You nd out that
all the students have been cheating.
You dont want to cheat like them,
but if you dont, you will be at the
bottom of the class. If you tell the
teacher that the others are cheating,
then everyone in the class will dislike
you. Should you keep quiet and do
your best? Should you cheat? Or
should you tell the teacher?

Should I take the money?

You are walking down the street and notice there is some
money sticking out of a cash machine. Someone has
obviously forgotten to take it. But there is no one in sight, so
you do not know who it belongs to. You could hand it in at the
bank, but it is not the banks moneyit belongs to the person
who forgot to take it. If you take the money, no one will ever
know. Besides, if you dont, someone else is bound to. You
know it is wrong to steal, but would this really be stealing?

Should I lie?
A bully at school is angry. Someone has damaged his bike. He and
his friends think you know who did it. They come over and start to
push you around. You tell them the truthyou dont know who it
was. Unfortunately, the bully doesnt believe you. He says that if you
dont tell him who did it, they will beat up your younger brother.
Should you give the bully a name to stop your brother from being
hurt? Whose name? Perhaps you should say that you did it?

102

Difcult choices

Should I call the police?

You have just seen a man robbing a
bank. You follow him and see him give
the stolen money to the manager of
an orphanage. The manager doesnt
know the money is stolen. He
thanks the robber and tells him that
without the money the orphanage
would have to close. You recognize
the robber. You could tell the police
but if they arrest him they will give
the money back to the bank. Is it all
right to say nothing so the orphanage
can use the money?

Should I cut the rope?

Should I admit it?

One day, a friend of yours leaves her
phone at your house. You notice it
is switched on and not locked. You
look through her messages, even though
you know they are private, and discover
that she has been saying awful things
about you to her other friends. You are
very hurt and upset and want to tell her
that you think she has behaved badly.
But if you do, you will have to own up
to looking at her private messages.
What should you do?

You are climbing a mountain with friends

when there is a rock fall. The person
below you has been knocked off the
cliff face and is hanging on a rope. Her
weight stops you and the person above
you from climbing to safety. You are all in
danger from another rock fall. If you cut
the rope, the fall will kill your friend, but
you and your other friend will be able to
escape. If you dont cut the rope, you
may all be killed by falling rocks before
someone can come to rescue you. How
do you choose which lives to save?

103

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Shouldnt men and

women be equal?
In almost every culture throughout history, women have been treated
differently from men. Traditionally, it was thought that a womans place is
in the home. Certain types of career and job were not open to women at all.
It is only in the last 100 years that this has changed in some countries and
women have started to enjoy equal rights, including the right to vote in
elections. Will women ever be treated the same way as men?

No freedom for women

In the ancient world, it was taken for
granted in most cultures that a man was
the head of the household, while the
women in his family had to do as he
said. Times moved on and societies
changed, but women gained little
or no freedom. Today, this unfair
situation has improved in many
parts of the world. Even so, in
some countries women are
still not treated equally.
Women such as politician Aung San Suu Kyi (1945) of Myanmar
are inspirational leaders in a world largely run by men.

The fight for equal rights

At the end of the 18th century, people in the US and France overthrew
their royal rulers and set up fairer societies. Citizens were given certain rights,
such as the right to vote, which were written down in documents such as the
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. But only men had all
these rights, not women. The French writer Olympe de Gouges (174893)
responded with her own Declaration of the Rights of Women, which demanded
equal rights for women. In England, writer Mary Wollstonecraft (175997)
campaigned for equal rights for women, especially the right to education.
The Statue of Liberty in New York represents
Libertas, the female goddess of freedom.

104

Shouldnt men and women be equal?

Who can vote?

One of the most important human rights is to be able to
voteto have a say in the way society is governed. For
most of history, only men could vote. In the 19th century,
women began to demand this right for themselves.
British philosopher Harriet Taylor (180758) and her
husband, John Stuart Mill (180673), also a philosopher,
headed a campaign to bring about a change in the
law. This inspired a Womens Suffrage movement
(suffrage means the right to vote) in Britain and
elsewhere. Campaigners eventually won voting rights
for women in many countries.
This 1911 songsheet shows
the suffragettes marching for
voting rights for women.

Why are most philosophers men?

Without education, it is difcult to learn about
philosophy. Its even harder if you have little chance
to get out and talk to people. For many centuries,
most women didnt have a good education. They were
also expected to stay at home most of the time. Of
course, many women wondered about things in the
same way as men, but often their ideas were not
written down or passed on. However, since the 20th
century, there has been an increasing number of
women philosophers, such as French feminists Simone
de Beauvoir (190886) and Luce Irigaray (1930).

Different minds?
Men and women may have different bodies, but do they
have different minds as well? Traditionally, careers were
divided by gender. Jobs such as the armed forces and
engineering were considered male jobs, and nursing and
teaching were female jobs. Now such ideas seem very out
of date. Is this because we no longer believe there is such
a big difference between men and women? Perhaps people
behave and think in a male or female way only because
society expects them to.

Today, most people believe that men and women

can do the same jobs equally well.

105

HOW DO I DECIDE
WHATS RIGHT?

Biography
1908 Born in Paris, France.
1929 Graduates from the
Sorbonne (the University of Paris)
with a degree in philosophy.

Simone de
Beauvoir
Be loved, be admired, be necessary;
be somebody.
Philosopher, pioneer of feminism, teacher, and
successful author: Simone de Beauvoir was all of these.
She was born in Paris, where she lived and worked for
most of her life. Whether sitting with friends in cafs or
teaching students in college, de Beauvoir inspired people
with her ideas about personal freedom.

Ahead of her time

De Beauvoir met the philosopher
Jean-Paul Sartre in 1929. Their friendship
lasted until he died in 1980.

1931 Begins teaching literature and

philosophy, rst in Marseille and
later in Rouen.
1941-43 Professor at the Sorbonne,
during the German occupation of
Paris in World War II.
1943 Publishes her rst novel,
She Came to Stay.
1945 Joins the editorial staff of Les
Temps Modernes, a journal of
politics, philosophy, and literature.
1949 Publishes her best-known
book, The Second Sex.
1986 Dies in Paris at the age of 78
and is buried in the cemetery in
Montparnasse.

106

The Sorbonnede Beauvoir was a student and

later a Professor of Philosophy here.

When de Beauvoir was young, it was

unusual for women to go to college
and have a career. She was one of the
rst women to graduate from the
Sorbonne, the best university in France.
She was also the youngest person, at
21, to take the exclusive French civil
service exam in philosophy. Later, she
taught at the Sorbonne and was one of
the rst important female philosophers.

Simone de Beauvoir

Not just a philosopher

Being female,
being feminine
Simone de Beauvoir was an important
inuence on the modern feminist
movement, which began in the last
half of the 20th century. She argued
that society expects women to behave
in a particular wayto be feminine,
and to be submissive and obedient.
De Beauvoir said that there is a
difference between being born
female and becoming feminine by
conforming to societys ideas of what
a woman should be.

Politics
Simone de Beauvoir was interested
in politics and wrote a great deal
about society and womens issues.
With Jean-Paul Sartre (19051980)
and other writers and thinkers, she
helped set up a magazine, Les Temps
Modernes (Modern Times), which
she wrote articles for and edited.

Moroccan women protest about violence against

women in a demonstration outside the parliament
in Morocco in 2013.

Setting women free

In the 1960s and 1970s

thousands of women
demanded equality
with men, encouraged
by de Beauvoirs book
The Second Sex.

De Beauvoir was an existentialist philosopher. This

means that she believed people must nd their own
meaning in life. In her book The Second Sex, she said
that society tells women how to behave, and has made
them lower in rank than men. She thought women could
choose to act differently and be what they want to be.
At the time, this was an exciting new way of thinking.

Simone de Beauvoir at her writing desk.

Well-known writer
Like other French philosophers of the
time, de Beauvoir was a respected
author. In addition to books on
philosophy, she wrote novels,
including The Mandarins, which won
an important literary prize, and short
stories. She also published her travel
diaries and an autobiography.

LInvite (She Came to Stay) was

Simone de Beauvoirs rst novel.

107

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Why should we care

about the environment?
The planet we live on provides us with
all the resources we need, including food,
water, and fuel. It is also home to many
other living things. There is enough for
us all to live on, but we need to manage
our resources carefully. Scientists warn
that people are not taking good
care of our environment, and
important parts of the world around us
have been destroyed. But caring for the
environment is not just a matter of
science and technologyit also raises
important philosophical questions.

In some cities there

are so many cars
that the air is not t
to breathe.

Doing damage
Humans are very inventive. We have developed all
kinds of technology to make life easier and more
comfortable for ourselves. But we are now nding
that there is a downside to this. To provide energy
for our transportation and to power our homes and
factories, we burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
gas. This causes pollution and damages our
environment. But is it right to ask people to give
up the things that make their lives comfortable?

A fair share
of resources
The Earth has all the resources
we need, but they are not shared
evenly. In some places people do
not have enough food or water. In
other places there is so much food
that some of it is thrown away. Is it
right to let some people starve while
others live in comfort? Is there a way
to share the worlds resources fairly?
As the population of the world grows,
this problem will become more and
more important.
Developed countries use most of the worlds
resources, leaving everyone else to share the rest.
Is this fair?

108

Why should we care about the environment?

A delicate balance
As our population grows, we need more and
more food. Farmers have developed new ways
to increase production of animals and crops. But
sometimes modern methods of farming harm
the environment. For example, forests are cut
down to make way for elds of grain, and manmade fertilizers pollute rivers. Farms produce
more, but other plants and animals can no
longer live there. This may make things worse
rather than better in the long run. Do we have a
responsibility to protect the natural environment?
The insecticides that farmers use to prevent
pests from eating their crops can also harm the
bees that pollinate the fruit and vegetable plants.

Cleaner sources
of energy such as
wind or solar power
are good for the
environment in the
long term.

Think like a mountain

Some philosophers believe we have a
responsibility to all living things, and to
the environment. Norwegian Arne Naess
(19122009), one of the rst environmental
philosophers, said we should think like a
mountain. This means that we should
behave as if we will always be here and
think of the long-term consequences. We
must remember that we are a part of
nature, and stop trying to control it for
our own advantage.

Impact on the future

Modern technology has made life
better for most people, and even
saved lives. But many agree that our
technology is causing climate change
and other negative consequences,
which may be harmful in the future.
The way we treat our environment
has long-lasting effects. When making
decisions, we have to think about
not just the people alive today, but
also about whether we are harming
future people.

The way we treat our environment

today may cause problems in the future,
such as rising sea levels and extreme
weather conditions.

109

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Are humans worth

more than animals?
Humans are just one of many species of animal on Earth. When
we decide what is right and wrong, we try not to hurt other
humans, but sometimes we dont apply the same rules to
other animals. Some people think we are different from other
animals, or even better than them. But does that mean we can
use them to work for us and provide us with food? Do we
have a responsibility to make sure we protect animals?

Battery chickens are

squeezed into cages
in conditions humans
couldnt bear. Do they
suffer in the same way
we would?

The human animal

When Charles Darwin (18091882) explained his theory
of evolution, saying that all humans come from apelike
ancestors, people realized for the rst time that humans
are a species of animal. If we are just a kind of animal,
then perhaps other animals are more like us than we
thought. Later philosophers began to think about
whether the way we treat animals is right. How
would we feel if we were treated in the same way?

This killer whale is

kept in captivity for our
entertainment. Should it
have a right to freedom?

Animal rights
Australian philosopher Peter Singer (1946) said that to behave
ethically, we must think about the effects of our actions on
animals as well as people. Like humans, many animals have
feelings and can suffer. We should consider whether what we do
might hurt an animal, or cause it distress. Humans have laws to
protect their right to live peacefully without being harmed by
other people. Perhaps all animals should have rights, too.
110

Are humans worth more than animals?

Animals in danger
Protected species

Going vegetarian
Most people around the world eat meat. We
are just one of the many animals that eat other
animals. But we can live healthily without meat,
and it is cheaper to grow crops than to raise farm
animals. So, is it right to kill an animal just for
food? If we believe that it is wrong to make animals
suffer, perhaps we should all become vegetarians.
Or is eating meat a natural part of the food chain?

We could feed more

people by growing
crops in this eld than
by using it to graze
cattle for food.

There are many kinds of animal

and plant in the world that are
becoming very rare. Some species,
such as tigers, polar bears, and
white rhinos, may soon disappear
completely. To protect them from
extinction, we have laws banning
people from hunting them. But we
still kill other animals for sport and
for food. Is the life of a rare panda
worth more than the life of a pig
farmed for its meat?

Life is increasingly difcult for polar bears

because the ice where they live is melting.

Extinction
Do animals know whats right?
Some people think we dont need to behave ethically toward animals,
because animals dont behave ethically themselves. But do they have a
sense of right and wrong, or what is fair and unfair? Some animals kill other
animals without thinking about whether they suffer or not. Some animals
ght and steal from one another. However, they do these things to protect
their families and provide them with food. Animals do things that we think
of as wrong, but maybe they are simply acting on instinct with no ability to
reason about right or wrong.

It is sad when a species becomes

extinct. Do we have a responsibility to
save animal species? Sometimes it is
the fault of humans that they are
dying out. We have destroyed their
natural homes or hunted them to
extinction. But it is also natural for
some species to survive and others to
become extinct. By saving a species,
are we interfering with nature?

Are all animals equal?

We do not think of all living things
in the same way. For example, a
vegetarian who thinks it is wrong to kill
animals for food might think it is ne to
swat a mosquito. Perhaps it is because
some animals are more like us. But is
it right to think that some animals
deserve better treatment than others?
For example, we wouldnt hurt a
chimpanzee, but might squash an
ant. Where do we draw the line?

The Thylacine, or Tasmanian wolf, lived in

Australia and Tasmania. It became extinct in
the early 1930s because farmers killed it to
stop it from eating their livestock.

When pests threaten our homes, most of us do not

feel it is wrong to have the pests exterminated.

111

HOW DO I DECIDE
WHATS RIGHT?

Giving more
Emergency aid
After a natural disaster, such as
an earthquake or ood, people
are often happy to give money to
help those in need. But there are
people in need all the time, not
just after natural disasters.

Should we save
the drowning child?
In general, we all feel that it is right to help other
people when they are in danger. We have a
responsibility to do what we can. It would be wrong not
to do anything. We dont, however, always do as much as
we could. To highlight this, Australian philosopher Peter
Singer came up with the following thought experiment.

I
People made homeless by wars or
natural disasters often rely on donations
from rich countries.

Foreign aid
The governments of rich countries
try to help those in poor countries
by sending money. Most give a
small part of the countrys wealth in
foreign aid. However, people often
do not donate themselves because
their governments are providing
aid. Dont we have individual
responsibility for those in need?

Foreign aid from rich countries can help to

provide food and clean water to people in
poor countries.

magine that you are walking to

school, wearing a new pair of
shoes that you have bought with
your allowance. You walk past a
pond and notice that a small girl has
fallen in. She cannot swim. You
know the pond is shallow and you
could wade in and pull her to safety.
But you must hurry and wont have
time to take off your shoes. They
will be ruined. Should you rescue
the girl? Almost everyone will
answer Of course I should if you
were to ask this question. A childs
life is obviously more important than
a pair of shoes. But suppose there
are other people by the pond. They
could rescue the girl, but they are
doing nothing. Do you still feel
it is your responsibility to wade
in and save her?
Now imagine that the child is in
danger in a faraway country. You
cant be there to rescue the child
yourself. But giving some money
can save the childs life. Should you
give money to rescue the child?

You were happy to ruin your new

shoes to save the drowning child, so
perhaps you could give the price
of a pair of shoes.
Now think about the real world.
There are millions of children who
do not have enough to eat, or
who need medical treatment, but
their families are too poor to pay
for it. Millions of people live in rich
countries and are able to afford
luxuries, such as new shoes. If we
are in the lucky position of being
able to afford luxuries, should we
feel obligated to give money to
organizations that help save
childrens lives? Just as in the case
of the child in the shallow pond,
wealthy people can save lives
without danger to themselves, and
without spending much money. They
would only have to give up a few
luxuries. Dont we have the same
obligation to give money as we had
to save the drowning child?

Children all over the world

are living in poverty and have
to do dangerous work, such
as sorting through garbage, to
stay alive. Is it our duty to
do more to help them?

112

Should we save the drowning child?

Think about it!

What are your priorities?
In the drowning child story, nearly
everyone would be happy to give up
a pair of new shoes to save the child
right in front of them. But what
would you be prepared to go
without to give something to an
aid organization that helps children
in another place? Could you go
without buying yourself some
candy, or skip a trip to the movies
from time to time? It would not be
a great hardship for you, but the
cost of those treats could make a
great difference to someone in
a poor country. It is a question of
prioritieswhat do you think is
more important?

Why is it my responsibility?
Singer asks whether it makes a
difference if there are other people
by the pond who could help the
drowning child but arent doing
anything. Would you also choose not
to help because the people who are
already there are doing nothing?
In a similar way, we sometimes try
to shift individual responsibility for
helping to our governments. We
think they should help people in
poor countries, but they dont always
do enough. Isnt it up to each of us
to do what we can, rather than hope
that someone else will?

113

HOW DO I DECIDE WHATS RIGHT?

Will there ever

be world peace?

A hydrogen bomb, also known as

an atom bomb, is a lethal nuclear
weapon that can destroy entire
cities in minutes.

History is filled with stories of wars. There has never been a

time when there wasnt a conflict somewhere in the world.
Battles are fought over land, for resources such as water or
oil, or for political or religious beliefs. Yet most people
dont want to be at war, and a growing number
believe it is possible to settle differences without
fighting. But is it sometimes necessary to defend
your land and protect people by fighting? Perhaps
there can never be an end to war.

Is war ever right?

Almost all religions say that killing and violence are wrong.
But both Christian and Islamic philosophers have said that
sometimes it is right to ght a warwhat they call a just
war. They believe leaders should only take their countries
to war for the good of their people once they have tried
every other way of settling a conict.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Christian and
Islamic armies fought for control of the Holy
Land in Jerusalem and nearby areas.

114

Will there ever be world peace?

Have nuclear weapons prevented war?

Nuclear bombs are the most destructive weapons ever invented.
Several of the most powerful countries have nuclear weapons, but
they know that if they use them, they will be attacked with
nuclear weapons in return. Some people say that this knowledge
has prevented wars. The only time a nuclear weapon has been
used in conict was against Japan at the end of World War II. Is
the threat of the devastation that nuclear weapons would
cause preventing another World War?

Peaceful protests
Antiwar demonstrations
In the last 100 years, there have been
two World Wars, and many other
wars on a smaller scale. Millions of
people have experienced the horrors
of war. Many people believe that
there is no good reason to ght most
wars and that the suffering they
cause is not justied.

Is it in our nature?
Some people argue that there can never be
peace in the world because ghting is part of
our basic human nature. We ght to defend
ourselves and our families, and attack others
to take things when we need them. Others,
pacists, believe that ghting is always
wrong and that war is not necessary. Humans
have created societies with laws to prevent
us from behaving like wild animals, and to
help us resolve our differences without war.
But there will always be some people who
behave aggressively. Pacists say that it is
wrong to go to war with them and we
should nd a peaceful way of dealing with
them. But is it possible not to ght back if
someone attacks you?

In the 21st century, hundreds of thousands

of people all over the world have taken
part in protests against war.

Nonviolence
When the leaders of a country make
laws that treat people unfairly, it can
lead to ghting and even war. Many
people believe that there are ways
of stopping unfairness without using
violence. One way is to hold a
demonstrationa meeting or
a marchto protest peacefully
against injustice. Another is to
disobey the laws that you disagree
with, or refuse to pay taxes to the
government that is acting unfairly.

International cooperation

Soldiers from many countries work

together in the United Nations
peace-keeping force.

One way to prevent wars is to make sure

that countries can meet together and
discuss their differences. Many countries
agree to work together as a group, or in an
alliance, to defend their people. Nearly
every country in the world belongs to the
United Nations (UN)an international
organization that works to prevent war and
promote peace. There are also international
laws to help decide right and wrong when
there is a conict. The UN has international
armies to help keep the peace.

Martin Luther King led the movement

for equal rights in the US using
nonviolent protest.

115

Why do we
need rules?

Rules help us to lead good lives and get

along with other people. The problem is
how to decide what the rules should
be, and who should make them.

WHY DO WE NEED RULES?

Are people naturally

good or bad?
People usually live in groups, or societies. When we come together to form a
society, we make rules about what the members of the group are allowed to
do or not do. For example, laws against stealing or hurting other people
help us live together safely and happily. But would people
steal and hurt one another if we
didnt have laws? Are people naturally
bad? Or are we naturally good and
helpful? If we are naturally good, why
do we need laws?

In a lawless society, would people ght over

food like wild animals?

The state of nature

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes
(15881679) had a low opinion of human
nature. He believed that people are
basically selsh and that their natural state
is to ght for what they want without caring
about others. Hobbes said that to make a
civilized society people need laws that
force them to behave well, and a strong
leader to make sure they obey those laws.
118

Are people naturally good or bad?

The law of nature

Not all philosophers believe people are
naturally selsh. John Locke thought that
people are naturally good and like to
cooperate. According to Locke, people
instinctively follow the law of nature
and treat each other well. He said we
make laws in society based on this law
of nature. Laws are made to protect our
rights and help us to decide what is
right when there is a dispute.
Locke would say that the Constitution of the United
States of America echoes the law of nature.

In the French Revolution,

the people took power from
the ruling royalty because
they wanted to decide how
to live for themselves.

The will of the people

French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(171278) also believed that people are
naturally good. But he believed that the laws
of society stop us from behaving naturally.
According to Rousseau, the laws are made
by rulers to protect their property and do
not allow most people to live freely. He said
that the laws should be made by the people,
according to the general will, to give
people the freedom to live as they want.

Living by the rules

Making the law
It is the job of the government to
make laws. Usually governments
are formed of politicians, who
represent the people and are
chosen in elections. In addition to
national governments making laws
for the whole country, there can be
regional and local governments for
smaller communities. Nearly every
country in the world is a member
of the United Nations, which makes
international laws.
The Capitol is the
meeting place of
the US federal
government, the
Congress.

Breaking the law

Each country has slightly different
laws, but some, such as laws against
robbery and murder, are similar
everywhere. Laws are made by
governments, but it is the courts that
decide if someone has broken a law.
People who break the law can be
punished by being sent to prison
or made to pay nes.

Police ofcers
make sure
citizens obey
the laws.

119

WHY DO WE
NEED RULES?

Biography
551 BCE Born in Zou, Lu state,
in northeast China.
548 BCE His father dies, and he
is brought up by his mother in
extremely poor conditions.
532 BCE Marries Qi Quan.
519 BCE Gets a job teaching the sons
of a minister in the court of Lu.
501 BCE Begins his career as
an administrator.
500 BCE Becomes Minister of
Justice of Lu state.
497 BCE After an argument with the
duke of Lu, he leaves his homeland
to travel around China.
484 BCE Returns to Lu state and
devotes himself to teaching.
479 BCE Dies, at the age of 71 or 72.

Good and happy lives

Confucius believed in many
traditional Chinese values, such as
regard for other people, loyalty, and
respect. But he also developed a
new system of society, in which the
rulers encouraged their subjects to
live good and happy lives. His ideas
were not generally used in his
lifetime, but later Chinese society
was based on a system known
as Confucianism.

Confucius
He who learns but does not think, is lost! He who
thinks but does not learn is in great danger.
Confucius was one of the most important early Chinese
philosophers. His name in Chinese was Kong Qiu, but
he was later known as Kong Fuzi, which means Master
Kong. He came from a poor family, but studied hard and
became an adviser to the duke of his home state, Lu. It
was in this job that he developed his ideas of how
society should be organized, and how people can
lead good and happy lives.

Chinese civil service

In Confuciuss time, each region of China
was ruled by a noble family. The nobles
employed peoplecivil servantsto
advise them and to look after the state
administration. Civil servants were chosen
for their abilities, not because of the family
they were born into. Confucius was made
a minister by the duke of Lu because
he was a good student.
Young men in China had to study for
many years and pass difcult exams to
become civil servants.

Spreading the word

When the duke would not take his
advice, Confucius left his home state.
For about 15 years, he traveled around
China, stopping to talk to people in
various places. Many were interested
in what he had to say, and his ideas
slowly spread across China. When he
returned home, he devoted the rest
of his life to teaching his philosophy.
Confuciuss followers collected his
ideas in several books.

120

Confucius

Great leaders
such as Nelson
Mandela inspire
their followers
by the way
they live their
own lives.

Leading by example
It was traditional in China for rulers to tell
their people how they should live. But
Confucius thought that everyone in society
should lead good and happy lives. He
believed that if you act in a good
way, people will imitate you.
He argued that rulers should
not order their people around,
but set them a good example
by behaving well themselves.

The five constant

relationships
According to Confucius, if people
behave well toward each other
they can live happily together.
Society should be organized so that
everyone, from ruler to subjects,
respects one another. In every
relationship, each person must
know his or her place and have
regard for the feelings of others.

Chosen by heaven
In Confuciuss time, the Chinese believed that heaven chooses
some people to be rulers. It is the job of these rulers to make
sure their people live good lives in the way heaven
would like. But Confucius thought that all
humans, not just the royal and noble
families, are chosen by heaven. We
can all learn what is right and
wrong, and show others
how to live well.
Confucius
believed that to
lead a good life,
it is important for
people to connect with
their community through
ceremonies and traditions.

RulerSubject
Rulers should be generous,
and subjects should be loyal.

ParentChild
Parents should be loving,
and children should be obedient.

HusbandWife
Husbands should be good,
and wives should be understanding.

Elder childYounger child

Elder children should be gentle,
younger children should be respectful.

FriendFriend
Older friends should be considerate,
younger friends should be polite.

121

WHY DO WE NEED RULES?

Whats the best

kind of society?
Throughout history, people have lived in groups or societies. At first these
were family groups, which later came together to form tribes, cities, countries,
and even empires. Whatever the size of a society, it needs some form of
government that will set its rules. Different societies have different types
of government, ranging from single leaders, such as a king or emperor, to
parliaments with hundreds of elected representatives.

Philosopher kings
The ancient Greek philosopher Plato believed
that society should be organized so that all
its members can lead a good life.
However, he thought that most
people do not fully understand the
things that make a good life, such
as justice and virtue. He suggested that
the only people who really know about
these things are philosophers. So,
Plato said, society should be
governed by philosopher kings
rulers who are also philosophers.

Theocracy
Some people believe that it is God, not man, who makes
the laws, and society should be governed by the laws
of God. Society can be governed on Gods behalf by
a religious leader or a group of priests. For example,
medieval Europe was ruled by the Christian church,
and some Islamic states today
are governed according
to religious laws. This
type of society is called
a theocracy.

The Roman Emperor Marcus

Aurelius (121180) was also
an important philosopher.

Different types of government

Platos pupil Aristotle said that the type of society you
live in depends on how many people take part in
governing it, and whether they govern for the good of
society or for themselves. There may be just one ruler,
who he called a monarch if good, and a tyrant if
selsh. Or there might be a group of rulers. Aristotle
thought the best form of government was what he
called a politya situation where all members of
society participate in running it.

Vatican City is ruled by

the Catholic Church and
headed by the Pope.

Whats the best kind of society?

Monarchy
For a long time, the most
common form of rule was a
monarchy, where a country
was ruled by a single ruler,
such as a king or emperor.
Occasionally a monarch is
chosen by society, but usually
the son or daughter of the
existing monarch becomes the
next ruler. In many monarchies,
people believe that the royal
family has been given the
Monarchs, such as the kings of England,
were expected to rule over their people
right to rule by God.
and lead them in battles.

The social contract

In the 17th and 18th centuries, several philosophers
questioned the right of monarchs and rich nobles to
rule over society. Instead, philosophers such as John
Locke said that there should be an agreementa
contractbetween the people and the government.
In this social contract, the people give the
government the power to make and enforce laws.
In return, the government defends its people and
protects their rights and freedoms.

Democracy
Today, most countries in the world have
some form of government in which all
members of society can participate. Such
a societya democracyis ruled by a
government elected by the people.
In an election, the people can vote
for someone to be their representative,
to speak for them and present their
point of view. Representatives with the
most votes make up the government.

Socialism
French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (171278) argued
that society should not be governed by just a few people, but
by the general will of all its members. His ideas were taken
up by German economist Karl Marx
(181883), who said that people will not
be able to rule themselves until they have
control of the wealth of their society as
well as a say in government. Marx
suggested a socialist system, in which
all property is owned by the state
and administered by a government
elected by the people.

World government
With modern transportation and communications,
people today have a more international outlook than
ever before. We have begun to create international
organizations such as the European Union. There are
also truly global organizations, such as the United
Nations (UN), that decide conventions on human
rights and international laws. Some people believe
that one day there will be a world government.

Karl Marx

123

WHY DO WE
NEED RULES?

Can society ever be equal?

The American dream
The US was founded on the idea
that all people are created equal. Its
laws aim to ensure that all its citizens
have the same rights and the same
opportunities. The American dream
is that anyone, regardless of
family or background, can be
successful in life. But the reality is
not so optimistic. Although some
people have become very wealthy
in the US, many others struggle
to make a living.

The veil
of ignorance
In what society would you like to live? If you are
rich, healthy, and talented, your answer will probably
differ from someone who is poor, sick, or just ordinary.
American philosopher John Rawls (19212002) came
up with this thought experiment to make people think
about how society should be organized.

I
The US is home to some of the richest
people in the world, but also to millions
of people who live in poverty.

The socialist hope

In the 20th century, many countries,
such as Russia and China, tried
to create fairer societies by
overthrowing their royal rulers
and introducing a system called
communism. Under communism,
everything is owned and run by the
state, and every citizen has an equal
right to the wealth of the country.
But some leaders and
citizens of these countries
took advantage of the
system to become rich
and powerful. Today,
only a handful of
communist states
still exist.

Joseph Stalin
(18781953) was the
all-powerful leader
of communist Russia.

magine that before you are born

you can choose the society in
which you want to live. It could
be a society where some people are
very poor, but where it is possible
to become rich and powerful. Or
you could choose a society where
people with the most wealth and
opportunities contribute more, to
help those who have the least. That
way, no one is very poor, but no

one is very rich either. Before you

choose your society, a screenthe
veil of ignoranceprevents you
from seeing your future life.
You dont know if you will be rich
or poor. You might be healthy,
sick, talented, or average. You
must choose how to organize your
society before you know what kind
of life you will have. What type of
society would you choose?

In Rawlss thought experiment,

for a few people to live in luxury,
like this palace in Versailles, many
people must live in poverty.

The veil of ignorance

Rich and poor

Throughout history there have been societies in
which wealth is very unevenly distributed. During
the Middle Ages, for example, rich aristocrats owned
almost everything and lived comfortable lives, while
peasants owned nothing and worked hard to stay alive.
Today, people in Western societies are more equal.
However, there are still some countries in the world
where there are a few very rich and powerful people,
and almost everyone else is poor.

In medieval Europe, peasants worked in the elds

and lived in poverty, while a few wealthy people
owned the land and lived in castles.

Think about it
Privilege
Perhaps you think it is right that
some people in society have more
than others. After all, some people
work hard, and others are lazy.
Maybe we should reward people
who are good at what they do.
But is it right that someone from
a rich, privileged family has more
advantages in life than others? Or
that it may be difcult for someone
born into a poor family to get out
of poverty? Would you choose to
create that kiind of society?

Whats worse: poverty

or inequality?

Equality
In some societies, such as Norway,
Denmark, and Sweden, almost everyone
has a similar standard of living. Doctors
and teachers earn only a little more money
than farmworkers and sanitation workers,
and there are generous welfare benets for
people who need them. But in societies
like these, people have to pay high taxes
and it is difcult for anyone, no matter
how hard they work, to become rich.

In Denmark the majority of people live well, and

only a few people are either very rich or very poor.

People often say that money cant

buy you happiness. And although
no one likes being poor, its true
that poor people can be happy,
too. Perhaps what makes people
unhappy is when they feel that they
are not being treated fairly. Some
rich people dont like having too
much of their money taken in
taxes. And some poor people nd
it difcult to accept poverty when
they see other people living in
luxury. Would everyone be happier
if we were all equal?

Taking a gamble
Imagine that you have been given
$10. You decide not to spend it.
Instead, you could buy some lottery
tickets with a top prize of $1,000,000.
Or you could put it into a savings
account, where it will earn a little
more money every year. The
chances of winning the lottery are
very small and, if you lose, your
money is gone forever. Investing
the money will only give you a
little bit more, but you dont lose
anything. Why would anybody
choose to buy a lottery ticket?

125

WHY DO WE NEED RULES

Who makes the rules?

Countries around the world have different systems for making laws. Some
have just one ruler, a monarch such as a king or queen, or a dictator who
has taken control. But most countries are ruled by a government, a group
of people who together decide on the laws of the country. In a democracy, the
citizens vote in elections to choose the people they want in the government.

Queen Elizabeth II is
head of state of the
UK, but laws in the UK
are decided by elected
Members of Parliament.

Rule of royalty
For a long time, nearly every country was led by a
king or queen, or an emperor who ruled over several
countries. They came from rich and powerful families,
and their children became the next rulers. Today, there
are still some countries with royal families. However,
in most of them there is also a government that
decides the laws. Many countries are republics and
elect a president instead of having a king or queen.

Peoples choice
In most countries, it is a basic right for people to have a
say in the laws by which they live. They can do this by
choosing someone to speak for thema representative.
In a democracy, the citizens vote in regular elections for
their representatives. They can choose between several
people, who usually belong to political parties with
different opinions. The peoples representatives meet
in a parliament to discuss and vote on new laws.
126

Who makes the rules?

Power to the people

Some people think that governments do not always make laws
that are good for all the citizens. They believe governments make
laws to protect rich people but do not help the working people.
They say that this is not fair and that everyone should be treated
equally in a system known as communism. Communists believe
that countries should be ruled by the people, with laws made by
the people instead of just the rich minority.
The hammer and sickle symbol represents communism.
It was rst used during the 1917 Russian Revolution.

Tyranny
Not all countries are ruled with the consent of the
people. Sometimes a leader becomes a dictator,
someone who decides the laws on his own. Often,
a dictator takes power by force, using an army to
make people obey his laws. Leaders who rule by
making people fear them are known as tyrants. In
a country ruled by a tyrant, the people have no say
in how laws are made and cannot remove their
leader except by force.
Adolf Hitler took power in Germany
in the 1930s and became one of
the worlds most brutal dictators.

Is anyone above the law?

When countries were ruled by royalty,
the king or queen was above the law.
Royal families made the laws but did
not have to obey them. Tyrants and
dictators think that they are above
the law, too. The only way people can
remove them from power is through
a revolution. In democratic countries,
even the leaders have to obey the law.
If they dont, they can be arrested and
even sent to prison.

These posters let German voters know

what their political parties have to say.

127

WHY DO WE NEED RULES?

How do we make
laws fair?
Every society, however it is ruled, has laws that
are made to protect people and their property.
But people respect only those laws that they
think are just and that are fair to everyone.
If there is an argument over property, or if
someone commits a crime, the law should make
it possible for justice to be done. When we make
laws, we must consider everybodys rights and
freedom, and decide what is just.

The Greek goddess

Themis, armed with
a sword and scales,
often appears as a
symbol of justice in
courts of law.

Justice
When someone does something that harms
us, or takes something that belongs to us,
we think that it is wrongit is unjust. The
laws of a society are made to try to prevent
people from behaving unjustly. The legal
system ensures that criminals who break
the law are punished and that stolen
property is returned to its rightful owners.
But justice can be done only if the laws are
just. Deciding what is just is as difcult as
deciding what is right or wrong.

Is it fair that even

in rich countries
some people have
to beg for money
in the street?

Fairness
Some people think that justice is the same as fairness. The American
philosopher John Rawls said that it is unjust that some people are
poor while others are rich, because it is not fair. Justice, in his
opinion, is about all of us having a fair share. He said we should
have laws that make it possible for everyone to have enough of
everything to live comfortably, while no one has too much.
128

How do we make laws fair?

Entitlement

The law in action

Not everyone agrees that justice is all

about fairness. We might think it unfair
that a rich man lives in a big house
with servants, when someone else
lives on the streets. But is this unjust?
Robert Nozick (19382002) argued that
justice is about entitlementwhat we
have a right torather than fairness. If
someone sells or gives something to
us, it belongs to us. We can sell it, or
give it away, but if it is taken away
from us, that is unjust.

Crime and punishment

It wouldnt be just to take away a rich mans

house, even if we think its unfair for him to
have so much wealth.

In addition to making the laws, we

also have to think about what to do
with people who break them. Each
society has courts of law to decide
if someone is guilty of a crime. If
a person has taken something that
belongs to someone else, the court
can make him or her pay it back.
The court can also sentence
criminals to prison, to perform
some form of community service,
or to pay a ne. Most people
consider punishing criminals as
justice to stop them from doing it
again, and to discourage other
people from committing crimes.
The punishment must t the crime.
If it is too harsh or too mild, it
could be considered unjust.

People who are held in prison may be

given work to do while they are there.

Law enforcement

Celebrities such as movie

stars are often highly paid,
but do they deserve more
money than, say, a teacher?

Equality

We have police forces and courts to

enforce the law and bring criminals
to justice. But can we be certain
they do their jobs fairly? How can
we make sure the law is enforced in
the same way for everyone? Some
countries set up special groups to
make sure that their police ofcers
and courts do their jobs fairly and
treat everyone equally.

It is often said that the laws are the same for all, but some people
argue that this is untrue. They see the laws as being more in favor of
rich and powerful people than of poor people. So is the answer to
create a more equal society? For example, we could make it the law
that everyone earns the same amount of money. But dont some
people deserve more? What about those who do dangerous jobs, such
as reghters, or those who study for years, like doctors? Maybe the
answer is to agree that people are not all the same, but to make sure
that everyone has the same opportunities.
129

WHY DO WE NEED RULES?

Communities matter,
not individuals
All of us are part of a wider group of peoplea community. Throughout
our lives we do not act just as individuals but as members of the
community. Communities provide us with all kinds of things, from
friendship and support to important services, such as health care and
education. We can contribute to our communities in a number of ways,
including helping others, working, paying taxes, and volunteering.

A social animal

Desert-dwelling Bedouin nomads

recognize several different types
of family group. A group of
families form a clan, then
several clans form a tribe.

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that human

beings are social animals who choose to live in groups or
communities. There are many different kinds of community,
of which we all belong to more than one. Most of us are
part of a family group, a local community, such as a city or
village, and a country or state. We are also all members
of the vast global community of humans.

Communities matter, not individuals

Public goods
British philosopher John Locke thought that one of the jobs
of a government is to do things for the good of the public.
By raising taxes, communities can provide all kinds of
things, from police forces to street signs, which individual
people could not provide on their own. These benets
are known as public goods, because everyone can
benet from them whether they pay taxes or not.
Street lighting is a public good that is used by all people.

Welfare
Communities can help people who are in need. Services
include health care, elder care, and welfare benets that help
low-income people. These services can be provided by the
state, charities, family members, or individuals. Some people
believe that the state should provide most of these welfare
benets, and that they should be paid for by taxes. Others
feel that welfare should be provided by charities and
volunteers, and not by governments.

Community service

Welfare activities by charities, such as feeding the

homeless, make an important contribution to society.

Many people help contribute to their communities by doing

unpaid work to help others in need, by giving to charity,
or by getting involved in politics. Some types of community
service are done by choice. Others, such as taking part in a
jury at a criminal trial, you have to do if asked. Philosophers
called communitarians believe that it is very important for
individuals to take an active part in the community.

Taking advantage
One of the problems with community benets is
that some members will try to take advantage of
them without paying their share of the cost. For
example, some people avoid paying their taxes,
and others claim welfare benets they are not
entitled to. Scottish philosopher David Hume
(171176) said that it is difcult to make
everyone contribute, and there will always
be some people who try to avoid their
responsibilities. But would the unjust actions of
a few be a good reason to stop providing the
benets to the majority who need them?

Taking part in activities such as

recycling is one way in which
everyone can help the community.

131

Whose life is it anyway?

Societies make rules and laws so that people can live their lives without being
harmed. But some laws stop us from doing things we want to do, even when
they dont seem to harm anyone else. Sometimes the law takes
away some of our individual freedom for the good of society
as a whole, or to prevent us from harming ourselves.
Should society tell us how to live our lives?

No one tells me what to do!

The philosopher John Stuart Mill (18061873)
believed that people should be free to do
whatever they want, so long as they do not
harm others or prevent others from doing
what they want. Many people agree that
society should not tell us how to think and
behave. But different societies have different
rules. Some schools, for example, allow
children to wear what they like. Others make
pupils wear uniforms. In the same way, some
governments give people freedom to do
things without interference, but others make
laws that restrict individual freedom.

Education
When we make laws, we have to nd a balance between the things we think
people should be allowed to do (their rights), and the things they must do (their
responsibilities). Is education a right or a responsibility? In many countries, it is the
law that children must go to school. Some children feel that schooling is something
they have to put up with, rather than something they really want to do. There are
also places where girls are not allowed to go to school, or where there are no
schools at all. Dont all children have the right to an education?
Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan
campaigns for girls rights to learn.

Whose life is it anyway?

Public health
With modern medicines we can prevent people from catching many serious diseases. We can stop
infections from spreading, and even get rid of them completely, improving public health. However,
disease-ghting programs wont work unless everyone has the vaccinations that give them protection.
Should it be made law that every child must be vaccinated against, for example, measles and mumps?
What about putting medicine into the public water supply so that everyone gets a dose?

Traffic safety
Thousands of people are hurt in car accidents every day. We know
that roads can be dangerous, but there are things we can do to
protect ourselves against injury. We can use a seat belt in the
car, for example, and wear a helmet and high-visibility
clothes when we are cycling. In some countries, it is
against the law not to use these safety measures.
But if you have a bike crash and you are
not wearing a helmet, you are the person
who gets hurt. Isnt it up to you to
decide whether to wear a helmet
or not? On the other hand, why
should you object to being
told to do something that
you know is sensible?

Euthanasia
Banning drugs
We all know that smoking cigarettes
is harmful. Smoking in public is
banned in many countries, so should
we make smoking illegal everywhere?
Cigarettes are a type of drug and
many drugs are illegal. A ban would
save lives and money spent on health
care. Then perhaps we should ban
other dangerous things, such as
extreme sports. Is it wrong to tell
people what is good or bad for them?

Almost everyone
agrees that killing people is
wrong. But what about mercy killing,
which is also known as euthanasia? If
a man is on a life-support machine,
unconscious, with no chance of ever recovering,
would it be wrong to switch off the machine and
let him die? What about people who are in
constant pain, or who cannot do anything without
help? If they dont want to continue living, should
a doctor help them end their lives?

WHY DO WE NEED RULES?

Is it right to
censor things?
No one can stop you from thinking what you like. But in many places
in the world, people are not allowed to say what they think. Some
countries censor their newspapers and television stations, stopping them
from reporting things they dont want the public to know. Most people think
they have a right to say and hear what they choose. But that means we have
to let people say things that we dont agree with, or that hurt other people.

Freedom of speech
Philosophers such as Voltaire (16941778)
and John Stuart Mill (180673) argued
that in a civilized society, everyone has a
right to freedom of speechthey should
be allowed to say what they like. That
also means that people have the right to
write what they want in newspapers and
books, and everyone should be allowed
to read them. They believed that all
censorship is wrong.

People sometimes
burn books to
show how much
they disagree with
the ideas in them.

Where do we draw the line?

Even in countries where freedom of speech is
considered to be a right, it is against the law to say
or write some things, such as lies that will harm other
people. But it is not always easy to tell what is the truth,
and what is someones opinion. Should we prevent
people from saying or writing something just because
we disagree with them? Where do we draw the line?
134

Why cant I watch

R-rated movies?
Most countries have rules to stop
young people from watching lms
that adults consider unsuitable for
them. For example, some movies
tell stories that may be frightening,
or they may contain violence or
swearing. Stopping children from
seeing these movies is often to
protect them from images that they
would nd disturbing. It also aims
to stop children from thinking that
bad behavior is normal or
acceptable. But who decides what
we can and cant watch? Arent
these lms harmful for adults, too?

Is it right to censor things?

Official secrets

Causing offense
We all like to think we enjoy jokes,
but it can hurt when someone pokes
fun at you when you dont want
them to. Jokes or comments about
someones gender, race, or disability
are particularly offensive. Should
there be a law against causing
offense to others?
Should people have the right to
say anything they like, even if it might
upset other people?

Freedom of the press

Many journalists believe that they should have
the freedom to report news without being
censored. They say that the public has a right to
know what is happening in the world. But even
politicians and movie stars have a right to keep
some things private. Which is more important:
the freedom of the press, or our right to privacy?

Keeping it quiet
One of the jobs of the government
of a country is to protect its people.
To do this, the country must have
armed forces. To prevent people
from attacking the country, some of
the work the government does, such
as military plans, must be secret. The
government makes laws to say what
things should be ofcial secrets,
which only select people can know
about. But a bad government could
use these laws to hide things they
dont want the public to know.
How much does the public have a
right to know?

Whistle-blowing

Some photographers
the paparazzifollow
celebrities everywhere
and expose their private
lives to the public.

People who work for a company

or a government are expected to
do what they are told by their
employers. They have to follow the
rules of the organization. Sometimes,
though, a person might nd out that
the organization is doing something
that is against the law, or that seems
morally wrong. But he has promised
not to tell anyone about his work.
Should he be a whistle-blower and
tell the public what the company or
the government is doing?

American computer professional Edward

Snowden revealed how governments spy
on our emails and textsis he a hero
or a traitor?

135

Ask yourself...
Will a good
person always be

Was I born

HAPPY?

with IDEAS

already in my head?
HOW can
I tell if something
is TRUE OR
FALSE?

Could a
computer

think?
Why are
some rules
Are some

If I get a new

brain will I become

another person?

UNFAIR?

people MORE
IMPORTANT
than others?

HOW do I know
youre not just a
Can I

ROBOT?

TRUST
what my
eyes see?
Is it always

WRONG to do
something BAD?
136

WHAT
is it like to be
a bat?

Take a turn being a philosopher by asking yourself or your friends these questions.
This isnt a test, and you cant be right or wrong. The questions might have lots of
answers, or none at all. Just start wonderingthats what philosophy is all about.

What is

THINKING?

What do we
mean by

good and
bad?

WHY should I
read about

philosophy?

How do I
know WHAT

IS REAL and
what isnt?

What
makes people

happy?

Do animals

THINK like
we do?

HOW do I
know things?

Do I

CHOOSE
what I think?

Why cant I do

WHAT
is time?

HOW
do I know
I exist?

WHY does
anything exist?

what
I like?
137

Glossary
Buddhism The teachings of the Eastern
philosopher known as the Buddha, who
lived around the 5th century BCE.
Buddhists believe that nothing in the
world lasts forever and that suffering
comes from trying to cling to things
that change.

Illusion Something that tricks our eyes

Socratic method Teaching technique
and minds, so that what we see isnt what used by the ancient Greek philosopher
is really there.
Socrates, who asked one question after
another until his students gured out the
Logic Using reasoning to judge whether truth of something for themselves.
something is true or false.
Soul Also called the mind or spirit. The
Materialism The belief that everything
part of us we think of as me, which is
is made of a physical material, including
Censorship Banning things such as
capable of feeling and thinking. Some
the mind.
books, movies, and plays, because parts
philosophers think the soul is separate
of them are not considered acceptable for
from the body and will live forever.
Meditation Quiet time spent in deep
people to read, see, or hear.
thought.
Stoicism Ancient Greek philosophy
Coincidence Two or more things
based on the idea that we should calmly
Morality The standards we use to
happening at the same time or in the
accept whatever happens in life.
decide if an action is good or bad.
same way, apparently by chance.
Thought experiment An imaginary
Pacism The belief that using war
Communism A way of organizing
situation made up to show how a
or violence to settle disputes is
society so that everyone belongs to the
philosophical theory might work out.
always wrong.
same social class and all wealth is shared
Universe In philosophy, the universe,
equally among everyone.
Philosophy A word meaning love of
the world, and the cosmos all mean
wisdom, which describes various ways
Confucianism The system taught by the
everything there is.
of seeking the truth about ourselves and
early Chinese philosopher Confucius. He
our lives.
Utilitarianism The idea that we should
believed that people can learn about right
aim to do things that bring the greatest
and wrong by following the good
Reincarnation The belief that the soul
good to the greatest number of people.
examples of other people.
doesnt die when our bodies do but is
reborn over and over again, each time in Virtue The quality of doing something
Democracy A form of government
a new body.
that is morally good.
where all people take part in helping to
rule a nation by voting for its leaders.
Society Any group of people living
together in an organized way, in one
Dialogue A conversation between two
particular place.
or more people, sometimes used as a
way of looking at different sides of a
philosophical argument.
Dualism The belief that things consist
of two separate, different parts. For
example, that people are made of both
body and mind.
Emotion A feeling, such as love, anger,
happiness, or sadness.
Ethics The study of what makes things
good or bad.
Existentialism A philosophy that says
we are free to choose what we do, and
that we must each take responsibility for
what we make of our lives.
Feminism The belief that women
should have the same rights as men.
Idealism The belief that reality is not
made of physical material, but exists only
in our minds.

138

Index
A

Academy (Athens) 22
actions
and god 47
and nature 47
and consequences
925, 99
responsibility for 90, 100, 101
admitting wrong 99, 103
advantage, taking 131
afterlife 63
air 12, 13
Al-Ghazali 46
Alcibiades 18
Alexander the Great 26, 60
the American Dream 124
amnesia 49
Anaximander of Miletus 12
Anaximenes 12
animals
ethics 11011
and feelings 71
as food 89, 110, 111
humans and 71, 11011
instincts 111
and language 67
Anselm 20
answers, searching for 9
arguments
innite 85
reasoning and 689
Aristotle 13, 14, 15, 20, 22, 267, 43,
83, 122, 130
articial intelligence 72
Avicenna 445

Babbage, Charles 71
beetle in the box experiment 77
behavior 54, 101, 121
beliefs
and experience 30, 32
and knowledge 32
Bentham, Jeremy 93
Bergson, Henri 16
Berkeley, Bishop 47
blind people, dreaming 79
body
and brain 489
and death 62, 63
existence of 47
and mind 41, 42, 44, 45, 467,
489, 589, 63
right to control own 53
and soul 43, 46, 58
brain
and body 489
cells 43
in a jar 39
as machine 43, 73
and processing information 29
Shoemakers brain experiment 48
Buddhism 567, 58, 59

CD

Camus, Albert 91
cause and effect 50
causes
nal 43
four 27
censorship 1345
chance 32, 33
change 23, 57
and life 31
of parts 6061
personal 42
and the self 58
and truths 31
charity 131
children, protecting 134
Chinese Room experiment 723
choice
ethical dilemmas 95, 1023
freedom of 100101
Chomsky, Noam 67
Christianity 63, 88, 100, 114
Christina, Queen of Sweden 40
citizenship 104
civilization 118
class system 119, 124, 125
climate change 109
clones 61
coincidence 33
color 289, 53
common sense 44
communication 667, 745
communism 119, 124, 127
communitarians 131
communities 13031
computers 7073
conclusions 68, 69
conict resolution 115
Confucius 12021
consciousness 61, 79
consequences 93, 94
copies, of Forms 24, 27
creation 21
crime 129
Darwin, Charles 71, 110
de Beauvoir, Simone 105, 1067
de Gouges, Olympe 104
death
euthanasia 133
life after 623
and soul 46
decisions
difcult 1023
freedom of choice 100101
right and wrong 945
deduction 68
democracy 123, 126
Democritus 13
Descartes, Ren 38, 39, 4041,
42, 50, 71
desires, satisfying 80
determinists 101
Dionysus 22
doubt 38, 39, 57
dreams/dreaming 35, 789
drugs 133

Earth 13
education, right to 105, 132
effect
cause and 50
judging by 31
emergency aid 112
Empedocles of Acragas 13
enlightenment (Buddha) 57
Enlightenment, Age of 52
entitlement 129
environmental ethics 89, 1089
Epicurus 62, 80, 93
equality
animal 111
human 107, 119, 124, 125, 129
men and women 1045
ethical dilemmas 95, 1023
European Union 123
euthanasia 133
evidence 85
evil 82, 83
evil demon 38, 39
example, leading by 121
existence 14, 15, 17, 20, 245
of the body 47
individual 389, 44, 45
main reason for 43
and thought 39
existentialism 9091, 107
experience
and beliefs 30
and dreams 78, 79
and knowledge 97
and language 75, 77
learning from 32, 50, 51
of the world 53
experience machine 81
extinction 111

FG

fairness 128
feelings 423, 54, 55
animals 110
and dreams 78, 79
happiness 8081
hurting peoples 98, 99
machines 43, 71, 73
suffering 823
feminism 1045, 1067
re 13
Flying Man experiment 44
Foot, Philippa 945
foreign aid 11213
Forms
perfect 23, 24
and shadows 24
four causes 27
free will 100101
freedom
personal 1067, 119, 1323
of the press 135
of speech 134
gambling 125
Gandhi, Mahatma 80

Gautama, Siddhartha 567

Gettier, Edmund 32
ghost in the machine 71
God
and change 21
as creator 21, 83
existence of 15, 2021
and free will 100
greatness of 20
judgment by 63
law of 88
and suffering 83
and thoughts/actions 46, 100, 101
good
and bad 88, 923, 11819
and evil 82
meaning of 19
government
and defense of state 135
and law 88, 119, 126, 127
and responsibility for aid 113
types of 1223
Greeks, ancient 8, 1215, 1819, 223,
267, 60, 62, 63, 80, 81, 83, 93

HI
Halley, Edmund 41
hallucinations 35
happiness 57, 8081, 82, 83, 120,
121, 125
pursuit of 93
harm principle 93
heaven 63, 121
Heidegger, Martin 91
Heraclitus 13
Hinduism 63
Hitler, Adolf 127
Hobbes, Thomas 35, 47, 118
Hollerith, Herman 71
human nature 11819
human rights 53, 1045, 128, 132
humans, and animals 71, 11011
Hume, David 51, 69, 131
Husserl, Edmund 91
Ibn Sina see Avicenna
idealism/Idealists 25, 30
ideas
and life after death 62
linking 51
origin of 5051
and reality 25, 62
identity, personal 61
illusions 25, 34, 35, 71, 100, 101
imagination 44, 45, 78
individuals
versus communities 13031
see also self
innite regress 85
innity 834
information
collecting 25
from senses 35
processing 29, 72, 73
instructions, following 72, 73
international cooperation 115, 123
Irigaray, Luce 105
Islam 63, 88, 114

139

JKL
Jackson, Frank 28
James, William 30
Judaism 88
just war 114
justice 128, 129
Kant, Immanuel 25, 967, 99
Kierkegaard, Sren 90, 101
King, Martin Luther 115
knowledge
and belief 32
learning 5051
and senses 97
language
and experience 75, 77
limits of 67, 75, 77
and other minds 55
philosophy of 75
and thought 667
and words 745
law of nature 119
laws 88, 11819
breaking 119, 127
enforcement 129
fair 1289
making 1267
learning 5051
language 67
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von
47, 69, 83
Leucippus 13
lies 95, 989, 102
life
after death 623
choices about 9091
cycle of 57
and dreaming 79
good 19, 80, 120, 121, 122
making sense of 31
purpose of 9091
as time 91
likes and dislikes 42, 43
links 51
Locke, John 29, 35, 48, 50, 51, 523,
54, 101, 119, 123, 131
logic 68, 75, 77, 85
Lyceum (Athens) 26, 27

M
Machiavelli, Niccol 93
machines
and the self 43
thinking 7073
magicians 25, 34
Malcolm, Norman 79
Mandela, Nelson 121
Marx, Karl 119, 123
materialism/Materialists 43, 47
mathematics 40
meaning 74, 75, 77
memories 42, 43, 44, 51, 78
memory loss 49
Mersenne, Father Marin 40
metaphysics 15
Middle Way 57
Mill, John Stuart 93, 105, 132, 134
mind
and body 13, 41, 42, 44, 45, 467,
489, 589, 63
born with ideas in 50, 51
and brain 73

140

and color 28, 29

mind (cont.)
and common sense 44
and death 62, 63
and God 46, 47
and imagination 45
male and female 105
nature of 43, 45
other peoples 545
tricks of 39
monarchy 123, 126, 127
morality
and freedom of choice 100101
and reason 967

NO

Nss, Arne 109

natural disasters 82, 83, 112
natural law 53
nature versus nurture 101
Newton, Isaac 41
Nietzsche, Friedrich 90
nonviolent protests 115
nothingness 13, 1415, 1617
Nozick, Robert 16, 17, 81, 129
nuclear weapons 11415
numbers 23, 84
objects, qualities of 29
ofcial secrets 135
Olson, Eric 48
opportunity, equality of 129
outcomes 925

pacists 115
pain 35, 45, 55, 80, 81, 82, 93, 94
Parmenides 13, 14
parts 59, 6061
Pascal, Blaise 21
peace 11415
Peirce, Charles Sanders 30, 74, 75
people, good and bad 11819
personal identity 61
personality 423, 48
philosopher kings 122
pictures, thinking in 67, 75
Plato 18, 223, 24, 26, 27, 84, 122
pleasure 80, 81, 82, 93, 94
Plutarch 60
political parties 1267
Popper, Karl 69, 93
poverty 112, 124, 125, 128
power 52
pragmatism/Pragmatists 3031, 35
press, freedom of 135
privilege 125
probability 68
public goods 131
public health 133
punishment 83, 119, 129
purpose 27

QR

qualities, primary and secondary

29, 53
questions, asking 8, 19
Rawls, John 124, 128
reactions, natural 47
reality 245, 27, 3031
and dreams 789
reasoning 26, 66, 75, 85, 967

and arguments 689

reincarnation 23, 63
relationships, constant 121
religion, rules 88
resources, sharing 108
responsibility
avoiding 131
for own actions 90, 100, 101
for people in need 11213
right and wrong 889
rights
animal 110
human 53, 128, 132
womens 1045
robots 7071, 72
rope trick 84
Rorty, Richard 31
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 119, 123
rulers 93, 120, 121, 1223, 1267
rules 88
breaking moral 98
exceptions to 69, 99
making 11819, 1267
and morality 96
need for 89
and outcome 92, 95
unbreakable 99
Russell, Bertrand 75, 76

Sartre, Jean-Paul 91, 106, 107

satisfaction, with life 80
Saussure, Ferdinand de 74, 75
scientic knowledge 31, 33
scientic method 40, 41, 69
Searle, John 72
the self 423, 445, 467, 489
meaning of 58
as parts 59
personal identity 61
selshness 118, 119
senses
believing/trusting 29, 345, 389
body and brain 489
and existence 44
and information 24, 25, 44
and knowledge 97
shadows 24
ship of Theseus 6061
Shoemaker, Sydney 48
signs 75
Singer, Peter 110, 112
Sisyphus 91
slavery 89
sleep 789
smoking 133
snowball effect 99
Snowden, Edward 135
social contract 123
socialism 123, 124
society 118, 119, 120, 121,
1245, 13031
best kind of 1223
and individual freedom 1323
Socrates 1819, 22, 68
Socratic method 18, 19
something 1415, 1617
soul
and afterlife 63
and body 43, 46
existence of 58
sound 29
Spinoza, Baruch 47

Stalin, Joseph 124

standard of living 125
state, perfect 23
Stoics 81
streetcar problem 945
suffering 56, 80, 823, 110

TUV

Taylor, Harriet 105

Thales 12
theocracy 122
theories 69
Theseus 6061
Thomas Aquinas 21
thought
and existence 39
and god 46
and language 667
and learning 50
and machines 7071
and the self 49
thrill-seeking 81
time, and being 91
trafc safety 133
truth 9, 19, 31, 323, 57, 68
and telling lies 98, 99
testing 33, 38
two kinds of 69
Turing, Alan 72
tyranny 127
unchanging things 23
unconsciousness 79
unhappiness 81, 82
United Nations 115, 123
universe
creation of 20
and innity 84
origin of 14, 15
two parallel paths 47
utilitarianism 93
vegetarianism 89, 111
veil of ignorance 1245
Voltaire 134
voting rights 105

war 11415
water 12, 13
welfare 131
whistle-blowing 135
white lies 98, 99
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 55, 75, 767
Wollstonecraft, Mary 104
women
equality 1045
rights of 89, 104, 1067
words 745
world
and change 31, 57
composition of 1213
experience of 53, 75, 77
government 123
knowledge of 97
making sense of 30
resources of 108
wrong 889, 96

YZ
Yousafzai, Malala 132
Zhuang Zhou 79
zombies 71

Acknowledgments
Dorling Kindersley would like to thank: Alice Bowden
for proofreading, Helen Peters for the index, Tannisha
Chakraborthy for additional design, Olivia Stanford for
editiorial assistance, Maltings Partnership for artworks,
Chhaya Sajwan, Pooja Pipil, and Supriya Mahajan for
design assistance.
The publisher would like to thank the following for their
kind permission to reproduce their photographs:
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; r-right;
t-top)
6 Corbis: Pasmal / Amanaimages (cla). Getty Images:
Digital Vision (bl). iStockphoto.com: Ruigsantos (cl). 7
Dreamstime.com: Diamantis Seitanidis (cl). iStockphoto.
com: Arquiplay77 (cla). 8-9 Corbis: Laurence Mouton /
PhotoAlto (bc). Dreamstime.com: Dmitri Rumiantsev.
10-11 Corbis: Pasmal / Amanaimages. 12 Corbis: Michael
Durham / Minden Pictures (cr). Getty Images: Alessandro
Contadini / E+ (br, bl, cra). Photoshot: World Illustrated
(clb). 13 Corbis: Patrick J. Endres / AlaskaPhotoGraphics
(cla). Getty Images: Alessandro Contadini / E+ (tl, clb, tr,
cr, br); Leemage / Universal Images Group (ca). 14 Corbis:
Isaac Lane Koval (br). Getty Images:
UniversalImagesGroup (cl). 14-15 Science Photo Library:
Henning Dalhoff (c). 16 The Library of Congress,
Washington DC: LC-DIG-ggbain-38388 (cl). 16-17
Dorling Kindersley: National Railway Museum, India (c/
Train). Dreamstime.com: Manuel Fernandes / Tinoni (b).
17 Corbis: Mark Garlick / Science Photo Library (b).
Dorling Kindersley: National Music Museum (tc).
Dreamstime.com: Hannu Viitanen (cla). Fotolia: Gail
Johnson (cb). 18 Alamy Images: Zev Radovan /
BibleLandPictures (tc). Glowimages: Fine Art Images (b).
19 iStockphoto.com: Squaredpixels (c). Photoshot:
World Illustrated (bl). 20 Corbis: (l). 21 Corbis: Gerry
Ellis / Minden Pictures (cla); Robert Marien (cra). Getty
Images: Pepifoto (bc); S. Vannini / De Agostini Picture
Library (fcra). 22-23 Corbis: Araldo de Luca (c). 22 Alamy
Images: Nikos Pavlakis (tc). 23 Alamy Images: Gianni
Dagli Orti / The Art Archive (tc). Dreamstime.com:
Sharpshot (crb). 24 Glowimages: Xyz Pictures (tr). 25
Glowimages: John Lund (cr). 26 Corbis: Bettmann (tc).
Dreamstime.com: Nickolayv (bc). 27 akg-images:
Schtze / Rodemann (t). Getty Images: T_kimura / E+
(br). 28 Dreamstime.com: Mohamed Osama /
Midosemsem (bc). 29 123RF.com: Inesbazdar (bc).
Dreamstime.com: Mohamed Osama / Midosemsem (crb).
30 Getty Images: Museum of the City of New York /
Archive Photos (br). Glowimages: 4x5 Coll / Patrick Byrd
(cl). 30-31 123RF.com: Panithan Fakseemuang (t).
Dreamstime.com: Sdbower (Smaller balloons). 31 Getty
Images: Steve Pyke / Premium Archive (cr). Glowimages:
Art Media (bc). 32 Getty Images: Ascent Xmedia / Digital
Vision (cla). 32-33 Corbis: (c). 34 Getty Images: Michael
Grabois / Moment. 35 Corbis: KidStock / Blend Images
(br); Konrad Wothe / Minden Pictures (tl). 36-37
iStockphoto.com: Ruigsantos. 38 Dreamstime.com:
Hugo Maes (cl). 38-39 Dreamstime.com: Youths (c). 40
Alamy Images: GL Archive (tc). Getty Images: Culture
Club / Hulton Archive (c); Pierre-Louis the Younger
Dumesnil / The Bridgeman Art Library (br). 41 NASA:
STS-50. 42 Dreamstime.com: Jacek Chabraszewski (cl);
Zyphyrus (cra). 43 Science Photo Library: Alfred Pasieka
(cra). 44 Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (clb).
44-45 Getty Images: Sunnybeach / E+ (ca). 45
Dreamstime.com: Lateci (bl). 46 Dreamstime.com:
Nicholas Burningham (br). Science Photo Library: Oscar
Burriel (cl). 47 123RF.com: Belchonock (c). Alamy
Images: North Wind Picture Archives (tl). Dreamstime.
com: Zoom-zoom (cra). Pearson Asset Library: Tsz-shan
Kwok / Pearson Education Asia Ltd (cr). 50 iStockphoto.
com: Suchota (cl). 50-51 Alamy Images: Lumi Images (c).
51 Corbis: Michael Bader / Westend61 (crb). 52 Alamy
Images: Alex Segre (tc). Corbis: David Bank / JAI (bc).
52-53 iStockphoto.com: Kenneth Keifer (c). 53 The
Library of Congress, Washington DC: (cr). 54-55
iStockphoto.com: Asiseeit (c). 55 Alamy Images:
Wonderlandstock (cr). 56 Corbis: Pascal Deloche /
Godong (cla). 56-57 Alamy Images: Robert Harding

Picture Library Ltd. 57 Dreamstime.com: Eroticshutter

(cr). 58 Dorling Kindersley: Rough Guides (b). 59
Alamy Images: Blue Jean Images (br). Corbis: Image
Source (t). 60 Corbis: Michael Nicholson (cla). 60-61
Alamy Images: Alberto Paredes (c). Dreamstime.com:
Nilsz (Ocean). 61 Alamy Images: Alberto Paredes (cra).
62 Corbis: Araldo de Luca (cra). 62-63 Alamy Images:
Victor Paul Borg (b). 63 Alamy Images: Arkreligion.com /
Art Directors & Trip (crb). 64-65 Getty Images: Digital
Vision. 66 Corbis: Hero Images (b). 67 Alamy Images:
Tomborro (cra). The Bridgeman Art Library: French
School, (15th century) / Musee National du Moyen Age et
des Thermes de Cluny, Paris (clb). Getty Images: Karl
Ammann / Photodisc (crb). Rex Features: Everett
Collection (tc). 68 Alamy Images: Gianni Dagli Orti / The
Art Archive (cra). Dreamstime.com: Vitaly Titov & Maria
Sidelnikova (crb). 69 Rex Features: Bournemouth News
(clb). 70-71 Alamy Images: AF archive (b). 71 Corbis:
Imaginechina (br). Dreamstime.com: Dny3dcom (c).
Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (cra).
TopFoto.co.uk: Roger-Viollet (bc). 72 Photoshot: Elliott
& Fry / Lightroom Photos (cl). 72-73 Alamy Images:
Merzavka / Yay Media As (c). Dreamstime.com: Maglara
(Background). 73 Getty Images: Leon Neal / AFP (tl).
74-75 123RF.com: Ivan Smuk (b). 74 Corbis: 13 /
Monashee Frantz / Compassionate Eye Foundation / Ocean
(cra). 75 Glowimages: Fine Art Images (crb). 76 Alamy
Images: Gisela Erlacher / Arcaid Images (cl). Photoshot:
UPPA (tc). 76-77 Wittgenstein Archive, Cambridge: (b).
78-79 iStockphoto.com: Wiangya (c). 79 The
Bridgeman Art Library: Private Collection / Photo
Christies Images (cr). Corbis: Dominic DiSaia / Blend
Images (bl). 80 Alamy Images: India Images / Dinodia
Photos (cl). SuperStock: Cusp (cr). 81 Alamy Images:
Moodboard (ca). Getty Images: Steve Fitchett / The Image
Bank (clb). 82-83 Getty Images: Yoichi Kamihara /
Amana Images. 83 Alamy Images: Ideal Stock (tl). Getty
Images: ERproductions Ltd / Blend Images (cr). 84 Alamy
Images: Ewing Galloway (cra). Dreamstime.com: Martin
Green (clb). 85 Getty Images: John W Banagan /
Photographers Choice RF. 86-87 iStockphoto.com:
Arquiplay77. 88 Alamy Images: Peter Horree (cl). 88-89
Glowimages: Yvan Travert (c). 89 Corbis: Bettmann (cra).
iStockphoto.com: Lovleah (cb). 90 Corbis: Adoc-photos
(bc). Glowimages: SuperStock (cr). 91 Alamy Images:
Gianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive (crb). Dorling
Kindersley: Science Museum, London (cra). Getty
Images: Gabriel Olsen / FilmMagic (clb). 92 Alamy
Images: Pictorial Press Ltd (c). 92-93 Getty Images:
Doug Chinnery / Moment. 93 Corbis: Alfredo Dagli Orti /
The Art Archive (crb); 237 / Ocean (c). Glowimages: H.D.
Falkenstein (cra). iStockphoto.com: Trekandshoot (bc).
94 Dreamstime.com: Gabriela Insuratelu (cl). 96
akg-images: Emil Doerstling (b). The Bridgeman Art
Library: German School, (18th century) / Private
Collection (tc). 97 Alamy Images: Library of Congress /
RGB Ventures / SuperStock (t). The Bridgeman Art
Library: German School, (18th century) / Deutsches
Historisches Museum, Berlin, Germany / DHM (br). 99
Corbis: GraphicaArtis (tl); JGI / Jamie Grill / Blend Images
(cr). 100 Corbis: Paul Hardy (br). 101 Getty Images:
Datacraft Co Ltd (ca). 102 Getty Images: Compassionate
Eye Foundation / Robert Daly / OJO Images / Iconica (tr).
iStockphoto.com: Manley099 (crb). 103 Corbis: Pete
Saloutos (cr). 104 Corbis: Nyein Chan Naing / EPA (cr).
Dreamstime.com: Serban Enache (bl). 105 Getty
Images: Ulrich Baumgarten (br). Glowimages: Museum of
London (tl). 106 123RF.com: Valery Voennyy (c). Getty
Images: Francois Lochon / Gamma-Rapho (cla). Rex
Features: Jack Nisberg / Roger Viollet (tc). 106-107 Rex
Features: Photofusion (b). 107 akg-images: Mondadori
Portfolio (cra). Getty Images: Anadolu Agency (tc).
PENGUIN and the Penguin logo are trademarks of
Penguin Books Ltd: (br). 108 Getty Images:
ChinaFotoPress / Stringer (cra). 109 Alamy Images:
Classic Collection / Shotshop GmbH (br). Corbis: Denis
Spycher / National Geographic Society (r). Dreamstime.
com: View7 (cl). 110 Dreamstime.com: James Elliott (cr);
Wangyun (cl). 111 Dreamstime.com: Laurentiu Iordache
(tl); Outdoorsman (cr). Science Photo Library: Science
Source (crb). 112 Corbis: Michael Coyne (cla); Javier

Vzquez / Demotix / Demotix (clb). 113 Alamy Images:

John Brown. 114-115 Corbis. 114 Photoshot: De
Agostini (bl). 115 Alamy Images: Janine Wiedel /
Photolibrary (cra). Corbis: Luc Gnago / Reuters (bl). Getty
Images: Agence France Presse / Hulton Archive (crb).
116-117 Dreamstime.com: Diamantis Seitanidis. 118
Corbis: Fred Ward (cl). 118-119 SuperStock: Iberfoto (c).
119 Corbis: Image Source (br); Joseph Sohm / Visions of
America (tc). Getty Images: Dwight Nadig / E+ (cr). 120
akg-images: British Library (tc); Roland and Sabrina
Michaud (bc). Alamy Images: The Art Gallery Collection
(cr). 120-121 Getty Images: Christian Kober / AWL
Images (b). 121 Alamy Images: DC Stock (tl). 122 Getty
Images: Vincenzo Pinto / AFP (crb). 123 Alamy Images:
GL Archive (tc). Corbis: Bettmann (bc). 124 Alamy
Images: Don Davis (bl). Corbis: George Steinmetz (cla).
124-125 Dreamstime.com: Lenise Zerafa (b). 125
Dreamstime.com: Ed Francissen (c). Getty Images: De
Agostini Picture Library (tl). 126 Alamy Images: V&A
Images (cla). 126-127 Corbis: Julian Stratenschulte / Dpa
(b). 127 Rex Features: (cr). 128-129 Alamy Images:
Jonathan Buckmaster (c). Dreamstime.com: Awesleyoyd
(Background). 129 Alamy Images: ZUMA Press, Inc (cr).
Getty Images: John Woodworth / E+ (ca). SuperStock:
Yuri Arcurs Media (cb). 130 Glowimages: Heeb Christian.
131 Alamy Images: Jim West (cr). Corbis: Tim Pannell
(bl). 132 Corbis: Ocean (clb). Getty Images: Stringer /
AFP (br). 132-133 Dreamstime.com: Bidouze Stphane
(Background). 134 Getty Images: Stringer / AFP (clb);
Thomas Northcut / Photodisc (c). 135 Alamy Images:
Losevsky Pavel (b). Getty Images: Barton Gellman / Getty
Images News (crb)
All other images Dorling Kindersley
For further information see: www.dkimages.com

141