PTJ 12.

3
NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL
JUNE / JULY 2013 | SPEED AND AGILITY

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PTJ 12.3
NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL

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NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FEATURES

04
07
12

BASEBALL IN-SEASON AGILITY TRAINING

CRAIG CHEEK
Baseball players can greatly benefit from agility and change of direction training. Not only can the athlete practice these
skills in the off-season, but a year-round program can keep them sharp and finely-tuned on the field. This article provides
examples of how to implement this type of training for all baseball players effectively.

IMPROVING AGILITY AND QUICKNESS FOR THE CLUB VOLLEYBALL PLAYER

DANI BYRNE, MS, CSCS, TSAC-F
Volleyball is a sport that requires agility and quickness in both the body and the mind. When training for these skills, an
often forgotten aspect of the game is the cognitive ability of the volleyball player, so incorporating reactive drills into a
training program will teach the athlete to quickly respond to stimuli. This article also provides a pre-season sample agility
program to develop all aspects of agility and quickness in volleyball players.

FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED IMPROVEMENT FOR ALL SPORTS

JOHN MCNAMARA, PHD, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, USAW, JAMES CHUNG, YUKI MIYAZAWA, CSCS, USAW-1,
AND MAX BARNHART, CSCS
This article provides three training strategies to be used in tandem to maximize speed improvement. The first is to
physically prepare the body to be strong and healthy. Secondly, motivation plays a key role in attaining speed, so teaching
the athlete to maintain a high level of arousal is essential. The third approach is to repeat sport-specific movements at a fast
pace until they become embedded into muscle memory.

COLUMNS

16

PERSONAL TRAINING FOR PERFORMANCE

BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS FOR THE PERSONAL TRAINER

21

TRAINING TABLE
TART CHERRIES - THE NEW ASPIRIN?

23

CHAT WILLIAMS, MS, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, FNSCA

Oftentimes trainers will focus their programs around strength, endurance, and flexibility, and will neglect to work on speed,
agility, and quickness. This article describes a variety of different drills, complete with pictures and descriptions that are
designed to enhance speed, agility, and quickness abilities. These example exercises vary between open and closed agility
drills and work on an athletes acceleration, deceleration, footwork, change of direction, and explosive capabilities.

DEBRA WEIN, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD, NSCA-CPT,*D, AND ERIN RIZKELLA
Recent research shows that adding tart cherry juice to an athletes diet can help decrease pain, inflammation, and
musculoskeletal injury after strenuous exercise. Substantial improvements in these areas can be seen by consuming 12 fl
oz of tart cherry juice twice daily (equating to about 100-120 cherries). Not only is this method natural, but cherries are an
excellent source of antioxidants and anthocyanins.

YOUTH ATHLETIC DEVELOPMENT

SPEED AND AGILITY TRAINING FOR PREADOLESCENTS AND ADOLESCENTS
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
When developing a speed and agility program for preadolescents and adolescents, selecting open training methods
and sport-specific drills will keep the workouts exciting and challenging. An effective training regimen should utilize an
integrative neuromuscular program involving performance-enhancing and injury-reducing components. This type of
balanced program promotes strength, power, balance, skills fitness, health fitness, and healthy exercise habits.

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

FEATURE ARTICLE

BASEBALL IN-SEASON
AGILITY TRAINING
CRAIG CHEEK

he competitive season is a critical time to enhance the physical qualities

necessary for change of direction skills required in the game of baseball.
These qualities can be developed throughout the year as part of a
comprehensive strength and conditioning program. Overall training volume
should be reduced to ensure that on-field skill does not suffer, and that the time
devoted to agility training is of the highest quality. At the University of Notre
Dame, athletes perform agility training for a minimum of once per week during the
competitive season. It is our belief that by making it a year-round priority in the
program, athletes can stay sharp and apply these abilities to the field of play.
What follows is an overview of the in-season baseball agility training program
considerations we have implemented.
Most sports skills require the ability to rapidly decelerate, react, and then rapidly
accelerate, oftentimes in a different direction. Agility can be defined as the ability
to explosively brake, change direction, and accelerate (3). Success is usually
determined by the ability to develop high amounts of force quickly and achieve
high movement velocities. In baseball, lateral speed, agility, and quickness can
be just as essential as strength and speed (1,2). After a thorough analysis of the

FEATURE ARTICLE

BASEBALL IN-SEASON AGILITY TRAINING

movement requirements for the sport, it is clear that programming

agility drills is one of the most effective methods for developing
change of direction ability.
The focus during all agility drills should be speed and precision.
During these drills, athletes move at high velocities and try to
coordinate multiple tasks through various planes of movement, all
at the same time. By varying starting positions and alignments,
one can further challenge an athletes ability to react as
explosively and efficiently as possible. It is imperative that proper
technique is adhered to during each drilleven the slightest
deviation in technique can result in slower movement speeds and
decreased movement efficiency.
Technique considerations include head position, arm action, shin
angles, and body alignment, among others. Athletes should be
instructed to maintain a head neutral position with their eyes
on the target. Powerful arm actions will aid in the successful
execution of the movement pattern. Elbows should be close to the
sides to eliminate unnecessary movements.
A shin angle refers to the direction an athlete applies force into
the ground, and can be termed positive or negative. Simply put,
positive shin angles refer to a smaller angle between the shin and
the foot (accelerating) and negative shin angles refer to a larger
angle between the shin and the foot (decelerating). The athletes
ability to maintain a lower center of gravity will enable them to
perform agility drills much more efficiently. The ability to transition
from an action of deceleration to acceleration is greatly improved
if the athlete can maintain a lower center of gravity. Increased
neuromuscular efficiency and body control may also improve
overall athleticism. Careful considerations of work-to-rest ratios
can help maintain efficient technique throughout.
Proper planning of work-to-rest ratios will allow coaches
to ensure that each repetition is completed as fast and as
precisely as possible without the concern of neuromuscular or
cardiovascular fatigue. All drills require a 3 5 s effort with a
30 45 s rest interval. Many facilities operate in a very dense
training environment with athletes constantly on the move. One
of the biggest challenges is helping athletes to understand that in
a situation like this, it is fine to rest and be fully recovered before
the next repetition. By training at sport-specific movement speeds
with proper rest intervals, athletes can be allowed to train at levels
that closely resemble the metabolic demands of the sport (1).
Not all injuries are avoidable or preventable. It is our belief that
in-season agility training works in concert with our strength
training to increase an athletes durability. Proper agility training
may promote increases in flexibility and coordination, and help to
decrease rehabilitation time. Agility training can serve as another
tool to prepare the body for the demands of athletic competition
and may help decrease the recovery time after an injury.

Based on the increased neurological demand of agility training, it

should be performed when the athlete is fresh. All of the in-season
agility sessions take place after a thorough dynamic warm-up and
prior to a total bodyweight training session. The dynamic warm-up
serves as a primer for the work ahead and ensures that all of the
athletes are ready to perform with maximum effort.
Position players lift three times per week in the early part of the
competitive season until midweek games begin. At the start of
midweek games, the lifting schedule is reduced to two times
per week. The pitchers lifting schedule is usually two times
per week, depending on their role (e.g., starter vs. reliever) and
their throwing schedule. Agility training is an integral part of
the pitchers program and as such, they are held to the same
performance standards as their positional counterparts.
Setup for the in-season agility drills require four cones in a 5 x
5 yard square (Figure 1). Typically, drills are set up so that four
athletes can perform the drill, but multiple squares can be set up
to allow larger groups to perform the drills at the same time. This
requires 10 cones with one end cone being left open (Figure 2).
Athletes will never cross paths with each other, which will allow
multiple athletes to perform the drill at once; thereby enabling
the coach to effectively manage a stressed time schedule, and
to increase the competitive nature of each drill. Incentives can
be offered to the winners of each drill on occasion to promote
competition. One example is a winner sits incentive. An incentive
should not always be afforded during training sessions, but the
occasional implementation can help stimulate competition and
promote maximal effort on each repetition.
Depending on the training and competitive schedule, programs
typically prescribe 8 12 repetitions of the agility drills. This
is broken down into 4 6 different movement patterns each
performed twice, with one in each direction (Figures 3 6). Within
each pattern is a subset of 3 4 movement skills that touch on the
various movements required during performance of the sporting
activity. Forward sprinting, backpedaling, shuffling, and diagonal
sprints comprise the majority of the movement skills performed in
each pattern. Verbal instruction is given immediately prior to the
execution of each drill that outlines the 3 4 movement patterns
within the drill. This forces the athlete to process the instruction
quickly and practically apply the information to the drill. Each drill
will start with an audible cue (e.g., whistle or go). The athletes
performance will be deemed successful if each movement skill is
performed correctly without knocking over any cones or falling
down. If an athlete falls, they should be instructed to return to
their feet as quickly as possible and finish the drill.
Agility training is just one part of a comprehensive strength and
conditioning program. Based on the value of in-season agility
training, the University of Notre Dame makes sure it is part of
the annual plan and prioritizes it as such. It is important to keep

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

BASEBALL IN-SEASON AGILITY TRAINING

FEATURE ARTICLE
the repetitions low and focus on quality over quantity during the
competitive season.

REFERENCES
1. Graham, JF. Agility training for athletic performance.
PerformBetter. Retrieved April 28, 2013 from, http://www.
performbetter.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/PBOnePieceView?
storeId=10151&catalogId=10751&languageId=-1&pagename=347

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Craig Cheek is entering his sixth year at the University of Notre
Dame, and his second year as the Assistant Director of Strength
and Conditioning. He is responsible for designing the strength and
conditioning programs for the womens basketball and baseball
programs, as well as coordinating all strength camps/clinics and
supervising development of a comprehensive website for the
strength and conditioning department.

2. Murphy, P, and Forney, J. Complete Conditioning for Baseball.

Champaign, IL; Human Kinetics: 126-136, 1997.
3. Plisk, S. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. (2nd
ed.) Champaign, IL; Human Kinetics: 472-490, 2000.

KEY
SP
SPD

SPRINT
SPRINT DIAGONAL

BP
SH

BACKPEDAL
SHUFFLE

Figure 1
2

Drill Setup

Figure 2

Multi-Athlete Setup

Figure 4

Figure 3

SP-SPD-SP

SH-SH-SP
Figure 6

Figure 5

SH-SPD-BP-SPD

SH-SP-SPD-SP

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

FEATURE ARTICLE

IMPROVING AGILITY AND

QUICKNESS FOR THE CLUB
VOLLEYBALL PLAYER
DANI BYRNE, MS, CSCS, TSAC-F

trength coaches, sport coaches, and personal trainers are constantly

challenged to make their athletes bigger, faster, and stronger than the
competition. College strength coach and sport coach jobs depend upon
the performance outcomes of their teams; and personal trainers only sell more
sessions when they produce measurable results. However, while improving the
physical attributes of athletes, coaches and trainers commonly overlook the
importance of improving cognitive abilities. Improving agility and quickness
should not simply involve the physical capabilities, but also the mental

IMPROVING AGILITY AND QUICKNESS

FOR THE CLUB VOLLEYBALL PLAYER

FEATURE ARTICLE
capabilities of the athletes. Before providing a sample agility and
quickness program for volleyball players, this article will first look
at movements specific to volleyball, the value of agility testing,
and program considerations for training these athletes.

AGILITY MOVEMENTS SPECIFIC TO VOLLEYBALL

Speed is the ability to achieve a high velocity (1). Agility has been
defined as the ability to suddenly decelerate, change direction,
and accelerate again (1). Quickness can be considered the athletes
reactive ability (3).
Quick or reactive movements differ by sport. Volleyball is an
explosive sport that requires agility and quickness of both the
mind and body. Consequently, volleyball players are expected to
process information quickly and make decisions that are based on
a series of unplanned stimuli. Agility and quickness are required of
each position on the volleyball court and impact performance in
each play. Agility and quickness requirements are task-specific and
vary depending on the position of each player. A middle blocker
is expected to quickly adjust to a setters body position and
determine where the attack will originate. Defensive specialists
and liberos are expected to not only read the play on the other
side of the court, but also to read the hands and positioning of
their own blockers to make final adjustments. It is not enough
to simply be fast or agile on the court. To be successful, the
athletes need to assess the situation properly and make the
correct decision regarding which direction to move.
Based on the requirements of a volleyball match, strength
coaches and/or sport coaches have many angles from which to
improve their athletes agility and quickness. As mentioned earlier,
volleyball players need to be able to perceive a stimulus, respond
to the stimulus, and then make a decision. A novice player will not
have the experience to identify most task-relevant cues and time
would be better spent training the technique involved in agility
and change of direction movements. However, athletes at a more
elite playing level will benefit from both the quick reaction training
as well as refining their agility. Volleyball players at any position
constantly move to adjust to the play that occurs on the other side
of the net as well as the play on their side of the net; successful
teams never stand still. This means that the more efficiently the
players can change direction on the court, the better chance they
have of being in the correct position to play the ball. Common
movements occurring in volleyball include but are not limited to:

Lateral shuffle
Cross-over step
Backpedal
Forward sprint
Double-leg lateral, forward, backward hop
Single-leg take-off

AGILITY TESTING
Prior to beginning agility programs, coaches should test their
athletes to assess whether or not the programs are effective. If
an agility test is going to be added to a battery of tests, there
are many sequence considerations that must be addressed,
including: energy demands of the test, number of trials for
each test, number of athletes participating, number of testing
administrators, equipment needed, and recommended rest periods
(3). As previously discussed, agility and quickness requirements
vary depending upon the position, therefore, tests should mimic
those movements required of each position. The most common
movements for a middle blocker or an attacker are short lateral
hops, double-leg take-offs, cross-over steps, and change of
direction. Defensive specialists and liberos must be able to quickly
shuffle laterally, backpedal, sprint, change direction, and dive in
any direction. Setters often need to be the fastest player on the
team because they often cover the most distance during a match.
Setters usually have a short period of time to reach their position
at the net following the service, and must often chase down errant
passes. Because of the frequent movements completed by each
position, a coach should choose an appropriate agility test. For
example:
Setters: Three-cone shuttle tests will assess skills used in most
power sports, including body position, movement technique,
acceleration, and change of direction speed (3)
Back row (defensive specialists and liberos): T-tests will
assess an athletes ability to adjust strides for acceleration and
deceleration, change-of-direction speed, and body control
while moving forward, backward, and laterally (3)
Front row (blockers and attackers): Hexagon tests will assess
body control during high force production (3)

PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
Once the coach has performed a base test, it is time to implement
the individualized agility program. When developing the structure
of an agility training session, it is important to consider the
variation of drills as well as the drill distribution within a session
(4). It has been shown that randomizing the variation of drills
within a session is more effective than block training movement
patterns (5). Blocking the drills by movement patterns may
produce short-term improvements in performance, but the job

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

IMPROVING AGILITY AND QUICKNESS

FOR THE CLUB VOLLEYBALL PLAYER

FEATURE ARTICLE
of a coach or trainer is to prepare their athletes for a lifetime of
success. Any agility drill can be varied by simply changing the
distance covered, the speed utilized, or the starting or finishing
position of the drill.

PRINCIPLE OF SPECIFICITY
Specificity refers to the method of training an athlete uses to
produce a specific adaptation or training outcome (2). Coaches
can replicate sport-specific movements, flooring, competitive
environments, and noise levels. Indoor club volleyball tournaments
are typically very loud and in very large environments with nets
hanging around the courts. An athlete is going to have many
environmental stimuli to interpret throughout the competition.
Indoor volleyball is played on either hardwood or sport court
floors, so coaches and trainers should train their athletes on similar
flooring whenever possible. If the only space available is rubber
flooring, use what is available, but remember that the transfer of
skills may be diminished.

Perform drills using single- and double-leg variations in

multiple directions to challenge balance and change-ofdirection abilities as well as increase variety
Monitor physical and mental fatigue of athletes, high levels of
fatigue may increase the likelihood of injuries (6)

SAMPLE PROGRAM
Table 1 provides a sample agility and quickness program for
experienced volleyball players during the early pre-season. In early
pre-season, agility drills should be at their highest volume and
taper off as the season approaches.

Coaches need to identify the most commonly utilized movements

and develop their program accordingly. After determining the
common movements in volleyball, a coach can choose closed
skill drills to improve technique and movement patterns. It is
important to progress the athletes through agility drills just as
with any other complex movement pattern. Prior to expecting
the athletes to move through a ladder while responding to visual
stimuli successfully, coaches need to be certain their athletes can
successfully navigate the ladder without added stimuli. Coaches
may also challenge their more advanced athletes by stressing the
appropriate energy systems by mimicking the competition with
similar work-to-rest ratios. Reactive drills can be used to mimic the
mental agility of a game-like situation. Coaches can choose drills
such as shadowing, ball drops, verbal, or visual stimuli to improve
the reactive abilities and challenge cognitive quickness. The
following tips can be helpful when training for volleyball-specific
agility and quickness at any experience level:
Begin with closed drills to perfect technique, then add
reactive drills as soon as the athlete can handle them
Train the movement patterns and energy systems of each
player based on their position
Keep the distances covered short; long-distance movements
are rare
Deceleration training is an important factor when considering
injury prevention and efficient movement on the court (i.e.,
middle blockers must decelerate quickly to reduce likelihood
of stepping on the assisting blocker)

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

IMPROVING AGILITY AND QUICKNESS

FOR THE CLUB VOLLEYBALL PLAYER

FEATURE ARTICLE

TABLE 1. SAMPLE PRE-SEASON AGILITY AND QUICKNESS PROGRAM FOR VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS
WEDNESDAY

MONDAY

FRIDAY

Activation and Dynamic Warm-Up

Rest 30-40 s between drills

5 meter 2-cone lateral shuffle

Lateral bounds

(4x10 s each)

(4x6 each leg)

Ladder drills (hopscotch, slaloms,

cherry pickers, 180s)
(2 sets each)

Ball drop drill

(4x6 drops)

Lateral blocking movement across the net

(3 each direction)

5 s line drills (forward and backward

hops, lateral hops, scissors, and single-leg
forward hops)

5 meter M drill (cones) x6

(2 sets each)

(3 each direction)

Shuffle reaction ball drill

Jump, squat, or dive drill, 10 s per set

(4x6 catches)

(4 x 10 s per set)

(Figures 1 and 2)

Ladder drills (one in the hole, two in the

hole, ickey shuffle, two in two out)

Star drill x4

Shuffle and forward reaction ball drill

(2 each direction)

(4x6 tosses)

(2 sets each)
(Figures 3 5)
6 low hurdles (double-leg forward hops,
double-leg lateral hops, single-leg hops,
single-leg lateral hops)

Dot drill forward and back 5-3-5 pattern

Red light, green light

(2 sets each)

(4 sets)

(1 game)

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10

IMPROVING AGILITY AND QUICKNESS

FOR THE CLUB VOLLEYBALL PLAYER

FEATURE ARTICLE

Figure 1. Shuffle Reaction Ball Drill Start

Figure 2. Shuffle Reaction Ball Drill

Finish

Figure 4. Shuffle Forward Reaction Ball

Drill Reaction

Figure 5. Shuffle and Forward Reaction

Ball Drill Finish

Figure 3. Shuffle Forward Reaction Ball

Drill Start

REFERENCES

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

1. Baechle, TR, and Earle, R. Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning. (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2000.

Dani Byrne completed her internship at the National Strength

and Conditioning Association (NSCA) Headquarters in Colorado
Springs, CO. Byrne earned both her Bachelors degree and Masters
degree at the University of Northern Colorado in Greeley, CO. Byrne
has coached 6 seasons of junior varsity and club level volleyball
in Colorado while also working as a strength coach and wellness
coordinator. She has devoted much of her career to improving
injury prevention techniques for youth athletes.

2. Baechle, TR, and Earle, R. Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2008.
3. Dawes, J, and Roozen, M. Developing Agility and Quickness.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2012.
4. Jeffreys, I. Motor learning-applications for agility, part 1.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 28(5): 72-76, 2006.
5. Schmidt, RA, and Lee, TD. Motor Control and Learning: A
Behavioral Emphasis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 302-458,
2005.
6. Tripp, B, Yochem, E, and Uhl, T. Recovery of upper extremity
sensorimotor system acuity in baseball athletes after a throwingfatigue protocol. Journal of Athletic Training 42(4): 452-457, 2007.

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

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FEATURE ARTICLE

FUNDAMENTALS OF
SPEED IMPROVEMENT
FOR ALL SPORTS
JOHN MCNAMARA, PHD, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, USAW,
JAMES CHUNG, YUKI MIYAZAWA, CSCS, USAW-1, AND
MAX BARNHART, CSCS

sain Bolt is arguably the fastest human on planet earth. His world record
performance in the 100 meters was 9.58 s with a peak running speed
of 45 kilometers per hour (kph) (9). Sarah, however, recently ran the
100 meters in a time of 5.95 s reaching a top speed of 98 kph (15). Sarah is a
cheetah, the fastest of all land animals. Both humans and animals follow the
same basic underlying principles in order to achieve high-speed performances.
Mathematically speaking, both rely on stride length and stride frequency to
determine speed. Furthermore, speed, agility, and quickness rely on a complex
combination of several genetic, physical, psychological, and biomechanical
factors. Speed is the ability to move the body in one intended direction as fast
as possible (3). Agility is the ability to start (accelerate), stop (decelerate and

12

FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED IMPROVEMENT

FOR ALL SPORTS

FEATURE ARTICLE
stabilize), and change direction quickly, while maintaining proper
posture, and quickness (reaction time) is the ability to react to a
stimulus and change body position with maximum rate of force
production in all planes of motion and from all body positions
during functional activities (13). Given these definitions, the focus
of this article will cover three fundamental factors for increasing
speed: overall fitness, motivation, and high-speed practice. These
building blocks can help athletes become faster through training.
For athletes to attain optimal speed, agility, and quickness, a
healthy body is required. An injury or weakness of any kind will
limit performance. Strong feet, legs, and core are especially
important for running speed while bones, tendons, and ligaments
are essential for providing a solid structure against which strong
and rapid muscular forces can be exerted. For adults, a healthy
body may be achieved by proper nutrition, adequate sleep, and
an intelligent exercise program that adheres to the principles
of training, which includes progressive overload. Athletes must
physically prepare their bodies to handle the stresses of moving
at high velocities while maintaining proper body stabilization and
alignment in order to prevent injury.
Strength and power training using weighted resistance, as well
as sport-related drills, can improve speed by decreasing the
time required to produce force over a given distance (2). A key
anatomical area of focus for athletes seeking to improve their
speed is the core. The core (which includes, but is not limited to,
the abdominals and lower back muscles) stabilizes the trunk and
pelvis which are beneficial to sport-specific and general speed
technique (7,10). It also serves as a bridge to transfer force from
the lower body to the upper body (7). Some exercises that can be
used to strengthen the core include isometric planks and exercises
such as cable chops and cable lifts where athletes must resist
trunk rotation by engaging the core throughout the movement.
Exercises such as these may help the athlete maintain proper
posture and prevent injury. Other exercises that can be used to
increase an athletes speed include ballistic movements with no
external loading, such as jump squats and jumping knee tucks.
These exercises should be executed with high velocity to simulate
competition and improve the rate of force production (11). Resisted
speed drills which involve the athlete moving against increased
horizontal or vertical loads, such as band resisted sprints and
weighted vest sprints, are also very effective in improving rate of
force production (5). Athletes may improve their speed by utilizing
these exercises in their training regimen.
Traditional resistance training may also contribute to the
development of speed if the program is designed properly. When
designing programs, be sure to give your athlete an edge by
training several points on the strength velocity curve continuum.
For example, peak speed is achieved with very little or no
resistance. Part of the training program must be done quickly
with very light weights (or no weight at all). Peak power however,
is achieved at medium resistance, approximately 30% of one

repetition max (1RM) (1). Here, the athlete can lift medium weights
moderately fast and generate a high power output. Peak strength
on the other hand, is achieved with heavy resistance at loads of
greater than 85% of 1RM. The great thing about changing the
resistance is that both heavy and light loads have been shown to
increase speed by increasing type II muscle fibers which are 4 6
times more powerful than type I (4,16,18).
Motivation can have a tremendous impact on the speed of
muscular contraction as well. It can be reasoned that neither
Usain Bolt nor Sarah the cheetah, have, or ever will, reach their
top running speed. The reason for this is an absence of maximal
motivation. Usain Bolt will likely never run as fast as he would if his
life were threatened, and Sarah is a cheetah in captivity who will
never likely run as fast as she would in the wild where survival is at
stake. This can be evidenced by the setting of her 98 kph record
only while chasing a small stuffed animal during playtime at the
San Diego Zoo.
The Inverted-U hypothesis has long been used to articulate the
relationship between arousal and performance; however, the
optimal arousal level for peak performance does not appear to
be as standardized as previously thought. Pragmatically, arousal
may be contingent on a multifaceted combination of the athletes
tangible and intangible qualities. Upon delving further into the
issue of arousal, one discovers the inherent complexity regarding
its relation to performance. Not only do requisite arousal levels
vary from sport to sport, but there proves to be variance between
positions within the same sport. For example, in football, the
offensive guard requires high arousal, the open field runner
requires moderate arousal, and the quarterback likely would
perform best at a low level of arousal (12). For most sports that
require peak movement speed, a relatively high or above normal
level of arousal appears to be essential for optimal performance
(5,7,10,12). To increase arousal level prior to activity, coaches can
use positive encouragement, or athletes can listen to motivating
and energizing music.
The practice of very fast and efficient sport-specific movements
needs to be rehearsed repeatedly so it becomes automatic. When
learning sports skills, the part of the brain called the motor cortex
is utilized (14). This results in uncoordinated movements, common
with beginners. Over time (i.e., thousands of practice hours), the
movements should become second nature, smooth, and extremely
effortless. At this point, the mind has shifted to using an area
of the brain called the basal ganglia (14). As a result, very little
thought process is needed and physical performance speeds
up via well-defined neurological pathways that are not slowed
by heavier processing demands. Players should also be able to
perform faster during team practice and individual skill training.
When putting together a speed program, it is important to provide
athletes with a regimen that adheres to the accepted principles
of strength and conditioning. The following weekly program can

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FEATURE ARTICLE

FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED IMPROVEMENT

FOR ALL SPORTS

be used for beginner, intermediate, and advanced athletes in any

sport but should be adjusted according to the training status or
skill level of the athlete.

performance. The third approach involves practicing sport-specific

movements at high speeds until they become automatic or second
nature.

Training for 30 min, several times a week, may be all that is

needed to see improvements in speed. Day one includes practicing
sport-specific movements at high speed. This is probably the most
important day of the week and will likely have the greatest impact
on speed improvement. For example, a hockey player can practice
a short sprint toward the net and take a quick snapshot. As a
coach, you can start to measure progress by using a stopwatch to
see how long it takes an athlete to repeat the drill three times.

REFERENCES

Day two includes heavy resistance training with RMs in the 7

10 range. This will allow the tendons, ligaments, and muscles
to undergo adequate amounts of stress necessary for inducing
the desired physiological adaptations so athletes can develop a
stronger and more powerful body with which to execute highspeed movements.
Day three is an active rest day, during which the athlete avoids
both high-intensity aerobic and anaerobic training. Whether it is
a team or individual sport, the drills should be easy and include
stretching and relaxation.
Day four consists of low to moderate resistance training so that a
high power output can be generated. Sport-specific drills can also
be enhanced using additional resistance. Examples include the
use of weighted vests and heavier than normal pucks, balls, and
bats. Whatever the drill or activity may be, encourage players and
athletes to move as fast as possible.

1. Baechle, W, and Earle, R. Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 400-401,
2008.
2. Clark, M, and Lucett, S. NASM Essentials of Sports Performance
Training. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009.
3. Clark, M, Lucett, S, and Corn, R. NASM Essentials of Personal
Fitness. Course manual. (3rd ed.) Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins; 2008.
4. Claflin, D, Larkin, L, Cederna, P, Horowitz, J, Alexander, N,
Cole, N, Galecki, A, Chen, S, Nyquist, L, Carlson, B, Faulkner, J,
and Ashton-Miller, J. Effects of high- and low-velocity resistance
training on the contractile properties of skeletal muscle fibers from
young and older humans. Journal of Applied Physiology 111: 10211030, 2011.
5. Dintiman, GB, Ward, RD, and Tellez, T. Sports Speed. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics; 1997.
6. Haff, G, and Nimphius, S. Training principles for power. Strength
and Conditioning Journal 34(6): 2-12, 2012.
7. Hedrick, A. Training the trunk for improved athletic performance.
Strength and Conditioning Journal (22): 50-61, 2000.
8. Hewit, J, Cronin, J, Button, C, and Hume, P. Understanding
change of direction performance via the 90 degree turn and sprint
test. Strength and Conditioning Journal (32): 82-88, 2010.

Day five includes competition; if you do not have a scheduled

competition on this day you can create one. You can inspire
a competitive atmosphere by measuring and comparing
performances from week to week.

9. Hommel, H. Scientific research project, biomechanical analysis

of the 2009 IAAF World Championships Final Report Sprint Men.
Retrieved April 2, 2013 from http://www.iaaf.org/development/
research/2009.

Day six includes endurance training. This can include riding a

stationary bike, treadmill, elliptical machine, swimming, jogging,
or speed walking. This will help strengthen and fortify an athletes
aerobic capacity, which contributes to the reduction of fatigue
during prolonged high-speed movements.

10. Kirby, T, Erickson, T, and McBride, J. Model for progression of

strength, power, and speed training. Strength and Conditioning
Journal (32): 86-90, 2010.

Day seven is a total rest day and physical activity should be

severely limited in order to recover from the previous week of
training.
In summary, many factors can contribute to enhanced speed,
agility, and quickness. The first strategy for speed enhancement
includes creating a strong healthy body by consuming a balanced
diet, getting plenty of rest, and utilizing an effective training
program. A second strategy is to teach athletes that a relatively
high, or above normal level of arousal or motivation can improve

11. Kibler, WB, and Sciascia, A. The role of core stability in athletic
function. Journal of Sports Medicine (36): 189-198, 2006.
12. Oxendine, J. Emotional arousal and motor performance. Quest
13(1): 23-32, 1970.
13. Parsons, LS, and Jones, MT. Development of speed, quickness,
and agility for tennis athletes. Strength and Conditioning Journal
(20): 14-19, 1998.
14. Schmidt, RA, and Wrisberg, CA. Motor Learning and
Performance: A Situation-Based Learning Approach. (4th ed.)
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2008.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED IMPROVEMENT

FOR ALL SPORTS

FEATURE ARTICLE
14. Smith, R. Cheetah breaks speed record beats Usain Bolt by
seconds. National Geographic News. Retrieved May 1, 2013 from,
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/08/120802cheetah-sarah-cincinnati-zoo-fastest-record-science-usain-boltolympics/ 2012.
15. Trappe, S, Gallagher, P, Harber, M, Carrithers, J, Fluckey, J, and
Trappe, T. Single muscle fiber contractile properties in young and
old men and women. The Journal of Physiology 552: 47-58, 2003.
16. Verkhoshansky, Y, and Siff, M. Supertraining. (6th ed.) Rome:
Ultimate Athlete Concepts: USA; 340, 2009.
17. Young, W. Training for speed and strength: Heavy vs. light
loads. Strength and Conditioning Journal 15(5): 34-42, 1993.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

John McNamara is an Associate Professor at St. Francis College
in Brooklyn, NY. He received his Bachelors and Masters degrees
at the University of Alberta in Canada, and his Doctorate in
Kinesiology from Temple University in Philadelphia, PA. He is
currently a Certied Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS)
and NSCA-Certied Personal Trainer (NSCA-CPT) with distinction
from the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA). He is also a Certified Sport Performance Coach with USA
Weightlifting and a Certified Physical Best Health-Fitness Specialist
with the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE). His research focus is training theory, exible nonlinear
periodization, nutrition, and exercise program creation.
James Chung is an undergraduate student in both the Psychology
and Health Promotions and Sciences programs at St. Francis
College in Brooklyn, NY. He is also a Division I tennis player as
well as a Certified Personal Trainer (NASM-CPT) and Performance
Enhancing Specialist (PES) with the National Academy of Sports
Medicine (NASM).
Yuki Miyazawa is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at St.
Francis College in Brooklyn, NY. He received his Bachelors Degree
from City University of New York Queens College. He is currently
a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) with
the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and a
Certified Sport Performance Coach with USA Weightlifting.
Max Barnhart is an Assistant Strength and Conditioning Coach
at St. Francis College in Brooklyn, NY. He received his Bachelors
degree from St. Francis College. He is currently a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) from the National Strength
and Conditioning Association (NSCA).

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PERSONAL TRAINING FOR PERFORMANCE

CHAT WILLIAMS, MS, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, FNSCA

BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS

FOR THE PERSONAL TRAINER
Many times when designing a strength and conditioning program,
the personal trainer will focus on improving muscular strength,
muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility.
Including motor skill components that enhance speed, agility, and
quickness should be considered depending on the individuals
goals, activity, or sport. This applies to all populations including
weekend warriors, older adults, and youth. The personal trainer
can modify many, if not all of the drills depending on the
individuals training age, fitness level, and skill level. Acceleration,
deceleration, change of direction, footwork, stride length, stride
frequency, and explosive capabilities are just a few of the variables
that may improve when incorporating speed and agility into a
training regimen (2). The purpose of this article is to define basic
speed, agility, and quickness components and provide sample
exercises/drills that can be incorporated into a comprehensive
training program.
KEY TERMS
Speed: The ability to cover a specific distance or execute a
movement in a short amount of time (3)
Agility: The ability of an individual to change direction quickly
or the velocity of the body when reacting to a stimulus (3)
Acceleration: The process of going from a static, or near
static, position and reach maximal speed as quickly as
possible (2)
Deceleration: The ability to slow down or stop quickly while
maintaining body control
Stride length: Can be improved through the training of sprint
mechanics and is typically 2.3 2.5 times the leg length of the
individual (2)
Stride frequency: The number of strides taken in a specific
amount of time and distance (2)
Closed agility drills: These types of drills remain consistent
and have a pre-determined pattern (3)
Open agility drills: These types of drills have limited
restrictions and are performed in environments that
constantly change and are not pre-determined (3)

Speed and agility drills can be incorporated using several types

of equipment, including manual resistance straps, cones, hurdles,
parachutes, and agility ladders. The following exercises are some
examples that can be incorporated into a program to enhance
speed, agility, and quickness.
RESISTED SPRINTS
Manual Resistance Strap (Partner) (Figures 1-2)
Components Challenged: Stride Length, Speed,
Acceleration, Closed Agility
Start with one individual standing in front of the other. The
person in front will have the strap around his/her waist with
the other person applying the resistance from behind with
the handles. Once the person in front starts running, the
person with the handles should apply resistance. Apply the
appropriate amount of resistance so the individual can still
maintain proper sprinting technique throughout the sprint.
Parachutes (Partner) (Figures 3-5)
Components Challenged: Stride Length, Speed,
Acceleration, Closed Agility
Start with the belt around the waist, the parachute will be
attached behind the individual and held by a partner. As the
individual starts to accelerate, the partner should slightly toss
the parachute upward within the first 2 3 steps so the wind
catches the parachute and applies the resistance. The amount
of resistance will depend on the size of the parachute and
wind conditions.
LADDER DRILLS
2 In/Out (Figures 6-9)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Closed Agility
Start with both feet outside the ladder on the left side, step
laterally with the right foot into the square, and then quickly
follow with the left foot. Simultaneously step out of the
square with the right foot, and then follow with the left foot.
Both feet will be on the outside of the ladder to the right,
repeat by leading with the left foot. Move through the ladder
alternating the lead foot for each square.

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BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS FOR THE

PERSONAL TRAINER
Scissors (Figures 10-12)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Closed Agility
Start standing sideways to the ladder, the right foot in the
square and left foot outside the ladder positioned slightly
back (staggered stance). After the scissor kick, the left foot
will be in the first square and the right foot will be outside
of the second square. Duplicate the same pattern while
alternating the feet and quickly moving through each square
forwards and backwards.
CONE DRILLS
5-Cone (Figures 13-15)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Closed or Open Agility
Start in the middle of the cones. Sprint to the cone on the
left, decelerate, and backpedal to the starting point. The
drill is complete once each cone has been touched and the
individual has returned to the starting point.
Note: Drill can be modified by changing skill (shuffle, carioca,
combinations). Plus, this drill can be performed as an open
agility exercise by calling out the colors of the cones so the
individual must react to an audio cue.
T-Drill (Figures 16-20)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Closed Agility
The T-Drill is a closed agility drill that focuses on linear speed,
lateral shuffling, and backpedaling. There are four cones in
the formation of a T. Cone A is the starting point, cone B
is 10 yards directly ahead, and cones C and D are five yards
apart on the left and right side of cone B. The individual
starts at cone A. On the command of the personal trainer, the
individual sprints to cone B and touches the base of the cone
with their right hand. The individual will cut left and shuffle
sideways to cone C, and touch its base, this time with their
left hand. Then they will decelerate and shuffle sideways to
the right to cone D, touching the base with the right hand.
They decelerate again and shuffle back to cone B by touching
with the left hand, making a cut, and running backwards to
cone A. The drill is complete when they pass cone A.

GAMES/DRILLS
Mirror/Cat and Mouse (Figures 21-25)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Open Agility
Have two individuals stand across from each other between
two cones, approximately 10 yards apart. One of the
individuals will move laterally back and forth trying to elude
the second person. This is performed in a smaller space, so
the movements should be sharp, quick, and precise.
Cat and mouse is a type of mirroring drill that uses a Velcro
strap fastened around the waist of each individual. The object
of the game is for the mouse to distance himself or herself
far enough away from the cat so that the Velcro strap in
the middle of the two individuals releases. The game can be
limited to lateral movements in a specific range and distance,
or can be opened up to all movement patterns. The cat must
do their best to mimic and react to the movements of the
mouse while maintaining close proximity.
Medicine Ball Tennis (Figures 26-27)
Components Challenged: Agility, Acceleration, Deceleration,
Open Agility
Medicine ball tennis is an open agility game played on the
tennis court; the general rules of tennis apply except for the
game requires a rubber medicine ball that will bounce. The
object of the game is to return the ball over the net with
minimal steps (fast paced) before the ball bounces twice.
Overhead throws and rotational throws may be used to return
the ball. If the ball bounces twice before being caught and
returned over the net, the individual serving is awarded a
point. The first person to score 10 points (win by 2) is the
winner. This can be modified depending on the desired
duration of the game. Playing rally points would be another
modification to help speed up the game. The size and the
weight of the ball should be determined by skill level, fitness
level, and size of the individuals playing. Adding a smaller
racquetball or reaction ball to the game may increase the
difficulty for the individuals.

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BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS FOR THE

PERSONAL TRAINER

Figure 1. Manual Resistance Strap: Start

Figure 2. Manual Resistance Strap:

Sprint

Figure 3. Parachute: Start

Figure 4. Parachute: Initial Drive

Figure 5. Parachute: Finish

Figure 6. Ladder 2 In/Out: Start

Figure 7. Ladder 2 In/Out: Right

Foot In

Figure 8. Ladder 2 In/Out: Both Feet

In Square

Figure 9. Ladder 2 In/Out: Right

Foot Out

Figure 10. Ladder Scissor: Left Out

Right In

Figure 11. Ladder Scissor: Alternate

Feet, Left In Right Out

Figure 12. Ladder Scissor: Alternate

Feet and Next Square

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BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS FOR THE

PERSONAL TRAINER

Figure 13. 5-Cone Drill: Setup

Figure 14. 5-Cone Drill: Start

Figure 15. 5-Cone Drill: Sprint to

Decelerate to Backpedal

Figure 16. T-Drill: Setup

Figure 17. T-Drill: Start and Sprint

Figure 18. T-Drill: Shuffle Left

Figure 19. T-Drill: Shuffle Right

Figure 20. T-Drill: Backpedal and Finish

Figure 21. Mirror: Start

Figure 22. Mirror: Action

Figure 23. Mirror: Action

Figure 24. Cat and Mouse: Setup

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BASIC SPEED, AGILITY, AND QUICKNESS DRILLS FOR THE

PERSONAL TRAINER

Figure 25. Cat and Mouse: Action

Figure 26. Medicine Ball Tennis:

Overhead Throw

Figure 27. Medicine Ball Tennis:

Rotational Throw

REFERENCES
1. Brown, L, and Ferrigno, V. Training for Speed, Agility, and
Quickness. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2005.
2. Cissik, J. Tools for speed development. NSCA Performance
Training Journal 10(4): 2011.
3. Williams, C. Games and drills for improved performance. NSCA
Performance Training Journal 11(3): 2012.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Chat Williams is the Supervisor for Norman Regional Health Club.
He is a past member of the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Board of Directors, NSCA State Director
Committee Chair, Midwest Regional Coordinator, and State Director
of Oklahoma (2004 State Director of the Year). He also served on
the NSCA Personal Trainer Special Interest Group (SIG) Executive
Council. He is the author of multiple training DVDs. He also runs his
own company, Oklahoma Strength and Conditioning Productions,
which offers personal training services, sports performance
for youth, metabolic testing, and educational conferences and
seminars for strength and conditioning professionals.

ONLINE REGISTRATION CLOSES JUNE 21ST, 2013

ON-SITE REGISTRATION AVAILABLE AFTER THIS DATE.

STRENGTH TO PERFORM.
CONDITIONED TO WIN.

NSCA 36th Annual National Conference

July 10 13, 2013 | Las Vegas, NV
NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

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TRAINING TABLE
DEBRA WEIN, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD, NSCA-CPT,*D
AND ERIN RIZKALLA

TART CHERRIES - THE NEW ASPIRIN?

The performance of athletes often rests heavily on what occurs
after exercise. Several studies on tart cherries may be particularly
relevant to athletes as their purported benefits include decreasing
pain, inflammation, and musculoskeletal injury in individuals
who perform strenuous exercise, such as long-distance running.
Traditional treatments for inflammation of muscle tissue, or
recovery from acute injury, have been rest, ice, compression,
and elevation (RICE) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAID) (3). RICE requires a standard period of time to rest, which
many athletes would like to reduce if possible. With prolonged
use, NSAIDS can have unpleasant side effects that range from
nausea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal ailments to more serious
side effects such as kidney failure, liver failure, and ulcers (1). A
natural alternative to these concerns with RICE and NSAID drugs
could be as simple as introducing tart cherry juice into an athletes
diet; tart cherries have been shown to help alleviate inflammation,
improve recovery after exercise, and assist with the management
of pain associated with certain conditions.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TART CHERRIES

In a recent study, researchers found that tart cherry juice could
aid in recovery following strenuous exercise by increasing total
antioxidative capacity, reducing inflammation, and limiting lipid
degradation (6). In this study, recreational marathon runners
consumed either cherry juice or a placebo for five days before,
the day of, and for 48 hr following a marathon. Markers of muscle
damage (creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, muscle soreness,
and isometric strength), inflammation (interleukin6 [IL-6],
C-reactive protein [CRP] and uric acid), total antioxidant status
(TAS), and oxidative stress were measured before and following
the marathon. Isometric strength recovered significantly faster in
the cherry juice group. Inflammation was also significantly reduced
in the cherry juice group, and TAS was about 10% greater in the
cherry juice than the placebo group for all post-supplementation
measures (6).

POSSIBLE MECHANISM
Tart cherries are considered one of the highest sources of phenolic
compounds (including cyclooxygenase inhibitory flavonoids and
anthocyanins) and contain high levels of antioxidant and antiinflammatory compounds (3). The levels of anthocyanins and
other flavonoids in the Montmorency and Balaton tart cherry were
analyzed comparatively and showed that antioxidant activities
of tart cherry extracts, including juice, preserve their antioxidant
capacities after processing and storage (3). One of the huge
benefits of anthocyanins is their ability to scavenge oxygen
free radicals. This feature makes the tart cherry a significant

antioxidant food source impacting oxidative damage processes,

beneficial for athletes recovering from strenuous exercise.
A study performed by researchers at the University of Vermont
among healthy, exercise-nave individuals found that tart cherry
juice decreased muscle damage symptoms and strength loss after
eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage (2,3). In the study, 14
male college students drank 12 fl oz of a tart cherry juice blend or
a placebo drink twice daily for eight consecutive days. A bout of
elbow flexion eccentric exercise was performed consisting of 2 x
20 maximum contractions at baseline to induce muscle damage.
Isometric elbow flexion strength, pain, and muscle soreness were
measured before and for four days after the muscle damage
protocol. Strength loss and pain were significantly less in the
cherry juice group versus the placebo group. For the placebo
group, strength loss was 30% at 24 hr and still 12% at 96 hr after
eccentric exercise. By contrast, in the cherry juice group, strength
loss was only 12% at 24 hr, and strength was actually 6% above
baseline at 96 hr. Most notably, there was a preservation of muscle
function attributable to the consumption of cherry juice.

AS A SUPPLEMENT FOR OTHER AILMENTS

Tart cherry juice has been shown to provide health benefits in
increasing restful sleep patterns as well, due to the melatonin
found in the fruit (4). Cherries can also alleviate symptoms of
osteoarthritis (OA) such as pain and inflammation (3). Studies
have shown that patients diagnosed with inflammatory OA
experience a statistically significant decrease in CRP, a measure
of inflammation, when cherry juice was consumed in place of
the placebo (3). In a study of twenty women ages 40 to 70 with
inflammatory OA, researchers found that drinking tart cherry
juice twice daily for three weeks led to significant reductions in
important inflammation markersespecially for women who had
the highest inflammation levels at the start of the study (3). More
research would be helpful in this field so that perhaps one day, OA
patients may standardly use tart cherries as an alternative, natural
remedy to manage the pain associated with this condition.

HOW MUCH TO TAKE

The dosage used in recent studies shows that improvement may
be seen by drinking 12 fl oz of juice, twice daily, which is the
equivalent of 100 - 120 cherries per day (2,3,6). Eating cherries
in their natural form, or via juice, is always the healthiest way
to reap the benefits. The research studies suggest individuals
consume around 80 mg of anthocyanins per day to help alleviate
certain symptoms. However, if you cannot eat that many cherries,
or do not like the tart taste of the juice, juice blends and extracts

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

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TART CHERRIES - THE NEW ASPIRIN?

are available (tart cherries are found seasonally in various

supermarkets and health food stores in summer months; however,
you can buy them dried or canned year-round).

REFERENCES
1. Burrows, NR. NSAIDS and chronic kidney disease. Center for
Disease Control Paper. Retrieved April 30, 2013 from, http://www.
cdc.gov/diabetes/news/pdf/nsaid_transcript.pdf.
2. Connolly, DA, McHugh, MP, and Padilla-Zakour, OL. Efficacy of
a Tart Cherry Juice Blend in Preventing the Symptoms of Muscle
Damage. British Journal of Sports Medicine Aug: 679-83, 2006.
3. Howatson, G, McHugh, MP, and Hill, JA. Influence of tart
cherry juice on indices of recovery following marathon running.
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 20(6): 843852, 2010.
4. Kuehl, KS. Cherry juice targets antioxidant potential and pain
relief. Medicine and Sports Science 59: 86-93, 2012.
5. Pigeon, WR, Carr, M, Gorman, C, and Perlis, ML. Effects of a tart
cherry juice beverage on the sleep of older adults with insomnia:
A pilot study. Journal of Medicinal Food 5: 79-83, 2010.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Debra Wein is a recognized expert on health and wellness and
designed award-winning programs for both individuals and
corporations around the United States. She is President and
Founder of Wellness Workdays, Inc., (www.wellnessworkdays.com)
a leading provider of worksite wellness programs. In addition, she
is the President and Founder of the partner company, Sensible
Nutrition, Inc. (www.sensiblenutrition.com), a consulting firm of
registered dietitians and personal trainers, established in 1994, that
provides nutrition and wellness services to individuals. She has
nearly 20 years of experience working in the health and wellness
industry. Her sport nutrition handouts and free weekly email
newsletters are available online at www.sensiblenutrition.com.
Erin Rizkalla is a graduate of the Exercise and Health Science
Program at the University of Massachusetts Boston. She will be
pursuing a Master of Science degree in Food and Nutrition and
completing a dietetics program. She hopes to use her experience
and education in spreading healthy eating and healthy lifestyle
programs to those in need.

6. PR Newswire. Researchers say tart cherries have the highest

anti-inflammatory content of any food 2012. Retrieved March
15, 2013 from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/
researchers-say-tart-cherries-have-the-highest-anti-inflammatorycontent-of-any-food-155672215.html.

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YOUTH ATHLETIC DEVELOPMENT

RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

SPEED AND AGILITY TRAINING FOR

PREADOLESCENTS AND ADOLESCENTS
DEFINING SPEED AND AGILITY
Speed and agility can be considered skill-fitness attributes.
Speed is defined in the NSCAs Essentials of Strength Training and
Conditioning as, movement distance per unit time quantified as
the time taken to cover a fixed distance (no greater than 200 m)
and as the skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement
velocities (1). Agility is the ability to stop, start, and change the
direction of the body or body parts rapidly and in a controlled
manner, and the skills and abilities needed to change movement
velocities or modes explosively (1). Since speed and agility require
muscle coordination and control, considerations must be taken
when designing a program for preadolescents. In order to improve
speed and agility for all youth, the questions addressed in this
column include:
How do we incorporate health fitness and skills fitness into
programs for preadolescents and adolescents?
What is the framework of opportunity to develop speed and
agility in preadolescents?
Where might opportunities exist for certified NSCA
Members?

INCORPORATING HEALTH FITNESS AND

SKILLS FITNESS
The current emphasis appears to be on health fitness, namely
cardiovascular endurance, muscle fitness (strength and endurance
in one category), body composition, and flexibility. Skills fitness
is regarded as those attributes necessary for successful sports
participation, such as speed, agility, balance, power, coordination,
and reaction time. Health fitness is taught in schools for physical
education, and skills fitness testing and performance are relegated
to afterschool for those with athletic inclinations. The two primary
issues here are that children excluded from developing motor skill
proficiency in skills fitness will be less likely to achieve mastery
of these skills into adolescence and adulthood. Relegating skills
fitness testing and performance to afterschool for those that
demonstrate aptitude discriminates against those children who
have not matured as early or been exposed to opportunities
to develop their skills, thereby greatly reducing the number
of children and youth that participate in sports and physical
activity. Implementing integrative youth physical development by
incorporating integrative neuromuscular training that combines
performance-enhancing and injury-reducing components (e.g.,
strength, power, and balance) into one fitness program promotes
balanced programming for health fitness and skills fitness (3,4,6).
This approach helps develop all fitness attributes simultaneously,
which helps all children and youth develop health fitness, skills
fitness, and healthy exercise habits for a lifetime.

FRAMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING SPEED AND AGILITY

IN PREADOLESCENTS
Current models for developing athleticism, most notably Balyis
Long-Term Athletic Development Model, contend that windows
of trainability for each fitness attribute exist, especially if
mastery is the desired outcome (2). While the debate continues
as to whether or not the windows actually close on proficiency,
the model proposed by Lloyd and Oliver suggests concurrent
development of all fitness attributes throughout childhood and
adolescence while encouraging development of specific attributes
during certain periods of adaptation (5). This important distinction
ensures appropriate development for all preadolescents and
adolescents, and accounts for their maturation level, gender,
and training status. This model suggests that preadolescent
training should focus on speed development through plyometrics,
technical proficiency, and sprint mechanics while adolescent
training should focus on strength training, plyometrics, and sprint
training. For agility, preadolescent training should focus on motor
control movements that progress to more sport-specific patterns
while adolescent training should focus on more challenging
(open and unplanned) training methods as practical sportscontextual learning occurs. Special attention should be paid to the
developmental period known as adolescent awkwardness, when
adolescents may demonstrate decrements in motor performance
due to the adolescent growth spurt. Coaches and trainers should
include relearning of motor patterns during this stage.

OPPORTUNITY FOR NSCA-CERTIFIED MEMBERS

An excellent summary of key points for coaches was developed by
Williams and Bond and suggests:
Youth recover more quickly from high-intensity exercise and
may require shorter rest periods (work-to-rest ratios of 1:1 to
1:6 are advised)
A repeated sprint shuttle with several lanes of different
lengths can serve large groups
Sport-specific skills can also be included in the repeated
sprint shuttle design, when developmentally appropriate
(usually late preadolescence and adolescence)
Improvements in speed and agility, above that attributable to
normal maturation, can be gained in sessions as brief as one
hour once per week (7)
Programming for speed and agility, therefore, can be included
in an integrated program design, which will also improve muscle
strength (an important contributor to developing speed and
agility) as well as all other fitness attributes. Certified NSCA
Members can be on the frontline working with sport coaches,

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

23

SPEED AND AGILITY TRAINING FOR PREADOLESCENTS

AND ADOLESCENTS
physical educators, and youth fitness and physical activity
programs to not only improve sports performance but also
promote a positive and sustainable adherence to physical activity
across a persons lifespana key construct of physical literacy.

REFERENCES
1. Baechle, T, Earle, R, and Wathen, D. Essentials of Strength
Training and Conditioning. (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;
252-458, 2008.
2. Balyi, I, and Hamilton, A. Long-term athlete development:
Trainability in childhood and adolescence. United Soccer Master
Course. Victoria, Canada: National Coaching Institute British
Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd; 2004.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Rick Howard helped find the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
activity and sports participation.

3. Faigenbaum, A, and Myer, G. Exercise deficit disorder in youth:

Play now or pay later. Current Sports Medicine Reports 11: 196-200,
2012.
4. Faigenbaum, A, and Myer, G. Pediatric resistance training:
Benefits, concerns, and program design considerations. Current
Sports Medicine Reports 9: 161-168, 2010.
5. Lloyd, R, and Oliver, J. The youth physical development model:
A new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 34: 61-70, 2012.
6. Stodden, D, Howard, R, Faigenbaum, A, Richardson, C, Meadors,
L, Moore, W, Molony, J, McHenry, P, Graziano, J, and Cullen-Carroll,
P. Promoting integrative youth physical development in the united
states. UK National Strength and Conditioning Journal 26: 10-18,
2012.
7. Williams, C, and Bond, B. High-intensity training in young
athletes. UK National Strength and Conditioning Journal 26: 3-8,
2012.

NSCAS PERFORMANCE TRAINING JOURNAL | ISSUE 12.3

24

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