Psychrometrics - Theory and Examples

Wilhelm, Luther R., Dwayne A. Suter, and Gerald H. Brusewitz. 2004. Psychrometrics.
Chapter 9
in Food & Process Engineering Technology, 213-257. St. Joseph, Michigan: ASAE. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers. (Rev. Aug. 2005.)
Psychrometrics
Abstract. This chapter includes basic coverage of psychrometric properties and
psychrometric processes. Emphasis is upon properties and processes relative to the
environment and to processing of biological materials. The chapter also includes a
discussion of steam properties and use of steam tables.
Keywords. Cooling, drying, dew point temperature, enthalpy, heating, humidity ratio, psychrometrics, steam quality, relative humidity, wet bulb temperature, steam,
steam-air mixtures, steam tables.
9.1 Introduction
Air is a mixture of many different gases (a mixture we call dry air) and water vapor. If pressures do not greatly exceed atmospheric pressure, the perfect gas relationships are valid for these air-water vapor mixtures. These ideal gas relationships are
used to evaluate thermodynamic properties of the mixtures. This field of study is
called psychrometrics.
An understanding of psychrometrics is important in the drying and storage of selected food products. Proper drying conditions are necessary to control the drying rate
and resulting quality of dried product. In addition, specific psychrometric conditions
have been identified for optimum storage of many fresh and dried products. These are
further discussed in other chapters. Psychrometric properties are also important in assessing environmental conditions relative to plant and animal health.
9.2 Relationships Derived from the Perfect Gas Law

The properties of air/water vapor mixtures are based upon ideal gas relationships.
Thus, we will review the basic relationships needed to define important psychrometric
properties. The perfect gas law may be written in different forms as:
where:
PV = N Ru T
(9.01)
PV = N M R T
(9.02)
Pv = R T
(9.03)
PV = m R T
(9.04)
m = mass of the gas, kg

M = molecular weight of the gas, kg/kmol
N = number of moles of the gas
P = pressure, kPa
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Food & Process Engineering Technology
R = gas constant for a particular gas, Ru /M, kPa m3/kg K

Ru = universal gas constant, Ru = 8.314 kPa m3/kmol K (or 8.314 kJ/kmol K)
T = absolute temperature, K
v = specific volume of the gas, m3/kg
V = total volume of the gas, m3
Units for the gas constants R and Ru can be expressed in several different forms.
The units given above for Ru are probably the most descriptive; however, using unit
factors to convert units, we can also obtain units of kN m/kmol K without affecting the
numeric value of 8.314. Similarly, R may be expressed in units of kPa m3/kg K, kN
m/kg K, or kJ/kg K without affecting the numeric value. Molecular weights and gas
constants for air and water vapor (using the units given above) are: Ma = 28.96, Ra =
0.28706, Mw = 18.015, and Rw = 0.46152.
For a mixture of several gases, Equations 9.01 to 9.04 may be written separately for
each gas. If Equation 9.01 is used, the equation for the total mixture becomes:
P = (N1 + N2 + N3 + ...) Ru T/V
(9.05)
For air containing water vapor, the total pressure is given by:
P = Pa + Pw
(9.06)
where Pa is the partial pressure of the dry air (including all its component gases) and
Pw is the partial pressure of the water vapor. These two partial pressures may be written (using Equation 9.01) as:
Pa = Na Ru T/V
(9.07)
Pw = Nw Ru T/V
(9.08)
The partial pressure of water vapor is a very important parameter in psychrometrics. It is frequently used to calculate other psychrometric properties. For example,
relative humidity () is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air
(Nw) to the amount the air will hold when saturated at the same temperature (Nws).
Thus:
Nw
N ws
(9.09)
Using Equation 9.08, we can rewrite Equation 9.09 as:

V
RuT
P
=
= w
V
Pws
Pws
RuT
Pw
(9. 10)
The partial pressure of water vapor at saturation (Pws) is a function only of temperature. However, this relationship is complex, involving multiple exponential and logarithmic terms (Wilhelm, 1976).
Chapter 9 Psychrometrics
215
Another psychrometric parameter of interest is the humidity ratio (W). The humidity ratio is the ratio of the mass of water vapor in the air to the mass of the dry air:
W=
mw
ma
(9.11)
Referring to the ideal gas equation in the form of Equation 9.04, we can write:
V
Pw
mw
P
RwT Ra Pw 0.28706 Pw
=
=
=
= 0.622 w
W=
V
ma
Rw Pa 0.46152 Pa
Pa
Pa
RaT
(9.12)
The partial pressure of the dry air (Pa) is the difference between atmospheric pressure and the partial pressure of the water vapor, also called vapor pressure:
Pa = P Pw
(9.13)
Thus:
W = 0.622
Pw
P Pw
(9.14)
or, solving for Pw:

Pw =
PW
0.622 + W
(9.15)
The degree of saturation () is another psychrometric parameter that is sometimes

used. It is the humidity ratio divided by the humidity ratio at saturation:
W
Ws
(9.16)
A final parameter that can be determined from the perfect gas law is the specific
volume () of the moist air. The specific volume is defined in terms of a unit mass of
dry air. Thus, using Equations 9.04 and 9.13:
v=
V
=
ma
ma Ra
ma
T
Pa
Ra T
R T
= a
Pa
P Pw
(9.17)
Substituting from Equation 9.15 for Pw:

v=
Ra T
R T
= a (1 + 1.608 W )
PW
P
P
0.622 + W
(9.18)
216
9.3 Other Important Parameters

The dew point temperature (tdp) is the temperature at which moisture begins to
condense if air is cooled at constant pressure. The dew point temperature is directly
related to partial pressure of the water vapor (Pw); however, that relationship is complex, involving several logarithmic terms (ASHRAE, 1997). Since Pw is also related to
the humidity ratio W, this means that specifying any one of the three parameters tdp,
Pw, and W specifies all three.
The wet-bulb temperature (twb) is the temperature measured by a sensor (originally the bulb of a thermometer) that has been wetted with water and exposed to air
movement that removes the evaporating moisture. The evaporating water creates a
cooling effect. When equilibrium is reached, the wet-bulb temperature will be lower
than the ambient temperature. The difference between the two (the wet bulb depression) depends upon the rate at which moisture evaporates from the wet bulb. The
evaporation rate, in turn, depends upon the moisture content of the air. The evaporation rate decreases as the air moisture content increases. Thus, a small wet bulb depression indicates high relative humidity, while a large wet bulb depression is indicative of low relative humidity.
The enthalpy (h) of moist air is one of the most frequently used psychrometric parameters. It is a measure of the energy content of the air and depends upon both the
temperature and the moisture content of the air. It is determined by adding the enthalpy of the moisture in the air (W hw) to the enthalpy of the dry air (ha):
h = ha + W hw = c pa t + W (h fg + c pw t )
(9.19)
h = 1.006 t + W (2501 + 1.805 t )
(9.20)
or:
Equation 9.20 is based upon a specific heat for air of 1.006 kJ/kg K and a zero
value of h at t = 0C. The enthalpy of water is based upon: a zero value of h at 0C
(liquid state); hfg = 2501 kJ/kg at 0C; and an average specific heat for water vapor of
1.805 kJ/kg K. Equation 9.20 provides a good approximation for the enthalpy of moist
air over a wide range of temperatures; however, the error increases rapidly at temperatures above 100C. Empirical relationships, charts, or tables must then be used to determine h.
9.4 Psychrometric Charts

If two independent psychrometric parameters are known, all the psychrometric parameters previously discussed can be computed numerically. However, numerical calculation is practical only if the calculation method is computerized. The fastest and
easiest method of evaluating psychrometric properties is often the use of a psychrometric chart. The psychrometric chart shows selected psychrometric properties
as a function of each other. Properties shown on most psychrometric charts are drybulb, wet-bulb, and dew point temperatures; relative humidity; humidity ratio; enthalpy; and specific volume. Figure 9.01 is a typical psychrometric chart. It covers the
Figure 9.01. Psychrometric chart for normal temperatures (SI units).

(Courtesy of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.)
217
218
normal temperature range at standard atmospheric pressure. Other charts are available for higher and lower temperature ranges and for pressures above and below one
atmosphere. In addition, different chart versions are available for these common psychrometric ranges. The general arrangement of all charts is the same; however, differences in appearance are obvious. The procedure for reading the psychrometric parameters differs little among the chartsexcept for the enthalpy and (occasionally) the
wet-bulb temperature. We will use Figure 9.01 to gain an understanding of psychrometric charts. Before reading further, you should examine this figure closely.
Identify the lines representing parameters such as dew point, wet-bulb and dry-bulb
temperatures, humidity ratio, etc.
Each position on a psychrometric chart represents a unique state point. Any two independent psychrometric properties define such a state point. We will now use two
properties to define a state point and then determine the values of the other psychrometric properties. Let us assume that we used a psychrometer, a device that
measures wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures, and obtained the following measurements:
twb = 17.1C
t = 24C
To find the state point represented by these values, we follow a vertical line upward
from t = 24C at the bottom of the chart. We then locate the point where this line intersects with an imaginary line just above, and parallel to, the dashed line sloping
downward to the right from a wet-bulb temperature of 17.0C. The intersection of the
lines (circled on Figure 9.01) represents the desired state point. Note that the temperatures on the curved line at the upper left of the chart may represent either dew point
(saturation temperature), wet-bulb, or dry-bulb temperatures. A constant wet-bulb
temperature is represented by a line sloping downward to the right; a constant dew
point temperature is represented by a horizontal line; and a constant dry bulb line is
represented by a vertical (or near vertical) line. At saturation (100% relative humidity), the dry bulb, wet-bulb and dew point temperatures are equal. At any other condition, they are not equal and follow the order t > twb > tdp.
We have now located the state point (indicated by the center of the circle on Figure
9.01). Moving left horizontally from this point, we find that the dew point is 13.0C.
Also, moving right along this horizontal line we find that the humidity ratio is 9.3 g/kg
of dry air. Relative humidity is represented by lines curving upward to the right. Our
state point appears to be exactly on the 50% line. Thus, = 50%.
Similarly, the specific volume is found by interpolating between the 0.85 and 0.86
constant specific volume lines which slope sharply downward to the right. We find
that v = 0.854 m3/kg. The partial pressure of the water vapor can be calculated from
Equation 9.15, noting that P = 101.325 kPa and W must be dimensionless (0.0093
kg/kg of dry air, instead of the 9.3 g/kg noted above):
Pw =
101.325 0.0093
= 1.493 kPa
0.622 + 0.0093
219
The psychrometric chart shown in Figure 9.01 is only one of several versions of
psychrometric charts available. Two other charts are shown in Figures 9.02 and 9.03.
Figure 9.02 covers lower temperature ranges not covered by Figure 9.01. Figure 9.03
is a greatly condensed chart that extends to higher temperatures. All these charts present the data in SI units. Similar charts are available using US units. Although there
are some differences in chart arrangement, the same interpretation procedures apply
for all psychrometric charts.
In reading the psychrometric chart, you should keep the following points in mind:
1. Enthalpy, humidity ratio, and specific volume are referenced to a unit mass of
dry air.
2. On charts using US units, the humidity ratio may be given in pounds of moisture
per pound of dry air or in grains of moisture per pound of dry air. Since one
pound contains 7000 grains, the two measurements can be converted as needed.
In SI units, the humidity ratio is expressed in either grams of water or kilograms
of water per kilogram of dry air.
3. Constant enthalpy and constant wet bulb lines are not parallel, although there is
only a slight difference in slope. Because of this, most charts do not show both
constant wet-bulb and constant enthalpy lines. Only one parameter is usually
plotted, although the other may be plotted at wide intervals. In the example used
earlier, the enthalpy is 48 kJ/kg dry air. Note the short sloping lines along the
right edge and bottom of the chart. These represent constant enthalpy lines corresponding to similar lines along the enthalpy scale at the upper left. By using a
straight edge to align the point in the circle on Figure 9.01 with equal values of
enthalpy along the bottom and upper left of the chart, we find that the enthalpy
value is 48 kJ/kg dry air. Some charts use an enthalpy correction curve. These
curves show the adjustment to correct for deviation between constant enthalpy
and constant wet-bulb lines. On these charts, the constant wet-bulb line is followed to find a value for enthalpy from the enthalpy scale at upper left. That
value is then adjusted by subtracting the value of the enthalpy correction.
9.4.1 Psychrometric Tables
Tabulated values of psychrometric properties (see Table 9.01) can also be used for
analysis of psychrometric data. However, use of the tables is more time consuming
than use of a chart. Use of the table also has limitations. For example, the wet bulb
temperature cannot be directly related to any tabulated properties. However, we can
use the table to determine other psychrometric properties at t = 24C and 50% relative
humidity. This is the same point used in the chart analysis; however, we can expect the
values of some properties to differ slightly from those determined by the chart. Results
obtained using the table would normally be considered more accurate than those from
a psychrometric chart.
To find the partial pressure (or vapor pressure) of water vapor in the air, we note
that relative humidity is defined as = Pw /Pws (Equation 9.10). At t = 24C, the table
gives Pws = 2.9852. Solving for Pw = Pws = 0.5(2.9852) = 1.4926 kPa. This is essentially the same value found from the psychrometric chart. We can now use Equation
9.14 to solve for the humidity ratio (W) at 24C and 50% relative humidity:
220
Figure 9.02. Psychrometric chart for low temperatures (SI units). (Courtesy of
the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.)
221
Figure 9.03. Psychrometric chart for high temperatures (SI units). (Courtesy of
the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.)
222
W = 0.0622
Pw
kg H 2 O
1.4926
= 0.0622
= 0.0093
P Pw
101.325 1.4926
kg DA
Since the dew point temperature is defined as the temperature at which 100% relative humidity is reached as the air is cooled, this would be the temperature at which Ws
= 0.0093 kg H2O/kg DA. Searching the table for the temperature corresponding to Ws
= 0.0093 kg H2O/kg DA, we find that tdp = 13C at Ws = 0.009370 kg H2O/kg DA.
This is slightly above but very close to the look-up value of 0.0093 that we are using.
If necessary, we could interpolate to find the temperature corresponding to Ws =
0.0093. Note that this should also be the temperature corresponding to Pws = 1.4926
kPa. Note also that Ws = 0.018963 at 24C; but since we have only 50% relative humidity, that moisture level is never reached.
The remaining two properties, specific volume (v) and enthalpy (h) can be determined from the table by noting that each are made up of an air component and a water
component. For example, the energy content (h) of the wet air is the sum of energy
from the dry air and energy from the moisture present. The enthalpy columns of the
table give values of ha (enthalpy of the dry air), hs (enthalpy of the saturated air), and
has (enthalpy added by the moisture to produce saturated air and equal to hs ha). We
can determine h at any moisture content by using these values and the equation:
h = ha + has, where =
W
Ws
(9.21)
Rewriting the equation, substituting for , and inserting values for all the properties,
we find:
h = ha +
W
0.0093
kJ
has = 24.146 +
48.239 = 47.8
Ws
0.018963
kg DA
This compares to a value of 48 found from the chart.

The solution for specific volume follows exactly the same procedure:
v = va +
0.0093
m3
W
vas = 0.8416 +
0.0256 = 0.8542
0.018963
kg DA
Ws
Again, the resulting value is very close to the value determined from the psychrometric chart. Typically, use of the tabulated values, while more time consuming, will give
more accurate results than use of the psychrometric chart.
223
Table 9.01. Selected thermodynamic properties of moist air.[a]

Condensed Water
Humidity
Vapor
Volume
Enthalpy
Temp
Enthalpy Pressure
Ratio
3
(m /kgda)
(kJ/kgda)
(kJ/kg)
(C) (kgw/kgda)
(kPa)
hw
Ws
t
va
vas
vs
ha
has
hs
pws
0
0.003789 0.7734 0.0047 0.7781 0.000 9.473
9.473
0.06
0.6112
2
0.004381 0.7791 0.0055 0.7845 2.012 10.970 12.982
8.49
0.7060
4
0.005054 0.7848 0.0064 0.7911 4.024 12.672 16.696 16.91
0.8135
6
0.005818 0.7904 0.0074 0.7978 6.036 14.608 20.644 25.32
0.9353
8
0.006683 0.7961 0.0085 0.8046 8.047 16.805 24.852 33.72
1.0729
9
0.007157 0.7990 0.0092 0.8081 9.053 18.010 27.064 37.92
1.1481
10
0.007661 0.8018 0.0098 0.8116 10.059 19.293 29.352 42.11
1.2280
11
0.008197 0.8046 0.0106 0.8188 11.065 20.658 31.724 46.31
1.3128
12
0.008766 0.8075 0.0113 0.8152 12.071 22.108 34.179 50.50
1.4026
13
0.009370 0.8103 0.0122 0.8225 13.077 23.649 36.726 54.69
1.4979
14
0.010012 0.8132 0.0131 0.8262 14.084 25.286 39.370 58.88
1.5987
15
0.010692 0.8160 0.0140 0.8300 15.090 27.023 42.113 63.07
1.7055
16
0.011413 0.8188 0.0150 0.8338 16.096 28.867 44.963 67.26
1.8185
17
0.012178 0.8217 0.0160 0.8377 17.102 30.824 47.926 71.44
1.9380
18
0.012989 0.8245 0.0172 0.8417 18.108 32.900 51.008 75.63
2.0643
19
0.013848 0.8274 0.0184 0.8457 19.114 35.101 54.216 79.81
2.1979
20
0.014758 0.8302 0.0196 0.8494 20.121 37.434 57.555 84.00
2.3389
21
0.015721 0.8330 0.0210 0.8540 21.127 39.908 61.035 88.18
2.4878
22
0.016741 0.8359 0.0224 0.8583 22.133 42.527 64.660 92.36
2.6448
23
0.017821 0.8387 0.0240 0.8627 23.140 45.301 68.440 96.55
2.8105
24
0.018963 0.8416 0.0256 0.8671 24.146 48.239 72.385 100.73
2.9852
25
0.020170 0.8444 0.0273 0.8717 25.153 51.347 76.500 104.91
3.1693
26
0.021448 0.8472 0.0291 0.8764 26.159 54.638 80.798 109.09
3.3633
27
0.022798 0.8501 0.0311 0.8811 27.165 58.120 85.285 113.27
3.5674
28
0.024226 0.8529 0.0331 0.8860 28.172 61.804 89.976 117.45
3.7823
29
0.025735 0.8558 0.0353 0.8910 29.179 65.699 94.878 121.63
4.0084
30
0.027329 0.8586 0.0376 0.8962 30.185 69.820 100.00 125.81
4.2462
35
0.036756 0.8728 0.0514 0.9242 35.219 94.236 129.455 146.71
5.6280
40
0.049141 0.8870 0.0698 0.9568 40.253 126.43 166.683 167.61
7.3838
45
0.065411 0.9012 0.0943 0.9955 45.289 168.87 214.164 188.51
9.5935
50
0.086858 0.9154 0.1272 1.0425 50.326 225.02 275.345 209.42 12.3503
55
0.115321 0.9296 0.1713 1.1009 55.365 299.77 355.137 230.33 15.7601
60
0.15354
0.9438 0.2315 1.1752 60.405 400.46 460.863 251.25 19.9439
65
0.20579
0.9580 0.3147 1.2726 65.446 538.55 603.995 272.18 25.0397
70
0.27916
0.9721 0.4328 1.4049 70.489 732.96 803.448 293.13 31.1986
[a]
Abridged data taken from ASHRAE. 1997. Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 6. Courtesy
of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
224
9.5 Processes on the Psychrometric Chart

The psychrometric chart is used in many applications both within and outside the
food industry. It is used extensively to analyze product drying and air cooling, primarily because it is a simple and quick alternative to more costly methods. Drying with air
is an extremely cost-effective method to reduce the moisture of a biological material,
and the addition of a small amount of heat significantly improves the airs drying potential. Air at a particular temperature and pressure has a limit to its drying capability
and so it is useful to understand the changes in its drying potential as moisture is
added or removed by the food materials, people, animals, etc. Hot, dry environments
for animals, including humans, can be made more comfortable by evaporative cooling,
a low-cost method that lowers the air temperature as a trade-off for increasing humidity. The addition of moisture to the air is valuable in certain applications as seen in
summertime greenhouse evaporative cooling. Fruit and vegetables harvested in hot
weather often can be cooled with evaporatively cooled air to reduce respiration.
Large industrial plants, particularly food processing plants, generating waste heat
and needing cooling often utilize cooling towers to reduce their refrigeration requirements. Cooling towers, operating on the evaporative cooling principle, provide a way
to cool water by rejecting the unwanted heat to the atmosphere.
In all these applications, we are concerned with following a process that can be described on the psychrometric chart. By a process we mean moving from one state
point to another state point on the chart. We will look at a few simple processes, and
display the paths of these processes on small psychrometric charts in Figure 9.04. Selected relevant properties are also noted on each chart (Charts I, II, III, IV, V, VI).
These are ideal processes assuming no heat transfer from the surroundings. In actual
processes, there will always be some heat gain or loss.
a. Heating or cooling. These processes follow a constant moisture line (constant humidity ratio). Thus, temperature increases or decreases but moisture content and
dew point are unchanged. Process AB (Chart I) represents a heating process,
while process AB (Chart II) represents cooling. If cooled below the dew point
(Chart III), the constant humidity ratio line is followed until the dew point (Point
D) is reached. Further cooling follows the saturation (100% relative humidity) line
until the final temperature (Point B) is reached. Moisture is condensed during the
part of the process that follows the saturation line.
b. Moisture addition (i.e., evaporation) while using only energy from the air (Chart
IV). Both drying and evaporative cooling follow this process. It is represented by a
constant wet-bulb line (Process AB.) Temperature, moisture content, etc., change
but the wet-bulb temperature remains constant. This can be verified by an energy
balance analysis. Note that enthalpy increases slightly in this process. This is due to
energy present in the water before it is evaporated.
c. Heating and drying (Chart V). This combination of the processes shown in Charts
I and IV is common in drying applications. Air is heated (Process AB) and passed
over the material to be dried (Process BC). A second stage of heating (CD) and
drying (DE) is sometimes included.
225
d. Adiabatic mixing (no heat transfer) of air (Chart VI). Moist air from two sources
and at different state points is mixed to produce air at a third state point. Relationships among the properties at the three state points are established from mass and
energy balances for the air and water components:
m aA + m aB = m aC
air mass balance
(9.22)
m aAW A + m aBW B = m aCWC
water mass balance
(9.23)
m aA h A + m aB h B = m aC hC
energy balance
(9.24)
These equations are usually solved to relate specific properties to the specific
masses involved. For example, we can use Equations 9.22 to 9.24 to obtain the following relationships:
m aA hC h B WC W B
=
=
m aC h A h B W A W B
(9.25)
Subscripts A and B in the above equations represent entering air streams, while
subscript C represents conditions after mixing. Note that this process does not follow a constant property line on the psychrometric chart. The position of Point C
along the line between Points A and B is determined by the proportion of air at
each state point included in the mix. If equal amounts of air are provided from each
source, Point C will be at approximately the midpoint of the line. If 90% of the air
is from state Point B, Point C will be approximately 90% of the distance from Point
A and 10% of the distance from Point B. This scaled approach is useful as a quick
estimate of the resulting state point. It is also useful as a quick verification of numerical calculations. However, use of the above equations to calculate the state
point of mixed air is the preferred approach.
e. Adiabatic Saturation. The drying process was identified earlier as a constant wetbulb process. While this is the generally accepted approach, a review of the adiabatic saturation process is provided here for added clarification. An adiabatic saturation process occurs when the humidity of air is increased as it flows through an
insulated chamber as shown below. Water evaporates into the air as it passes
through the chamber. If the chamber is long enough for equilibrium to occur, then
the exit air will be saturated at an equilibrium temperature t*.
With no heat transfer, the energy balance then becomes:
h1 + (Ws W1 ) h f = hs
If the water temperature inside the chamber is equal to the exit temperature, the
above equation for adiabatic saturation becomes:
h1 + (Ws* W1 ) hf* = hs*
226

Heating Coil
Chart I
hB
hA
A
tdp
WA = WB
A
tA
Sensible Heating
tB
Cooling Coil
Chart II
hA
hB
A
tdp
B
tB
Sensible Cooling
WA = WB
tA
Cooling Coil with Condensation
h
Chart III
hB
WB
B
tB
WA
td
tA
Sensible Cooling followed by

condensation formation
Figure 9.04. Examples of psychrometric processes (continued next page).
227
Evaporative Pad
Chart IV
hB
hA B
A
WB
WA
A
tB
tA
Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative Pad
Chart V
A
hA
twbC = twbB
hB
twbD E
D
C
A
tC tB tD
hB
Adiabatic Mixing
B
hC
hA
C
WC = WD
WA = WB
tA
Preheater Sensible Heating- Reheater

Evaporative Cooling
Chart VI
WE
WC
WA
A
tA
WB
tC
tB
Cooling and
Dehumidification
Figure 9.04 (continued). Examples of psychrometric processes.
228
where: h1 = enthalpy of entering air

h *f = enthalpy of saturated liquid at t*
hs*
Air
= enthalpy of saturated air at t

t2 W2
t 1 W1
Water t*
W1 = humidity ratio of entering air
Ws* = humidity ratio of saturated air at t*
(this is also W2, since t2 = t*)
The second term of the equation is the amount of energy added to the air as it
passes through the chamber. This is energy already present in the liquid water that
is evaporated into the air. The temperature, t*, that satisfies the above equation is
called the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is not quite the same as the wet-bulb
temperature. The wet-bulb temperature is obtained by cooling in a combined heat
and mass transfer process governed by an equation slightly different from the adiabatic saturation equation. Comparison of the two equations introduces a dimensionless Lewis number Le:
h
Le =
kc p
where: h = surface heat transfer coefficient at the wet-bulb temperature (W/m2 K)
cp = specific heat of most air (J/kg K)
k = air-film coefficient of mass transfer (kg/m2 s)
If this Lewis number is exactly equal to one, then the wet-bulb and thermodynamic wet-bulb temperatures are equal. Fortunately, for air-water vapor mixtures
the Lewis number is very close to one. Thus, the wet-bulb temperature is normally
considered the same as the adiabatic saturation, or thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. This relationship is valid only for air and water vapor mixtures. It is not
valid with other materials (e.g., air and alcohol) where the Lewis number may substantially deviate from one.
Most real processes do not occur along a constant property line. A number of factors influence each process such that, for example, a constant wet-bulb process is very
difficult to attain. In such cases, we may not be able to follow the process on the chart.
Instead, we identify the initial and final state points and determine the changes in
properties between the two. The following examples will show how psychrometric
charts may be used to evaluate processes.
Example 9.1
Air at 30C and 10% relative humidity enters an evaporative cooler where moisture is evaporated until the temperature reaches 21C. What is the relative humidity of the air as it leaves?
229
Solution:
The initial conditions (at t1 = 30C and 1 = 10%) are (using Figure 9.01):
twb = 13.3C
h1 = 37 kJ/kg dry air
w1 = 2.6 g/kg dry air
This method of moisture addition is a constant wet-bulb process (Chart IV of
Figure 9.04.). By following a constant wet-bulb line to t2 = 21C, we find:
2 = 41%
ANSWER
Example 9.2
Steam is added to air at 30C and 10% relative humidity until the temperature
reaches 38C and the humidity ratio (W) is 18 g water/kg dry air. How much water is added to one kilogram of air?
Solution:
This process does not follow a constant property line. Instead, we define state
point one (Example 9.1) and state point two from the given information. Thus,
state point two has the following properties:
t2 = 38C (given)
W2 = 18 g/kg dry air (given)
2 = 43%
twb = 26.9C
tdp = 23.2C
h2 = 84.5 kJ/kg dry air
The moisture added is
ANSWER
W2 W1 = 18 2.6 = 15.4g/kg dry air
Example 9.3
Air at 20C, 50% relative humidity (State 1) is heated to 55C (State 2). The
heated air passes through a dryer and exits at a relative humidity of 90% (State
3). How much water is removed for each cubic meter of air entering the heater?
How much heat is added during the heating process?
Solution:
The processes followed for the heating and drying are: (1) constant humidity ra-
230
tio (or dew point) for heating, and (2) constant wet-bulb temperature for drying.
This is represented by processes AB and BC shown on Chart V of Figure
9.04. From Figure 9.01, the properties at each state point are:
Property
t (C)
twb (C)
tdp (C)
(%)
h (kJ/kg)
W (g H2O/kg dry air)
v (m3/kg dry air)
[a]
[b]
State 1
20[a]
13.7
9.0
50[a]
38.4
7.3
0.84
State 2
55[a]
24.8
9.0 [b]
7
74.7
7.3
0.93
State 3
26.1
24.8 [b]
24.3
90[a]
75.6
19.5
0.87
Properties given in the problem statement.

Properties unchanged from previous state point
From the table:

Wrem = W3 W2 = 19.5 7.3 = 12.2 g H2O/kg DA
Q = h2 h1 = 74.7 38.4 = 36.3 kJ/kg DA
We must now convert to volumetric values based upon the entering air:
g H 2O
12.2
g H 2O
kg DA
ANSWER
= 14.5
Wrem =
3
m
m3
0.84
kg DA
kJ
kJ
kg DA
Q=
= 43.2
3
m
m
0.84
kg DA
36.3
ANSWER
Example 9.4
Air at State Point 3 of Example 9.3 is cooled to 20C.
(1) How much water is removed from the air?
(2) How much heat is removed?
Solution:
From Example 9.3, Point 3 is defined as: t = 26.1C; tdp = 24.3C; = 90%; and
h = 75.6 kJ/kg. (These values are given in the table for the previous example.)
Using Figure 9.01, we find W=19.5 g H2O/kg DA.
231
From this point, the cooling process follows a horizontal line (constant W) to
100% relative humidity. Air is now at the dew point temperature (24.3C). The
process then follows the saturation ( =100%) line to t=twb=tdp=20C. The enthalpy and humidity ratio at this point are 57.2 kJ/kg DA and 14.75 g H2O/kg
DA. Thus the answers are:
W = 19.5 14.75 = 4.75 g H2O/kg DA
Q = h = 75.1 57.2 = 17.9 kJ/kg DA
ANSWER 1
ANSWER 2
Example 9.5
If the exit flow rate for the air of Example 9.4 is 800 L/s, what are the rates of
water and heat removal?
Solution:
At the exit conditions, v = 0.85 m3/kg DA. Thus, the mass flow rate is:
L
800
kg DA
s
ma =
= 0.941
3
s
m
L
1000 3
0.85
kg DA
m
W = 4.75
Q = 17.9
g H 2O
g H 2O
kg DA
0.941
= 4.47
kg DA
s
s
kJ
kJ
kg DA
0.941
= 16.85 = 16.85 kW
kg DA
s
s
ANSWER
ANSWER
Example 9.6
Air at 80C and = 4% (Point A) is mixed with air at 40C and = 50% (Point
B). The ratio is 60% of air at 80C to 40% at 40C. What is the state point of the
resulting mix (Point C)?
Solution:
We can use Equation 9.24 to find properties of the mixed air, but we must first
use psychrometric charts to find the enthalpy and humidity ratios for Points A
and B.
232
We must use the high temperature chart (Figure 9.03) for Point A. At t = 80C
and = 4%, we find:
WA = 12 g/kg DA
hA = 115 kJ/kg DA
For Point B, we may use either Figure 9.03 or 9.01; however, it is easier to read
the property values from Figure 9.01. Using that figure, we find at t = 40C and
= 50%:
WB = 23.5 g/kg DA
hB = 101 kJ/kg DA
Air at properties of Point A represents 60% of the mix. Thus
Using Equation 9.24, we can solve for hc (or Wc) as hC = hB +
maA
= 0.6 .
maC
maA
(hA hB )
maC
or:
hC = 101 + 0.6 (115 101) = 101 + 8.4 = 109.4 kJ/kg DA
ANSWER
WC = 23.5 + 0.6 (12 23.5) = 23.5 6.9 = 16.6 g/kg DA
ANSWER
Example 9.7
Air at 30C and 60% relative humidity is cooled to 18C.
(1) How much energy is removed from the air?
(2) Is any water removed? If so, how much?
Solution:
This process follows the path AdB shown on Chart III of Figure 9.04.
Initial conditions at point A from Figure 9.01 are:
t = 30C
W = 16 g/kg DA
= 60%
h = 70.8 KJ/kg DA
As the air is cooled, the temperature drops until the air is saturated. At this point
(Point d):
and
= 100%
t = twb = tdp = 21.3C
Continued cooling follows the saturation line to Point B where the properties are:
W = 13 g/kg DA
t = twb = tdp = 18C
= 100%
h = 51 KJ/kg DA
The energy removed from the air is: Q = hA hB = 70.8 51 = 19.8 KJ/kg DA
Similarly, the water removed is: W = WA WB = 16 13 = 3 g/kg DA
ANSWERS
233
Example 9.8
Air at 50C and a wet-bulb temperature of 30C (Point A) is mixed with air at
24C and 50% relative humidity (Point B) in proportions of 70% hot air and
30% cooler air. What are the properties of the air after mixing?
Solution:
The properties at Point C, the mixed air state point, can be computed using
Equation 9.24.
Relevant properties at Points A and B are:
WB = 9.3 g/kg DA
WA = 18.7 g/kg DA
hA = 98.9 KJ/kg DA
hB =47.8 KJ/kg DA
Solving Equation 9.24, noting that maA is 70% of the total mixture, maC, we have:
h 47.8
W 9.3
0.7 = C
and
0.7 = C
98.9 47.8
18.7 9.3
and:
hC = 0.7(98.9 47.8) + 47.8
WC = 0.7(18.7 9.3) + 9.3
hC = 83.6 KJ/kg DA
WC = 15.9 g/kg DA
Locating Point C from the values of h and W gives other property values as:
C = 30%
t = 42.4C
ANSWER
Example 9.9
Water is often cooled by evaporation into the air, using a cooling tower. Incoming hot water is sprayed into the air where a portion is evaporated, lowering the
temperature of the remaining water by 10 to15C. (Evaporation of 1 kg of water provides sufficient cooling to lower the temperature of approximately 56 kg
of liquid water by 10C.) Consider water entering a cooling tower at 40C and
leaving at 30C. Air enters at 25C with a relative humidity of 40% and exits at
34C with 90% rh. For a water flow rate of 50 kg/s, and sufficient evaporation to
meet the above conditions, determine the required air flow rate (kg/s) through
the cooling tower.
Solution:
The solution of cooling tower problems consists of a combination of the evaporative cooling process on the psychrometric chart and an energy balance between air and water streams. The process describing the air humidification along
234
a constant wet-bulb line is needed to determine the enthalpy at the two state
points. Read from psychrometric chart at 25C dry bulb temperature and 40%
rh, the enthalpy is 45.5 kJ/kg, and at 34C and 90% rh the enthalpy is 113.5
kJ/kg. The energy lost by the cooling of water must equal energy gained by air.
Thus:
m w c pw t w = m a ha
m a = m w c pw
t w
ha
kg
kJ (40 30) C
m a = 50 4.18
s
kg C (113.5 45.5) kJ
kg
m a = 30.7
kg
of air
s
ANSWER
Note: This solution assumed a constant mw, ignoring the approximately 2% of water that
was evaporated. This approach greatly simplifies the solution and has little effect upon the
computed air flow.
9.6 Ice-Water-Steam
Water in its three forms (solid, liquid, gas) is used extensively in food, agricultural,
and other applications. The properties of water, in all three forms, make it well suited
for many processing applications. In many applications we are concerned with the use
of water in one or more of its forms for heating or cooling. To understand this use, we
must first understand certain water properties that are relevant to these applications.
If ice at 20C (or any other sub-freezing temperature) and atmospheric pressure is
heated very slowly, its temperature would increase until the melting point (0C, 32F)
is reached (Figure 9.05). It would then melt at that temperature. If additional heat is
added after the ice is melted, the water temperature will increase until it reaches 100C
(212F). At 100C, the water will evaporate (boil) into gas (steam). Any further addition of heat will cause an increase in steam temperature. This process of heating and
change of state is shown in Figure 9.05. The comparative energy requirements for
heating (average specific heats) and change of state (latent heats) are also shown.
235
2800
2400
2000
hfg = 2257 kJ
kg
1600
1200
800
400
kJ
cp = 4.187 kg K
kJ
hsf = 335 kg
-400
.
kJ
cp = 1.97 kg K
-800
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Temperature (C)
Figure 9.05. Heat content (enthalpy) of water at a pressure of one atmosphere as

a function of temperature and state (solid, liquid, or gas).
236
190
170
150
130
110
100 C
90
70
50
101.33 kPa
30
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000 1100
Absolute Pressure (kPa)
Figure 9.06. Boiling point temperature as a function of pressure for water.
The above example assumes that the water is held at atmospheric pressure. However, steam is usually produced and used at pressures higher than atmospheric. Thus,
temperature, pressure, and energy content of the steam are all important factors to be
considered. A key consideration here is the effect of pressure upon the boiling point
temperature of water. This change in the boiling point of water with pressure is shown
in Figure 9.06.
The energy required to melt the ice (latent heat of fusion) and to evaporate the water (latent heat of vaporization) are important considerations in the use of water for
processing and environmental control applications. However, in this unit, we will be
concerned exclusively with the properties of steameither as pure steam (dry
steam) or a mixture of steam and liquid water droplets (wet steam). Figure 9.07 is a
temperature enthalpy diagram for steam. By following heating processes on the chart
we can get a better picture of the water-steam system. If we begin with liquid water at
25C and heat it slowly (at atmospheric pressure) to 100C, the enthalpy of the water
would follow line AB. At 100C, the water would begin to evaporate (at constant
pressure) until all the liquid is converted to steam (point C). Further heating will superheat the steam (line CD). Similarly, heating water at a higher pressure of 600 kPa
would produce line ABHIJ. The curved dome containing points A, B, H, X, I and
C is commonly called the vapor dome. To the left of the dome, liquid water is present. To the right of the dome is superheated (dry) steam. The curved line forming the
left half of the dome represents saturated liquid; that on the right represents saturated
vapor. Between these two lines is wet steam progressing from all liquid on the left
237
to all vapor on the right. Note that above point X, there is no distinct change from liquid to gas. Point X is the critical point (22 120 kPa, 374.15C). Above the critical
point, the change from liquid to gas is gradual and cannot be identified as occurring at
a specific point.
Note: Strictly speaking, we do not follow the saturated liquid line during the heating process
described above. The saturation line represents values of enthalpy at saturated temperature
and pressure. The pressures along that saturation line and below Points B and H are less
than 101.3 kPa and 600 kPa, respectively; and we are applying heat at a constant pressure of
101.3 or 600 kPa, respectively. However, the effect of pressure upon enthalpy is small. On
the graph shown, we would be unable to detect any deviation from the saturated liquid line.
Beneath the vapor dome, a line of constant temperature is also a line of constant
pressure. Thus, if either property is specified, the other is also known. In the superheat
areas, this is not true. Both temperature and pressure must be specified to identify a
specific state point in the superheated region. Figure 9.07 presents a good visual image
of the pressure, temperature, enthalpy relationships. However, accurate values of these
properties cannot be readily obtained from this figure. Tabulations of these properties,
commonly called steam tables, are used to obtain accurate property values.
400
C ritical Poin t
J D
300
STEAM
LIQUID
200
600 kPa
H
101.3 kPa
100
B
A
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Heat Content (Enthalpy)
3000
3500
4000
kJ
kg
Figure 9.07. Temperature-Enthalpy diagram for water. The curve

ABHXIC is called a vapor dome. The region beneath the vapor dome
represents a condition of wet steam.
238
9.7 Steam Tables

Tables 9.02, 9.03, and 9.04 are the three types of steam tables normally used. The
first two tables show properties as a function of temperature (Table 9.02) and pressure
(Table 9.03). Both tables give the same type of information; thus, the table to be used
depends upon the known property (temperature or pressure). These tables represent
conditions within the vapor dome. Table 9.04 gives properties for superheated steam.
The choice of which table to use depends upon the conditions given. Any given combination of temperature and pressure may represent either wet steam (Tables 9.02 or
9.03) or superheated steam (Table 9.04). It may be necessary to look at each table before you find the correct state point. However, a notation that the steam is saturated or
statement of a value for steam quality (see below) reveals that the wet steam tables
(Table 9.02 or 9.03) should be used. For all tables, the properties of interest are temperature (t), pressure (P), enthalpy (h), and specific volume (v). Entropy (s) is an additional property often used in steam calculations. The commonly used subscripts are f
for fluid properties, g for gaseous properties, and fg for the difference between fluid
and gaseous properties. Use of the superheated steam tables is simply a matter of finding the appropriate state point given any two of the properties p, t, v, h, or s. Temperature and pressure are most commonly used.
To use Tables 9.02 and 9.03, it is often necessary to know the quality of the steam.
Quality is an indication of how much of the wet steam is vapor. It is defined as the
mass of the vapor divided by the total mass (liquid plus vapor). Quality is usually
identified by the symbol x. At x = 0, we have saturated liquid. At x = 1, we have saturated vapor. For x between 0 and 1, we have a mixture of liquid and vapor (wet
steam). If we know the enthalpy or specific volume for a given state point under the
vapor dome, we can determine the quality, x:
x=
v vf
v fg
or
x=
h hf
h fg
(9.26)
Conversely, the quality (x) can be used to determine the enthalpy or specific volume of wet steam. We shall make all calculations based upon a unit mass of water.
Noting that the enthalpy of evaporated water (steam) is hg and the enthalpy of liquid
water is hf, we find the enthalpy as follows:
1. Saturated steam (x = 1) (since we have only saturated vapor, the enthalpy is hg):
h = x hg = 1 h g = hg
2. Saturated liquid (x = 0):
h = (1 x) hf = (1 0) hf = hf
3. Mixture (here we must take the amounts of liquid and vapor into account):
h = hliquid+ hvapor = x hg + (1 x) hf = x (hg hf) + hf
h = x hfg + hf = hf + x hfg
(9.27)
The above example was for enthalpy. For specific volume, the same rule applies, e.g.:
v = x (vg vf) + vf = x vfg + vf = vf + x vfg
(9.28)
239
Example 9.10
Find the enthalpy, specific volume, and pressure for steam at 175C and a quality of 0.5. Locate the approximate position of this state point on Figure 9.07.
Solution:
We know the pressure and, with a quality of 0.5, we know that the steam is
wet. Thus, we choose Table 9.02, the table for wet steam properties as a function of temperature.
ANSWER
From the table, at 175C, P = 892.4 kPa
vfg = 0.21542 m3/kg
vf = 0.0011209 m3/kg
hfg = 2030.7 kJ/kg
hf = 741.07 kJ/kg
Solving for v and h:
ANSWER
v = vf + x vfg = 0.0011209 + 0.5 (0.21542) = 0.1088 m3/kg
ANSWER
h = hf + x hfg = 741.07 + 0.5 (2030.7) = 1756.4 kJ/kg
At 175C and an enthalpy of 1756.4 kJ/kg, the approximate state point location
ANSWER
on Figure 9.07 is near the letter P of 600 kPa along line HI.
Example 9.11
Find the temperature and enthalpy of steam at 300 kPa and 0.6506 m3/kg. Locate
the approximate position of the state point on Figure 9.07.
Solution:
From Table 9.03 at 300 kPa, we see that vg = 0.6056 m3/kg. vg is the volume of
saturated vapor at the given pressure. This value of vg = 0.6056 is less than the
specific volume given (0.6506). Since the specific volume of the steam is greater
than that of saturated vapor, the steam must be superheated.
Using Table 9.04, at 300 kPa and the specific volume given, we find:
h = 2781.8 kJ/kg
ANSWER
t = 160C
For 160C, 300 kPa, and 2781.8 kJ/kg, the state point location on Figure 9.07 is
ANSWER
below, and to the right of Point I, between lines IJ and CD.
Note: (1) If the value of v had not been given exactly in Table 9.04, it would
have been necessary for us to interpolate between values in the table.
(2) If the value of v had been less than vg = 0.6056, this would indicate that
we have wet steam and we would have used Table 9.03 to find t (at
300 kPa), solve for the quality (x), and compute the enthalpy (h).
240
9.8 Steam -Air Mixtures

In this unit, we have examined systems involving steam (100% water vapor) and
typical air and water vapor mixtures (low levels of water vapor.) We will now examine steam-air mixtures involving high water vapor concentrations. The issue of steam
air mixtures in food processing is important because the temperature of a mixture of
air and steam at any pressure is lower than the temperature of pure steam at the same
pressure. Thus, the first step in batch processing with a retort, home canner, or pressure cooker is to vent until a steady stream of steam is produced. Failure to vent and
purge the container of air will result in a mixture of air and water vapor, causing lower
processing temperatures and, possibly, inadequate sterilization.
Our examination will make the simplifying assumption that ideal gas relationships
apply. While not necessarily valid for all conditions, this assumption is a good approximation; and it will allow us to view the effect of increasing amounts of air in a
steam environment. The trends we see will be valid even though the numeric values
we calculate may differ slightly from the correct values.
Equations 9.05, 9.07, and 9.08 relate total and partial pressures, respectively, to the
number of moles of gas present, the temperature, and the total volume. Using this relationship, we can solve for the partial pressure of water vapor in a steam-air mixture.
We note that this mixture will be at a uniform temperature and that it occupies a fixed
volume. Applying the above referenced equations, we find:
Pa N a Ru T / V N a
=
=
= ya
P
NRu T / V
N
or
(ya
= mole fraction of air )
(9.29)
(9.30)
Pa = ya P
Using the above information we can solve for the partial pressure of water vapor
(steam) at any mass ratio of water vapor. First, we note that the molecular weights of
air and water are 28.96 and 18.015, respectively. We need these values to calculate the
moles of air and water present in a given mixture.
If we assume a mixture of unit mass, at 200 kPa, containing a mass ratio of 0.2 air
(20% air, by mass), we can compute Pw by the following steps.
The moles of air and water are:
m
m
0.2
0.8
Na = a =
Nw = w =
= 0.00690
and
= 0.04441
M a 28.96
M w 18.015
This results in a total of 0.05131 moles (0.00690 + 0.04441) in the system. The mole
fractions of air and water in the system are then:
yw =
N w 0.04441
=
= 0.8655
N t 0.05131
and
ya =
N a 0.0069
=
= 0.1345
N t 0.5131
The partial pressure of water vapor (steam) for this mixture is then:
Pw = y w Pt = 0.8655 200 = 173.1 kPa
241
120
240
Pres
100
200
80
160
60
120
40
80
20
40
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Steam Pressure (kPa)
Temperature (C)
Temp
Mass Fraction of Air
Figure 9.08. Effect of air upon steam partial pressure and temperature
in steam-air mixtures at 200 kPa total pressure.
From the steam tables, the boiling points at 200 kPa and 173.1 kPa are 121.23C
and 115.6C, respectively. Thus, the result of mixing air and steam in a ratio of 2 : 8
by mass results in almost a 6C drop in the boiling point temperature at a total pressure of 200 kPa. This temperature drop could significantly affect a thermal processing
operation. While a steam-air mixture containing 20% air is probably extreme, this
does illustrate the effect of air in the mixture. Figure 9.08 shows the effect of differing
air-steam mixtures (at 200 kPa) upon the steam partial pressure and boiling point temperature.
Example 9.12
We will consider the effect of failure to vent by examining the use (or misuse)
of a home canner. A typical home canner is approximately 320 mm in diameter
and 270 mm deep with a slightly domed lid. Figure 9.09 shows a cross-section
representing a typical home canner containing several cans.
The typical operating procedure is to add hot water to a depth of about 25 mm,
insert the cans to be processed, install the lid, heat, vent until continuous pure
steam is observed, seal, and process for the required time. We will assume the
following conditions for our example:
242
STEAM
WATER
Figure 9.09. Sketch of home canner showing approximate proportions of
water and steam.
canner volume (Vt) = 21.7 L = 0.0217 m3

water volume (Vw) = 2.0 L = 0.0020 m3 (for a depth of about 25 mm)
three cans with a total volume (Vc) = 2.8 L = 0.0028 m3
initial temperature of all components (ti) = 25C
processing pressure (Pr) = 200 kPa (retort processing pressure)
canner immediately sealed without venting and heated until the pressure reaches
200 kPa
(Except for the initial temperatures and the small number of cans, all values
above are realistic. In actual conditions, the water and can temperatures would
probably be well above 25C. However, we will make this assumption to simplify the problem.)
If the canner had been properly vented to insure pure steam inside, the inside
temperature would be 120.2C at 200 kPa. What is the temperature without the
venting?
Solution:
We must first determine the mass and mole fractions of water and air in the container.
Water: From Table 9.05 at 25C, we find w = 997.1 kg/m3. Thus:
kg
m w = w V w = 997.1 3 0.002 m 3 = 1.9942 kg
m
243
Air: From Table 9.01 at 25C, va = 0.8444 m3/kg, thus a = 1.184 kg/m3
(We could also determine va, but with less precision, from Figure 9.01 at 25C
and W = 0.) The volume of air in the canner (Va) is that space not occupied by
the cans or the water:
Va = Vt Vw Vc = 21.7 2 2.8 = 16.9 L = 0.0169 m 3
kg
m a = aVa = 1.184 3 0.0169 m 3 = 0.020014 kg
m
We can now determine the number of moles of water and air present:
m
m
0.20014
1.9942
Na = a =
= 0.0006911
and N w = w =
= 0.1107
Ma
M w 18.015
28.96
and
Nt = Na + Nw = 0.0006911 + 0.1107 = 0.1114 Moles
The mole fraction of water vapor and the resulting partial pressure of water vapor are:
N
0.1107
yw = w =
= 0.9938 and Pw = y w Pw = 0.9938 200 = 198.76 kPa
Nt
0.1114
Interpolating from Table 9.03, the temperature corresponding to a pressure of
198.76 kPa is 120.02C. This is approximately 0.2 below the value for pure
steam at 200 kPa (120.23C). A difference of only 0.2 seems small; however, at
the high temperatures used for processing, it can affect the required processing
time. Thus, venting is important to insure that processing conditions are known.
100.0
105.0
110.0
115.0
120.0
125.0
130.0
135.0
140.0
145.0
150.0
155.0
160.0
165.0
170.0
175.0
180.0
185.0
190.0
195.0
200.0
205.0
210.0
215.0
220.0
225.0
230.0
235.0
240.0
245.0
373.15
378.15
383.15
388.15
393.15
398.15
403.15
408.15
413.15
418.15
423.15
428.15
433.15
438.15
443.15
448.15
453.15
458.15
463.15
468.15
473.15
478.15
483.15
488.15
493.15
498.15
503.15
508.15
513.15
518.15
Temperature
(K)
(C)
t
T
101.33
120.80
143.27
169.06
198.54
232.1
270.1
313.1
361.4
415.5
476.0
543.3
618.1
700.8
792.0
892.4
1002.7
1123.3
1255.1
1398.7
1554.9
1724.3
1907.7
2106.0
2319.8
2550.
2798.
3063.
3348.
3652.
Pressure
(kPa)
p
0.0010437
0.0010477
0.0010519
0.0010562
0.0010606
0.0010652
0.0010700
0.0010750
0.0010801
0.0010853
0.0010908
0.0010964
0.0011022
0.0011082
0.0011145
0.0011209
0.0011275
0.0011344
0.0011415
0.0011489
0.0011565
0.0011644
0.0011726
0.0011811
0.0011900
0.0011992
0.0012087
0.0012187
0.0012291
0.0012399
1.6720
1.4182
1.2089
1.0352
0.8905
0.7692
0.6671
0.5807
0.5074
0.4449
0.3914
0.3453
0.3057
0.2713
0.2414
0.21542
0.19267
0.17272
0.15517
0.13969
0.12600
0.11386
0.10307
0.09344
0.08485
0.07715
0.07024
0.06403
0.05843
0.05337
1.6730
1.4193
1.2099
1.0363
0.8915
0.7702
0.6681
0.5818
0.5085
0.4460
0.3924
0.3464
0.3068
0.2724
0.2426
0.21654
0.19380
0.17386
0.15632
0.14084
0.12716
0.11503
0.10424
0.09463
0.08604
0.07835
0.07145
0.06525
0.05965
0.05461
Volume (m3/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
vf
vfg
vg
419.06
440.17
461.32
482.50
503.72
524.99
546.31
567.68
589.10
610.59
632.15
653.77
675.47
697.25
719.12
741.07
763.12
785.26
807.52
829.88
852.37
874.99
897.73
920.63
943.67
966.88
990.27
1013.83
1037.60
1061.58
2256.9
2243.6
2230.0
2216.2
2202.2
2188.0
2173.6
2158.9
2144.0
2128.7
2113.2
2097.4
2081.3
2064.8
2047.9
2030.7
2013.2
1995.2
1976.7
1957.9
1938.6
1918.8
1898.5
1877.6
1856.2
1834.3
1811.7
1788.5
1764.6
1740.0
2676.0
2683.7
2691.3
2698.7
2706.0
2713.0
2719.9
2726.6
2733.1
2739.3
2745.4
2751.2
2756.7
2762.0
2767.1
2771.8
2776.3
2780.4
2784.3
2787.8
2790.9
2793.8
2796.2
2798.3
2799.9
2801.2
2802.0
2802.3
2802.2
2801.6
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Water
Evap. Steam
hf
hfg
hg
1.3069
1.3630
1.4185
1.4733
1.5276
1.5813
1.6344
1.6869
1.7390
1.7906
1.8416
1.8923
1.9425
1.9923
2.0416
2.0906
2.1393
2.1876
2.2356
2.2833
2.3307
2.3778
2.4247
2.4713
2.5178
2.5641
2.6102
2.6561
2.7020
2.7478
6.0485
5.9332
5.8203
5.7099
5.6017
5.4957
5.3917
5.2897
5.1895
5.0910
4.9941
4.8989
4.8050
4.7126
4.6214
4.5314
4.4426
4.3548
4.2680
4.1822
4.0971
4.0128
3.9293
3.8463
3.7639
3.6820
3.6006
3.5195
3.4386
3.3579
7.3554
7.2962
7.2388
7.1832
7.1293
7.0769
7.0261
6.9766
6.9284
6.8815
6.8358
6.7911
6.7475
6.7048
6.6630
6.6221
6.5819
6.5424
6.5036
6.4654
6.4278
6.3906
6.3539
6.3177
6.2817
6.2461
6.2107
6.1756
6.1406
6.1057
Entropy (kJ/kg K)
Water
Evap.
Steam
sf
sfg
sg
Table 9.02. Properties of saturated steam and saturated water (temperature).

Computed using ASME software accompanying ASME Steam Tables (ASME, 1993).
244
250.0
255.0
260.0
265.0
270.0
275.0
280.0
285.0
290.0
295.0
300.0
305.0
310.0
315.0
320.0
325.0
330.0
335.0
340.0
345.0
350.0
355.0
360.0
365.0
370.0
371.0
372.0
373.0
374.0
374.15
523.15
528.15
533.15
538.15
543.15
548.15
553.15
558.15
563.15
568.15
573.15
578.15
583.15
588.15
593.15
598.15
603.15
608.15
613.15
618.15
623.15
628.15
633.15
638.15
643.15
644.15
645.15
646.15
647.15
647.30
Temperature
(K)
(C)
t
T
3978.
4325.
4694.
5088.
5506.
5950.
6420.
6919.
7446.
8004.
8593.
9214.
9870.
10561.
11289.
12056.
12863.
13712.
14605.
15545.
16535.
17577.
18675.
19833.
21054.
21306.
21562.
21820.
22081.
22120.
Pressure
(kPa)
p
0.0012513
0.0012632
0.0012756
0.0012887
0.0013025
0.0013170
0.0013324
0.0013487
0.0013659
0.0013844
0.0014041
0.0014252
0.0014480
0.0014726
0.0014995
0.0015289
0.0015615
0.0015978
0.0016387
0.0016858
0.0017411
0.0018085
0.0018959
0.0020160
0.0022136
0.0022778
0.0023636
0.0024963
0.0028427
0.00317
0.04879
0.04463
0.04086
0.03742
0.03429
0.03142
0.02879
0.02638
0.02417
0.02213
0.020245
0.018502
0.016886
0.015383
0.013980
0.012666
0.011428
0.010256
0.009142
0.008077
0.007058
0.006051
0.005044
0.003996
0.002759
0.002446
0.002075
0.001588
0.000623
0.0
0.05004
0.04590
0.04213
0.03871
0.03559
0.03274
0.03013
0.02773
0.02554
0.02351
0.021649
0.019927
0.018334
0.016856
0.015480
0.014195
0.012989
0.011854
0.010780
0.009763
0.008799
0.007859
0.006940
0.006012
0.004973
0.004723
0.004439
0.004084
0.003466
0.00317
Volume (m3/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
vf
vfg
vg
1085.78
1110.23
1134.94
1159.93
1185.23
1210.86
1236.84
1263.21
1290.01
1317.27
1345.05
1373.40
1402.39
1432.09
1462.60
1494.03
1526.52
1560.25
1595.47
1632.52
1671.94
1716.63
1764.17
1817.96
1890.21
1910.50
1935.57
1970.50
2046.72
2107.37
1714.7
1688.5
1661.5
1633.5
1604.6
1574.7
1543.6
1511.3
1477.6
1442.6
1406.0
1367.7
1327.6
1285.5
1241.1
1194.0
1143.6
1089.5
1030.7
966.4
895.7
813.8
721.3
610.0
452.6
407.4
351.4
273.5
109.5
0.0
2800.4
2798.7
2796.4
2793.5
2789.9
2785.5
2780.4
2774.5
2767.6
2759.8
2751.0
2741.1
2730.0
2717.6
2703.7
2688.0
2670.2
2649.7
2626.2
2598.9
2567.7
2530.4
2485.4
2428.0
2342.8
2317.9
2287.0
2244.0
2156.2
2107.4
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Water
Evap. Steam
hf
hfg
hg
2.7935
2.8392
2.8849
2.9306
2.9764
3.0223
3.0683
3.1146
3.1611
3.2079
3.2552
3.3029
3.3512
3.4002
3.4500
3.5008
3.5528
3.6063
3.6616
3.7193
3.7800
3.8489
3.9210
4.0021
4.1108
4.1414
4.1794
4.2326
4.3493
4.4429
3.2774
3.1968
3.1161
3.0353
2.9541
2.8725
2.7903
2.7074
2.6237
2.5389
2.4530
2.3656
2.2766
2.1856
2.0923
1.9961
1.8962
1.7916
1.6811
1.5636
1.4376
1.2953
1.1390
0.9558
0.7036
0.6324
0.5446
0.4233
0.1692
0.0
6.0708
6.0359
6.0010
5.9658
5.9305
5.8947
5.8586
5.8220
5.7848
5.7469
5.7081
5.6685
5.6278
5.5858
5.5423
5.4969
5.4490
5.3979
5.3427
5.2828
5.2177
5.1442
5.0600
4.9579
4.8144
4.7738
4.7240
4.6559
4.5185
4.4429
Entropy (kJ/kg K)
Water
Evap.
Steam
sf
sfg
sg
245
1.0
10.0
20.0
100.0
110.0
120.0
130.0
140.0
150.0
160.0
180.0
200.0
220.0
240.0
260.0
280.0
300.0
350.0
400.0
450.0
500.0
550.0
600.0
650.0
700.0
750.0
800.0
900.0
1000.
1100.
1200.
1300.
1400.
Press.
(kPa)
p
6.983
45.833
60.086
99.632
102.317
104.808
107.133
109.315
111.37
113.32
116.93
120.23
123.27
126.09
128.73
131.20
133.54
138.87
143.62
147.92
151.84
155.47
158.84
161.99
164.96
167.76
170.41
175.36
179.88
184.07
187.96
191.61
195.04
Temp.
(C)
t
0.0010001
0.0010102
0.0010172
0.0010434
0.0010455
0.0010476
0.0010495
0.0010513
0.0010530
0.0010547
0.0010579
0.0010608
0.0010636
0.0010663
0.0010688
0.0010712
0.0010735
0.0010789
0.0010839
0.0010885
0.0010928
0.0010969
0.0011009
0.0011046
0.0011082
0.0011116
0.0011150
0.0011213
0.0011274
0.0011331
0.001138
0.0011438
0.0011489
129.21
14.674
7.649
1.6927
1.5482
1.4271
1.3240
1.2353
1.1580
1.0901
0.9762
0.8844
0.8088
0.7454
0.6914
0.6450
0.6045
0.5229
0.4611
0.4127
0.3736
0.3414
0.3144
0.29138
0.27157
0.25431
0.23914
0.21369
0.19317
0.17625
0.16206
0.14998
0.13957
129.21
14.675
7.650
1.6937
1.5492
1.4281
1.3251
1.2363
1.1590
1.0911
0.9972
0.8854
0.8098
0.7465
0.6925
0.6460
0.6056
0.5240
0.4622
0.4138
0.3747
0.3425
0.3155
0.29249
0.27268
0.25543
0.24026
0.21481
0.19429
0.17738
0.16320
0.15113
0.14072
Volume (m3/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
vf
vfg
vg
29.34
191.83
251.45
417.51
428.84
439.36
449.19
458.42
467.13
475.38
490.70
504.70
517.62
529.6
540.9
551.4
561.4
584.3
604.7
623.2
640.1
655.8
670.4
684.1
697.1
709.3
720.9
742.6
762.6
781.1
798.4
814.7
830.1
2485.0
2392.9
2358.4
2257.9
2250.8
2244.1
2237.8
2231.9
2226.2
2220.9
2210.8
2201.6
2193.0
2184.9
2177.3
2170.1
2163.2
2147.4
2133.0
2119.7
2107.4
2095.9
2085.0
2074.7
2064.9
2055.5
2046.5
2029.5
2013.6
1998.5
1984.3
1970.7
1957.7
2514.4
2584.8
2609.9
2675.4
2679.6
2683.4
2687.0
2690.3
2693.4
2696.2
2701.5
2706.3
2710.6
2714.5
2718.2
2721.5
2724.7
2731.6
2737.6
2742.9
2747.5
2751.7
2755.5
2758.9
2762.0
2764.8
2767.5
2772.1
2776.2
2779.7
2782.7
2785.4
2787.8
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
hf
hfg
hg
0.1060
0.6493
0.8321
1.3027
1.3330
1.3609
1.3868
1.4109
1.4336
1.4550
1.4944
1.5301
1.5627
1.5929
1.6209
1.6471
1.6716
1.7273
1.7764
1.8204
1.8604
1.8970
1.9308
1.9623
1.9918
2.0195
2.0457
2.0941
2.1382
2.1786
2.2161
2.2510
2.2837
8.8706
7.5018
7.0774
6.0571
5.9947
5.9375
5.8847
5.8356
5.7898
5.7467
5.6678
5.5967
5.5321
5.4728
5.4180
5.3670
5.3193
5.2119
5.1179
5.0343
4.9588
4.8900
4.8267
4.7681
4.7134
4.6621
4.6139
4.5250
4.4446
4.3711
4.3033
4.2403
4.1814
8.9767
8.1511
7.9094
7.3598
7.3277
7.2984
7.2715
7.2465
7.2234
7.2017
7.1622
7.1268
7.0949
7.0657
7.0389
7.0140
6.9909
6.9392
6.8943
6.8547
6.8192
6.7870
6.7575
6.7304
6.7052
6.6817
6.6596
6.6192
6.5828
6.5497
6.5194
6.4913
6.4651
Entropy (kJ/kg K)
Water
Evap.
Steam
sf
sfg
sg
Table 9.03. Properties of saturated steam and saturated water (pressure).
246
1500.
1600.
1800.
2000.
2200.
2400.
2600.
2800.
3000.
3500.
4000.
4500.
5000.
5500.
6000.
6500.
7000.
7500.
8000.
9000.
10000.
11000.
12000.
13000.
14000.
15000.
16000.
17000.
18000.
19000.
20000.
21000
22000.
22120.
Press.
(kPa)
p
198.29
201.37
207.11
212.37
217.24
221.78
226.04
230.05
233.84
242.54
250.33
257.41
263.91
269.93
275.55
280.82
285.79
290.50
294.97
303.31
310.96
318.05
324.65
330.83
336.64
342.13
347.33
352.26
356.96
361.43
365.70
369.78
373.69
374.15
Temp.
(C)
t
0.0011539
0.0011586
0.0011678
0.0011766
0.0011850
0.0011932
0.0012011
0.0012088
0.0012163
0.0012345
0.0012521
0.0012691
0.0012858
0.0013023
0.0013187
0.0013350
0.0013513
0.0013677
0.0013842
0.0014179
0.0014526
0.0014887
0.0015268
0.0015672
0.0016106
0.0016579
0.0017103
0.0017696
0.0018399
0.0019260
0.0020370
0.0022015
0.0026714
0.00317
0.13050
0.12253
0.10915
0.09836
0.08947
0.08201
0.07565
0.07018
0.06541
0.05579
0.04850
0.04277
0.03814
0.03433
0.03112
0.028384
0.026022
0.023959
0.022141
0.019078
0.016589
0.014517
0.012756
0.011230
0.009884
0.008682
0.007597
0.006601
0.005658
0.004751
0.003840
0.002822
0.001056
0.0
0.13166
0.12369
0.11032
0.09954
0.09065
0.08320
0.07686
0.07139
0.06663
0.05703
0.04975
0.04404
0.03943
0.03563
0.03244
0.029719
0.027373
0.025327
0.023525
0.020495
0.018041
0.016006
0.014283
0.012797
0.011495
0.010340
0.009308
0.008371
0.007498
0.006678
0.005877
0.005023
0.003728
0.00317
Volume (m3/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
vf
vfg
vg
844.7
858.6
884.6
908.6
931.0
951.9
971.7
990.5
1008.4
1049.8
1087.4
1122.1
1154.5
1184.9
1213.7
1241.1
1267.4
1292.7
1317.1
1363.7
1408.0
1450.6
1491.8
1532.0
1571.6
1611.0
1650.5
1691.7
1734.8
1778.7
1826.5
1886.3
2011.1
2107.4
1945.2
1933.2
1910.3
1888.6
1868.1
1848.5
1829.6
1811.5
1793.9
1752.2
1712.9
1675.6
1639.7
1605.0
1571.3
1538.4
1506.0
1474.2
1442.8
1380.9
1319.7
1258.7
1197.4
1135.0
1070.7
1004.0
934.3
859.9
779.1
692.0
591.9
461.3
184.5
0.0
2789.9
2791.7
2794.8
2797.2
2799.1
2800.4
2801.4
2802.0
2802.3
2802.0
2800.3
2797.7
2794.2
2789.9
2785.0
2779.5
2773.5
2766.9
2759.9
2744.6
2727.7
2709.3
2689.2
2667.0
2642.4
2615.0
2584.9
2551.6
2513.9
2470.6
2418.4
2347.6
2195.6
2107.4
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Water
Evap.
Steam
hf
hfg
hg
2.3145
2.3436
2.3976
2.4469
2.4922
2.5343
2.5736
2.6106
2.6455
2.7253
2.7965
2.8612
2.9206
2.9757
3.0273
3.0759
3.1219
3.1657
3.2076
3.2867
3.3605
3.4304
3.4972
3.5616
3.6242
3.6859
3.7471
3.8107
3.8765
3.9429
4.0149
4.1048
4.2947
4.4429
4.1261
4.0739
3.9775
3.8898
3.8093
3.7347
3.6651
3.5998
3.5382
3.3976
3.2720
3.1579
3.0529
2.9552
2.8635
2.7768
2.6943
2.6153
2.5395
2.3953
2.2593
2.1291
2.0030
1.8792
1.7560
1.6320
1.5060
1.3748
1.2362
1.0903
0.9263
0.7175
0.2852
0.0
6.4406
6.4175
6.3751
6.3367
6.3015
6.2690
6.2387
6.2104
6.1837
6.1228
6.0685
6.0191
5.9735
5.9309
5.8908
5.8527
5.8162
5.7811
5.7471
5.6820
5.6198
5.5595
5.5002
5.4408
5.3803
5.3178
5.2531
5.1855
5.1128
5.0332
4.9412
4.8223
4.5799
4.4429
Entropy (kJ/kg K)
Water
Evap.
Steam
sf
sfg
sg
247
150.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
10.0
5.0
1.0
Pressure
p (kPa)
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
153.71
2613.3
9.3001
30.711
2612.6
8.5555
15.336
2611.6
8.2334
60
162.95
2650.9
9.4096
32.565
2650.3
8.6655
16.266
2649.5
8.3439
8.1172
2648.0
8.0206
4.0424
2644.9
7.6937
80
172.19
2688.6
9.5136
34.417
2688.1
8.7698
17.195
2687.5
8.4486
8.5847
2686.3
8.1261
4.2792
2683.8
7.8009
2.8440
2681.3
7.6085
2.1262
2678.8
7.4703
1.6955
2676.2
7.3618
100
181.42
2726.5
9.6125
36.267
2726.1
8.8690
18.123
2725.6
8.5481
9.0508
2724.6
8.2262
4.5146
2722.6
7.9023
3.0025
2720.6
7.7111
2.2464
2718.6
7.5742
1.7927
2716.5
7.4670
1.1876
2711.2
7.2693
190.66
2764.6
9.7070
38.117
2764.3
8.9636
19.050
2763.9
8.6430
9.516
2763.1
8.3215
4.7489
2761.4
7.9985
3.1599
2759.8
7.8083
2.3654
2758.1
7.6723
1.8886
2756.4
7.5662
1.2529
2752.2
7.3709
199.89
2802.9
9.7975
39.966
2802.6
9.0542
19.975
2802.3
8.7338
9.980
2801.6
8.4127
4.9825
2800.3
8.0903
3.3166
2798.9
7.9008
2.4836
2797.6
7.7655
1.9838
2796.2
7.6601
1.3173
2792.7
7.4667
Temperature, t (C)
120
140
160
209.12
2841.4
9.8843
41.814
2841.2
9.1412
20.900
2840.9
8.8208
10.444
2840.3
8.5000
5.2154
2839.2
8.1782
3.4726
2838.1
7.9891
2.6011
2836.9
7.8544
2.0783
2835.8
7.7495
1.3811
2832.9
7.5574
180
218.35
2880.1
9.9679
43.662
2879.9
9.2248
21.825
2879.6
8.9045
10.907
2879.2
8.5839
5.4478
2878.2
8.2625
3.6281
2877.3
8.0738
2.7183
2876.3
7.9395
2.1723
2875.4
7.8350
1.4444
2872.9
7.6439
200
Table 9.04. Properties of superheated steam (temperature and pressure).

Computed using ASME software accompanying ASME Steam Tables (ASME, 1993).
220
227.58
2919.0
10.048
45.509
2918.8
9.3054
22.750
2918.6
8.9852
11.370
2918.2
8.6647
5.6800
2917.4
8.3435
3.7833
2916.6
8.1552
2.8350
2915.8
8.0212
2.2660
2915.0
7.9169
1.5073
2912.9
7.7266
248
5000.0
3000.0
2000.0
1000.0
800.0
600.0
500.0
400.0
300.0
200.0
Pressure
p (kPa)
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
60
80
100
0.9349
2747.8
7.2298
0.6167
2738.8
7.0254
0.9840
2789.1
7.3275
0.6506
2781.8
7.1271
0.4837
2774.2
6.9805
0.3835
2766.4
6.8631
0.3166
2758.2
6.7640
Temperature, t (C)
120
140
160
180
1.0325
2830.0
7.4196
0.6837
2824.0
7.2222
0.5093
2817.8
7.0788
0.4045
2811.4
6.9647
0.3346
2804.8
6.8691
0.2471
2791.1
6.7122
0.1944
2776.5
6.5835
200
1.0804
2870.5
7.5072
0.7164
2865.5
7.3119
0.5343
2860.4
7.1708
0.4250
2855.1
7.0592
0.3520
2849.7
6.9662
0.2608
2838.6
6.8148
0.2059
2826.8
6.6922
220
1.1280
2910.8
7.5907
0.7486
2906.6
7.3971
0.5589
2902.3
7.2576
0.4450
2890.0
7.1478
0.3690
2893.5
7.0567
0.2740
2884.2
6.9094
0.2169
2874.6
6.7911
0.1020
2819.9
6.3829
249
200.0
150.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
10.0
1.0
Pressure
p (kPa)
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
236.82
2958.1
10.1262
23.674
2957.8
9.0630
11.832
2957.4
8.7426
5.9118
2956.7
8.4217
3.9383
2956.0
8.2336
2.9515
2955.3
8.0998
2.3595
2954.6
7.9958
1.5700
2952.9
7.8061
1.1753
2951.1
7.6707
240.
246.05
2997.4
10.2014
24.598
2997.2
9.1383
12.295
2996.9
8.8180
6.1435
2996.3
8.4973
4.0931
2995.6
8.3093
3.0678
2995.0
8.1757
2.4527
2994.4
8.0719
1.6325
2992.9
7.8826
1.2224
2991.4
7.7477
260.
255.28
3037.0
10.2743
25.521
3036.8
9.2113
12.757
3036.5
8.8910
6.3751
3036.0
8.5704
4.2477
3035.4
8.3826
3.1840
3034.9
8.2491
2.5458
3034.4
8.1454
1.6948
3033.0
7.9565
1.2693
3031.7
7.8219
280.
264.51
3076.8
10.3450
26.445
3076.6
9.2820
13.219
3076.4
8.9618
6.6065
3075.9
8.6413
4.4022
3075.4
8.4536
3.3000
3075.0
8.3202
2.6387
3074.5
8.2166
1.7570
3073.3
8.0280
1.3162
3072.1
7.8937
310.66
3279.7
10.671
31.062
3279.6
9.6083
15.529
3279.4
9.2882
7.7625
3279.1
8.9680
5.1736
3278.8
8.7806
3.8792
3278.5
8.6475
3.1025
3278.2
8.5442
2.0669
3277.5
8.3562
1.5492
3276.7
8.2226
356.81
3489.2
10.961
35.679
3489.1
9.8984
17.838
3489.0
9.5784
8.9176
3488.8
9.2583
5.9441
3488.6
9.0710
4.4574
3488.4
8.9380
3.5653
3488.1
8.8348
2.3759
3487.6
8.6472
1.7812
3487.0
8.5139
Temperature, t (C)
300.
400.
500.
600.
402.97
3705.6
11.2243
40.295
3705.5
10.1616
20.146
3705.4
9.8416
10.072
3705.3
9.5216
6.7141
3705.1
9.3343
5.0351
3705.0
9.2014
4.0277
3704.8
9.0982
2.6845
3704.4
8.9108
2.0129
3704.0
8.7776
700.
449.12
3928.9
11.4663
44.910
3928.8
10.4036
22.455
3928.7
10.0836
11.227
3928.6
9.7636
7.4839
3928.5
9.5764
5.6126
3928.4
9.4436
4.4898
3928.2
9.3405
2.9927
3927.9
9.1531
2.2442
3927.6
9.0201
800.
495.27
4158.7
11.6911
49.526
4158.7
10.6284
24.762
4158.7
10.3085
12.381
4158.6
9.9885
8.2535
4158.5
9.8013
6.1899
4158.4
9.6685
4.9517
4158.3
9.5654
3.3008
4158.0
9.3781
2.4754
4157.8
9.2452
250
10000.0
5000.0
3000.0
2000.0
1000.0
800.0
600.0
500.0
400.0
300.0
Pressure
p (kPa)
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
v
h
s
0.7805
2947.5
7.4783
0.5831
2943.9
7.3402
0.4647
2940.1
7.2317
0.3857
2936.4
7.1419
0.2869
2928.6
6.9976
0.2276
2920.6
6.8825
0.1084
2875.9
6.4943
0.0682
2822.9
6.2241
240.
0.8123
2988.2
7.5562
0.6072
2985.1
7.4190
0.4841
2981.9
7.3115
0.4021
2978.7
7.2228
0.2995
2972.1
7.0807
0.2739
2965.2
6.9680
0.1144
2928.1
6.5941
0.0728
2885.1
6.3432
260.
0.8438
3028.9
7.6311
0.6311
3026.2
7.4947
0.5034
3023.4
7.3879
0.4183
3020.6
7.3000
0.3119
3014.9
7.1595
0.2480
3009.0
7.0485
0.1200
2977.5
6.6852
0.0771
2942.0
6.4479
0.0422
2856.9
6.0886
280.
0.8753
3069.7
7.7034
0.6549
3067.2
7.5675
0.5226
3064.8
7.4614
0.4344
3062.3
7.3740
0.3241
3057.3
7.2348
0.2580
3052.1
7.1251
0.1255
3025.0
6.7696
0.0812
2995.1
6.5422
0.0453
2925.5
6.2105
1.0314
3275.2
8.0338
0.7725
3273.6
7.8994
0.6172
3272.1
7.7948
0.5136
3270.6
7.7090
0.3842
3267.5
7.5729
0.3065
3264.4
7.4665
0.1511
3248.7
7.1296
0.0993
3232.5
6.9246
0.0578
3198.3
6.6508
0.0264
3099.9
6.2182
1.1865
3486.0
8.3257
0.8892
3484.9
8.1919
0.7108
3483.8
8.0879
0.5918
3482.7
8.0027
0.4432
3480.5
7.8678
0.3540
3478.3
7.7627
0.1756
3467.3
7.4323
0.1161
3456.2
7.2345
0.0685
3433.7
6.9770
0.0328
3374.6
6.5994
Temperature, t (C)
300.
400.
500.
600.
1.3412
3703.2
8.5898
1.0054
3702.3
8.4563
0.8039
3701.5
8.3526
0.6696
3700.7
8.2678
0.5017
3699.1
8.1336
0.4010
3697.4
8.0292
0.1995
3689.2
7.7022
0.1323
3681.0
7.5079
0.0786
3664.5
7.2578
0.0383
3622.7
6.9013
700.
1.4957
3927.0
8.8325
1.1214
3926.4
8.6992
.08968
3925.8
8.5957
0.7471
3925.1
8.5111
0.5600
3923.9
8.3773
0.4477
3922.7
8.2734
0.2232
3916.5
7.9485
0.1483
3910.3
7.7564
0.0884
3897.9
7.5108
0.0436
3866.8
7.1660
800.
1.6499
4157.3
9.0577
1.2372
4156.9
8.9246
0.9896
4156.4
8.8213
0.8245
4155.9
8.7368
0.6181
4155.0
8.6033
0.4943
4154.1
8.4997
0.2467
4149.4
8.1763
0.1641
4144.7
7.9857
0.0981
4135.3
7.7431
0.0486
4112.0
7.4058
251
[a]
(K) T
273.15
278.15
283.15
288.15
293.15
298.15
303.15
308.15
313.15
318.15
323.15
328.15
333.15
338.15
343.15
348.15
353.15
358.15
363.15
368.15
373.15
393.15
413.15
433.15
453.15
473.15
999.9
1000.0
999.7
999.1
998.2
997.1
995.7
994.1
992.2
990.2
988.1
985.7
983.2
980.6
977.8
974.9
971.8
968.7
965.3
961.9
958.4
943.5
926.3
907.6
886.6
862.8
Based upon data from Raznjevic (1976).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
120
140
160
180
200
(C) t
Temperature
Density
(kg/m3)
4.226
4.206
4.195
4.187
4.182
4.178
4.176
4.175
4.175
4.176
4.178
4.179
4.181
4.184
4.187
4.190
4.194
4.198
4.202
4.206
4.211
4.232
4.257
4.285
4.396
4.501
0.558
0.568
0.577
0.587
0.597
0.606
0.615
0.624
0.633
0.640
0.647
0.652
0.658
0.663
0.668
0.671
0.673
0.676
0.678
0.680
0.682
0.685
0.684
0.680
0.673
0.665
Specific
Thermal
Heat
Conductivity
(kJ/kg K)
(W/m K)
Cp
k
0.131 10-6
0.135 10-6
0.137 10-6
0.141 10-6
0.143 10-6
0.146 10-6
0.149 10-6
0.150 10-6
0.151 10-6
0.155 10-6
0.157 10-6
0.158 10-6
0.159 10-6
0.161 10-6
0.163 10-6
0.164 10-6
0.165 10-6
0.166 10-6
0.167 10-6
0.168 10-6
0.169 10-6
0.171 10-6
0.172 10-6
0.173 10-6
0.172 10-6
0.170 10-6
Thermal
Diffusivity
(m2/s)
1.7936 10-3
1.5347 10-3
1.2964 10-3
1.1356 10-3
0.9934 10-3
0.8806 10-3
0.7924 10-3
0.7198 10-3
0.6580 10-3
0.6051 10-3
0.5550 10-3
0.5099 10-3
0.4717 10-3
0.4354 10-3
0.4040 10-3
0.3766 10-3
0.3520 10-3
0.3285 10-3
0.3089 10-3
0.2922 10-3
0.2775 10-3
0.2354 10-3
0.2010 10-3
0.1716 10-3
0.1520 10-3
0.1392 10-3
Absolute
Viscosity
(N s/m2)
1.789 10-6
1.535 10-6
1.300 10-6
1.146 10-6
1.006 10-6
0.884 10-6
0.805 10-6
0.725 10-6
0.658 10-6
0.611 10-6
0.556 10-6
0.517 10-6
0.478 10-6
0.444 10-6
0.415 10-6
0.366 10-6
0.364 10-6
0.339 10-6
0.326 10-6
0.310 10-6
0.294 10-6
0.244 10-6
0.212 10-6
0.191 10-6
0.173 10-6
0.160 10-6
Kinematic
Viscosity
(m2/s)
Table 9.05. Thermodynamic properties of water at the saturation pressure.[a]
13.7
11.4
9.43
8.10
6.96
6.07
5.38
4.82
4.34
3.95
3.55
3.27
3.00
2.76
2.55
2.23
2.25
2.04
1.95
1.84
1.75
1.43
1.23
1.10
1.01
0.95
Prandtl
number
Pr
252
List of Symbols
cp
specific heat capacity at constant pressure, J/(kg K) or kJ/(kg K)
h
enthalpy, kJ/kg
has (hs ha), enthalpy difference between saturated and dry air, kJ/kg
enthalpy of saturated liquid, kJ/kg
hf
hfg (hg hf), latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
enthalpy of saturated vapor, kJ/kg
hg
Le Lewis Number, dimensionless
m
mass, kg
M
molecular weight, kg/kmol
N
number of moles
P
pressure, Pa
R
gas constant for a particular gas, kPa m3/(kg K)
Ru gas constant, universal, 8.314 kJ/(kmol K)
s
entropy, kJ/(kg K)
t
temperature, C
T
absolute temperature, K
specific volume, m3/kg

V
volume, m3
W
humidity ratio, g H2O/kg DA or kg H2O/kg DA
x
steam quality, kg vapor/kg total
y
mole fraction
time, s
degree of saturation, dimensionless
relative humidity, percent or decimal

Subscripts
1, 2 position identification
a
air (or dry air)
dp dew point
f
fluid state
fg
difference between properties at fluid and gaseous states
g
gaseous state
rem removed
s
steam, or saturated
t
total
w
water
wb wet-bulb
ws water at saturation
Superscript
*
a property at the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature
as saturated air
253
254
References
1. ASHRAE. 1977. ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA.
2. ASHRAE. 1997. Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 6: Psychrometrics.
ASHRAE, Inc., Atlanta, GA.
3. ASME. 1993. Steam Tables. 6th ed. with software for calculating steam properties.
ASME, New York, NY.
4. Cengel, Yunus A., and Michael A. Boles. 1989. Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY.
5. Raznjevic, Kuzman. 1976. Handbook of Thermodynamic Tables and Charts.
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, DC.
6. Van Wylen, Gordon J., and Richard E. Sonntag. 1986. Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
7. Wilhelm, Luther R. 1976. Numerical calculations of psychrometric properties in SI
units. Transactions of the ASAE 19(2): 318-321, 325.
Problems
9.1. Use a psychrometric chart to complete the following table.
tdb
(C)
21
21
21
27
10
twb
(C)
17
tdp
(C)
(%)
h
(kJ)/(kg)
v
W
(m3/(kg) (g H2O)/(g air)
17
30
18
18
81
20
9.2. A psychrometer measures wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures of 20C and
30C, respectively. What is:
a. the dew point temperature?
c. the relative humidity?
b. the humidity ratio?
d. the enthalpy?
9.3. For a dew point of 24C and dry bulb of 30C, find:
a. relative humidity
c. humidity ratio
b. enthalpy
d. vapor pressure
9.4. Air inside a room is at 20C with a twb = 15C. Will condensation occur if the air
contacts a surface at 10C?
9.5. A 4m 7m 2.5m room contains air at 27C and atmospheric pressure. The
partial pressure of the water vapor in the air is 1.5 kPa. Find:
a. the wet bulb temperature
d. the dew point
b. the humidity ratio
e. the enthalpy per kg of dry air
c. the specific volume
255
9.6. One kilogram of air at 20C and 70% relative humidity is heated to 40C with
no moisture added or removed.
a. What is the relative humidity of the heated air?
b. If this air is maintained at a pressure of 1 atmosphere (101.325 kPa) during
the heating process, what is the percentage change in volume due to the heating?
9.7. Air at 25C and a relative humidity of 40% is to be cooled until condensation
begins.
a. How low can it be cooled?
b. What happens if the initial relative humidity is 90%?
9.8. A large balloon contains air at 44C and 10% relative humidity. The contents are
slowly cooled.
a. How much heat must be removed to cool the air to 15C?
b. To what temperature must the air be cooled before condensation begins?
9.9. Evaporative cooling by forcing air through trailer loads of snap beans is sometimes used during shipments. Assume the following conditions:
Air enters at 27C and 70% relative humidity.
It leaves at 27C and 95% relative humidity.
a. How much heat is removed per 1000 m3 of air entering the trailer?
b. How much water is removed per 1000 m3 of air?
9.10. In hot, dry areas evaporative cooling is often very effective. Consider a system
where water for evaporation is added by spraying into a duct containing air at
45C and 20% relative humidity.
a. If the resulting air-vapor mixture must not exceed 60% relative humidity,
how much can the temperature be lowered by evaporative cooling?
b. If the air flow rate is 0.50 m3/s, what must be the flow rate of the water added
for evaporation?
c. Show this process on a psychrometric chart.
9.11. In a building heating/cooling system, air flows over cooling coils for moisture
removal and is then reheated as necessary to maintain a cooling air temperature
of 21C. If the air temperature as it crosses the coils is 13C, what will be the
relative humidity of the cooling air?
9.12. Air at 55C and a wet-bulb temperature of 26C passes through a humidifier and
exits at 80% relative humidity. For this process, find:
a. the change in temperature of the air
b. the change in moisture content of the air
c. the change in specific volume
d. the change in dew point temperature
e. the change in enthalpy
256
9.13. Air at 15C and 50% relative humidity is mixed with an equal amount of air at
35C and 50% relative humidity. Determine the temperature and relative humidity of the mixed air. Repeat for a mixture containing 80% of the 15C air and
20% of the 35C air.
9.14. Ambient air at 15C and 50% relative humidity is heated to 50C. This heated
air is than mixed with an equal amount of ambient air (at 15C and 50% relative
humidity). Determine the temperature and relative humidity of the mixed air.
Repeat for a mixture containing 80% of the heated air and 20% of the ambient
air.
9.15. Air at 22C and 90% relative humidity (Point 1) is passed over cooling coils and
cooled to 5C (Point 2). It is then heated to 45C (Point 3). The heated air is
forced through a drier, exiting at 80% relative humidity (Point 4).
a. Give the values of the following properties at State Point 2: twb, tdp, h, v, W.
b. How much water per unit mass of dry air is removed by the drying air in the
drying process?
c. How much heat, per unit mass of dry air, is removed from the air in the cooling process?
9.16. Show that each term of Equation 9.19 can be written in units of kJ/kg DA.
9.17. Using the latent heat of fusion of water, calculate the amount of energy needed
to melt 50 kg of ice at 0C. If the ice is initially at 15C, how much energy
would be needed?
9.18. Use the steam tables to find the enthalpy of steam under the following conditions.
State
Liquid
Liquid
Vapor
Vapor
Vapor
P (kPa)
300
10
300
200
400
t (C)
133.5
45.8
133.5
300
800
h (kJ/kg)
9.19. What is the enthalpy of 1 kg of wet steam in a 0.2 m3 container at:

a. 100C
c. 800 kPa
b. 4000 kPa
d. 175C
Note: First determine the quality (x). Since 0 < x < 1, any computed value of x >
1 indicates a physically impossible condition.
9.20. What is the enthalpy of an 80% vapor and 20% liquid mixture at 100C?
9.21. Superheated steam at 200 kPa and 160C is cooled at constant pressure
a. What are the initial values of t, h, and v?
b. What are the values of t, h, and v when the steam is cooled to saturated vapor?
257
c. What are the values of t, h, and v when it is cooled to a quality of 0.5?

d. What are the values of t, h, and v when it is cooled to saturated liquid?
e. If additional cooling occurs, will the temperature change? If so, how?
9.22. Plot enthalpy (h) as a function of quality (x) for steam at:
a. 100C
c. 130C
b. 120 kPa
d. 400 kPa
9.23. Complete the following table of steam properties.
h (kJ/kg)
x
Item
P (kPa)
v (m3/kg)
t (C)
A
170
792
2047.9
B
400
200
C
140
0.9
D
140
150
E
140
F
140
0.5
G
121
0.1
State codes: SL = saturated liquid
SV = saturated vapor
SH = superheated vapor WS = wet steam
State
SL
9.24. Calculate the partial pressure of water vapor and the corresponding temperature
for a steam air mixture that is 10% air by mass with a total pressure of 400 kPa.
9.25. Repeat the previous problem for a mixture that is 20% air by mass.

Psychrometrics - Theory and Examples

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What are psychrometric properties?

What are psychrometric properties?

How is relative humidity defined and calculated?

How is relative humidity defined and calculated?

Wilhelm, Luther R., Dwayne A. Suter, and Gerald H. Brusewitz. 2004. Psychrometrics.

9.2 Relationships Derived from the Perfect Gas Law

m = mass of the gas, kg

Food & Process Engineering Technology

R = gas constant for a particular gas, Ru /M, kPa m3/kg K

Using Equation 9.08, we can rewrite Equation 9.09 as:

or, solving for Pw:

The degree of saturation () is another psychrometric parameter that is sometimes

Substituting from Equation 9.15 for Pw:

Food & Process Engineering Technology

9.3 Other Important Parameters

h = 1.006 t + W (2501 + 1.805 t )

9.4 Psychrometric Charts

Figure 9.01. Psychrometric chart for normal temperatures (SI units).

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This compares to a value of 48 found from the chart.

Table 9.01. Selected thermodynamic properties of moist air.[a]

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9.5 Processes on the Psychrometric Chart

air mass balance

m aAW A + m aBW B = m aCWC

water mass balance

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Cooling Coil with Condensation

Sensible Cooling followed by

Figure 9.04. Examples of psychrometric processes (continued next page).

Preheater Sensible Heating- Reheater

Figure 9.04 (continued). Examples of psychrometric processes.

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where: h1 = enthalpy of entering air

= enthalpy of saturated air at t

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Properties given in the problem statement.

From the table:

Q = h2 h1 = 74.7 38.4 = 36.3 kJ/kg DA

W = 19.5 14.75 = 4.75 g H2O/kg DA

Q = h = 75.1 57.2 = 17.9 kJ/kg DA

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WC = 23.5 + 0.6 (12 23.5) = 23.5 6.9 = 16.6 g/kg DA

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Figure 9.05. Heat content (enthalpy) of water at a pressure of one atmosphere as

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Absolute Pressure (kPa)

Figure 9.06. Boiling point temperature as a function of pressure for water.

Heat Content (Enthalpy)

Figure 9.07. Temperature-Enthalpy diagram for water. The curve

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9.7 Steam Tables

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9.8 Steam -Air Mixtures

= mole fraction of air )

Steam Pressure (kPa)

Mass Fraction of Air