Building Knowledge Developing a Grounded Theory of

Knowledge Management for Construction

Brian Graham and Ken Thomas
Waterford Institute of Technology, Republic of Ireland
bgraham@wit.ie
kthomas@wit.ie
Abstract: As part of an on-going doctoral study, a constructivist approach to grounded theory is being used to develop
an integrated model of knowledge management (KM) for the leading Irish construction organisations. Using multiple data
collection methods; employees in a number of these organisations have participated, from recent graduates through to
senior managers. While the need to effectively manage knowledge within large construction organisations is well
recognised, a gap exists between the theory of KM and its implementation in practice. This paper considers the research
in terms of its philosophical position, the use of grounded theory and the research methods utilised, from theoretical and
practical perspectives. Progress in the study thus far is presented and future directions considered in achieving
theoretical saturation and a well developed model. It is anticipated that the study will contribute to the field of construction
management where further empirical research into KM is required. Much previous research in the area of KM in
construction has focussed solely on technological, cultural or strategic issues in the development of KM models. The
developed integrated model will form the basis of education and guidance resources on KM for the leading Irish
construction organisations. As a traditional and pragmatic industry, the rationale for using grounded theory is provided
from the viewpoint that it requires researchers to focus upon developing theory which produces explanations that are
recognisable to the subjects of the research. In order to ensure the credibility of the developed model, it will be evaluated
by industry as part of a pilot KM education programme, with further refinement if necessary.
Keywords: Construction, constructivism, grounded theory, knowledge management, mixed methods.

1. Introduction
There are numerous challenges facing todays construction industry. These include economic swings, new
markets emerging in the global economy, increasing competition, the impact of technology, new and
increasing demands from clients, customers and society, and the requirement to maintain a highly skilled
workforce at all levels. The industry is recognised as being poor at learning on a consistent basis and
improving performance and is notoriously slow in adapting to progressive change. The project-based,
fragmented and unstable nature of the industry has led to significant knowledge loss compared with other
industries. Knowledge Management (KM) has been promoted as a means of harnessing and utilising
intellectual resources to address these challenges, as well as improving innovation, business performance
and client satisfaction. However there is uncertainty about how to devise and implement a viable and cost
effective KM initiative. KM has received significant attention from the construction management academic
community in recent years and this is evidenced in numerous recent publications and conferences (Walker,
2005). KM is considered to be in its infancy in the construction industry and is seen as a recent and evolving
practice for construction organisations (Robinson et al., 2005). The lack of a working definition of knowledge
within construction organisations and awareness of the importance and potential advantages of KM reflects
an informal approach. It also indicates the need for further exploration of knowledge and KM-related issues
(Robinson et al., 2005). There is a lack of empirical research and integrated KM models for construction,
resulting in the continuing need for the development and testing of such models (Walker and Wilson, 2004).
One such integrated KM model, the K-Adv model, was judged to be too difficult to implement by the
organisations involved. A draft industry guidance document was produced and tested as part of the
research. This was found to be conceptually too complex to understand, even by some KM specialists within
the contributing organisations. Participants in the research indicated that a less complicated and shorter
guidance document was preferable (Walker and Wilson 2004).
This paper reports upon an ongoing doctoral study the aim of which is to develop an integrated model of KM
for the leading Irish construction organisations through grounded theory. In considering a studys research
methodology, Schwandt (2001) highlights the need to discuss the philosophical stance of the research and
the methods adopted. A theoretical discussion on the philosophical nature of research and the grounded
theory methodology is presented, with a specific focus upon the challenges facing a novice researcher in
positioning this methodology within a constructivist paradigm. To fit with the emergent nature of grounded
theory, multiple data collection methods have been utilised including interviews, focus groups and
questionnaires and their adoption is presented and discussed. In concluding, the paper reflects upon the
rationale for the chosen methodology and how identified challenges have been overcome.
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Reference this paper as:
Graham, B. and Thomas, K. Building Knowledge Developing a Grounded Theory of Knowledge Management for
Construction. The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods Volume 6 Issue 2 2008, pp. 115 - 122, available
online at www.ejbrm.com

Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods Volume 6 Issue 2 2008 (115-122)

2. Research philosophy and knowledge

In conducting research, Dainty (2007) emphasises the importance of constructing a philosophical position
and orientation towards the inquiry. McCallin (2003) recommends reviewing the philosophical background
and considering the paradigm of inquiry, early in the research process. A paradigm is defined as the basic
belief system or worldview that guides the investigator, not only in choices of method but in ontologically and
epistemologically fundamental ways (Guba and Lincoln, 1994: 105). The definition of research paradigms
requires the consideration of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Ontology is concerned with the form
and nature of reality, a theory of what exists and how it exists. Epistemology is concerned with the nature of
knowledge and considers the relationship between the knower and what can be known (Guba and Lincoln,
1994; Schwandt, 2001). In terms of methodology, Clough and Nutbrown (2002: 31) view its task as
uncovering and justifying research assumptions as far and as practicably as possible, and in doing so to
locate the claims which the research makes within the traditions of enquiry which use it. Ignoring such
issues, according to Amaratunga and Baldry (2001) can have a detrimental effect on the quality of the
research.
The study of knowledge has always been controversial throughout the history of philosophy and science,
leading to a lack of clarity and numerous positions along a continuum with two extremes: knowledge is
ascribed a purely objective or a purely subjective existence (Sousa and Hendriks, 2006). For the novice
researcher, the adoption of a philosophical position can be a difficult task, with much of the literature
focusing on the dichotomy between positivism and interpretivism. These two distinct paradigms have been
the subject of a long-standing debate in science, with many authors aligning positivism with quantitative, and
interpretivism with qualitative research (Dainty, 2007). This position, according to Guba and Lincoln (1994:
105) is somewhat misleading as both qualitative and quantitative methods may be used appropriately with
any research paradigm. Fundamentally positivism is concerned with explaining human behaviour, while
interpretivism places emphasis on understanding it, although there is call to view these approaches as
complementary rather than as two opposite extremes (Amaratunga and Baldry, 2001: 96). There have been
extensions and additions to the basic paradigms of positivism and interpretivism for social and business
research including postpositivism, critical inquiry, symbolic interactionism, and constructivism (Guba and
Lincoln, 1994; Schwandt, 1994).
A relatively new field of enquiry, construction management is viewed by Dainty (2007) as being firmly rooted
within the positivist tradition, leading him to question the ability of the construction management research
community to provide a rich and nuanced understanding of industry practice. This view is reinforced by Guba
and Lincoln (1994) who identify a number of critiques of positivism including: loss of context, exclusion of
meaning and purpose, disjunction from local contexts, inapplicability of general data to individual cases and
exclusion of the discovery dimension in inquiry. In order to redress the myopic approach to construction
management research, Dainty (2007) proposes that methodological pluralism be embraced, whereby
multiple theoretical models and methodologies are used to further knowledge. He states that a more
expansive outlook towards mixing methodologies and research paradigms could yield deeper insights into,
and understanding of, the way that practitioners do management in the construction sector (Dainty, 2007:
9).

3. Grounded theory
The grounded theory methodology first appeared in the seminal text The Discovery of Grounded Theory
(Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Through a set of highly developed procedures, the main aim of grounded theory
is to produce formal, substantive theory about the behavioural patterns that shape social processes as
people interact together in groups (Schwandt, 2001, McCallin, 2003). The philosophy of grounded theory lies
in symbolic interactionism which posits that meaning is socially constructed, is negotiated and changes over
time through the reflexive interaction of individuals (Mansourian, 2006, Goulding, 2005, Loosemore, 1999).
With the passing of time the originators of grounded theory have adopted differing approaches to this
methodology, leading to an ensuing academic debate over the characteristics and definition of grounded
theory. The contrasts between and within the Glaserian and Straussian schools of grounded theory lie in
their methodological procedures for coding data and developing categories, memoing and sampling,
emergence, researcher distance and theory development (Jones and Noble, 2007; Mansourian, 2006). The
main features of grounded theory include: using empirical research as its starting point; an iterative process
of data collection and analysis; producing explanations that are recognisable to the subjects of the research;
being geared to modest localised explanations based on the immediate evidence; an emergent design and
being linked with qualitative research, exploratory investigations, small-scale studies and research focusing
on human interaction in specific settings (Denscombe, 2003).

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In terms of organisational research, grounded theory can be particularly useful in examining in exploring a
wide range of issues about people, their behaviour, relationships and communications (Locke 2001,
Goulding 2002). The focus on remaining grounded can be useful when dealing with the concept of
knowledge management in organisations, particularly in conceptualising managers practices and opinions
(Sousa and Hendriks, 2006). The grounded theory approach is now proving popular within the construction
management research domain, with a number of recent research projects being undertaken in the area of
KM (Hunter et al., 2005).

3.1 Grounded theory and constructivism

Grounded theory has been adapted by researchers to fit with a variety of philosophical positions such as
constructivism, feminism, critical thinking and postmodernism (Mills et al., 2006). A constructivist approach to
grounded theory, which has been adopted in this study, posits that knowledge is constructed to make sense
of experience and is continually modified and tested in light of new experiences (Schwandt, 1994). Despite
its relatively recent popularity in the social sciences, the roots of constructivism can be traced back to the
earliest philosophical arguments over a rational foundation for knowledge. Constructivism is discussed by
Guba and Lincoln (1994: 110-111) in terms of ontology, epistemology and methodology as follows:
Ontology: reality is constructed by individuals or groups in the form of multiple, intangible mental
constructions, socially and experientially based, local and specific in nature.
Epistemology: the researcher and research participants interact so that the findings are literally created
as the investigation proceeds.
Methodology: through interaction and continuous refinement of the researchers and participants
individual constructions, the aim is to distil a consensus construction that is more informed and
sophisticated than any of the predecessor constructions.
In adopting a constructivist approach to grounded theory, Mills et al. (2006) discuss the need for a sense of
reciprocity between the researcher and participants which facilitates the co-construction of meaning, leading
to the use of participants stories framed within the written theory. Strauss and Corbin (1994) reinforce these
considerations citing the importance of interplay between the researcher and the participants and the
incorporation of multiple perspectives in writing the emerging theory. The inclusion of practitioner insights
through a recursive sense-making process capitalises on a rich practitioner knowledge base (Leonard and
McAdam, 2001). This has led Mills et al. (2006: 9) to remark that clearly, Strauss and Corbins evolved
grounded theory has some constructivist intent.

3.2 Selecting a version of grounded theory

With more than one version of how researchers can go about implementing grounded theory, Chiovitti and
Piran (2003) highlight the need for rigour in its use, with the process by which theory was generated being
explained properly. Jones and Noble (2007) criticise the free-for-all manner in which grounded theory has
been used citing the need for more discipline in the methodology. Goulding (2005) confirms this position,
reporting that many research papers which purport to use grounded theory are nothing more than purposive
sampling and interviews, lacking any level of theoretical sensitivity. In a review of empirical studies that have
reported using grounded theory, Jones and Noble (2007) found a number had omitted theoretical sampling,
leading to a theory lacking in density and variability. This may be due to researchers not understanding the
important aspects of the methodology, concentrating only on coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1994). In
attempting to restore integrity to grounded theory, Jones and Noble (2007) recommend that the researcher
should clearly state the version of grounded theory they intend to use and adhere to its procedures. While
Strauss and Corbins version of grounded theory has been viewed as being too rigid by some, they counter
that the suggested guidelines and procedures allow much latitude for ingenuity and are an aid to creativity
(Strauss and Corbin, 1994: 273). Given the debate regarding integrity, the present study adopts the version
of grounded theory developed by Strauss and Corbin (1998), a key feature of which are the detailed open,
axial and selective coding procedures. In order to facilitate analysis of the data, the qualitative data analysis
software, NVivo is being utilised as, the design of NVivo was strongly influenced by grounded theory and
therefore the program gives good support for the method (Gibbs 2002: 165).

3.3 The novice researcher and grounded theory

There are significant challenges for a novice researcher in adopting this approach, which can prove to be
quite frustrating (McCallin, 2003). In attempting to overcome anxiety of doing it right, Mansourian (2006)
recommends adherence to the key principles of constant comparison, theoretical sampling and emergence.

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Based on his experience of Strauss and Corbins method, Allan (2003) found the micro analysis to be very
time consuming and confusing. However, he reports that confidence in the process of coding grew and
uncertainty subsided with experience of the method (Allan, 2003:3).
There has been much debate about the level of a priori knowledge with which the researcher enters the field
(Goulding 2002). While it is impossible to begin research with no preconceived ideas, Eisenhardt (1998)
highlights the importance of being as close as possible to having no theory under consideration or
hypotheses to test in order to reduce bias. However, it is accepted that some prior reading is required to
identify initial ideas and concepts, with the extant literature being incorporated into the emerging theory as
the research progresses (Denscombe 2003). The timing of the literature review in grounded theory can
prove problematic for novice researchers. An initial literature review was conducted by McCallin (2003) as a
base for comparison with emerging concepts. The identification of similarities between the grounded theory
and the literature can help to improve the transferability, validity, and generalisability of the theory
(Eisenhardt, 1989, Chiovitti and Piran, 2003). While conflicting literature can force the researcher into a
more creative, framebreaking mode of thinking than they might otherwise be able to achieve (Eisenhardt,
1989: 544). Apart from literature Goulding (2005) cites the researchers life experiences, research and
scholarship as knowledge which cannot be erased prior to conducting their research.
There are two general strategies for selecting participants (such as people, organisations, locations etc.) in
research; statistical or theoretical strategy. While a statistical strategy is concerned with sample sizes,
theoretical sampling should focus on samples which are large enough to provide meaningful data of depth
and quality (Leonard and McAdam, 2001, Birley and Moreland, 1998). With theoretical sampling it is
essential to establish the criteria upon which the selection of participants will be based (Schwandt. 2001;
Eisenhardt, 1989). In the case of grounded theory, Goulding (2005) suggests initially talking to informants
who are most likely to provide information which may lead to provisional concepts and direct the researcher
to further theoretically identified samples, locations, and forms of data. As concepts emerge from the initial
field research, further sites are selected based upon developing categories and emerging theories (Goulding
2002). The rationale being that the selected sites best support the development of the theoretical framework
(Locke 2001). In concluding the theory development, theoretical saturation should occur whereby additional
analysis no longer contributes to discovering anything new about a category and is vital if a theory of
substance is to be developed (Denscombe 2003, Locke 2001).
In writing grounded theory it is recommended that the style of presentation should move back and forward
between extensive theoretical presentations and illustrative live excerpts from the research setting (Locke
2001). The use of diagrams can also aid the illustration of points being made (Goulding 2002). Once written,
the proposed theory should be reviewed in terms of whether it is pragmatically useful and credible. To check
the credibility of the developing theory, the researcher should return to the original informants and obtain
their opinions (Goulding 2002).

4. Data collection
The chosen methodology, the scope of the study and type of information required will dictate the types of
methods used (Clough and Nutbrown, 2002, Birley and Moreland, 1998). While Loosemore (1999) places
emphasis upon developing grounded theory through qualitative data, Sousa and Hendriks (2006) view it as a
fundamental distortion to argue that grounded theory is a qualitative research method. Indeed, Eisenhardt
(1989) states that research focussed on theory building, will typically combine multiple data collection
methods. The mixing of qualitative and quantitative methods can be viewed as complementary, echoing the
call for methodological pluralism in construction management made by Dainty (2007). The use of multiple
methods allows for triangulation, the purpose of which is to confirm findings through convergence of different
perspectives, check the integrity of inferences drawn and ensure validity (Jack and Raturi, 2006; Schwandt,
2001). The following section provides an overview of the methods used for data collection in the research,
moving from an initial literature review through the various stages of theoretical sampling that have been
completed to-date. At all stages of the data collection and analysis, literature relevant to the emerging
concepts has been reviewed.

4.1 Initial literature review

An initial literature review was performed which involved some general reading on KM in construction, which
led to a working definition of KM, and the identification of strategic, technological and cultural issues as key
concepts.

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4.2 Survey of the twenty leading construction companies

A survey was then conducted concentrating on the leading twenty construction organisations in the Republic
of Ireland, based on 2004 turnover. It was decided to send a questionnaire to both the Managing Director
and ICT Manager, in order to explore the strategic and technological perspectives of KM.

4.3 Senior management interviews

Senior managers from ten of these organisations were then interviewed in order to get an overview of
current approaches to managing knowledge from both strategic and operational perspectives. Based on the
survey results and further review of literature, a number of key themes relating to KM formed the basis for
the interview questions at individual, project and organisational levels. A number of concepts emerged as
important to managing knowledge, including the development of a knowledge sharing culture, Continuing
Professional Development (CPD), the level of experience and role of the individual, and the need to
overcome geographical barriers to KM.

4.4 Case study 1

An interview with one of the senior managers, led to an opportunity to conduct further research within their
organisation. The organisations involvement in a CPD accreditation scheme had led them to considering the
implementation of KM practices. The first part of the case study involved a questionnaire which was
distributed to 180 professional and management staff based in the Dublin region, achieving a 36% response.
The questionnaire sought to examine staffs attitudes towards CPD and KM activities within the organisation.
Follow-up interviews were then conducted with thirteen staff members on a large commercial development
project. Findings from the case study were presented to the companys CPD and KM team, with an
unstructured focus group used to discuss and evaluate them. A number of recommendations were made
regarding improving KM practices which have since been successfully implemented. Commitment of staff to
their relevant professional bodies as opposed to the organisation emerged as being an important motivator
for continually learning and acquiring knowledge.

4.5 Engineers Ireland CPD accreditation manager interview

With KM as part of their CPD accreditation scheme, the countrys largest professional body, Engineers
Ireland, was the next location considered for data collection. An unstructured interview was arranged and
conducted with their CPD Accreditation Manager, to discuss KM in relation to construction organisations.
With twelve of the top twenty organisations engaged in the accreditation process, it was found that they are
struggling with the concept of KM. The prospect of developing guidance documentation and training
resources aimed specifically at construction organisations was discussed as a possibility of raising
awareness and understanding of KM, and ultimately improving its implementation.

4.6 Case study 2

The opportunity emerged to conduct a second case study of another leading Irish construction organisation
who had participated in earlier phases of the research. The focus was on addressing the need to share
specialist knowledge between practising construction managers on geographically dispersed projects. Action
research was adopted as the research strategy, as it is based on a collaborative approach between the
researcher and the practitioner and is normally associated with hands-on, small-scale research projects
where practitioners wish to use research to improve their practices (Denscombe, 2003). In order to identify
common problems on the various projects, each of the six managers were initially interviewed on their own to
consider their individual experiences. Following analysis of the interviews, a focus group comprising all six
managers was used to share knowledge and build consensus. Subsequently, all participants were then
given a questionnaire to complete in order to consolidate learning from the focus group and to evaluate the
effectiveness and future potential of such a forum for sharing. A number of recommendations emerged from
this phase of the study, including the need to review all construction projects upon their completion and
document the good and bad experiences for future use. With the continuing collaboration of these
practitioners, research is continuing into the adoption of lessons learned practices as the second phase of
the action research.

4.7 CPD specialist interviews

Following the interview with Engineers Ireland CPD Accreditation Manager, and in parallel with Case Study
2, interviews were conducted with identified CPD specialists in five of the leading construction organisations

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and five non-construction organisations. The purpose of which was to explore the role of CPD, particularly
the Engineers Ireland scheme and how the KM criteria is being addressed. At the time of writing this paper,
these interviews are being transcribed and will be incorporated into the emerging theory.

5. Discussion
With a recognised need for empirical research and KM models that are relevant to construction
organisations, this paper has proposed the use of a constructivist approach to grounded theory. The
adoption of such an approach will ensure that the developed model is recognisable to the research
participants. Indeed, grounded theory has been shown to be useful for research focussed on interaction and
human behaviour in specific settings, particularly in organisational settings and KM research. A constructivist
approach to the research ensures that the research participants are actively involved in building the model at
all stages, resulting in consensus on KM in construction. This is particularly evident in the two case studies
where close collaboration and a sense of reciprocity are critical. From a novice researchers perspective,
using grounded theory can prove challenging and a poor understanding of its features can lead to a poorly
developed theory. By selecting Strauss and Corbins version and adhering to their guidelines on coding, prior
knowledge, use of literature and sampling, integrity and rigour can be achieved. In terms of data collection,
grounded theory transcends the debate surrounding positivism and interpretivism, allowing for the
incorporation of multiple methods. The use of interviews, questionnaires and focus groups with differing
participants such as senior managers, middle managers, engineers, quantity surveyors, CPD specialists and
IT managers should provide deeper insights into and understanding of KM in construction organisations.
Furthermore, the use of multiple methods facilitates triangulation, thus improving the integrity of research.

6. Conclusions
Having considered an on-going PhD study into KM within the leading Irish construction organisations, there
are a number of conclusions which can be drawn:
There is a gap between the theory and practice of KM in construction. While the adoption of KM is
strategically important for construction organisations, much uncertainty exists surrounding its
implementation.
A constructivist approach to grounded theory can facilitate the development of a KM model for
construction that bridges the gap between theory and practice. A focus on building knowledge of the
novice researcher, participants and KM in construction can be achieved through the adoption of a
constructivist approach to grounded theory.
The selection of, and adherence to, a specific version of grounded theory is important in
ensuring rigour and integrity. By selecting a specific version of grounded theory, adhering to its guidelines
and being aware of the challenges involved, a well-developed theory can be achieved by a novice
researcher.
Multiple data collection methods can contribute to a well-developed and credible grounded
theory. The use of multiple data collection methods within grounded theory facilitates triangulation and has
the potential to gain deeper insights into and understanding of KM than would be possible in a single method
study.
Upon completion of Case Study 2 and analysis of the CPD specialist interviews, it is anticipated that there
will be a need to explore the technological aspect of KM. A number of IT managers from participating
organisations have agreed to participate in either interviews or a focus group. Dependent on theoretical
saturation being reached, further primary research may be required. Once the theory has been developed it
will form the basis of a training programme which will be piloted with a number of the research participants to
ensure that it is understandable and credible. The constructivist approach to developing a grounded theory
of KM for construction should lead to improved awareness, understanding and implementation of KM within
the leading Irish construction organisations, whilst contributing to the body of construction management
knowledge.

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