MA6151 - Mathematics - I Notes

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MA2111/ Engineering Mathematics-I
UNIT 1 MATRICES
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION: The equation
is called the characteristic equation of the
matrix A
Note:
1.
Solving
, we get n roots for
and these roots are called characteristic roots or eigen values
or latent values of the matrix A

2.
Corresponding to each value of , the equation AX =
has a non-zero solution vector X
If
be the non-zero vector satisfying AX =
, when
is said to be the latent vector or eigen
vector of a matrix A corresponding to
Working rule to find characteristic equation:
PR
A
Method 1:The characteristic equation is
TH
For a 3 x 3 matrix:
YU
which we call as characteristic polynomial of matrix A
when expanded will give a polynomial,
SH
CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL: The determinant
Method 2:Its characteristic equation can be written as
where
For a 2 x 2 matrix:
Method 1:The characteristic equation is
Method 2:Its characteristic equation can be written as
where
,
Problems:
1.
Find the characteristic equation of the matrix (
[Anna University May 2003]
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Solution: Let A = (
). Its characteristic equation is
where
,
= 1(2) 2(0) = 2
Therefore, the characteristic equation is
2.
Find the characteristic equation of (
Solution: Its characteristic equation is
, where
= 8 + 7 + 3 = 18,
|
SH
PR
A
Solution: Let A = (
TH
Find the characteristic polynomial of (
YU
The characteristic polynomial of A is

+ 2 = 5 and
= 8(5)+6(-10)+2(10) = 40 -60 + 20 = 0
3.
where
= 3(2) 1(-1) = 7
Therefore, the characteristic polynomial is

EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS OF A REAL MATRIX:
Working rule to find eigen values and eigen vectors:
1.
Find the characteristic equation
2.
Solve the characteristic equation to get characteristic roots. They are called eigen values
3.
To find the eigen vectors, solve [
for different values of
Note:
2
=3
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1.
Corresponding to n distinct eigen values, we get n independent eigen vectors
2.
If 2 or more eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly independent eigen
vectors corresponding to the repeated eigen values

3.
If
is a solution for an eigen value
, then c
is also a solution, where c is an arbitrary constant.
Thus, the eigen vector corresponding to an eigen value is not unique but may be any one of the vectors c
4.
Algebraic multiplicity of an eigen value
polynomial (i.e., if
5.
is the order of the eigen value as a root of the characteristic
is a double root, then algebraic multiplicity is 2)
Geometric multiplicity of
Non-symmetric matrix:
is the number of linearly independent eigen vectors corresponding to
If a square matrix A is non-symmetric, then A
Note:
In a non-symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are non-repeated then we get a linearly independent set of
1.
2.
SH
eigen vectors
In a non-symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are repeated, then it may or may not be possible to get
YU
linearly independent eigen vectors.
If we form a linearly independent set of eigen vectors, then diagonalization is possible through similarity
TH
transformation
Note:
1.
PR
A
Symmetric matrix: If a square matrix A is symmetric, then A =
In a symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are non-repeated, then we get a linearly independent and pair
wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors

2.
In a symmetric matrix, if the eigen values are repeated, then it may or may not be possible to get linearly
independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors

If we form a linearly independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors, then diagonalization is
possible through orthogonal transformation
Problems:
1.
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix (
) [Anna University Tvli. May/June
2011]
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Solution: Let A = (
) which is a non-symmetric matrix
To find the characteristic equation:

The characteristic equation of A is
where
,
= 1(-1) 1(3) = - 4
i.e.,
or
Therefore, the eigen values are 2, -2
)] [ ]
][ ]
Case 1: If
i.e., [
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[(
YU
)] [ ]
[ ]
TH
[(
[ ] --------------- (1)
PR
A
SH
To find the eigen vectors:
][ ]
[ ] [From (1)]
i.e.,
i.e., we get only one equation
Therefore
Case 2: If
][ ]
[ ] [From (1)]
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i.e., [
][ ]
[ ]
i.e.,
i.e., we get only one equation
Hence,
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of [
] [Anna University Tvli. May/June 2011]
] which is a non-symmetric matrix
YU
Solution: Let A = [
SH
2.
[ ]
TH
where
PR
A
Its characteristic equation can be written as
,
|
= 2 (-5)-2 (-6)-7(2) = -10 + 12 14 = -12

Therefore, the characteristic equation of A is
-4
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Therefore, the eigen values are 3, 1, and -4
A is a non-symmetric matrix with non-repeated eigen values
[
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
SH
i.e., [
[ ]
][ ]
Case 1: If
YU
--------- (1)
PR
A
TH
------- (2)
-------- (3)
[ ]
Considering equations (1) and (2) and using method of cross-multiplication, we get,
-7
Therefore,
Case 2: If
,[
][ ]
[ ]
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i.e., [
][ ]
[ ]
-------- (1)
-------- (2)
-------- (3)
-7
-1
-2
-2
Case 3: If
TH
[ ]
PR
A
Therefore,
YU
SH
][ ]
[ ]
-------- (1)
-------- (2)
-------- (3)
-7
5
7
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Therefore,
3.
] [Anna University November/December
2010, May/June 2010], [Anna University CBT January 2011]
Solution: Let A = [
SH
where
,
|
TH
YU
PR
A
= 2(4)-2(1)+1(-1) = 5

1
-6
Therefore, the eigen values are 1, 1, and 5

A is a non-symmetric matrix with repeated eigen values
[
]
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][ ]
][ ]
Case 1: If
i.e., [
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
--------- (1)
------------- (2)
SH
------------ (3)
-3
-2
-2
TH
PR
A
YU
Therefore,
[ ]
Case 2: If
,[
i.e., [
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
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All the three equations are one and the same. Therefore,
Put
Therefore,
Therefore,
YU
Solution: Let A = [
][Anna University Madurai, January 2011]
SH
TH
4.
Put
PR
A
where
,
|
,
= 2(-4)+2(-2)+2(2) = - 8 4 + 4 = - 8
-4
Therefore, the eigen values are 2, 2, and -2

A is a non-symmetric matrix with repeated eigen values
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[
][ ]
Case 1: If
i.e., [
][ ]
[ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
SH
--------- (1)
YU
------------- (2)
------------ (3) . Equations (2) and (3) are one and the same.
-1
-1
Therefore,
Case 2: If
,[
i.e., [
PR
A
TH
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
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---------- (1)
---------------- (2)
------------ (3)
-2
-1
-1
[ ]
YU
Therefore,
SH
-2
TH
We get one eigen vector corresponding to the repeated root
Solution: Let A =[
] [Anna University Tvli., January 2010,2011]
PR
A
5.
] which is a symmetric matrix

where
,
|
,
= 1(4)-1(-2)+3(-14) = - 4 + 2 -42 = - 36
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-9
18
Therefore, the eigen values are -2, 3, and 6

A is a symmetric matrix with non- repeated eigen values
]
][ ]
][ ]
TH
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
PR
A
i.e., [
YU
Case 1: If
[ ]
SH
--------- (1)
------------- (2)
------------ (3)
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Therefore,
Case 2: If
,[
i.e., [
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
---------- (1)
---------------- (2)
------------ (3)
SH
-2
Therefore,
Case 3: If
,[
i.e., [
TH
PR
A
YU
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
---------- (1)
---------------- (2)
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3
------------ (3)
-5
-1
-1
[ ]
SH
Therefore,
geometric multiplicity
TH
] which is a symmetric matrix
PR
A
Solution: Let A = [
]. Determine the algebraic and
YU
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix[
6.
where
,
|
,
= 0 -1(-1)+ 1(1) = 0 + 1 + 1 = 2
-1
-2
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Therefore, the eigen values are 2, -1, and -1
A is a symmetric matrix with repeated eigen values. The algebraic multiplicity of
is 2

[
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
SH
i.e., [
[ ]
][ ]
Case 1: If
YU
--------- (1)
PR
A
TH
------------- (2)
------------ (3)
[ ]
-2
-2
-2
Therefore,
[ ]
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,[
Case 2: If
i.e., [
][ ]
][ ]
[ ]
[ ]
---------- (1)
---------------- (2)
------------ (3). All the three equations are one and the same.
. Put
YU
Therefore,
SH
Therefore,
[ ].
is orthogonal to
][
PR
A
TH
Since the given matrix is symmetric and the eigen values are repeated, let
------------ (1)
][ ]
-------- (2)
Solving (1) and (2) by method of cross-multiplication, we get,

l
-1
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. Therefore,
Thus, for the repeated eigen value
there corresponds two linearly independent eigen vectors
. So, the geometric multiplicity of eigen value
is 2
PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS:

Property 1:
(i)
The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal (or)
The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to the trace of the matrix
Product of the eigen values is equal to the determinant of the matrix
(ii)
YU
--------- (1) where
i.e.,
SH
Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n. The characteristic equation of A is
PR
A
TH
We know that the roots of the characteristic equation are called eigen values of the given matrix. Solving (1),
we get n roots. Let the n roots be
Already, we know that,
i.e.,
are the eigen values of A.
----------- (2)
Sum of the roots =
by (1) and (2)
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e., Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements
Product of the roots =
by (1) and (2)

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i.e., Product of the eigen values = |A|

Property 2: A square matrix A and its transpose
and its transpose
have the same eigen values (or) A square matrix A
have the same characteristic values
Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n. The characteristic equation of A and

(1) and
are
-------
--------- (2)
Since the determinant value is unaltered by the interchange of rows and columns, we have |A| = |
are the same
SH
Therefore, the eigen values of A and
Hence, (1) and (2) are identical.
YU
Note:
A determinant remains unchanged when rows are changed into columns and columns into rows
TH
Property 3: The characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix
(or) the eigen values of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix
PR
A
[Anna University Madurai, January 2011]
Proof: Let us consider the triangular matrix A = [
].
i.e., |
On expansion, it gives,
i.e.,
which are the diagonal elements of matrix A
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Property 4: If
is an eigen value of a matrix A, then ,
is the eigen value of
eigen value of a matrix A, what can you say about the eigen value of matrix
(or) If
is an
Prove your statement
[Anna University March 1996, Anna University May 1997]

Proof: If X be the eigen vector corresponding to
Pre multiplying both sides by
--------- (1)
, we get,
we get,
SH
Dividing by
then AX =
Definition of orthogonal matrix:
PR
A
Proof:
is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also its eigen value
TH
Property 5: If
YU
This being of the same form as (1), shows that is the eigen value of the inverse matrix
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if

Let A be an orthogonal matrix. Given
is an eigen value of
i.e.,
is an eigen value of A.
. Since
, is an eigen value of
same eigen values, since the determinant
. But, the matrices A and
have the
are the same
Hence, is also an eigen value of A

Property 6:
If
are the eigen values of a matrix A, then
has the eigen values
(m being a positive integer)

Proof: Let
be the eigen value of A and
the corresponding eigen vector.

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Then,
------- (1)
We have,
Similarly,
. In general,
-------- (2)
(1) and (2) are of the same form.

Hence,
is an eigen value of
. The corresponding eigen vector is the same
Property 7: The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real numbers
[Anna University November 2001]
Proof: Let
be an eigen value (may be complex) of the real symmetric matrix A. Let the corresponding eigen
SH
be the transpose of A.
YU
Let
vector be X.
We have, AX =
, we get, AX = X ------------- (1)
PR
A
conjugate of
TH
Pre multiplying this equation by 1 x n matrix where the bar denotes that all elements of are the complex
Taking the conjugate complex of this, we get,

Taking the transpose on both sides, we get,
since
or
since = A if A is real
i.e.,
i.e.,
if A is symmetric. But, from (1), AX = X.
Hence, X = . Since is a 1 x 1 matrix whose only element is a positive value,
i.e.,
Property 8: The eigen vectors corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are
orthogonal [Anna University, November 2002]
Proof: For a real symmetric matrix A, the eigen values are real. Let
eigen values
be the eigen vectors to two distinct
are real]
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------------- (1)
------------- (2)
Pre multiplying (1) by
, we get,
Pre multiplying (2) by
, we get,
=
------------- (3)
But
i.e.,
-------- (4) [Since
From (3) and (4),

i.e.,
. Since
are orthogonal
Property 9: Similar matrices have same eigen values [Anna University, MIT]
SH
Proof: Let A and B be two similar matrices. Then there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
YU
TH
|B
|=|
=
PR
A
= |A
= |A
Therefore, A, B have the same characteristic polynomial and hence characteristic roots.
Therefore, they have the same eigen values.
Property 10: If a real symmetric matrix of order 2 has equal eigen values, then the matrix is a scalar
matrix
Proof:
Rule 1: A real symmetric matrix of order n can always be diagonalized
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Rule 2: If any diagonalized matrix has its diagonal elements equal, then the matrix is a scalar matrix
Given: A real symmetric matrix A of order 2 has equal eigen values
By rule 1, A can always be diagonalized. Let
matrix = [
]. Given,
be their eigen values, then, we get the diagonalized
. Therefore, we get [
]. By rule 2, the given matrix is a scalar matrix.
Property 11: The eigen vector X of a matrix A is not unique.

Proof: Let
be the eigen value of A. Then, there is a corresponding eigen vector X such that AX =
Multiply both sides by a non-zero scalar K.

i.e., an eigen vector is determined by a multiplicative scalar.
K(AX) = K (
If
be distinct eigen values of a n x n matrix, then the corresponding
YU
Property 12:
SH
i.e., eigen vector is not unique
eigen vectors
form a linearly independent set
TH
Property 13: If two or more eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly
PR
A
independent eigen vectors corresponding to the equal roots

Property 14: Two eigen vectors
are called orthogonal vectors if
Property 15: Eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different eigen values are
orthogonal
Property 16: If A and B are n x n matrices and B is a non-singular matrix then A and
have
same eigen values

Problems:
1.
Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix [
] [AU, March 1996]
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = -3
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Product of the eigen values = A = -1 (1 1) -1(-1 1) + 1(1- (-1)) = 2 + 2 = 4
2.
Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix [
] [AU, Dec 1999]
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = -1
Product of the eigen values = A= -2(0 12) 2(0 6) -3 (-4+1) = 24+12+9 = 45
3.
The product of two eigen values of the matrix A = [
] is 16. Find the third eigen value
[AU, April/May 2003], [AU, Tvli. April/May 2009]

.
Solution: Let the eigen values of the matrix be
4.
YU
| = 6(9-1)+2(-6+2) +2(2-6) = 48-8-8 = 32
PR
A
(Since product of the eigen values is equal to the determinant of the matrix)
TH
We know that
SH
Given
Find the sum and product of the eigen values of the matrix A = (
) without finding the roots
of the characteristic equation
Solution: We know that the sum of the eigen values = Trace of A = a + d

Product of the eigen values = A = ad bc
5.
Two of the eigen values of [
] are 2 and 8. Find the third eigen value
Solution: We know that sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 6+3+3 = 12
Given
24
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Therefore,
= 12
Therefore, the third eigen value = 2
6.
If 3 and 15 are the two eigen values of A = [
], find A, without expanding the
determinant
Solution: Given
If 2, 2, 3 are the eigen values of A = [
PR
A
7.
TH
YU
SH
We know that sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements
], find the eigen values of
Solution: By the property A square matrix A and its transpose
have the same eigen values, the eigen
values of
8.
Find the eigen values of A = [
Solution: Given A = [
] without using the characteristic equation idea
] . Clearly, A is an upper triangular matrix. Then, by the property The
characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix, the eigen values of A
are 2, 2, 2
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9.
Find the eigen values of A = [
] .Clearly, A is a lower triangular matrix. Hence, by the property the
characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix, the eigen values of A
are 2, 3, 4
10.
Two of the eigen values of A = [
] are 3 and 6. Find the eigen values of
SH
Given 3,6 are two eigen values of A. Let the third eigen value be k.
Therefore, the eigen values of A are 3, 6, 2
are
PR
A
11.
, then the eigen values of
TH
By the property If the eigen values of A are
YU
Then, 3 + 6 + k = 11
values of
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 3 +5+3 = 11
Find the eigen values of the matrix[
are
, the eigen
]. Hence, form the matrix whose eigen values are
[AU, May 2001 P.T]
Solution: Let A =[
]. The characteristic equation of the given matrix is
where
and
Therefore, the eigen values of A are 6, -1

Hence, the matrix whose eigen values are
is
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A = 4 -10 = - 6; adj A = [
[
Therefore,
12.
Two eigen values of the matrix A = [
] are equal to 1 each. Find the eigen values of
[AU, Nov/Dec 2002]
SH
YU
Let the eigen values of A be
Therefore,
The eigen values of
13.
PR
A
Hence, the eigen values of A are 1, 1, 5
TH
We know that, Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 7
are 1, 1,
Find the eigen values of the inverse of the matrix A = [
Solution: We know that A is an upper triangular matrix. Therefore, the eigen values of A are 2, 3, 4. Hence,
by using the property If the eigen values of A are
, then the eigen values of
are
, the
eigen values of
14.
Find the eigen values of
given A = [
] [AU, Oct/Nov 1997]
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]. A is an upper triangular matrix. Hence, the eigen values of A are 1, 2, 3
Therefore, the eigen values of
are
15.
i.e., 1,8,27
If 1 and 2 are the eigen values of a 2 x 2 matrix A, what are the eigen values of
?[AU,
Model paper]
Solution: Given 1 and 2 are the eigen values of A.
Therefore,
i.e., 1 and 4 are the eigen values of
and 1 and are the eigen values of

] are real
Show that the eigen values of the real symmetric matrix A = [
16.
SH
Solution: Given A is a real symmetric matrix.
where
YU
TH
;
17.
PR
A
Therefore, the eigen values are -3, 2 (real)
If 1,1,5 are the eigen values of A = [
Solution: By the property If
], find the eigen values of 5A
are the eigen values of A, then
are the eigen values of
kA, the eigen values of 5A are 5(1), 5(1), 5(5) ie., 5,5,25
18.
if A = [
Find the eigen values of A,
]. A is an upper triangular matrix. Hence, the eigen values of A are 2, 5
The eigen values of
are
i.e., 4, 25
The eigen values of
are
i.e., 8, 125
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The eigen values of
are
i.e., 16, 625
The eigen values of 3A are 3(2), 3(5) i.e., 6, 15

The eigen values of
AI=[
are
]-[
]=[
Since A - I is an upper triangular matrix, the eigen values of A- I are its main diagonal elements i.e., 1,4
where
First eigen value =
Second eigen value =
TH
= 3(5)3 + 5(5)2 - 6(5) + 2
YU
SH
= 3(2)3+ 5(2)2 - 6(2) + 2 = 24 + 20 -12 + 2=34
Eigen values of
19.
PR
A
= 375+ 125-30 + 2 = 472

are the eigen values of [
If
[AU, May 2001 P.T]

Solution: Let A = [
[
][
[
], form the matrix whose eigen values are
] and let
be the eigen values of A
][
[
]
Hence the required matrix is

[
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20.
Form the matrix whose eigen values are
=[
] [AU, May 1998]
where
are the eigen values of A
Solution: The matrix A KI has the eigen values
Hence, the required matrix is A 5I = [
]=[
21. The eigen vectors of a 3 x 3 real symmetric matrix A corresponding to the eigen values 2,3,6 are
[
] ,[
] and [
] respectively. Find the matrix A
[AU, Nov 2002,
April/May 2011]
The Normalized matrix N =
D=
ND = N
ND
SH
PR
A
YU
], [ ] [
TH
Also given, eigen vectors are [
Solution: Given eigen values of A are 2,3,6
= (N
N is an orthogonal matrix. Hence N

Therefore, A = ND
A=
[
[
]
=
]
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=[
22.
]=[
Find the eigen values of adj A if A = [
]. A is an upper triangular matrix. Hence, the eigen values of A are
Solution: Given A =[
3, 4, 1
We know that
are
SH
The eigen values of
Adj A = A
YU
A=Product of the eigen values = 12
i.e.,
i.e., 4, 3, 12
]. Here, A is an upper triangular matrix, B is a lower
PR
A
Note: A =[
TH
Therefore, the eigen values of adj A is equal to the eigen values of 12
triangular matrix and C is a diagonal matrix. In all the cases, the elements in the main diagonal are the eigen
values. Hence, the eigen values of A, B and C are 1, 4, 6
23.
Two eigen values of A = [
] are equal and they are times the third. Find them
Solution: Let the third eigen value be

We know that
Given
2+3+2 = 7
=
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[
Therefore,
24.
and hence the eigen values of A are 1,1, 5
If 2, 3 are the eigen values of [
]. Let the eigen values of A be 2, 3, k
Solution: Let A =[
We know that the sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements
Therefore, 2 +3 +k = 2+ 2+2 = 6
SH
We know that product of the eigen values = A
TH
Prove that the eigen vectors of the real symmetric matrix A = [
PR
A
25.
YU
2(3)(k) = A
] are orthogonal in pairs
Solution: The characteristic equation of A is

where

3
-7
36
-12
-36
-4
-12
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Therefore,
Therefore, the eigen values of A are -2, 3, 6
Case 1: When
][ ]
[ ]
-------- (1)
--------- (3)
Case 2: When
PR
A
TH
YU
Solving (1) and (2) by rule of cross-multiplication, we get,
SH
---------- (2)
][ ]
[ ]
--------- (1)
--------- (2)
--------- (3)
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-2
Case 3: When
][ ]
[ ]
--------- (1)
SH
--------- (2)
YU
--------- (3)
-5
-1
-1
Therefore,
],
PR
A
TH
To prove that:
][
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[
][ ]
][
Hence, the eigen vectors are orthogonal in pairs
26.
Find the sum and product of all the eigen values of the matrix A = [
].Is the matrix
singular? [AU, Oct/Nov 1997]
SH
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements =Trace of the matrix
Therefore, the sum of the eigen values = 1+2+7=10
Find the product of the eigen values of A = [
PR
A
27.
TH
A0. Hence the matrix is non-singular.
YU
Product of the eigen values = A = 1(14 - 8) -2(14 - 4) + 3(4 - 2) = 6-20+ 6= - 8
Solution: Product of the eigen values of A = A= |
] [AU CBT J/J 2010]
CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM: [AU CBT J/F 2010, A/M 2011]

Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation
Uses of Cayley-Hamilton theorem:
(1)
To calculate the positive integral powers of A
(2)
To calculate the inverse of a square matrix A
Problems:
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1.
Show that the matrix [
Solution: Let A = [
] satisfies its own characteristic equation [AU, May 2001 P.T]
]. The characteristic equation of A is
where
The characteristic equation is

To prove
]=[
]
]
]
][
SH
If A = [
[AU,
TH
2.
YU
Therefore, the given matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation
Model paper]
PR
A
Solution: Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
where

By Cayley-Hamilton theorem,
i.e.,
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3.
when A = [
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find
] [AU A/M 2002, Jan
2009, CBT Jan/Feb 2009] [AU Tvli. Jan 2010] [AU Jan 2010] [AU Madurai June 2011] [AU May/June
2010]
where
][
To find
PR
A
YU
][
SH
------------- (1)
TH
To prove that:
:
------------- (2)
Multiply by A on both sides,

Therefore,
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]
Hence,
To find
Multiplying (1) by
Verify that A = [
Solution: Given A =[
] satisfies its own characteristic equation and hence find
April/May 2003]
To prove:
PR
A
4.
TH
YU
SH
[AU
where
i.e.,
---------- (1)
][
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[
To find
From (1), we get,
Multiplying by
5.
Find
on both sides, we get,
if A = [
], using Cayley-Hamilton theorem [AU, Nov 2002]
where
TH
YU
SH
PR
A

By Cayley- Hamilton theorem,
To find
Multiplying (1) by
------------ (1)
we get,
------------- (2)
][
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6.
From (2),
If A = [
where
i.e.,
is divided by
, let the quotient be
and the remainder be
SH
When
To find
YU
---------- (1)
When
TH
When
PR
A
------------ (2)
------------ (3)
Solving (2) and (3), we get, (2) - (3)
(2) 2 x (3)
i.e.,
Since
by Cayley-Hamilton theorem, (1)

[
][
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7.
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find the value of the matrix given by (i)
(ii)
if the matrix A = [
[AU M/J 2009],
[AU Tvli. Jan 2010]
where
SH
----------- (1)
YU
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we get,
TH
Let f(A) =
PR
A
Let g(A) =
(i)
(-)
(-)
f(A) = (
Now,
------------ (2)
][
(by (1))
]
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]
(ii)
(-)
(-)
SH
(-)
g(A) = (
=
]
g(A) = [
8.
TH
PR
A
YU
=0+
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
(ii)
] to express as a linear polynomial in A (i)

[AU M/J 2009]
where

By Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we get,
------------ (1)
(i)
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(-)
(by (1)) which is a linear polynomial in A
YU
SH
(ii)
TH
(-)
polynomial in A
9.
PR
A
Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find
= 0 + A + 2I = A +2I (by (1)) which is a linear
when A = [
] [AU May/June 2005]
where

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we get,
];
([
])
] [AU Tvli. Jan 2009]
SH
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
YU
The Characteristic equation of A is
TH
10.
][
Pre-multiplying by
where
PR
A
Sum of the main diagonal elements = 1+2+1 = 4

To prove that:
][
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]
][
=[
YU
PR
A
] [AU CBT Jan 2011]
TH
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix (i) A = [
Solution: (i) Given A = [
Therefore, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

11.
=[
SH
=[
where

To prove that:
[
][
[
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[
Hence Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

(ii) Given A = [
]
where
SH
];
TH
][
PR
A
YU
To prove that:
Hence Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

12.
Find
using Cayley-Hamilton theorem when A =[
where
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i.e.,
6, 2
To find
When
is divided by
---------- (1)
When
When
------- (1)
SH
------- (2)
in (1), we get,
Therefore,
PR
A
4b =
,b=
Since
[
[
Therefore,
13.
TH
Substituting
YU
(1) (2)
Find
]
[
[
]
)[
]
)[
[
]
]
]
using Cayley-Hamilton theorem when A = [
]. Also find
]
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where
i.e.,
To find
When
is divided by
SH
---------- (1)
When
When
YU
------- (1)
TH
------- (2)
PR
A
(1) (2)
Substituting
in (1), we get,
5b = 9
Therefore,
[
Since
)[
]
[
(
]
)[
[
)[
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=[
ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATION OF A SYMMETRIC MATRIX TO DIAGONAL FORM:

Orthogonal matrices:
A square matrix A (with real elements) is said to be orthogonal if
or
Problems:
1.
Check whether the matrix B is orthogonal. Justify. B = [
Solution: Condition for orthogonality is
YU
];
][
PR
A
TH
B=[
SH
To prove that:
Similarly,
[
][
Therefore, B is an orthogonal matrix

2.
Show that the matrix P = [
] is orthogonal [AU CBT D/J 2011]
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Solution: To prove that:
[
];
][
]= I
Therefore, P is an orthogonal matrix
SH
WORKING RULE FOR DIAGONALIZATION
Step 1: To find the characteristic equation
TH
Step 2: To solve the characteristic equation
YU
[ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATION]:
PR
A
Step 3:To find the eigen vectors
Step 4: If the eigen vectors are orthogonal, then form a normalized matrix N
Step 5: Find
Step 6: Calculate AN
Step 7: Calculate D =
Problems:
1.
Diagonalize the matrix [
Solution: Let A = [
] [AU Jan 2013]
]
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where
i.e.,
SH
YU
][ ]
Case 1: When
[ ]
PR
A
TH
][ ]
[ ]
---------- (1)
-------- (2)
--------- (3)
Solving (1) and (2) by rule of cross-multiplication,
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-6
-6
-4
-6
[ ]
Case 2: When
][ ]
[ ]
-------- (1)
SH
------- (2)
YU
--------- (3)
-6
-4
-6
PR
A
-6
TH
Case 3: When
][ ]
[ ]
---------- (1)
---------- (2)
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---------- (3)
-6
-7
-6
-8
-4
-6
-8
][
][ ]
YU
4-2-2 = 0
TH
][
PR
A
SH
Hence, the eigen vectors are orthogonal to each other

[
[
[
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AN =
] [
YU
] [AU Tvli. M/J 2011]
TH
Diagonalize the matrix [
PR
A
Solution: Let A = [
The diagonal elements are the eigen values of A
2.
SH
i.e.,
][
][
where

2
1
0
1
-11
2
-9
36
-18
18
-36
36
0
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Case 1: When
[ ]
][ ]
[ ]
][ ]
SH
YU
---------- (1)
--------- (3)
TH
-------- (2)
-1
-1
-1
-1
PR
A
Case 2: When
][ ]
[ ]
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---------- (1)
-------- (2)
--------- (3)
-1
-1
-1
SH
-1
][ ]
PR
A
---------- (1)
[ ]
TH
Case 3: When
YU
[ ]
-------- (2)
--------- (3)
-1
-3
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
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]
][ ]
][
=0
][
SH
YU
i.e.,
PR
A
AN = [
TH
Hence, the eigen vectors are orthogonal to each other
] [
The diagonal elements are the Eigen values of A

QUADRATIC FORM- REDUCTION OF QUADRATIC FORM TO CANONICAL FORM BY
ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATION:
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Quadratic form:
A homogeneous polynomial of second degree in any number of variables is called a quadratic form
is a quadratic form in three variables
Example:
Note:
The matrix corresponding to the quadratic form is

[
Write the matrix of the quadratic form
SH
1.
Problems:
YU
Solution: Q =
2.
PR
A
Here
TH
Write the matrix of the quadratic form
[AU, Nov 2001]
Solution: Q =
[
3.
Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the following symmetric matrix [
Solution: Let [
]
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The required quadratic form is
=
NATURE OF THE QUADRATIC FORM:
Rank of the quadratic form: The number of square terms in the canonical form is the rank (r) of the
quadratic form
Index of the quadratic form: The number of positive square terms in the canonical form is called the index
(s) of the quadratic form
SH
= s (r-s) = 2s-r, is called the signature of the quadratic form
Signature of the quadratic form: The difference between the number of positive and negative square terms
YU
The quadratic form is said to be
Positive definite if all the eigen values are positive numbers
(2)
Negative definite if all the eigen values are negative numbers
(3)
Positive Semi-definite if all the eigen values are greater than or equal to zero and at least one eigen
(4)
Negative Semi-definite if all the eigen values are less than or equal to zero and at least one eigen value
is zero
(5)
PR
A
value is zero
TH
(1)
Indefinite if A has both positive and negative eigen values
Problems:
1.
Determine the nature of the following quadratic form f(
[AU April/May
2003]
Solution: The matrix of the quadratic form is Q = [
The eigen values of the matrix are 1, 2, 0

Therefore, the quadratic form is Positive Semi-definite
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2.
Prove that the Q.F
is indefinite
[AU Tvli. M/J 2011]
Discuss the nature of the quadratic form
SH
3.
Therefore, the quadratic form is indefinite
YU
form
without reducing it to canonical
PR
A
TH
Therefore, the quadratic form is positive definite

REDUCTION OF QUADRATIC FORM TO CANONICAL FORM THROUGH ORTHOGONAL
TRANSFORMATION [OR SUM OF SQUARES FORM OR PRINCIPAL AXES FORM]
Working rule:
Step 1: Write the matrix of the given quadratic form
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Step 4: To find the eigen vectors orthogonal to each other
Step 5: Form the Normalized matrix N
Step 6: Find
Step 7: Find AN
Step 8: Find D =
][ ] [ ]
Step 9: The canonical form is [
1.
SH
Problems:
Reduce the quadratic form Q =
into canonical form by an
Solution: The matrix of the Q.F is A =
i.e., A
PR
A
TH
YU
orthogonal transformation [AU March 1996],[AU Trichy, Jan 2010]
where

Sum of the main diagonal elements = 6+3+3=12

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2
-12
36
-32
-20
32
-10
16
Therefore the eigen values are 2, 2, 8

][ ]
Case 1: When
[ ]
PR
A
---------- (3)
TH
--------- (1)
---------- (2)
[ ]
YU
][ ]
SH
-2
-2
-2
-5
-1
-2
-5
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][ ]
Case 2: When
[ ]
--------- (1)
---------- (2)
---------- (3)
All three equations are one and the same. Put
. Then
. Let
= 1.
------- (1)
-------- (2)
][ ]
YU
TH
][ ]
PR
A
SH
[ ]. Since
Let
[ ]

l
-1
-1
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] [
][ ]
][
Reduce the quadratic form to a canonical form by an orthogonal reduction
TH
2.
YU
The canonical form is [
AN = [
SH
PR
A
.Also find its nature. [AU Madurai, June 2011], [AU A/M 2011]
i.e., A
where
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1
0
1
-3
1
-2
-2
The eigen values are 1, 1, -2

][ ]
------- (1)
[ ]
PR
A
------- (2)
SH
Case 1: When
[ ]
YU
][ ]
TH
------- (3)
-1
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][ ]
Case 2: When
[ ]
------- (1)
------ (2)
------ (3)
All three equations are one and the same.
Put
. Then
-------- (1)
--------- (2)
l
][ ]
YU
][ ]
TH
is orthogonal to
PR
A
[ ]. Since
Let
SH
. Let
-1
-1
-1
[ ]
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;
]
] [
SH
][
][ ]
PR
A
i.e.,
YU
TH
AN = [
Nature: The eigen values are -2, 1, 1. Therefore, it is indefinite in nature.

3.
Reduce the given quadratic form Q to its canonical form using orthogonal transformation Q =
[AU Jan 2009]

[
i.e., A = [
where
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1
-7
14
-8
-6
-6
SH
The eigen values are 1, 2, 4
][ ]
Case 1: When
[ ]
PR
A
TH
YU
][ ]
[ ]
= 0 -------- (1)
-------- (2)
-------- (3)
Solving (2) and (3) by rule of cross multiplication, we get,
-1
-1
-1
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[ ]
][ ]
Case 2: When
[ ]
= 0 -------- (1)
-------- (2)
-1
-1
TH
PR
A
YU
[ ]
Case 3: When
SH
-------- (3)
][ ]
[ ]
= 0 -------- (1)
-------- (2)
-------- (3)
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-3
-1
-1
-1
AN = [
[
]
[
]
][
[
i.e.,
PR
A
TH
SH
YU
4.
][
][ ]
Reduce the quadratic form
to the canonical form through an
orthogonal transformation and hence show that it is positive semi-definite. Also give a non-zero set of
values (
which makes the quadratic form zero. [AU M/J 2009], [AU Tvli. Jan 2009]
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[
i.e., A = [
SH
where
YU
PR
A
The eigen values are 0, 1, 3
TH
][ ]
Case 1: When
[ ]
][ ]
[ ]
------- (1)
------ (2)
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------ (3)
-1
-1
-1
][ ]
PR
A
------ (3)
TH
------- (1)
------ (2)
[ ]
YU
Case 2: When
SH
-1
-1
-1
[ ]
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][ ]
Case 3: When
[ ]
--------- (1)
------------ (2)
---------- (3)
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
TH
PR
A
YU
SH
-1
AN = [
] [
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][
][ ]
Nature: The eigen values are 0, 1 and 3. Therefore, it is positive semi-definite.

To find the non-zero set of values which makes the quadratic form zero:
X = NY
------- (1)
Put
SH
------ (2)
------- (3)
and
YU
[ ]
TH
[ ]
PR
A
in (1), (2) and (3), we get,
These values make the quadratic form zero.

Verification:
Q.F =
=
= 1 + 2 +1 -2 -2 = 0
WORKING RULE FOR DIAGONALIZATION

[SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATION]:
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Let A be any square matrix of order n.
Step 3: To find the Eigen vectors
Step 4: Form the modal matrix P, its columns the Eigen vector of A
Step 5: Find
Step 6: Calculate AP
Step 7: Calculate D =
] to the diagonal form [AU April/May 2002]
YU
Reduce the matrix [
TH
1.
SH
Problems based on similarity transformation:
]. The given matrix is a non-symmetric matrix. Hence similarity
PR
A
Solution: Let A = [
transformation is only possible.
The characteristic equation of the given matrix A is
where

1
1
0
1
-1
1
0
-5
0
-5
5
-5
0
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i.e.,
Hence the Eigen values are 1,
The given matrix is non-symmetric and the Eigen values are distinct. Hence we can find
To find the Eigen vectors:

(A
[ ]
][ ]
PR
A
---------------- (2)
[ ]
TH
------------ (1)
][ ]
YU
Case 1: When
SH
-------------- (3)
-2
-2
Hence
]
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Case 2: When
][ ]
[ ]
)
(
---------------- (4)
--------------------- (5)
-------------------------- (6)
-1
-1
-1
SH
2-
YU
PR
A
TH
2- 1
Solving (5) and (6), we get,
Case 3: When
Hence
, we get, [
][ ]
[ ]
---------------- (7)
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(
--------------------- (8)
-------------------------- (9)
Solving (7) and (8), we get,
-2
2+
-1+
2+
)(
YU
TH
SH
Hence
PR
A
The modal matrix P = [
To find
|P| =
Co-factor of P = [
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D=
2.
][
]=
TH
PR
A
][
AP = [
SH
YU
i.e.,
Diagonalize the matrix A = [
where
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-1
i.e.,
-3
-1
-4
-4
i.e.,
Hence the Eigen values are -1, 2, 2.

The given matrix is a non-symmetric matrix and the Eigen values are not distinct. Hence
transformation is possible only if the Eigen vectors are distinct.
SH
To find the Eigen vectors:
YU
(A
[ ]
][ ]
[ ]
PR
A
Case 1: When
][ ]
TH
---------------- (1)
-------------- (2)
--------------- (3)
-1
-1
-1
-1
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Hence
[ ]
Case 2: When
][ ]
[ ]
------------ (4)
--------------- (5)
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Hence
TH
PR
A
-1
YU
SH
-------------- (6)
We get only one Eigen vector corresponding to the repeated root
. Hence similarity
transformation is not possible. Therefore, diagonalization is not possible.
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UNIT 2 SEQUENCES AND SERIES
PART - A
1. Define a sequence.
Solution: If in accordance with a definite rule, every number n of a series of natural numbers 1,2,3, . . . n
is put into correspondence with a certain real number
, then the set of the ordered real quantities
, . . . is called a number sequence or simply a sequence.
The numbers
}={
represented as {
{
will be referred mo as the terms of the sequence. The sequence may be

} or
}={
Examples:
1. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . is a sequence of numbers.
4. {
= 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .
YU
TH
3. { }
SH
2. -1, -2, -3, -4, . . . is a sequence of numbers
2.Define limit of a sequence.
PR
A
Solution: Let {
} be the sequence of real numbers. Then
approaches the limit L as n approaches
infinity, if for every > 0, there exists a positive integer N such that
If
(n
approaches the limit L, then
3.Define convergence.
Solution: A sequence {
} is said to be convergent if it has a finite limit.
i.e.,
Example: { } is a convergent sequence because
{ }
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4.Define divergence.
Solution: If
, then {
} is divergent.
Example: { n } is divergent because
5.When is a sequence said to be oscillatory? Give example.

is not unique ( oscillates finitely ) or
Solution: If
called an oscillatory sequence.
( oscillates infinitely) then {
Examples:
1.
} oscillates finitely because

={
} oscillates infinitely because
.
Now
PR
A
TH
Solution: Here sn =
YU
6.Examine the convergence of the sequence {
SH
2.
Hence the given sequence is convergent since the limit is 3.

7.Examine the convergence of the sequence {
Solution: Here sn =
(
So
{
83
} is
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This shows that sn does not tend to an unique limit. Hence the given sequence is oscillatory.
8.Define a bounded sequence.
Solution: A sequence { sn } is said to be bounded, if there exists a number k such that sn < k for every n.
9.Define a monotonic sequence.
Solution: A sequence { sn } is said to increase steadily or to decrease steadily according as sn+1 sn or sn+1
sn , for all values of n . Both increasing and decreasing sequences are called monotonic sequences.
A monotonic sequence always tends to a limit, finite or infinite. Thus, a sequence which is monotonic and
bounded is convergent.
10.Define a series.
is called a series .
SH
The expression
11.Examine the convergence of the series

and
TH
YU
It is denoted by
Solution: Here
Solution: Suppose we have an infinite sequence of numbers
PR
A
=
=
Hence the given series diverges to
12.Examine the convergence of the series 1+ +

Solution: Here
= 1+ +
=
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(
=
Since the
)=
partial sum sn converges to
the given series converges to

and this can be rewritten as
TH
YU
SH
Solution: Here un =
PR
A
=10=1
=1-
Since the
partial sum sn converges to
the given series converges to
14.Examine the convergence of the series 2 3 + 1 + 2 -3 + 1+ 2 -3 + 1+ . . .

Solution : Construct the
S1 = 2, s2 = 2 3= -1,
partial sum of the series as follows:

s3 = 2 3 1 =0.
Hence we have, sn =2 -3 + 1 +2 -3 + 1 +2 -3 + 1+ . . . upto n terms.

= {
This implies that sn des not converge to a unique limit. Hence the series is oscillatory.
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then is the series of positive terms
15. If
always convergent.
Solution: If
then the series of positive terms
shall give a counter example to prove this.
Consider the series 1+
Sn = 1+
> 1+
need not necessarily be convergent. We
Thus the series is divergent even though
16.State the Comparison test.
converges
, for all n
Then the given series
is convergent.
PR
A
17. State the Integral test.

Let
YU
( ii )
be such that
TH
(i)
and
SH
Solution: If two series of positive terms
be a series with positive and decreasing terms
Let f be a non- negative decreasing function in [1,

f(1)=u1, f(2)=u2, f(3)=u3, . . . , f(n) = un
Then the improper integral
and the series
is divergent).
convergent) or both infinite ( in this case
18.Show that
are both finite ( in this case
is
converges using the Integral test.
Solution: Let f(x)=
; f(x) > 0 and f(x) is decreasing in [1,
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=[
] =[
converges to
By the integral test
also converges.
19.Test the convergence of the Harmonic series 1+
=[
] =[log
log 1]
PR
A
TH
YU
1+
SH
Solution: The given series is
using the Integral test.
diverges in [1,
Hence by the integral test
also diverges.
20.State DAlemberts ratio test.

Solution: In a series with positive terms
If ( i )
( ii )
( iii )
, and in this case we can use the comparison test.
21.Define alternating series.

Solution: A series in which the terms are alternatively positive or negative is termed as an alternating series.
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Example: 2To test the convergence of the alternating series , we use a test known as the Leibnitz test.
22.Define Leibnitz test.
Solution: If in the alternating series
the terms are such that:
(i)
(ii)
and
then the series is convergent.
23.Discuss the convergence of the series 1-
, then the series is oscillatory.

using Leibnitz test.
YU
Solution: The terms are alternatively positive and negative
SH
If
(i)
1>
TH
(ii)
Hence by Leibnitz test the series is convergent.
PR
A
24.Test the convergence of the series

Solution: The given series
= 1-
= 1-1+
=11+
The terms are alternatively positive and negative
(i)
1>
(ii)
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Solution: The given series 1-
1
=1

(i)
1>
(ii)
Solution: The given series 2-
2>
term is
(ii)
. The second condition of Leibnitz test is not
YU
satisfied, hence the series is not convergent (oscillatory).

27.Discuss the convergence of the series
term is
PR
A
with
(i)
(ii)
TH
SH
(i)
with

0< x < 1.
Solution: The given series is an alternating series with
term is
> and
= 0.
We Know that if 0 < x <1 , then
This implies that (i)

(ii)
Hence by Leibnitz test the given series is convergent.
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.
= 1-

(i)
1>
(ii)
The second condition of Leibnitz rule is not satisfied, hence the series is not convergent (oscillatory).
30.When is a series said to be absolutely convergent?
Solution: If the series of arbitrary terms
is convergent, then the series
be such that the series

said to be absolutely convergent.
31.Define conditional convergence.

is divergent but
For example, the series 1-
is known to be convergent.
is convergent, then
PR
A
Solution: If
TH
It is absolutely convergent, since the series 1+
SH
YU
For example, consider the series 1-
is
is said to be conditionally convergent.
is convergent, but the series of finite values 1+
is
divergent, hence the original series is conditionally convergent.

PART - B
1.Prove that the series
converges for k >1 and diverges for
k
Proof: The given series is
Case 1: If k >1, then
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(
)
(
< 1+
Which is a geometric series with common ratio
)+
)
So, the series is convergent for k > 1.
, then
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Case 2: If k
>1+
= 1+
)+
which diverges to
Similarly, for k < 1 it diverges to
Hence the given series converges for k >1 and diverges for k

Solution: To find the
term:
In denominator: 1, 2, 3, . . .
2, 3, 4, . . .
= a+(n-1)d = 1+(n-1)1 = n which gives the first factor.

= a+(n-1)d = 2+(n-1)1 = (n+1) which gives the second factor,
Where a denotes the first term and d denotes the common ratio.
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Here
Let us take
Then
Since the series
also convergent.
2, 3, 4, . . .
3, 4, 5, . . .
= a+(n-1)d = 1+(n-1)2 = (2n-1) which gives the first factor.

= a+(n-1)d = 1+(n-1)1 = n which gives the first factor,
TH
In numerator: 1, 3, 5, . . .
YU
term:
= a+(n-1)d = 2+(n-1)1 = (n+1) which gives the second factor,
PR
A
SH
= a+(n-1)d = 3+(n-1)1 = (n+2) which gives the third factor,
Here
, and this can be written as
=
Let us take
92
is
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Then
=
)
)(
.
Since the series
is also convergent.
4. Examine the convergence of the series
In numerator: 1, 4, 9, . . . =
which gives the first factor.
= a+(n-1)d = 4+(n-1)3 = (3n+1) which gives the first factor,
YU
term:
SH
= a+(n-1)d = 7+(n-1)3 = (3n+4) which gives the second factor,
10, 13, 16, . . .
= a+(n-1)d = 10+(n-1)3 = (3n+7) which gives the third factor,
TH
7, 10, 13, . . .
Here
PR
A
)(
)(
)(
Let us take
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Then
=
=
)(
)(
)(
)(
.
Since the series
also divergent.
SH
YU
PR
A
TH
Let us take
Then
.
Since the series
also convergent.
94
is
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To find the
term:
In numerator:
,
=
...
which gives the first factor.
= a+(n-1)d = 3+(n-1)1 = (n+2) which gives the first factor,
where a denotes the first term and d denotes the common ratio.
(
((
((

)
SH
YU
PR
A
TH
Let us take
((
Then
.
Since the series Since the series
is also convergent.
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where a denotes the first term and d denotes the common ratio. Solution: The given series is
To find the
term:
In numerator: 2, 3, 4, . . .
= a+(n-1)d = 2+(n-1)1 = (n+1) which gives the first factor,

= a+(n-1)d = 1+(n-1)1 = n which gives the first factor,
Here
PR
A
Then
TH
YU
SH
Let us take
Since the series
is convergent if p > 2 and divergent if p

Case 1: For x < 1
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=
Let us take
=
=
We know that the series
is also
convergent if x < 1.
which is a divergent series .
Case 2: For x = 1, the series becomes
SH
Case 3: For x > 1
YU
TH
Let us take
=
We know that the series
PR
A
also convergent if x > 1.

Hence the given series converges for x < 1 and x > 1 and diverges for x = 1.
Test the convergence of the series
Solution: The given series can be written as
97
is
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=
=
Let us take
Then
YU
SH
TH
PR
A
Since the series
divergent.

=
is also
( )
Let us take
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( )
( )
( )
Since the series
( )
is a geometric series with ratio
and this can be written as
=(
=[
= n[(
)]
- n
]
(
=n[
PR
A
Solution: Here un =
( or )
TH
Test the convergence of the series
is also divergent.
YU
SH
Then
= n[
( )
]
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Let us take
Then
=
=
]
.
Since the series
YU
, for x
PR
A
TH
Solution: Let f(x)=
Put log x = t
is also
SH
convergent.
When x=2, t = log 2, when x=
=[
=[log
log(log 2)]
diverges in [2,
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also diverges.
Solution: Let f(x)=

=
]
]
YU
= [
=
converges and by the integral test
TH
PR
A

also converges.
1 sin 1+
=-(
SH
= = -(
)
)
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= converges and by the integral test

Here
and
also converges.
<1
( since e = 2.718)
TH
SH
YU
PR
A
Hence by ratio test the given series is convergent.

Here
and
=
(
) = .
= < 1.
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Hence by ratio test the given series is convergent.
17.Test the convergence or divergence of the series
).
Solution: Consider the series

Let
and
=
(
) = .
= < 1.
Clearly this series is convergent.

is convergent and
is convergent, by property of series
PR
A
Since,
= 1+
TH
Now, consider the series
is convergent.
YU
Hence by ratio test the given series

Solution: The
and
term is
SH
is convergent.
, x>0.
=
=
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=
Hence by DAlemberts ratio test,
When x < 1 , the given series is convergent,
When x > 1 , the given series is divergent,
When x = 1,the ratio test fails.
Hence for x = 1 , we make use of the comparison test.
=
and
is convergent, by the comparison test
is also convergent.
SH
But since
Put x=1 in un, then
and
term is
PR
A
Solution: The
+, x >0.
TH
YU
Hence the given series converges for x 1 and diverges for x >
=
=
When x < 1 , the given series is convergent
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Put x = 1 in un , then
Now
=1
By the necessary condition for convergence the series diverges.

Hence the given series converges for x < 1 and diverges for x
=
(
TH
PR
A
SH
YU
and
term is
Solution: The
=
When
< 1 , the given series is convergent,
When
> 1 , the given series is divergent,
When
= 1,the ratio test fails.
Hence for
Put
= 1 , we make use of the comparison test.
=1 in un, then
and
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(
=
But since
is convergent, by the comparison test
is also convergent.
Hence the given series converges for x 1 and diverges for x >
Solution: The
SH
and
term is
YU
PR
A
TH
When x < 1 , the given series is convergent,

Now, we try to examine the series at x =1.
Put x = 1, the series becomes
=(
which is a divergent series .

Hence the given series converges for x < 1 and diverges for x
22.Check for convergence & absolute convergence of the series
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Next we construct the series of absolute terms as
|
The series of absolute terms is
Which is the harmonic series with k=2, and hence the series is convergent. So the given series is absolutely
convergent.
23.Examine whether the series
is absolutely convergent or conditionally convergent.

|
| |
YU
SH
PR
A
TH
The series of absolute terms is
Which is the harmonic series with k=1. This series is known to be divergent.
Since the given series is an alternating series
with
(i)
(ii)
By Leibnitz test the series is convergent.
Hence the given series is convergent, whereas the series of absolute terms is divergent. Therefore the series
is conditionally convergent.
24.Test for convergence & absolute convergence of the series
Solution: The terms of the given series are alternately positive and negative with
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The series is
Clearly,
(i)
(ii)
By Leibnitz test the series is convergent.
, for x
YU
Let f(x)=
SH
TH
PR
A
Put log x = t
When x=2, t = log 2, when x=
= [
(finite)
converges in [2,

25.Test the series 1-
also converges, so the given series is absolutely convergent.
for
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(i) absolute convergence
(ii)conditional convergence
Solution: The terms are alternatively positive and negative
(i)
1>
(ii)

Now,
Is convergent since in k-series, for k = > 1 the series is convergent.
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Hence the given series is absolutely convergent.
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Unit 3 Differential Calculus

Curvature The rate of bending of a curve in any interval is called the curvature of the curve in that interval
Curvature of a circle The curvature of a circle at any point on it equals the reciprocal of its radius.
Radius of curvature The radius of curvature of a curve at any point on it is defined as the reciprocal of the
curvature
) }
Cartesian form of radius of curvature
SH
YU
Implicit form of radius of curvature
Parametric equation of radius of curvature
Centre of curvature
TH
The circle which touches the curve at P and whose radius is equal to the radius of curvature and its centre is
PR
A
known as centre of curvature.
Equation of circle of curvature

Centre of curvature
&
Evolute
The locus of the centre of curvature is called an evolute
Involute
If a curve C1 is the evolute of C2 , then C2 is said to be an involute of a curve C1
Envelope
A curve which touches each member of a family of curves is called envelope of that family
curves.
Envelope of a family of curves
The locus of the ultimate points of intersection of consecutive members of
a family of curve is called the envelope of the family of curves.

Properties of envelope and evolute
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Property:1 The normal at any point of a curve is a tangent to its evolute touching at the corresponding centre
of curvature.
Property:2 The difference between the radii of curvature at two points of a curve is equal to the length of the
arc of the evolute between the two corresponding points.
Property:3 There is one evolute ,but an infinite number of involutes
Property:4 The envelope of a family of curves touches at each of its point. The corresponding member of
that family.
Evolute as the envelope of normals The normals to a curve form a family of straight lines.we know that the
envelope of the family of these normals is the locus of the ultimate points of intersection of consecutive
normals.but the centre of curvature of a curve is also the point of consecutive normals.hence the envelope of
SH
the normals and the locus of the centres of curvature are the same that is ,the evolute of a curve is the
envelope of the normals of the curve
Find the radius of curvature of y=
PR
A
Ans:
y=
y1=
at x= 0 y1=1
y2=
at x= 0 y2=1
=
2.
at x=0
TH
1.
YU
Part - A
=2
Find the radius of curvature of at x = on the curve y = 4 sin x sin 2x
Ans:
y1=4 cosx 2 cos 2x at x= y1=2
y2=
at x = y2=-4
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3.
Given the coordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve is given as
2a +3at2
-2at3
Determine the evolute of the curve

Ans:
t2=(
2a +3at2
t3 =
-2at3
)3 = (
)------------ 1
------------ 2
4( -2a)3=27a 2
The locus of the centre of curvature (evolute) is 4(x-2a)3=27a
4.
Write the envelope of Am2+Bm+C=0, where m is the parameter and A,B and C are functions of
x and y.(NOV-08)
Solution: Given Am2+Bm+C=0(1)
m=-B/2A.(2)
YU
2Am+B=0
PR
A
AB2/4A2-B2/2A+C=0
TH
Substitute (2) in (1) we get

A(-B/2A)2+B(-B/2A)+C=0
SH
Differentiate (1) partially w.r.t. m
AB2-2AB2+4A2C=0
- AB2+4A2C=0
Therefore B2-4AC=0 which is the required envelope.

5.
Find the radius of curvature at any point of the curve y=x2. (NOV-07)
Solution: Radius of curvature

Given y=x2 y1=
Y2 =
=2x
=2
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(
6.
Find the envelope of the family of straight lines x sin
+ y cos
= p, being the parameter. NOV-
07)
Solution: Given x sin
+ y cos
= p. (1)
Differentiate (1) partially w.r.t.
X cos
between (1) and (2)
SH
Eliminate
= o.(2)
X cos - y sin
Sin
=
cos
Substitute in (1)
x.
+ y.
PR
A
Tan
TH
YU
= y sin
=p
=p
Squaring on both sides, x2 +y2=p2 which is the required envelope
7. What is the curvature of x2 +y2 - 4x-6y+10=0 at any point on it . (JAN-06)

Solution: Given x2 +y2 - 4x-6y+10=0
The given equation is of the form x2 +y2 +2gx+2fy+c =0
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Here 2g =-4 g=-2
2f =-6 f=-3
Centre C(2,3), radius r =
r=
=
Curvature of the circle =
YU
Solution: Given y= mx
TH
(y-mx)2=m2-1
Y2+m2x2 2mxy-m2+1=0
, where m is the parameter (JAN-06)
SH
8. Find the envelope of the family of straight lines y= mx
There fore Curvature of x2 +y2 - 4x-6y+10=0 is
PR
A
m2 (x2-1)-2mxy+y2+1=0 which is quadratic in m

Here,A=x2-1 B=-2xy C=y2+1
The condition is B2-4AC=0
4 x2y2-4(x2-1)(y2+1)=0
4 x2y2-4 x2y2-4x2+4y2+4=0
X2-y2=4 which is the required envelope
9. Find the curvature of the curve 2x2 +2y2 +5x-2y+1=0 (MAY-05,NOV-07)
Solution: Given 2x2 +2y2 +5x-2y+1=0
2
x2 +y2 +5/2x-y+1/2=0
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Here 2g =5/2 g=5/4
2f=-1 f=-1/2 centre C (-5/4,1/2) radius r=
= =
Therefore Curvature of the circle 2x2 +2y2 +5x-2y+1=0 is
10. State any two properties of evolute . (MAY-05)
Solution: The normal at any point of a curve tangent to its evolute touching at the corresponding contre
SH
of curvature. The difference between the radii of curvature at two points of a curve is equal to the length
YU
of the arc of the evolute between the two corresponding points.
11. Define the curvature of a plane curve and what the curvature of a straight line. (JAN-05)
TH
Solution: The rate at which the plane curve has turned at a point (rate of bending of a curve is called the
PR
A
curvature of a curve. The curvature of a straight line is zero.

12. Define evolute and involute .(JAN-05)
Solution: The locus of centre of curvature of a curve (B1,B2,B3,) is called evolute of the given curve.
If a curve C2 is the evolute of a curve C1 ,then C1 is said to be an involute of a curve C2.
13. Find the radius of curvature of the curve x2 +y2 -6x+4y+6=0 (NOV-08)
Solution: Given X2 +y2 - 6x+4y+6=0
The given equation is of the form x2 +y2 +2gx+2fy+c =0
Here 2g =-6 g=-3
2f =4 f=2
Centre C(3,-2), radius r =
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r=
=
Radius of Curvature of the circle = radius of the circle=
14. Find the envelope of the family of circles (x- )2+y2=4 ,where
is the parameter.(MAY-07)
Solution: Given (x- )2+y2=4

X2-2 x+ 2-4 +y2=0
2
-2 (x+2)+x2+y2=0 which is quadratic in
SH

Here A=1 B=-2 (x+2) C= x2+y2
YU
4(x+2)2-4(x2+y2)=0
TH
x2-4x+4- x2-y2=0
PR
A
y2+4x=4 which is the required envelope.

15. Define evolute .(MAY-07).
Solution: The locus of centre of curvature ( , ) is called an evolute .

16. Find the envelope of the family of straight lines y=mx+ for different values of m. (NOV-07)
Solution: Given y=mx+
m2x-my+a=0 which is quadratic in m
Here A=x B=-y C=a
Y2-4ax=0
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There fore y2=4ax which is the required envelope.
17. Find the envelope of the line +yt=2c,where t is the parameter.(NOV-02,05).
Solution: Given
+yt=2c
Yt2-2ct+x=0 which is quadratic in t

Here A=y B=-2c C=x
C2-xy=0
SH
There fore xy=c2 which is the required envelope.
18. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y=c cosh(x/c)at the point where it crosses the y-axis.
TH
YU
(NOV-05)
PR
A
Given y=c cosh(x/c) and the curve crosses the y-axis. (i.e.)x=0 implies y=c.
Therefore the point of intersection is (0,c)
=c cos h(x/c)(1/c)=cos h (x/c)
(0,c)=cos 0=1
=cos h(x/c)(1/c)
(0,c)=1/c
=c2
19. Find the radius of curvature of the curve xy=c2at (c,c).(NOV-02)
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Given xy=c2
=x +y=0
=- implies
(c,c)=-1
=-[
TH
YU
SH
(c,c)= =-[
1.
PR
A
PART-B
Find the radius of curvature at the point
on the curve
(NOV-07,MAY-08, JUNE 2009)

Solution:
Given x=
Y=
(1)
..(2)
Differentiate (1) and (2) w.r.t
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( )
=-sec2
) }
YU
TH
=3a sin
Find the radius of curvature of the curve
PR
A
2.
SH
Radius of curvature
at the point (-a,0).(NOV-08).
) }
Given
Differentiate w.r.t. x
2y
) (
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) }
6.
SH
Find the radius of curvature at the point (a,0)on the curve
YU
NOV 2010)
.(MAY-07, JAN 2010,
Given
Differentiate w.r.t.x
) }
PR
A
TH
2xy +y2.1=-3x2
(1)
) }
Therefore
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Differentiate (2) w.r.t.y.
)(
[(
[(
)]
) }
Therefore radius of curvature
(since the radius of curvature is non-negative)
Find the curvature of the parabola y2=4x at the vertex.(NOV-07)
) }
SH
YU
Given; y2=4x
2y
TH
=4
PR
A
7.
=2/y
) }
Therefore
Differentiate (1) w.r.t.y.

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Therefore
Curvature K=1/
8.
=2
=1/2
Find the radius of curvature of the curve 27ay2= 4x3 at the point where the tangent of the curve
makes an angle 450 with the X- axis.

Solution; Let (x1,y1) be the point on the curve at which the tangent makes an angle 450 with the X- axis.
(x1,y1) =Tan 45o=1-------------------------------- (1)
SH
Given 27ay2= 4x3
54ay =12x2
TH
-----------------------------------(2)
(x1,y1) =Tan 45o=1=
PR
A
(x1,y1) = =
Gives
YU
-----------------------------(3)
As ( x1,y1) lies on the curve 27ay21= 4x31 ---------------------------------(4)

Using
gives x1= 3a
And using (3) gives y1= 2a

Y1 at (3a,2a)= 1
Y2=
]
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Y2=
]=1/6a
Therefore radius of curvature
7. Find the evolute of the rectangular hyperbola xy=c2.(JAN-06,NOV-08)

Solution: The equation of the given curve is xy=c2.(1)
The parametic form of (1) is
X=ct; y=
SH
=c; =c ( )=-
PR
A
= ( )
( )
TH
( )
Y2=
YU
Y1=
The co-ordinates of the center of curvature Is

Where
(
)..(2)
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=
)(3)
Eliminating t between (2)and(3),

(2)+(3)gives
) (4)
) ..(5)
TH
YU
SH
(2)-(3)gives
PR
A
(4)2/3-(5)2/3gives
( )
[(
) ]
Therefore
The locus of centre of curvature is
9.
which is the required evolute of the rectangular hyperbola xy=c2.
Find the radius of curvature for the curve r=a(1+cos )at
is a constant.
(NOV-07,08)
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Solution: Given r=a(1+cos )
R=-a sin
R =cos
The radius of curvature in polarform is
=[
SH
is
TH
at
YU
Therefore,
PR
A
Also,
8. Considering the evolute as the envelope of normals, find the evolute of the parabola x2=4ay.(NOV08)
Solution: Given x2=4ay
The parametric equations are x=2at, y=at2
=2a
=2at
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M=
We know that the equation of normal to the curve is,
y-y1= (x-x1)
y-at2= (x-2at)
yt-at3=-x+2at
x+yt=at3+2at.(1)
Differentiate (1) partially w.r.t.twe get
(
t2
Y=3at2+2a
+x=a(
[ (
+2a(
YU
PR
A
x =(
TH
y(
SH
Substitute the value of t in (1)
=(
[(
Squaring on both sides, we get

which is the required evolute.
9. Obtain the evolute of the parabola y2=4ax. (NOV-07, JAN 10,JUNE 2010, JAN 2011,JAN 2012, JUNE
2012)
Solution: Given y2=4ax(1)ss
The parametric equations are x= at2, y=2at
=2at
=2a
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=y1
( )
Y2=
= ( )
( )
The co-ordinates of the center of curvature Is

Where
( )
)
..(2)
SH
(3)
PR
A
TH
YU
Eliminating t between (2)and(3),

(2) gives
(3) gives

which is the required evolute.
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10. Find the equation of the envelope of
.(NOV-02,07, NOV 2010, JAN
2013)
Solution: Given that
(1)
And
..(2)
Differentiate (1)and(2) w.r.t b

..(3)
(4)gives
(6)
SH
..(5)
YU
(3)gives
2a +2b=0(4)
PR
A
TH
From (5)and (6)
Substitute in (2) we get,

Therefore
which is the required envelope.
11. Find the equation of circle of curvature of the parabola y2=12x at the point (3,6).(NOV-07,08)
Solution: The equation of circle of curvature is
Where,
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y2=12x
Given
Differentiate w.r.t.x we get

2y =12 implies
(3,6)=-1/6
SH
Y2=
Y1= (3,6)=1
( can not be negative)
TH
YU
=3
PR
A
Therefore,the equation of circle of curvature is

12. Find the radius of curvature at t on x=etcost,y=etsint.(JAN-06)

Given
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X=
Y=
X=
Y=
The radius of curvature is

[
]
[
SH
YU
.(MAY-05,07)
TH
13. Find the evolute of the ellipse
PR
A
Solution: The given curve is
The parametric equations are x=acos
,y=bsin
Y1=
Y2=
( )
Y2
The Co-ordinate of centre of curvature is

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Where
(
= acos
)(
= acos
)
.(1)
SH
]
[
PR
A
[
[
TH
YU
](2)
Eliminating between (1) and (2),we get
we know that,
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The locus of is
14. Find the envelope of
which is the evolute of the ellipse
where l and m are connected by
and a,b are constants.
(MAY 05, NOV-05,JAN 2012)

..(1)
Solution: Given that
(2)
SH
Differentiating (1) w.r.t.m
YU
.(3)
PR
A
TH
Differentiating (2) w.r.t.m
..(4)
From (3) and (4)
substitute in equation (2) ,
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which is the required envelope.

at which the radius of curvature is 4 . (MAY 05)
15. Find the points on the parabola

.(1)
Solution: Given
Let, P (a,b) be the point on the curve
at where
SH
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. x
TH
YU
Y1=2y
PR
A
Y2=
But,
8
a+1=2 a=1,
The points are (1,2),(1,-2)
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16. Considering the evolute of a curve as the envelope of its normals find the evolute of
(NOV-02,05,MAY-05)
Solution: The given curve is
The parametric equations are x=acos
,y=bsin
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
We know that the equation of the normal is y-y1= (x-x1)
m=
,we get
..(1)
Differentiate (1) partially w.r.t. , we get
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Substitute in equation (1),we get
which is the required evolute of the ellipse.
SH
17. Find the circle of curvature at (3,4)on xy=12.(JAN-05, JAN 2010)
TH
Where,
PR
A
Given
YU
Solution: The equation of circle of curvature is
xy=12
Differentiate w.r.t.x we get

x
implies
(
Y1= (3,4)=-4/3
Y2=
(3,6)
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)
18. Find the evolute of the four cusped hyper cycloid
TH
Solution: The equation of the given curve is
YU
Therefore, the equation of circle of curvature is (
SH
=3
) .
.(JAN-05, NOV-07)
..(1)
PR
A
The parametric equations are x = a cos 3 , y = a sin 3
Y1=
= -tan
Y2=
- sec2 /
= a cos 3 -
= a cos 3 +
=( (sec4 cosec))/3a
( 1 + tan 2
------------------------------------------(2)
a sin 3
( 1 + tan 2
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-----------------------------------------(3)
from 2 & 3
+ = a cos 3 +
= a( cos
+ a sin 3 +
3
+ sin
------------------------------------(4)
- = a cos 3 +
= a( cos
- a sin 3 +
3
- sin
+
=
------------------------------------(5)
((
) +(
(2)
Eliminate
(2)
YU
SH
a sin
19. Find the radius of curvature at the origin of the cycloid x = a ( + sin ) and y = a( 1- cos ).
TH
(MAY07, Nov 08, JUNE 10, JUNE12,JAN 13)
PR
A
Given: x = a ( + sin ) , y = a( 1- cos ).

x =a( 1 + cos ) y = a( sin )
x = -a sin
y = a cos
The radius of curvature is
= 4a cos
At = 0
20. Find the envelope of the straight lines represented by the equation x cos + y sin = a sec , is
the parameter (Nov 07)
Solution: Given x cos + y sin = a sec
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Divided by cos
x + y tan = a sec2
x + y tan = a ( 1 + tan2)
a tan2 y tan + a x = 0
which is quadratic in tan
A = a, B = -y C = a-x
The envelope is given by B2 4AC = 0
y2 = 4a(a-x) which is the required envelope
SH
21. Prove that the evolute of the curve x = a (cos + log tan ), y=a sin is the catenary y = a cosh
YU
Nov 05
= a cot cos
y=a sin
PR
A
x = a(-sin +
TH
Solution : x = a (cos + log tan )
y = a cos
y1 =
y2 =
= tan
= (sec 4 sin )
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= a (cos + log tan )-
( 1 + tan
=a log tan ..(1)
= a sin +
( 1 + tan 2
.(2)
.(3)
SH
PR
A
TH
y = a cosh which is the required evolute
YU
tan =
Eliminate from (1) and (2)
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Unit 4 Functions of several Variables

I.
Problems based on Partial Derivatives
II.
Problems based on Euler`s Theorem
III. Problems based on Total Derivatives-Differentiation of Implicit Function

IV. Problems based on Jacobian
V.
Problems based on Taylor`s and Laurent Series
VI. Problems based on Maxima and Minima for Functions of Two Variables
VII. Problems based on Lagrangian Multiplier
Partial Derivatives
be a function of two Variables x and y, If we keep y as a constant and Vary x alone , then z
SH
Let
Partial Derivatives:
YU
is a function of x only ,
The derivative of z w.r.to x, treating y as a constant is called the partial derivatives w.r.to x and it is denoted
PR
A
TH
by the symbols
Notation:
Successive Partial Differentitation:

Let
, then
being the function of x and y can further be differentiation partially with
respect to x and y.
( )
( )
Problems:
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1.
If u =
find
Solution:
2.
Find
if
where
and
Solution:
3.
If
show that
4.
Solution: Let
PR
A
Adding (1), (2),and (3) we get
TH
YU
SH
Solution: Given
show that
,
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)+ (2)+ (3)
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5.
If
), Show that
Solution: Given
z is a homogeneous function of degree n=2
6.
If u =
, find
Sol: given u =
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
As z is homogeneous function of order n=2, it satisfies the Eulers equation
( )
( )
( )
Euler`s Theorem for Homogeneous Function

Euler`s Theorem: If u be a homogeneous function of degree n an x and y then
( )
( )
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Problems:
1.
Verify Eulers theorem for the function
Solution: Given
SH
This is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
YU
Adding (1) and (2) we get
If
Solution: Given
, Show that
PR
A
2.
TH
Hence Eulers theorem is verified.
As z is a homogeneous function of order n = 1, it satisfies the Eulers theorem

(1)
(1)
(2)
By Eulers theorem of second order
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(3)
,
3.
put in (3)
If u =
Sol: given
, prove that
)
)
( )
Hence by Eulers theorem, we have
SH
xu=0
is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
Total Derivative: If
, then we can express u as a function of
Thus we can find the ordinary derivatives
TH
t alone by substituting the value of x and y in
YU
Total Derivatives-Differentiation of Implicit Function
Now to find the
PR
A
is called the total derivative of u distinguish it from partial derivatives
without actually substituting the values of x and y in
following formula
we establish the
Problems:
1.
Find
if
where
and
Solution:
2.
If
where
and
find
and
Solution:
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3.
Find
if
Solution: Let
( )
Find
YU
4.
SH
TH
Ans :
5.
( )(
PR
A
( )
( )(
If z be a function of x and y and u and v are other two variables, such that
(
show that
Solution: z may be represented as the function of u,v
)(
(1)
Similarly
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(2)
(
(1)+(2)
)
(
6.
Ans: Here Z is a composite function of u and v

(1)
..(2)
SH
Now
YU
Sub these values in (1) & (2) We get
Which implies
(3)x(4) We get
( )
PR
A
Now
TH
..(3)
)..(4)
)(
..(A)
Similarly we get
(B)
(A)+(B) Gives
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(
14. If u is a function x and y and x and y are functions of r and given by

(a) x e r cos , y e r sin shown that
2
2u 2u
2u
2 r u
e
x 2 y 2
2
r
(b) x r cos , y r sin prove that

2
1 z
z z z
2
x y r r r
2
PR
A
YU
TH
x r
x
e cos x;
e r sin y;
r
y
y
e r sin y;
e r cos x
r
x
x
y
y
x;
y;
x and
y
r
r
u u x u y
u
u
Now
. . x y
r x r y r
x
y
SH
2 z 2 z 2 z 1 2 z 1 z
and 2 2 2 2 2 .
x y r r r[
Solution
(a) Here u is a function of x, y which is given as a function of r and .
u u x u y
u
u
.
.
y x
x y
x
y
From (1), we get ,
x y
r
x
y
...(1)
...(2)
...(3)
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From (2) , we get ,
y x
x
y
Now,
...(4)
2u u
u
u
x y
x y
2
r
r r x
y x
y
2
2
2u
2u
2 u
2 u
x
2 xy
y
...(5)
r 2
x 2
xy
y 2
2u
u
u
u
y x
y x
2
x
y
x
y
2
2
2u
2u
2 u
2 u
xy
x
y
2
...(6)
2
x 2
xy
y 2
Adding (5) and (6) we get ,
x
x
y
y
cos ;
r sin ; sin ;
r cos
r
z z x z y
z
z
.
cos . sin .
r x r y r
x
y
z z x z y
z
z
r sin
r cos
x y
x
y
PR
A
TH
(b)
YU
2u 2u 2 r 2u 2u
i.e.,
e 2 2
x 2 y 2

r
SH
2u 2u
2u 2u
( x 2 y 2 ) 2 2 e2 r 2 2
y
y
x
x
2
2
2u 2u
2
2 u
2
2 u
(x y ) 2 (x y ) 2
r 2 2
x
y
1 z
z
z
z
z
z
sin sin
cos
2 cos
x
y
x
y
r r
2
z z

x y
2
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z z

r 2 r r

z
z
cos
sin
r
x
y
2 z x 2 z y
z x 2 z y
cos 2
sin xy r y 2 r
x r yx r
2
2
2
z
z
z
cos 2 2 sin 2 2 2sin cos
x
y
xy
2
SH
2 z 2 z y
z
r cos
2
y
y
YU
r sin
2 z
z

z
z
r sin
r cos

x
y
2 z x 2 z y
z
r cos
r sin 2
x
x yx
2 z 2
2 z
2 z
z
z
2
2
r cos
sin
cos
2
sin
cos
r
r
2
2
x
y
xy
x
y
2 z 1 2 z 2 z 2 z 1
z
z
2
2 2 cos
sin
2
2
r
x y r
x
y
r
2 z 2 z 1 z
x 2 y 2 r r
PR
A
TH
r 2 sin 2
2 z 2 z 2 z 1 2 z 1 z
x 2 y 2 r 2 r 2 r 2 r r
Jacobian
Defn :
from
are functions of n variables
the the Jacobian of the transformation
is defined by
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|
and is denoted by the symbol
or
Problems:
Prove that the functions are
are functionally dependent.
SH
1.
2.
||
u ,v are functionally dependent.
Find the Jacobian of u = xyz, v = xy + yz + zx, w = x + y + z
Solution:
3.
||
PR
A
u and v are not independent,
||
TH
||
YU
Solution:
If
find
Solution:
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15. Find the value of
y1 , y2 , y3
, if y1 1 x1 , y2 x1 1 x2 , y3 x1 x2 1 x3 .
x1 , x2 , x3
Solution :
y1
x1
y1 , y2 , y3 y2
x1 , x2 , x3 x1
y1
x2
y1
x3
y2
x2
y2
x3
y3
x1
y3
x2
y3
x3
1 x2
x1
0
x2 1 x3 x1 1 x3 x1 x2
1 x1 x1 x2
x12 x2
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Hence the solution.
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16. If u xyz , v x 2 y 2 z 2 , w x y z , find J
x, y , z
.
u , v, w
Solution :
Since u , v, w are exp liciltly given, in terms of x , y , z , we first evaluate
J
u
x
v
We knowthat J
x
w
x
x, y , z
u , v, w
u
y
v
y
w
y
u
z
yz zx xy
v
2x 2 y 2z
z
1
1 1
w
z
yz 2 y 2 z zx 2 x 2 z xy 2 x 2 y
2 y z x 2 x y z yz
2 y z z x y x
2 x y y z z x
PR
A
By u sin g , JJ 1, we get ,
TH
2 y z y z x x z x
YU
2 x 2 y z x y 2 z 2 yz y z
SH
2 x 2 y x 2 z xy 2 xz 2 y 2 z yz 2
2 yz y z zx x z xy x y
x, y , z
u , v, w
1
2 x y y z z x
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17. If y1
x2 x3
xx
xx
, y2 3 1 , y3 1 2 .
x1
x2
x3
Showthat the Jacobian of y1 , y2 , y3 with respect to x1 , x2 , x3 is 4.

Pr oof :
We knowthat
y1 , y2 , y3 y2
x1 , x2 , x3 x1
y1
x2
y1
x3
y2
x2
y2
x3
y3
x1
y3
x2
y3
x3
x2 x3
x12
x3
x2
x2
x3
x3
x1
x2
x1
x3 x1
x22
x1
x2
x1
x3
x2 x3
1
2 2 2 x2 x3
x1 x2 x3
x2 x3
x1 x2
x32
x3 x1
x3 x1
x3 x1
1 1
1 1
1 1
PR
A
x2 x2 x2
12 22 32
x1 x2 x3
SH
y1
x1
x2 x3
xx
xx
, y2 3 1 , y3 1 2 .
x1
x2
x3
YU
y1
x1 x2
x1 x2
x1 x2
TH
Given :
1
1
1
11 1 1 1 1 1 1
022 4
Hence the proof .
18. If
Solution:
and
. Evaluate
without actual substitution.
and
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19. If
. Find the Jacobian
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Solution:
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23. If x r cos , y r sin , find
( x, y )
(r , )
Solution
Given x r cos
y r sin
x
cos
r
x
r sin
y
sin
r
y
r cos
x x
( x, y )
r
We knowthat
y y
(r , )
r
cos r sin
sin r cos
r cos 2 r sin 2
YU
SH
r cos 2 sin 2 r
24.If
TH
also find the relation between them.
, show that they are not independent. And
Sol:
Hence,
PR
A
will not be independent if
Hence
are not independent.
= 0.
To find the relation between them:

Given
and
Now,
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, which is the required relation.

Taylor`s Series and Laurent Series
The Taylors series expansion of
in the power of
and
is
Find the Taylors series expansion of
in the power of x and y upto third degree terms.

in the power of
and
is
PR
A
TH
YU
Sol: The Taylors series expansion of
SH
1.
Problems:
+...(1)
,
,
=
=
=1
=
,
=1
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,
=0
2.
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
=2
Using Taylors series expansion express
degree terms at
..
in powers of x and y upto second
Solution:
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Taylors series is
3.
Expand
as Taylors series up to second degree terms
Taylors series is
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Solution:
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16. Use Taylor ' s series oftwo var iables to exp and x y 3 y 2 in powers of
2
x 1 and y 2.
Solution
We knowthat the exp ansion of f ( x, y ) in powers x a and y b is given by
f ( x, y ) f ( a , b ) ( x a ) f x ( a , b ) ( y b ) f y ( a , b )
1
( x a ) 2 f xx (a, b) 2( x a )( y b) f xy (a, b) ( y b) 2 f yy (a, b)
2!
1
[( x a )3 f xxx 3( x a ) 2 ( y b) f xyy 3( x a )( y b) 2 f xyy
3!
( y b)3 f yyy ]
....(1)
f x (1, 2) 4
fy x 3
f y (1, 2) 4
f xx 2 y
f xx (1, 2) 4
f xy 2 x
f xy (1, 2) 2
f yy 0
f yy (1, 2) 0
f xxx 0
f xxx (1, 2) 0
f xxy 2
f xxy (1, 2) 2
f xyy 0
f xyy (1, 2) 0
f yyy 0
f yyy (1, 2) 0
PR
A
Substituting these value s in (1) we get ,
SH
f x 2 xy
YU
f (1, 2) 6
TH
Now f ( x, y ) x 2 3 y 2
Here a 1, b 2
x 2 y 3 y 2 6 ( x 1)( 4) ( y 2)(4)
1
[( x 1) 2 (4) 2( x 1)( y 2)( 2) ( y 2) 2 (0)]
2!
1
[0 3( x 1) 2 ( y 2)(2) 0 0]
3!
6 4( x 1) 4( y 2) 2( x 1) 2 2( x 1)( y 2) 2( x 1) 2 ( y 2)
Hence the solution.
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15. Expand tan 1
y
in the neighbourhood of (1,1).
x
solution
Let f ( x, y ) tan 1
y
x
1 y
.
y 2 x 2
1 2
x
y
,
2
x y2
1 1
f y ( x, y )
.
y2 x
1 2
x
x
,
2
x y2
f x ( x, y )
f x (1,1)
1
2
f y (1,1)
1
2
f xx ( x, y ) y (1)( x 2 y 2 ) 2 .2 x
x y
x y 1 x 2 x
( x, y )
x y
2
y2
f xy (1,1) 0
tan 1
y
f ( x, y )
x
2 xy
2
PR
A
f yy ( x, y ) x(1)( x 2 y 2 ) 2 .2 y
YU
2 2
y 2 x2
1
2
f xx (1,1)
TH
f xy
2 2
SH
2 xy
2 2
f yy (1,1)
f (1,1) ( x 1) f x (1,1) ( y 1) f y (1,1)
1
2
1
( x 1) 2 f xx (1,1) 2( x 1)( y 1) f xy (1,1) ( y 1) 2 f yy (1,1) ...
2!
u sin g cor : 2
1 1
1
1
1
( x 1) ( y 1) ( x 1) 2 . 2( x 1)( y 1)0 ( y 1) 2 .....
4
2 2!
2
2
2
y 1
1
1
1
tan 1 ( x 1) ( y 1) ( x 1) 2 ( y 1) 2 ...
x 4 2
2
4
4
Hence the solution
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Maxima and Minima and Lagrangian Multiplier

Defn: Maximum Value
YU
SH
Defn: Minimum Value
PR
A
TH
Defn: Extremum Value
Defn: Lagrangian Multiplier
Suppose we require to find the maximum and minimum values of
where x,y,z are subject to
a constraint equation
We define a function
where
Which is independent of x,y,z

Problems: Examine
for its extreme values
Solution: Given
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At maximum point and minimum point

The points
may be maximum points or minimum points.
At
and r = 12 > 0
is a minimum point
Minimum value =
are saddle points.

and r = -12 < 0
YU
At
SH
The points
At
maximum value =
TH
is a maximum point
Solution:
PR
A
8. In a plane triangle ABC ,find the maximum value of
.
.
At the maximum point and minimum point
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Solving these equations
A+B+C =
SH
At
YU
and r < 0
is a maximum point.
Maximum value =
TH
The point
PR
A
9. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid
Solution: The given ellipsoid is
(1)
The volume of the parallelepiped is
(2)
At the max point or min point

(3)
(4)
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(5)
Solve the equation
(3)x+ (4)y+(5)z
Put in (3)
Similarly,
Max volume =
SH
Put in (2)
10. Find the dimensions of the rectangular box without a top of maximum capacity, whose surface is
YU
108 sq. cm
PR
A
TH
Solution: Given Surface area
The volume is
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Solve the equation
(3)x - (4)y
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(3)x - (5)z
Put in (1)
y =6, z =3
The dimension of the box, having max capacity is Length=6cm, Breadth = 6cm, Height = 3cm.
11. The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is T = 400xy . Find the highest temperature on the
SH
surface of the unit sphere

Solution:
YU
(1)
PR
A
TH
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Solve the equation

(3)x+ (4)y+(5)z
1600
Put in (3) and (4) we get

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The highest temperature is = 50.
13. Pr ovethat
2 z 2 z 2 z 2 z
, where x u cos v sin , y u sin v cos

x 2 y 2 u 2 v 2
(OR)
By changing independent var iables u and v to x and y by means of the relations x u cos v sin ,
2 z 2 z
2 z 2 z
transforms
in
t
o
.
u 2 v 2
x 2 y 2
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
y u sin v cos , showthat
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Solution :
Here z is a composite function of u and v.
z z x z y

u x u y u
z
z
cos sin
x
y

z cos sin z
x
x
y
cos sin
(1)
u
x
y
z z x z y
Also,

v x v y v
z
z
sin cos
x
y
or

z sin cos z
v
x
y
sin cos
(2)
v
x
y
Now we shall make use of the equivalance of operators as given by (1) and (2).
TH
2 z z

u 2 u u
YU
SH
or
ie.,
PR
A

z
z
cos
sin cos sin
(u sin g (1) and (2) )
u
y
x
y
2 z
2 z
2 z
2 z
cos 2 2 cos sin
sin cos
sin 2 2
x
xy
yx
y
2 z
2 z
2 z
2 z
2
2
cos
2
cos
sin
sin
u 2
x 2
xy
y 2
Similarly
(3)
2 z z

v 2 v v

z
z
sin
cos sin cos (u sin g (3) and (4) )
x
y
x
y
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sin 2
z
z
z
2 z
2
sin
cos
cos
sin
cos
x 2
xy
yx
y 2
2
2 z
2 z
2 z
2 z
2
2
sin
2
cos
sin
cos
v 2
x 2
xy
y 2
Adding (3) and (4),
(4)
2 z 2 z 2 z 2 z
u 2 v 2 x 2 y 2
Hence the proof .
17. Investigatethe max ima of the functions f x, y x 2 xy y 2
1 1
.
x y
Solution :
1 1
x y
Given f x, y x 2 xy y 2
TH
PR
A
2 f
2
2 3
2
x
x
2
2 f
2 3
2
y
y
YU
SH
f
1
2x y 2
x
x
f
1
x 2y 2
y
y
2 f
1
xy
Step1: For a max imum or min imum, we must have
f
0 2x y
x
f
0 x 2y
y
1
0
x2
1
0
y2
i.e., 2 x 3 x 2 y 1 0
...(1)
i.e., 2 y 3 xy 2 1 0
...(2)
(1) y
2 x3 y x 2 y 2 y 0
...(3)
(2) x
2 xy 3 x 2 y 2 x 0
...(4)
From (3) we get x y y 2 x y

2
...(5)
Substituting (5) in (4) we get
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2 xy y 2 x y x 0
3
i.e., 2 x 3 y 2 xy 3 y x 0
i.e., 2 xy ( x 2 y 2 ) ( x y ) 0
i.e., 2 xy ( x y )( x y ) ( x y ) 0
( x y ) 2 xy ( x y ) 1 0
x y (or )2 xy ( x y ) 1 0
when x y, the equation 2 x 3 x 3 y 1 0
gives 2 x 3 x 3 1 0
i.e.,3 x 3 1
1
3
1
x3
3
x3
1 1
Step 2 : At 3 , 3 ,
3 3
PR
A
2
2 f
2
8
2
1
x
3
2 f
2 f
8
;
1
y 2
xy
TH
YU
SH
1 1
Hence 3 , 3 is a critical po int
3 3
1
3
2 f 2 f 2 f
.
8 8 1 0
x 2 y 2 xy
2 f
and 2 8 0
x
1 1
f ( x, y ) has a min imum at the po int 3 , 3 and
3 3
4
3
the min imum valueis 3 .
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18. Find the min imum value of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 xy ax by.
Solution
Given
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 xy ax by
f
2x y a
x
f
2y x b
y
...(1)
...(2)
...(3)
2 f
2
x 2
2 f
2
y 2
...(4)
...(5)
2 f
1
xy
SH
A
...(8)
TH
2y x b
PR
A
f
0
y
...(7)
YU
Step 1: For miimum value of the function

f
0 2x y a
x
...(6)
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Solving (7) and (8) we get
2 x y a
x 2 y b
i.e.,
4 x 2 y 2a
x 2 y b
3x
b 2a
b 2a
3
b 2a
Substituting x
in (8) we get
3
b 2a
b
3
y
2
(4b 2a )
2
a 2b
PR
A
TH
b 2a
The critical po int is

, a 2b
3
b 2a
Step 2 : At
, a 2b
3
2 f
2 f
2 f
2
,
2
and
1
x 2
y 2
xy
YU
SH
2 f 2 f 2 f
.
2 2 1
x 2 y 2 xy
30
b 2a
We have min imum value of the function at

, a 2b
3
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Step 3 :The min imum value of f ( x, y) is obtained by putting
x
b 2a
and y a 2b in f ( x, y ).
3
2
b 2a
b 2a
b 2a
Minimum value
a 2b
a 2b a
b a 2b
3
3
3
b 2 a b 2a

a 2b a a 2b a 2b b
3 3
19. Find the shortest dis tan ce between the lines
SH
TH
x2 y 6 z 5
x5 y 3 z 4
and
3
2
2
2
1
6
Solution
YU
b 2a 4a 5b
(a 2b)(a b0
3 3
4ab 5b 2 8a 2 10ab
a 2 ab 2ab 2b 2
9
2
4ab 5b 8a 2 9a 2 27ab 18b 2
9
2
2
13b a 23ab
x 2 y 6 z 5
...(1)
3
2
2
x 5 y 3 z 4
...(2)
2
1
6
Any po int on the first line is P (3 2, 2 6, 2 5) and
PR
A
Let
any po int on the sec ond line is Q (2 5, 3, 6 4)

PQ (2 3 5 2 ) 2 (6 2 3 ) 2 (5 2 4 6 ) 2
i.e., PQ 2 17 2 41 2 32 66 114 99
Let f ( , ) 17 2 41 2 32 66 114 99
f
34 32 66
f
32 82 114
2 f
2 f
2 f
32
34,
82,
2
2
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For a max imum or a min imum of ' f ' we should have
f
f
0,
0
i.e., 34 32 66 0
32 82 114 0
Solving thesetwo equations we get

1, 1
At (1, 1)
2 f
34 0
At (1, 1),
SH
i.e., At (1, 1) , PQ 2 has min imum which gives the shortest length.
PQ 2 17 41 32 66 114 99
9
PR
A
TH
YU
Shortest length PQ 9 3
2 f
0

At (1, 1) the function f ( , ) has min imum.
2 f 2 f
.
2 2
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1 1 1
20. Find the min imum value of x 2 y 2 z 2 subject to the condition 1
x y z
Solution
Let f x 2 y 2 z 2
1 1 1
g 1
x y z
Let the auxillary function ' F ' be
1 1 1
...(1)
F ( x, y , z ) ( x 2 y 2 z 2 ) 1
x y z
By Lagranges method the values of x, y , z for which ' f ' is min imum are obtained
by the following eqations
F
0 2 x 2 0 x3
x
x
2
F
0 2 y 2 0 y3
y
y
2
F
0 2z 2 0 z3
z
z
2
F
1 1 1
0 1 0
x y z
From (2) , (3) and (4) we get
2
1
SH
...(4)
...(5)
YU
...(3)
TH
x3 y 3 z 3
...(2)
PR
A
3
...(6)
i.e.,
x y z
2
Substituting (6) in (5) we get
3
1 or x 3
x
3
1 or y 3
y
3
1 or z 3
z
(3,3,3) is the po int where min imum value occur. The min imum value of
x 2 y 2 z 2 is 32 32 32 27
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21. Athin closed rec tan gular box is to have one edge equal to twice the other , and a cons tan t
valume 72m3 . Find theleast surface area of thebox.
Solution
Let the sides of the rec tan gular box be 2 x, x, y.
Then volume is 2 x.x. y 72
i.e.,
2 x 2 y 72
i.e.,
x 2 y 36
...(1)
The surface area is given by

S 2(2 x.x) 2(2 x. y ) 2( x. y )
4 x 2 6 xy
Now we have to find the min imum surface area
...(2)
S 4 x 2 6 xy under the condition
SH
x 2 y 36
g x 2 y 36
Let the auxillary function ' F ' be F f g
...(3)
TH
F ( x, y ) 4 x 2 6 xy x 2 y 36
YU
Let f 4 x 2 6 xy,
PR
A
By Lagranges method the values of x, y, z for which ' F ' is min mum is obtained
from the following equations
F
0 8 x 6 y 2 xy 0
...(4)
x
F
0
6x x2 0
...(5)
y
F
0
00
z
F
0
x 2 y 36 0 x 2 y 36 ...(6)
6
From (5) we get x
...(7)
Substituting
x
y
in (6) we get
36
2
2
x
...(8)
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Substituting
48
, y 2 in (4) we get
6 2 12 2 0 3 8
i.e.,
Substituting
2
2 in (7) and (8) we get
x 3, y 4.
S has a min imum value at (3, 4)

The min imum value of S 4(3) 2 6(3)(4)
108
22. Find the max imum value of x m y n z p when x y z a

Solution
mx m 1 y n z p
ny n 1 x m z p
...(1)
YU
...(2)
TH
...(3)
PR
A
F
0 mx m 1 y n z p 0
x
F
0 ny n 1 x m z p 0
y
F
0 p x m y n z p 1 0
z
F
0 x y za 0
From (2) , (3) and (4) , we get
SH
i.e., F ( x, y, z ) x m y n z p x y z a
Let f x m y n z p and g x y z a
Let the auxillary function F f g
...(4)
...(5)
p x m y n z p 1
i.e., mx m 1 y n z p ny n 1 x m z p p x m y n z p 1
m n p
i.e.,

x y z
mn p mn p
x yz
a
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Hence max imum value of f occurs when
am
mn p
an
y
mn p
ap
z
mn p
The max imum value of
x
mn nn p p
m n p
mn p
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
f a mn p
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UNIT V
Multiple Integrals
Part A
1.
Evaluate
2.
SH
Solution: Let I =
Evaluate:
3.
Evaluate:
Solution:
4.
PR
A
TH
YU
Solution: Let I =
Evaluate:
Solution: Let I =
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5.
Evaluate:
6.
Evaluate:
Solution: I=
7.
PR
A
TH
YU
SH
Solution: Let I =
Evaluate:
Solution: I=
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8.
Evaluate:
Find
the
limits
of
integration
in
the
double
integral
YU
9.
SH
Solution: I =
TH
Solution: The limits are: y varies from 0 to 1 and x varies from 0 to 1-y.
10. Change the order of integration
PR
A
Solution: The given region of integration is bounded by y=0, y=a, x=y & x=a.
After changing the order, we have, I =
11. Change the order of integration for the double integral

Ans:
1.
Evaluate:
Part B
over the area between y = x2 and y = x.
Solution: The limits are: x varies from 0 to 1 and y varies from x2 to x.

I=
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2.
Evaluate:
over the cardioids r = a (1+cos).
Solution: The limits of r: 0 to a (1+cos) and The limits of : 0 to .

I=
3.
YU
SH
Put 1+cos = t then sin d = dt

When = 0, t = 2
When = , t = 0.
Evaluate
Ans:
PR
A
TH
are the polar coordinates for the above integral
4.
Evaluate:
over the region in the first quadrant of the circle x2+y2=1.
Solution: In the given region, y varies from 0 to
and x varies from 0 to 1.
I=
dx
Put x = sin. Then dx = cosd. varies from 0 to /2.
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5.
and hence evaluate it.
Change the order of integration in I =
Solution: I =
The given region of integration is bounded by x=0, x=1, y=x2 and x+y=2.
In the given integration x is fixed and y is varying.
So, after changing the order we have to keep y fixed and x should vary.
After changing the order weve two regions R1 & R2
SH
I = I1+I2
TH
YU
I=
6.
PR
A
Evaluate
by changing the order of integration.
Solution: The given region is bounded by x=0, x=1, y=x and x2+y2=2.
I=
After changing the order weve,
The region R is splinted into two regions R1& R2.
In R1: limits of x: 0 to y & limits of y: 0 to 1
In R2: limits of x: 0 to
& limits of y: 1 to
I = I1+I2
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I1 =
I2 =
Evaluate by changing the order of integration in
TH
7.
YU
SH
I=
Solution: I =
PR
A
The given region of integration is bounded by x=0, x=4, y =
, y2 = 4x
After changing the order weve

Limits of x: y2/4 to 2y
Limits of y: 0 to 4
I=
8.
= 16/3.
Find the area enclosed by the ellipse
Solution: Area of the ellipse = 4 x area of the first quadrant
=4
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9.
Find the smaller area bounded by y = 2-x and x +y =4.
Solution: Required area =
10. Find the area of the region outside the inner circle r=2cos and inside the outer circle r=4 cos
by double integration.
Solution: Required Area =
=2
SH
11. Find the area of the circle of radius a by double integration.

Solution: Transforming Cartesian in Polar coordinates
(i.e) x=rcos & y=rsin. Then dxdy = rdrd
limits of : 0 to and limits of r: o to
YU
Required Area = 2xupper area
12. Find
PR
A
TH
=2
over the area bounded between the circles r = 2sin & r= 4sin.
Solution:In the region of integration, r varies from r=2sin& r= 4sin and varies from0to .
I=
13. Find the volume bounded by the cylinder x2+y2=4 and the planes y+z=4 and z=0.
Solution: The limits are:
Z varies from: 0 to 4-y
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X varies from: -
to
Y varies from: -2 to 2.
Required volume = 2
=2
=2
dy= 2
=2
=8
since y
= 16
is an odd function.
=16
= 16x2x = 16
and
14. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane
SH
the coordinate plane.

Solution: The limits are:
X varies from 0 to a
Y varies from 0 to b
Required Volume =
=
TH
=c
=c
PR
A
=c
=
YU
Z varies from o to c
15. Find the volume of the sphere x2+y2+z2=a2 using triple integral.
Solution: Required Volume = 8 x volume in the positive octant = 8
Limits of integration are:
Z varies from 0 to
Y varies from 0 to
X varies from 0 to a
Volume = 8
=8
=8
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=8
=8
= 2
= 2
= 2
cu.units
16. Find the Volume of the ellipsoid

Solution: Required Volume = 8 x Volume in the first octant
Limits of Integration are:
Z varies from 0 to c
Y varies from 0 to b
Volume = 8
SH
X varies from 0 to a.
YU
=8
where
=
=2bc
=2bc
log a x x y
16. Evaluate
e
0
e
0
x y z
=2bc
dzdydx
0 0
log a x x y
Solution :
PR
A
TH
= 8c
x y z
log a x
[e
dzdydx=
0 0
log a
log a x
dydx=
log a
x y z x y
0
(e
0
e 2( x y )
e x y dx =
2
0
2( x y )
e x y )dydx
log a
1 4 x
e2x
2x
e
e x dx

2
log a
e4x 3 2x
e4x 3 2x
e ex
e e x dx =
2
2
0
2 2
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3
1
1 3
= e 4 log a e 2 log a e log a 1
4
8
8 4
=
a a
17. (By changing) express
0 y
1 4 3 2
3
a a a
8
4
8
x 2 dxdy
x2 y2
Solution:The limits for x are x=y to x=a and the limits for y are y=0 to y=a change to polar co-ordinate
we have x= rcos, y = rsin dxdy = rdrd
x = a = rcos r
a
a sec
cos
x2 y2
r 2 cos2 r 2 sin 2
/ 4 a sec
a3
=
3
/4
/4
a sec
r3

3 0
a3
1
0 sec . sec2 d = 3
3
r 3 cos2 drd
r
cos2 d =
a3
3
/4
sec
. cos2 d
/4
a3
/4
0 sec d = 3 [log(sec tan )]0
PR
A
r cos drd =
3
/ 4 a sec
r 2 cos2 .r.drd
SH
0 y
YU
/ 4 a sec
x 2 dxdy
TH
a a
The limits are r=0 to r= asec and = o to /4
a3
a3
[log(sec tan ) log(sec tan ] =
[log( 2 1) 0]
3
4
4
3
a3
log( 2 1)
3
18. Find the area inside the circle r=asin but lying outside the cardiod r=a(1-cos)
Solution :
Given curves are r=asin and r =a(1-cos)
The curves intersect where a sin = a (1-cos)
a sin = a a cos
a sin + a cos = a sin + cos =1

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sin(
0(or )
0(or )
cos
1
2
sin
sin cos
cos
(or )
cos
1
2
2

4
2 2
2
/4
The required area =
/2
a sin
rdrd
0 a (1 cos )
a2
=
2
/2
a2
=
2
/2
/2
sin
(1 cos2 2 cos d
cos cos d
2
TH
/ 2 1 cos2
= a 2 1
d
2

0
PR
A
/2
1
sin 2
= a 1
2 0
2
/2
2 cos 2 cos d
/2
/2
= a 2 sin 0 cos2 d
0
a2
.2
=
2
a2
=
2
/2
a2
2
2
sin cos 1 2 cos d =
1 cos cos 1 2 cos d
2 0
a sin
r2

d
2 a (1cos )
sin
SH
YU
1

= a 2 1 0 0

2 2
2
a (4 )
= a 2 1
4
4
17. Find by double integration, the area enclosed by the curves

Ans:
Sub (1) in (2) we get
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Therefore the point of intersection of (1)&(2) is (0,0) and (4a,4a)

x Varies from 0 to 4a and y
varies from
The required Area =
y 2 z 2 dxdydz
x
a b c
19. Evaluate
a
c 3b cb3
cbz2 dz
3
3
PR
A
TH
c 3 y cy 3
cyz2 dz
=
3
3
0
0
a
c3
= cy 2 cz 2 dydz
3
0 0
a b
YU
x3
Solution : I y 2 x z 2 x dydz
3
0
0 0
a b
SH
0 0 0
c 3bz cb3 z cbz3

c 3ba cb3 a cba3 abc 2
[c b 2 a 2 ]
=
=
=
3
3
3 0
3
3
3
3
1 2 x
20. Change the order of integration in I
f ( x, y)dydx
0 x2
1 2 x
Solution :Given I
f ( x, y)dydx
0 x2
The given region of integration is bounded by x=0, x=1, y=x2 and x+y=2
In the given integration x is fixed and y is varying
So, after changing the order we have to keep y fixed and x should vary.
After changing the order we have two regions R1 & R2
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I = I1 + I2
1
2 2 x
f ( x, y )dxdy
0 0
f ( x, y)dxdy
1 1
1 x
21.Evaluate : ( x 2 y xy 2 )dydx
x
0
I= ( x 2 y xy 2 )dydx =
0
x
1
Solution : Let
x 2
2
(
x
y
xy
)
dydx
=
0 x
x 2 y 2 xy 3
0 2 3 dx
x
1
x4
x 3 x.xy3 / 2 x 4 x 4
x7 / 2
5 x5
dx =

=
2
3 2
3
8 ( 7 )(3) 6 5
0
2
SH
9
3
21 16 28
=
=
168
168 56
YU
1 2 1
= (0)
8 21 6
21. By Transforming into polar coordinates , Evaluate
over annular region between the
PR
A
TH
circles
Ans: Putting
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through the positive spherical octant for which
YU
22. Find the value of
SH
PR
A
TH
Ans:
191

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is called the characteristic equation of the

, we get n roots for

and these roots are called characteristic roots or eigen values

or latent values of the matrix A

Corresponding to each value of , the equation AX =

has a non-zero solution vector X

be the non-zero vector satisfying AX =

is said to be the latent vector or eigen

vector of a matrix A corresponding to

Working rule to find characteristic equation:

Method 1:The characteristic equation is

which we call as characteristic polynomial of matrix A

when expanded will give a polynomial,

CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL: The determinant

Method 2:Its characteristic equation can be written as

Find the characteristic equation of the matrix (

[Anna University May 2003]

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). Its characteristic equation is

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

Find the characteristic equation of (

Solution: Its characteristic equation is

Find the characteristic polynomial of (

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

The characteristic polynomial of A is

Therefore, the characteristic polynomial is

Find the characteristic equation

To find the eigen vectors, solve [

for different values of

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Corresponding to n distinct eigen values, we get n independent eigen vectors

vectors corresponding to the repeated eigen values

is a solution for an eigen value

is also a solution, where c is an arbitrary constant.

Algebraic multiplicity of an eigen value

is the order of the eigen value as a root of the characteristic

is a double root, then algebraic multiplicity is 2)

is the number of linearly independent eigen vectors corresponding to

If a square matrix A is non-symmetric, then A

linearly independent eigen vectors.

Symmetric matrix: If a square matrix A is symmetric, then A =

wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors

independent and pair wise orthogonal set of eigen vectors

Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix (

) [Anna University Tvli. May/June

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) which is a non-symmetric matrix

To find the characteristic equation:

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

Therefore, the eigen values are 2, -2

To find the eigen vectors:

i.e., we get only one equation

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i.e., we get only one equation

Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of [

] [Anna University Tvli. May/June 2011]

] which is a non-symmetric matrix

To find the characteristic equation:

Its characteristic equation can be written as