Kuwait Pediatric GuideLines

GUIDELINES FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF COMMON
PAEDIATRIC DISEASES AND
EMERGENCIES
Ministry of Health
Paediatric Council
Clinical Guidelines Committee

Kuwait 2006
Members of the Clinical Guidelines Committee:

Dr. Mohammad Owaidah (Chairman)
Dr. Eman Al-Onaizi
Dr. Hassan Elsori
Dr. Samir Mady
Dr. Nufoud Al-Shammari
Dr. Magdy Shafik
Dr. Aida AbdulMalik
Contributers:
Dr. Abdulla Farhan
Dr. Aisha Alterkait
Dr. Asmaa Al-Tawari
Dr. Babu Uthaman
Dr. Bandar Al-Mutairi
Dr. Entesar Husain
Dr. Esmail Redha
Dr. Fahad Al-Enezi
Dr. Fahad Al-Mukhaizim
Dr. Faisal Al-Kandari
Dr. Faisal El-Khuffash
Dr. Ghassan Al-Othman
Dr. Khalid Hamadi
Dr. Lulu Abu-Shaban
Dr. Majda AbdulRasool
Dr. Mona Al-Khawari
Dr. Muneef Al-Hathal
Dr. Saad Al-Otaibi
Dr. Usha RajaRam
Dr. Yousif Habeeb
Table of content
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Topic
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) ------------------------------------------Choking ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cardiac Emergencies
Pulseless arrest ------------------------------------------------------------- Bradycardia with pulse ----------------------------------------------------- Tachycardia with pulses and poor perfusion -------------------------- Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT) ------------------------------------ Cyanotic Spells in Tetralogy of Fallot --------------------------------- Heart failure ------------------------------------------------------------------Shock -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Anaphylaxis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------Hypertension
Approach to a child with hypertension -------------------------------- Hypertensive crises -------------------------------------------------------Status Epilepticus --------------------------------------------------------------------Acute Bronchial Asthma ------------------------------------------------------------Foreign body aspiration -------------------------------------------------------------Laryngeotracheobronchitis (LTB) Croup ------------------------------------Rehydration in Gastroenteritis ----------------------------------------------------Electrolytes disturbances -----------------------------------------------------------Diabetes:
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) ----------------------------------------------- Management of new cases who do not present with DKA ----------- Management of children with diabetes during surgery -------------- Hypoglycemia -----------------------------------------------------------------Fulminant hepatic failure -------------------------------------------------------------Upper GI bleeding ----------------------------------------------------------------------Foreign body ingestion ----------------------------------------------------------------Neonatal Jaundice --------------------------------------------------------------------Acute poisoning -------------------------------------------------------------------------Infections :
Community acquired Pneumonia ----------------------------------------- Meningitis ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Urinary tract infection ------------------------------------------------------- Acute otitis media -------------------------------------------------------------Bites:
Snake bite ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Scorpion bite ------------------------------------------------------------------- Fish bite -------------------------------------------------------------------------Appendix:
Intraosseous insertion ------------------------------------------------------- Lumbar puncture------------------------------------------------------------- Blood pressure measurement ---------------------------------------------- Tables of normal blood pressure ------------------------------------------ Body Surface Area ----------------------------------------------------------- Nomogram for Paracetamol poisoning----------------------------------- Growth charts ----------------------------------------------------------------- Modified Glasgow coma scale -----------------------------------------------
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

A sudden cardiac arrest is uncommon in children. Cardiac arrest is usually the terminal event
of progressive respiratory failure or shock.
1. Airway
Mild neck extension is needed (child head & occiput are proportionately large,
causing neck flexion). Can use a folded towel placed under the neck and shoulder.
Open the airway by head tilt-chin lift method. If you suspect a cervical injury, open
the airway using a jaw thrust without head tilt.
Clear airway from secretions, vomitus and remove foreign bodies.
Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways for maintaining an open airway.
o Oropharyngeal (in unconscious patient; ie, with no gag reflex)
- size: distance from the central incisors to the angle of the mandible.
o Nasopharyngeal (better tolerated than oral airway by patients who are not deeply
unconscious)
- size: distance from the tip of the nose to the tragus of the ear.
2. Breathing
Use 100% oxygen during resuscitation.

Bag-Mask Ventilation can be as effective as ETT.
- Use a self-inflating bag with a volume of 450 to 500 ml.
- Maintain oxygen flow of 15 L/min into a reservoir attached to a bag.
- The mask should fit over the mouth and nose to provide a tight seal and avoid
any air leakage.
Ventilation through an endotracheal tube (ETT)
- size: (for children 1 to 10 years of age)
ETT internal diameter (mm ID) = (age in yrs/4) + 4
Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA)
- when endotracheal intubation is not possible, the LMA is an acceptable adjunct
for experienced providers.
To minimize gastric inflation

- Avoid excessive peak inspiratory pressures(eg, ventilate slowly and watch chest rise,
deliver only the volume needed to produce visible chest rise).
- Apply cricoid pressure to obstruct the esophagus.
- Pass N-G tube after you intubate because a gastric tube interferes with the
gastroesophageal sphincter, allowing possible regurgitation.
Excessive ventilation is detrimental because it:
Impedes venous return and therefore decreases cardiac output, cerebral blood flow,
and coronary perfusion by increasing intrathoracic pressure.
Causes air trapping and barotraumas in patients with small airway obstruction.
Increases the risk of regurgitation and aspiration.
3. Circulation
Check pulse (brachial artery in infants carotid/femoral artery in children).

Start cardiac compressions when heart rate <60 beats/min with signs of poor
perfusion.
Characteristics of good chest compressions:

Push fast at a rate of 100 compressions/min.
Push hard to depress the chest 1/3 to 1/2 of the anterior-posterior diameter of the
chest.
Release completely to allow the chest to fully recoil after each compression.
Minimize interruptions in compressions.
Recommended chest compression-ventilation ratio:
One rescuer: give cycles of 30 compressions: 2 breaths.
Two rescuers: give cycles of 15 compressions: 2 breaths.
When an advanced airway is established (eg, ETT or LMA).
1. Give continuos chest compressions without pauses for breaths.
2. Give 8 to 10 breaths/minute.
3. Check rhythm every 2 minutes and change the compressor role to prevent
fatigue and deterioration in quality and rate of chest compressions.
4. The switch should be done in less than 5 seconds to minimize interruption in
chest compression.
if the pulses are present but no breathing, give 12 to 20 breaths per minute ( 1 breath
every 3 to 5 seconds).
Cardiac compressions
Rate/min
Depth
Site
Technique
Infant
100
1/3 of A-P chest diameter
Lower half of the sternum not over
the xiphoid (below intermammary
line)
2 fingers technique. Fig.1
OR
2 thumb-encircling hands
technique (preferred). Fig.2
Figure 1. Two-finger chest compression.
Child
100
1/3 to 1/2 of A-P chest diameter
Lower half of the sternum not
over the xiphoid
heel of one hand or two hands
technique
Figure 2. Two thumb-encircling hands chest
compression.
Vascular access
If you cannot achieve reliable access quickly, establish intraosseous (IO) access.
Fluids:
Use isotonic crystalloid solution to treat shock (20 ml/kg of normal saline as quickly
as possible). Repeated boluses may be necessary.
Hypotension is a systolic blood pressure < 5th percentile of normal for age:
<60 mm Hg in term neonates.
<70 mm Hg in infants
<70 mm Hg + (2 x age in yrs) in children 1 to 10 years
<90 mm Hg in children >10 years of age.
Glucose-containing fluids are not indicated during CPR unless hypoglycemia is
present.
4. Drugs
Drugs are preferably administered through IV or IO than by ETT.

If vascular access cannot be established, some drugs can be given via ETT.(LEAN
Lidocaine, Epinephrine, Atropine, Naloxone). Flush with a minimum of 5ml normal
saline followed by 5 assisted manual ventilations. If CPR in progress, stop chest
compressions briefly during administration of medications.
Epinephrine dose in cardiac arrest = 0.01 mg/kg as the first and subsequent IV doses.
Routine use of high-dose epinephrine (0.1 mg/kg) intravascular is not
recommended and may be harmful.
Medications for Pediatric Resuscitation and Arrhythmias
Medication
Adenosine
Amiodarone
Atropine
Calcium chloride
(10%)
Epinephrine
Glucose
Lidocaine
Magnesium sulfate
Naloxone
Dose
0.1 mg/kg (max 6 mg)
Repeat: 0.2 mg/kg (max 12 mg)
5 mg/kg IV/IO
Repeat up to 15 mg/kg
Maximum: 300 mg
0.02 mg/kg IV/IO

0.03 mg/kg ET*
repeat once if needed
minimum dose: 0.1 mg
maximum single dose:
child 0.5 mg
adolescent 1 mg
20 mg/kg IV/IO (0.2 ml/kg)
0.01
mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg 1:10 000)IV/IO
0.1
mg/kg (0.1 ml/kg 1:1000) ET*
maximum dose: 1 mg IV/IO; 10 mg ET*
0.5-1 g/kg IV/IO
Bolus: 1 mg/kg IV/IO
Maximum dose: 100 mg
Infusion: 20-50 g/kg/min
ET*: 2-3 mg
25-50 mg/kg IV/IO over 10-20 min; faster in
torsades
Maximum dose: 2 g
<5 y or 20 kg: 0.1 mg/kg IV/IO/ET*
5 y or >20 kg: 2 mg IV/IO/ET*
Procainamide
15 mg/kg IV/IO over 30-60 min

adult dose: 20 mg/min IV infusion up to total
maximum dose 17 mg/kg
Sodium
bicarbonate
1 mEq/kg/dose IV/IO slowly
* flush with 5 ml of normal saline and follow with 5 ventilations

(IV:intravenous-IO:intraosseous-ET:endotracheal)
Remarks
Monitor ECG
Rapid IV/IO bolus
Monitor ECG and BP
Adjust administration rate to

urgency (give more slowly when
perfusing rhythm present)
Use caution when administering

with other drugs that prolong QT
(consider expert consultation)
Higher doses may be used with
organophosphate poisoning
Slowly
Adult dose: 5-10 ml
May repeat q 3-5 min
D10W: 5-10 ml/kg
D25W: 2-4 ml/kg
D50W: 1-2 ml/kg
Use lower doses to reverse respiratory

depression associated with therapeutic
opioid use (1-15 g/kg)
Monitor ECG and Bp
Use caution when administering with
other drugs that prolong QT (consider
expert consultation)
After adequate ventilation
Medications to maintain cardiac output and for postresuscitation

stabilization
Medication
Dobutamine
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Sodium nitroprusside
Dose
2-20 g/kg/min IV/IO
2-20 g/kg/min IV/IO
0.1-1 g/kg/min IV/IO*
0.1-2 g/kg/min*
1-8 g/kg/min
Comment
Inotrope; vasodilator
Inotrope; chronotrope; renal and splanchnic
vasodilator in low doses; pressor in high dose
Inotrope; chronotrope, vasodilator in low
doses; pressor in higher doses
Inotrope; vasopressor
Vasodilator; prepare only in D5W
6 x body weight (in kg) = mg of drug to add to 100 ml D5W

then, an IV rate of 1 ml/h delivers 1 g/kg/min of drug
0.6 x body weight (in kg) = mg of drug to add to 100 ml D5W
then, an IV rate of 1 ml/h delivers 0.1 g/kg/min of drug
References:
1.
2.
3.
American Heart Association in collaboration with International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation and
European Resuscitation Council. From the 2005 International Consensus Conference on Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With treatment Recommendations, Part 6:
Pediatric Basic and Advanced Life Support. Circulation. 2005;112:III-73-III-90.
American Heart Association. Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support. Circulation. 2005; 112: IV-167-IV187.
American Heart Association. Part 11: Pediatric Basic Life Support. Circulation. 2005; 112: IV-156-IV-166.
Choking
90% of deaths from foreign-body aspiration occur in children <5 years of age.
Liquids are the most common cause of choking in infants.
Balloons, small objects, and foods are the most common in children.
Symptoms and Signs:
Sudden onset of respiratory symptoms and signs in a proper setting is characteristic of
foreign-body airway aspiration.
FB in upper airway: Respiratory distress, coughing, gagging, stridor, hoarseness of voice,
wheezing, and cyanosis
FB in lower airway: cough, respiratory distress, asthma like symptoms not responding to
treatment
Management:
Mild obstruction (can cough and make some sounds)
- Do not interfere
- Allow the patient to clear the airway by coughing while you observe for signs
of severe airway obstruction.
Severe obstruction (cannot cough and unable to make any sound)
1. An infant: (Figure 1)
- Place the infant in 60 head-down position, lying on your forearm.
- Deliver 5 back blows (slaps) between the shoulder blades with the heel of your
hand followed by 5 chest thrusts (as with cardiac compression) repeatedly until
the object is expelled or the patient becomes unresponsive.
Figure 1
Abdominal thrusts are not recommended for infants because they may damage
the relatively large unprotected liver.
2. A child: (Figure 2)
- Perform subdiaphragmatic abdominal thrusts in standing
position (Heimlich maneuver) or place the heel of one hand
on the abdomen between the umbilicus and the rib cage in a
supine position until the object is expelled or the patient
becomes unresponsive.
Figure 2
Unresponsive patient
- If you see a foreign body in the mouth, remove it.
- Do not perform blind finger sweeps because you may push obstructing
objects further into the pharynx and may damage the oropharynx.
- Perform CPR and attempt ventilation. If ventilation is not possible, repeat
above maneuvers.
NB. The above maneuvers should be done until experienced personal in airway is
present.
References:
1.
2.
Alison Shefeler. The HSC Handbook Of Pediatrics. 1992.

Pediatric Basic Life Support. Circulation. 2005; 112: IV-156-IV-166.
1
Pulseless Arrest
Continue CPR
Give oxygen
Attach monitor
2
Check rhythm
Shockable rhythm?
Shockable
Not shockable
9
VF/VT
Asystole/PEA
4
10
Give 1 shock 2 J/kg

Resume CPR immediatly
Resume CPR immediately

Give epinephrine
IV/IO: 0.01 mg/kg
(1 : 10 000: 0.1 ml/kg)
ETT: 0.1 mg/kg
(1 : 1000: 0.1 ml/kg)
Repeat every 3 to 5 min
Give 5 cycles
of CPR
5
Check rhythm
Shockable rhythm?
No
Shockable
give 5 cycles
11
12
Continue CPR
Give 1 shock 4 J/kg
Give epinephrine
IV/IO: 0.01 mg/kg
13(1 : 10 000: 0.1 ml/kg)
ETT: 0.1 mg/kg
(1 : 1000: 0.1 ml/kg)
Repeat every 3 to 5 min
If asystole, go to Box 10
If electrical activity, check pulse. If no
pulse, go to Box 10
If pulse present, begin postresuscitation
care.
Give 5 cycles
of CPR
Check rhythm
Shockable rhythm?
Not shockable
Shockable
During CPR
7
Check rhythm
Shockable rhythm?
of CPR
No
shockable
8
Continue CPR
Give 1 shock 4 J/kg
Consider antiarrhythmics
Amiodarone 5mg/kg IV/IO or
Lidocaine 1 mg/kg IV/IO
Consider magnesium 25 to 50 mg/kg IV/IO,
max 2 g for torsades de pointes
after 5 cycles of CPR go to
Box 5 above
Push hard and fast (100/min)

Ensure full chest recoil
Minimize interruptions in chest compressions
One cycle of CPR: 15 compressions then 2 breaths; 5
cycles = 1 to 2 min
Avoid hyperventilation
Secure airway and confirm placement
Rotate compressions every 2 minutes with rhythm
checks
* After an advanced airway is placed, rescuers no longer
deliver cycles of CPR. Give continuos chest
compressions without pauses for breaths. Give 8 to 10
breaths/min. check rhythm every 2 minutes.
13
Go to
Box 4
1
Bradycardia
with a pulse
causing cardiorespiratory
compromise
2
Support ABCs as needed
Give oxygen
Attach monitor
3
No
Yes
Bradycardia still causing

cardiorespiratory
compromise?
4
Perform CPR
if despite oxygenation
and ventilation
HR < 60/min with
poor perfusion
5A
5
Support ABCs; give oxygen if
needed
Observe
Consider expert consultation
No
Persistent symptomatic bradycardia?
Yes
Reminders
Push hard and fast (100/min)
Ensure full chest recoil
Minimize
interruptions
in
chest
compressions
Support ABCs
Secure airway if needed; confirm placement
Search for and treat possible contributing
factors
Look
for
causes:
(hypoxemia,
hyper/hypokalemia, acidosis, hypotension,
hypothermia, drug exposure)
Give epinephrine
- IV/IO: 0.01 mg/kg
(1:10 000: 0.1 ml/kg)
- ETT: 0.1 mg/kg
(1:1000: 0.1 ml/kg)
Repeat every 3 to 5 minutes
If increased vagal tone or primary
AV block:
Give atropine,
first dose; 0.02 mg/kg, may repeat.
Minimum dose: 0.1 mg
Maximum total dose (child): 1 mg
Consider cardiac pacing
7
If pulseless arrest develops, go
to Pulseless Arrest Algorithm
Tachycardia
With pulses and poor perfusion
Asses and support ABCs as needed
Give oxygen
Attach monitor
Symptoms
persist
narrow QRS
0.08 sec
Evaluate rhythm
with 12-lead
ECG or monitor
Probable sinus tachycardia

Compatible history consistent
with known cause
P wave present/normal
Variable R-R; constant P-R
Infants: rate usually < 220 bpm
Children: rate usually < 180 bpm
Search for and treat cause
Evaluate QRS duration
Probable supraventricular tachycardia

Compatible history (vague, nonspecific)
P waves absent/abnormal
HR not variable
History of abrupt rate changes
Infants: rate usually 220 bpm
Children: rate usually 180 bpm
wide QRS
>0.08 sec
Possible
ventricular
tachycardia
Synchronized cardioversion:
0.5 to 1 J/kg; if not effective,
increase to 2 J/kg
sedate if possible but dont delay
cardioversion
May attempt adenosine if it
does
not
delay
electrical
cardioversion
Consider vagal
maneuvers (no
delays)
If IV access readily available:

Give adenosine 0.1 mg/kg
by rapid bolus
Maximum first dose 6 mg
May double first dose and give once
Maximum second dose 12 mg
Or
increase to 2 J/kg Sedate if possible but
dont delay cardioversion
Expert consultation advised

Amiodarone 5 mg/kg IV
over 20-60 minutes
Or
Procainamide 15 mg/kg IV
Over 30-60 minutes
Do not routinely administer
amiodarone and procainamide
together
Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT)

Signs & Symptoms
Irritability, vomiting, poor feeding, chest pain, palpitation. Poor perfusion, tachycardia, signs
of heart failure, shock
Probable sinus tachycardia

Compatible history consistent
known cause
P wave present/normal
Variable R-R; constant P-R
Infants: rate usually < 220 bpm
Children: rate usually < 180 bpm
Assess and support ABCs.

provide oxygen
Attach monitor
Evaluate rhythm with 12-lead ECG
Establish IV access
Probable supraventricular tachycardia

Compatible history (vague, nonspecific)
P waves absent/abnormal
HR not variable
History of abrupt rate changes
Infants: rate usually 220 bpm
Children: rate usually 180 bpm
with
Stable SVT
Vagal maneuvers (ice bag over the infant

face for 10-20 seconds, gag reflex, valsalva,
Unstable SVT
Consider vagal maneuvers (no delays)
maneuver).
Do not use ocular pressure.

Adenosine 0.1 mg/kg
by rapid bolus followed by 5 ml NS flush
S/E: flushing, chest pain, bronchospasm,
bradycardia.
Remarks
Adenosine should be given through a proximal vein
using 2 syringes connected to a T-connector or
stopcock; give adenosine rapidly with one syringe
and flush with 5 ml of NS
Do not use verapamil in infants, it may cause
refractory hypotension and cardiac arrest
Assume wide QRS ( > 0.08 sec) to be of ventricular
origin and thus act accordingly
If IV access readily available:

Give adenosine 0.1 mg/kg
by rapid bolus followed by 5 ml NS flush
Or
increase to 2 J/kg Sedate if possible but
dont delay cardioversion
Expert consultation advised

Amiodarone 5 mg/kg IV over 20-60 minutes
Or
Procainamide 15 mg/kg IV over 30-60 minutes
Do not routinely administer amiodarone and
procainamide together
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
American Heart Association. Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support. Circulation. 2005; 112: IV167-IV-187.
Moss and Adams; Heart Disease in Infants, children, and Adolescents, sixth edition.
Myung K. Park; Pediatric Cardiology for Practitioners, third edition.
Pediatric Acute Care, second edition.
The Harriet Lane Handbook, sixteenth edition.
Management of Cyanotic Spell
Clinical manifestation:
Cyanotic spell observed in children with TOF
Peak between 2-4 months
Usually occurs in morning
Irritability, diaphoresis, inconsolable crying increased
cyanosis
CVS: tachycardia, decreased in intensity/disappearance of
murmur
Respiratory: tachypnea, grunting, hyperpnea, respiratory
distress
CNS: seizures, coma
Ensure ABCs
Oxygen 100%
Monitpr O2 saturation and BP
Knee - chest position
Morphine sulphate 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV/SC

0.9% NS bolus 20 ml/kg
NaHCO3 1 mEq/kg IV
Propranolol 0.1 mg/kg slow IV over 10 min
Phenylephrine (alpha agonist)
0.1 mg/kg IM
OR
0.02 mg/kg IV
Improved
No improvement
Decreased cyanosis
Heart murmur becomes louder
Intubation + ventilation
Cardiology consultation
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Moss and Adams; Heart Disease in Infants, children, and Adolescents, sixth edition.
Myung K. Park; Pediatric Cardiology for Practitioners, third edition.
Pediatric Acute Care, second edition.
The Harriet Lane Handbook, sixteenth edition.
American Heart Association Guidelines, 2001.
Management of Heart Failure
Common causes of heart failure:

1.Congenital heart disease
a. Large left to right shunt (VSD, AVSD, PDA)
b.Obstructive lesions (coarctation, A.S)
c. Anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA)
2.Acute myocarditis.
3.Dilated cardiomyopathy (Familial, metabolic)
4.Restrictive cardiomyopathy
Physical Examination:
Tachycardia
Tachypnea with respiratory distress
Arrhythmia particularly ventricular ectopy
Weak peripheral pulses and or delayed capillary refill
Heart sounds are often muffled with or without gallop rhythm
Murmurs of the original disease
Jugular venous distension may be observed in older children
Pulmonary & systemic venous congestion are manifest by rales and hepatomegaly.
Investigations
ECG:
- low amplitude
- sometimes abnormal axis
- atrial or ventricular enlargement according to the original disease.
Chest X-Ray: Cardiomegaly with pulmonary venous congestion.
2 Dechocardiogram: To check for cardiac anomalies and ventricular function.
Complete blood count with differential.
Blood culture and ESR if fever & infection are suspected.
Creatinine Kinase (CK MB)
Viral IgM antibody titres (in suspected viral myocarditis)
Serum carnitine, Lactase, pyruvate in suspected metabolic or familial cardiomyopathy
General Management
Maintain ABCs, give oxygen and connect to a cardiac monitor
If in shock intubate and ventilate
Secure an IV line
Keep fluid input/output chart
Fluid restriction 70% ml/kg/day
If the baby is tachypnoic consider feeding via NG tube
Monitor serum electrolytes frequently (specially Potassium)
Consult a cardiologist
Management of heart failure due to acute myocarditis

Maintain ABCs
Admit to ICU
CVP monitoring
Inotropic support
Dobutamine: 5 g/kg/min (the first drug used initially)
bIIf the patient is hypotensive add:
Dopamine: 5 g/kg/min (not used as first line inotropes unless the baby is
hypotensive, (it causes tachycardia and subsequently reduced tissue perfusion)
Phosphodiesterase inihibitors
Milrinone
produces inotropic, vasodilator effect and after load reduction.
- best used as infusion in combination with Dobutamine.
- 50 g/kg/dose IV over 15 min followed by continuous
infusion 0.5-1 g/kg/min
Diuretics: Furosemide 1 2 mg/kg IV q12h (monitor electrolytes for hypokalemia).
o Sedation: Needed in the initial stages in the form of morphine or

fentanyl if the baby is ventilated to reduce exhaustion.
o Anticoagulation: Used when LVEF is below 20% for the fear of
developing mural thrombi in left ventricle. Heparin is used initially.
o Other Drugs can be used according to the cause of heart failure like
Immnosuppressive agents, gamma Globulins etc.
After stabilization of the patient (may take few days):

o Improvement of tissue perfusion
o Disappearance of Gallop Rhythm
o Clearance of lung signs
Reduce IV inotropes gradually

Start digoxin (maintenance): 0.01 mg/kg/day PO q12h
Start captopril: (vasodilator/reduction of afterload)
Infant/children: 0.1 mg/kg/dose PO q8hr
titrate (if needed) to maximum 6 mg/kg/day (according to BP)
Adolescents/adults: 12 25 mg/dose PO TID
Increase weekly if necessary by 25 mg/dose to maximum 450 mg/day
Contraindicated in left ventricular outflow obstruction, e.g. critical aortic
stenosis.
Change IV furosemide to oral at the same dose and add
Spironolactone: 2 mg/kg/day q12h
If LVEF is still below 30% give baby aspirin 5 mg/kg/day. Sometimes it is
important to continue oral anticoagulants as warfarin.
Management of heart failure due to shunt lesions (VSD, PDA, AVSD)

Furosemide: 1 2 mg/kg IV/PO q12h
and add
Spironolactone: 2 mg/kg/day q12h
Captopril: (vasodilator/reduction of afterload)

Infants/children: 0.1 mg/kg/dose PO q8hr
titrate (if needed) to maximum 6 mg/kg/day according to BP
Adolescents/adults: 12 25 mg/dose PO TID
increase (if needed) by 25 mg/dose to maximum 450 mg/day
Contraindicated in left ventricular outflow obstruction, e.g. critical
aortic stenosis.
Digoxin can be started in some cases of heart failure in infants
maintenance dose: 0.01 mg/kg/day q12hr (No digitalization needed)

When starting digoxin with diuretics (frusemide and spironalactone), the dose given as 0.01 mg/kg/day
q12hr
If captopril is given with digoxin and diuretics, then spironolactone should be reduced or
stopped according to potassium level.
Digoxin toxicity can occur if the above 4 drugs are given and lower doses of digoxin should be given
(0.0075 mg/kg/day q12hr)
It is advisable that antifailure therapy be started by cardiologist initially in conditions of large left
to right shunt lesions and in obstructive lesions
Management of chronic heart failure

( with dilated cardiomyopathy and left ventricular dysfunction)
Stable patients should be maintained on ACE inhibitors (e.g. Captopril, enalapril, Zestril) on
long term. The doses are adjusted according to BP
Diuretics are given in some patients as adjunctive therapy when left ventricular ejection
fraction is < 40%
Long acting Beta blockers have proven efficacy in patient with chronic heart failure. The drug
used nowadays is Carvidalol 0.1 mg/kg/dose q12hr. increase slowly and monthly by 0.1
mg/kg/dose to maximum dose of 6.25 mg q12h
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Treatment of heart failure in children. Current Paediatrics. 2005. 15, 539-548

Pediatric Cardiology. Robort Anderson. Second edition, 2002.
Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care. Anthony Chang 1999
The Harriet Lane Handbook 2002
Shock
Shock results from inadequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to meet tissue
metabolic demands.
Clinical picture:
A. Compensated shock
Tachycardia
Cool extremities
Prolonged capillary refill (despite warm ambient temperature)
Weak peripheral pulses compared with central pulses
Normal blood pressure
B. Decompensated shock (inadequate end-organ perfusion)
- Signs of compensated shock and :
Depressed mental status
Decreased urine output
Metabolic acidosis
Tachypnea
Weak central pulses and undetectable peripheral pulses
Hypotension: a systolic blood pressure < 5th percentile of normal for age:
<60 mm Hg in term neonates.
<70 mm Hg in infants
<70 mm Hg + (2 x age in yrs) in children 1 to 10 years
<90 mm Hg in children >10 years of age.
C. Irreversible shock
Types of shock:
1. Hypovolemic: results from intravascular volume loss, hemorrhage and interstitial loss.
(e.g.Gastroenteritis, burns, GI bleeding, sepsis and intestinal obstruction)
2. Distributive: due to vasodilation, resulting in a relative hypovolemia. (e.g. Anaphylaxis,
spinal shock and Sepsis).
3. Cardiogenic: due to impairment of cardiac contractility (e.g. Congestive heart failure,
cardiomyopathy, sepsis).
4. Septic: Sepsis can lead to systemic vasodilation, intravascular fluid leak into tissue third
spaces and depress myocardial function. Mainly caused by Gram-negative bacteria
(endotoxic shock).
5. Obstructive: (e.g. coarctation of the aorta and
severe valvular stenosis).
Investigations:
CBC, electrolytes, HCO3, renal and liver function test, blood culture, ABG.
Chest X-R: May help delineate cardiogenic from hypovolemic shock (Fig.1)
Fig. 1 Chest X-R with cardiomegaly
Management:
Ensure the ABCs and administer 100% supplemental oxygen

Secure 2 large-bore IV lines. If vascular access is not available insert IO
Intravenous fluids: Administer 20 mL/kg of 0.9% NS over 10-15 minutes. If no
improvement may repeat the cycle. If no response to fluids, colloid can be used (5%
albumin, or blood products).
In severe hypovolemia or sepsis more than 60 mL/kg of volume may be required in
the first hour of resuscitation. Consider central venous pressure (CVP).
If CVP < 10 mmHg, continue fluid therapy
CVP > 10 mmHg with poor perfusion, give vasoactive agents (see table).
Place urinary catheter and maintain urine output 1-2 ml/kg/h. Can use furosemide 1
mg/kg/dose IV after restoring intravascular volume.
If hypoglycemia; give IV dextrose 0.5-1 g/kg.
If the patient has refractory central hypotension or a cardiogenic shock Inotropic
agents must be employed (see table).
Acidosis usually is corrected with volume supplementation and optimal ventilation. In
persistent shock or severe acidosis (PH< 7.15 or HCO3 < 10 mEq/l) give NaHCO3 1
mEq/kg IV over 10-15 min (before correcting acidosis correct hypocalcemia and
assure adequate ventilation)
Initial coverage with empiric antibiotics is essential in critical patients.
Corticosteroid is debated. It is lifesaving in adrenal cortical insufficiency.
Medication
Dobutamine
Dopamine
Dose
2-20 g/kg/min IV/IO
2-20 g/kg/min IV/IO
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
0.1-2 g/kg/min*
* 0.6 x body weight (in kg) = mg of drug to add to 100 ml D5W
Comment
Inotrope; vasodilator
Inotrope; chronotrope, vasodilator in low
doses; pressor in higher doses
References:
1.
2.
3.
American Heart Association. Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support. Circulation. 2005; 112: IV.
Barkin R, Rosen P. Emergency Pediatrics A Guide to Ambulatory Care: fifth edition 1999.
Adam Schwarz. Shock: October 2004. http//www.emedicine.com
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a rapidly evolving multi-system allergic reaction characterized by symptoms
or signs of respiratory and/or cardiovascular involvement. Other systems may be involved
such as the skin and/or the gastrointestinal tract.
Etiology: Common causes of anaphylaxis in children include allergies to foods, medications,
insect stings and others.
Clinical features: Stridor, cough, chest tightness, wheezing, difficulty in swallowing,
tachycardia, shock, syncope, arrhythmia, flushing, urticaria, angioedema, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, diarrhea, unconsciousness.
Management:
Maintain ABCs and

administer O2
Stop allergen if known
Epinephrine (1:1000) 0.01 mg/kg (0.01 ml/kg) max 0.3 mg IM/SC q5-10 min.
IV volume expander: 0.9% NS 20 ml/kg repeat as necessary. Colloid can be given.
H1 blockers (Antihistamine):
- Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): 1 mg/kg up to 50 mg slowly IV/IM
OR
- Chlorpheniramine (Piriton): 0.2 mg/kg slowly IV/IM
H2 blockers Ranitidine 1 mg/kg diluted in 5%D over 5 minutes.
If patient in cardiac arrest or still in shock
Reminders
Epinephrine considered as 1st line
therapy to antihistamine
Combination of H1 and H2 blockers
is more effective than H1 blocker
alone
Corticosteroid is not helpful acutely
but might prevent recurrent or
protracted anaphylaxis
Patients should be continued on H1 and
H2 blockers for 24-48 hours after
resolution of symptoms.
A short course of oral steroids may be
warranted.
The patient should be observed for at
least 24 hours (Late phase or biphasic
reactions can occur 8-12 hrs after the
initial attack).
Refer to immunology/allergy specialist
Epinephrine (1:10,000) IV:

0.01g/kg (0.1 ml/kg) max 0.3 mg IV q5minutes
OR
If patient is still
0.1-1 g/kg/min IV infusion (table 1)
in shock, start
vasopressor
(Table 1).
Nebulized Salbutamol to reverse bronchospasm.

Dose: 0.03 ml/kg q20 minutes or continuously
Minimum 0.5 ml/dose, Maximum 1 ml/dose
Nebulized Epinephrine 1:1000 for laryngeal edema
2 - 2.5 ml < 1 year, 2.5 - 5 ml > 1 year
Hydrocortisone IV 5 mg/kg/dose q6h
Table 1.
Medication
Dopamine
Dose
2-20 g/kg/min IV/IO
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
0.1-2 g/kg/min*
Comment
Inotrope; chronotrope, vasodilator in low doses;
pressor in higher doses

* 0.6 x body weight (in kg) = mg of drug to add to 100 ml D5W
References:
1. The diagnosis and management of anaphylaxis, An updated practice parameter. J Allergy Clin
Immunol .2005; 115:S483-523. Established by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and
immunology (AAAAI) and the American College of Asthma and Immunology (ACAAI).
2. Understanding Anaphylaxis: Defining, Identifying and Treating Severe Allergic Reactions. Infectious
Disease In Childhood. April 2004.
3. Pediatrics, Anaphylaxis. Jeffrey F Linzer. February 2006 www. emedicine.
4. ASCIA 2004. ASCIA is the peak professional body of clinical immunologists and allergy specialists in
Australia and New Zealand.
Approach to a child with hypertension

Definitions:
Prehypertension: Systolic and/or diastolic BP levels 90th but < 95th
percentile
White-coat hypertension: BP > 95th percentile in a physicians office or clinic,
who is
normotensive outside a clinical setting
Hypertension: Systolic and/or diastolic BP 95% percentile on 3 occasions
Severe hypertension: BP > 99% for age, sex, and height percentile
- Hypertensive emergency: Severe HTN with
evidence of end organ damage
- Hypertensive urgency: Severe HTN without
evidence of end organ damage
Approach:
Ensure BP is truly elevated (exclude errors like cuff size, instrument,) follow
guidelines for proper BP measurement (refer to page 104)
Exclude reactive increase in BP (e.g. pain, emotions, time of the day)
How high blood pressure is ? (refer to BP norms page 107)
Follow the algorithm:
Check BP
Minimum 3 readings
BP > 99%
Refer to page 24
Hypertensive crises
guidelines
BP 90% to < 95%
Recheck BP / 3-6
months
NO medication
Dietary adjustment
Weight reduction (if obese)
Increase physical activity
BP 95% to 99%
White coat
hypertension
Refer to nephrologists
for 24 hr BP
monitoring
History related to cause or

effect
Physical examination
Basic investigations
Advanced investigations
(selected patients)
May refer to nephrologists
before starting treatment
History should include:

Pre-existing hypertension and renal diseases, presence of cardiac and neurological
symptoms, and medication history.
Physical Examination should include:
Assessment of the patients volume status (volume overload needs diuretics, volume
depletion stimulates rennin-angiotensin system)
Assessment of end organ involvement
- Fundus exam: Look for papilledema and hard exudates
- Cardiac exam: cardiomegaly, S3, S4, murmur
- Neurologic exam: for any deficit
Basic investigations should be done to all patients with HTN
CBC
BUN, Creatinine, electrolytes, Calcium
Urine analysis and culture
Renal U/S
ECG
DMSA before and after ACE inhibitors
Lipid profile
Fundoscopy by ophthalmologist
Advanced investigations done for selected patients (as indicated)
Plasma renin and aldosterone
Urine catecholamines
Thyroid function test, FSH (for polycystic ovary)
Renovascular imaging studies (U/S with Doppler, contrast tomography
angiography CTA, magnetic resonance angiography MRA, arterial
angiography)
Commonly used (per oral) antihypertensive drugs:
Captopril
Onset: within 15 min
Duration: dose related
Dose:
Initial 0.3 - 0.5 mg/kg/dose q6-12h
Max 6mg/kg/day
Amlodipine (Norvasc)
Duration 24 h
Dose: 0.05 mg 0.5
/k /d
Hydralazine
Onset: 30 min
Duration: 2-4 h
Dose: Initial 0.75 1
mg/kg/day q6-12h Max
7.5 mg/kg/day
Lisinopril (Zestril)
Onset: 1 hr
Duration: 24 h
Dose: start with 5mg/day PO
Max 20 mg /day
Nifedipine Extended Release (Adalat)
Duration: 24 h
Dose: start 0.25 mg/kg/day
Max 3mg/kg/day
Labetalol (Trandate)
Onset: 20 min to 2 h
Duration: 8-24 h
Dose: 4 mg/kg/day
Max 40 mg/kg/day
May refer to nephrologists:

When suspecting white coat hypertension
When hypertensive crises is suspected
BP is confirmed to be persistently high (> 95%) after the required
investigation
Hypertensive Crises
Definitions:
Severe hypertension: BP > 99% for age, sex, and height percentile
Hypertensive emergency
Severe HTN with evidence of end organ damage
Hypertensive urgency
Severe hypertension without evidence of end organ damage
*NB. Refer to BP norms in index (page 107-110)
Pictures of target (end) organ damage
CNS: Encephalopathy, seizures, facial palsy, hemiplegia
Visual: Blurred vision , diplopia, findings of retinopathy
CVS: LVH, CHF, chest pain
Renal: polyuria / polydipsia, acute renal failure
GI: abdomial pain, GI bleeding
Hematologic: microangiopathic hemolytic anemia
Management:
Distinguish between hypertensive emergency and hypertensive urgency

Take a quick history including pre-existing hypertension and renal diseases, presence
of cardiac and neurological symptoms, and medication history.
Physical Examination
o Proper BP measurement
o Assess the patients volume status (volume overload needs diuretics,
volume depletion stimulates rennin-angiotensin system)
o Assess end organ involvement
- Fundus exam: Look for papilledema and hard exudate
- Cardiac exam: cardiomegaly, S3, S4, murmur
- Neurologic exam: for any deficit
Investigations:
The Investigations at this stage is mainly to assess target organ damage:

CBC with blood film ( looking for schistocyte suggesting hemolysis)
Electrolyte, BUN, and creatinine ( look for renal impairment)
Chest X-ray (cardiomegaly and/or pulmonary edema)
ECG
Urine analysis ( look for proteinuria, hematuria, or cast), urine c/s
Whenever possible obtain renal U/S, cardiac Echo, head CT scan if signs of
encephalopathy present
Hypertensive emergency
Take a quick history and Physical examination

Admit to ICU
Monitor BP (Preferably arterial line)
Place the patient on cardiac monitor
Draw blood for CBC, electrolytes, RFT
CXR & ECG
Start IV medication:
The goal for BP reduction is to achieve, controlled reduction in BP to

minimize the risk of hypoperfusion in cerebral, coronary, and
renovascular beds
Controlled reduction = Rate of reduction
Faster reduction rate (within
1/3 of total amount to be reduced over 6 hrs
minutes) would be recommended
Further 1/3 over 24 -36 hrs
in cases of pulmonary edema and
Final 1/3 over 48-72 hr
dissecting aorta
There are no absolute recommendations regarding which agent to use.

Use the one you are familiar with and most comfortable using.
Use agent with short half-life.
Treatment with constant infusion gives steadier, more controlled, and
dependable response.
Sodium Nitroprusside
Labetolol
Onset of action: 2-5 min
Duration: 2-4 hr
Starting dose: 0.4 1 mg/kg/hr, followed by
continuous infusion: 0.25 3.0 mg/kg/hour
OR
-bolus: 0.21.0 mg/kg/dose ( Max: 20 mg/dose)
repeat q10 min if necessary
Contraindicated in asthma, uncompensated
CHF, pulmonary edema
Recommended for HTN with high ICP
Onset of action: seconds to 2 min

Duration: 1-10 min
Starting dose: 0.3 0.5 g/kg/min (titrate dose to
get the desired effect)
Usual Maintenance dose: 3 - 4 g/kg/min
Maximum dose : 10 g/kg/min
Contraindicated in coarctation of aorta, AV shunt
Monitor Thiocyanate level if > 72 h use, high dose
> 4mcg/kg/min, or renal failure
Monitor cyanide level in pt with hepatic
dysfunction
Hydralazine
Onset: (of IV) 5-20 min

Duration: (of IV) 2-6 hrs
Bolus doses only
starting dose: 0.1-0.2 mg/kg/dose IV
(Max 20 mg/dose) Q 4 -6hr
Maximum dose: 1.7 3.5 mg/kg/day
Hypertensive urgency
Admit to the general ward

Take history & physical examination
IV access NOT needed
Blood for : CBC, electrolyte, RFT
Urine analysis
CXR
The goal is to reduce BP over
ECG
longer period (days not
Start Oral medication:
hours)
Captopril
Initial dose: 0.3-0.5 mg/kg/dose q6-12

Maximum: 6 mg/kg/day
If a maximum dose reached and the blood pressure still high
add a calcium channel blocker:
Amlodepine (Norvasc)
Starting Dose: (child) 0.1 mg/kg/dose PO QD-BID
may increase to maximum 0.6 mg/kg/day up to 20 mg/day
If BP still high add:
Hydralazine
Starting dose: 0.75-1 mg/kg/day q6-12hours

Increase over 3-4 weeks to
a maximum dose: 7.5mg/kg/day
Other oral antihypertensive drugs

Propranolol : 1-2 mg/kg/day q6-12h maximum 8 mg/kg/day
( best for pheochromocytoma)
Nifedipine (can be used if Amlodepine not available):
Initial dose: 0.25-0.5 mg/kg/day qd-bid PO
Maximum: 3 mg/kg/day up to 180 mg/day
(Sublingual is not recommended)
References:
123456789-
Clinical Pediatric Nephrology 3ed edition

Pediatric Dosage Handbook 10th edition
Advances in the Pathogenesis and Management of Hypertensive Crisis Current opinion in pediatric
2005 Apr, 17:210-214
Management of Hypertensive Emergencies. Pediatric hypertension. 2004;457-469
Hypertensive Crises: Diagnosis and Management in the Emergency Room Eur Rev Med pharmacol
sci. 2004 Jul-Aug; 8(4):143-52
Nicardipine versus Nitroprusside Infusion as Antihypertensive Therapy in Hypertensive Emergencies
J Int Med Res.2004 Mar-Apr;32(2):118-23
Hypertensive Emergencies: Etiology and Management. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2003;3(1):21-31
Evaluation of the Effect of Sublingually Administered Nifedipine and Captopril via Transcranial
Doppler Ultrasonography During Hypertensive Crises. Blood press. 2003;12(1):46-8
Selected excerpts from The Fourth Report on the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of High
Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents, Pediatrics, Vol. 114, No. 2, August 2004
Status Epilepticus
Definition:
An episode of continuous seizure or, intermittent seizures (without recovery of consciousness)
lasting for > 30 minutes. May be convulsive or non-convulsive, partial or generalized.
Etiology:
Majority of patients with status epilepticus are not known to be epileptics.
30-50% are complications of an acute CNS insult (CNS infection, glucose or
electrolytes disturbance) especially in young children.
Management:
A. Resuscitation and stabilization
Check ABCs and continue monitoring
Clear airway and suction, insert an airway
keep on lateral prone position to prevent aspiration.
NG tube insertion to decompress and empty stomach.
100% O2 by face mask .
IV/IO access and collect blood (CBC , BGA , glucose, electrolytes including Ca, Mg,
phosphorus, liver and renal profile , septic workup , anticonvulsant level, toxicology
screen).
If hypoglycemic give 2 ml/kg of 10% dextrose
If hypotensive with poor peripheral perfusion treat as in shock
If patient is shocked or cyanosed with dilated pupils at any stage of management or
has been convulsing an hour or more , go straight to stage IV.
B. Anticonvulsants
Stage I
Lorazepam: 0.05 0.1 mg/kg IV (maximum 4mg)

OR Diazepam: 0.3 mg/kg IV (maximum 10mg)
undiluted over 2 minutes.
If IV access could not be established give
Diazepam rectal 0.5 mg/kg
OR Midazolam IM 0.2 mg/kg.
If seizure does not stop

within 5 10 minutes
Go to stage II
Page 29
If seizure stops adjust previous antiepileptic medications

or start oral anticonvulsants (the
decision depends on the likelihood
for seizure recurrence).
Stage II
Lorazepam: 0.05 0.1 mg/kg IV (maximum 4mg)
OR Diazepam: 0.3 mg/kg IV (maximum 10mg) undiluted over 2 minutes.
and start:
Phenytoin: 15-20 mg/kg (maximum dose 1000 mg) IV infusion
rate 1mg/kg/min under ECG monitor.
Prepare infusion as 10 mg phenyton/ml NS
OR Fosphenytoin: 20 mg/kg IV infusion ( rate 3mg/kg/min)
Consider Pyridoxine (100 mg IV) for child < 2 years of age.
Start 20% Mannitol 5ml/kg over 20 minutes.
If still convulsing 10 minutes after starting Phenyton; may give
3rd dose of Diazepam
If there is response; continue
Phenytoin 5mg/kg/day q12h
Follow blood level
If no response 5 minutes after
the end of Phenytoin infusion
Stage III
Phenobarbitone loading dose 15-20 mg/kg IV , slowly over 10 minutes. Be prepared for ventilation and intubation
if there is response continue
maintenance Phenobarb 5
mg/kg/day Q12 hours
If no response in 5 10 minutes after the end

of infusion
or seizure already > 60 minutes
or unstable vital signs
Stage IV (ICU care)
Intubation + ventilation muscle relaxant (use short acting muscle relaxant in repeated doses) to monitor
seizure when EEG monitoring is not available
Midazolam: 0.2 mg/kg IV bolus

Then infusion 0.05 mg/kg/hour
up to 0.5 mg/kg/h
(during infusion maintain phenytoin
and phenobarbitone at high
therapeutic level
If seizure is not controlled in 1-2
hours induce barbiturate coma
OR
Barbiturate coma
Thiopentone 30 mg/kg/h till seizure
stops then reduce infusion to 5 mg/kg/h
(increase up to 20 mg/kg/h when needed,
titrating for best control).
OR
Phenobarb 10 mg/kg every h, till
control (up to 120 mg/kg/day)
Monitor for BP, Hypoglycemia electrolytes imbalance, hypocalcaemia, acidosis consumptive coagulopathy
( PT, APTT) and hyperpyrexia.
Restrict fluid to 60% maintenance (unless low BP) and continue treatment for brain edema with Mannitol
q6h Dexamethasone (with IV Cimetidine )
After stabilization consider CT scan and work up for possible causes
Treat for CNS infection if indicated (LP after brain CT scan )
References :
1.
Usama Hanhan , Mariano, James Orloski . Status Epilepticus. Pediatric clinics of North America; 2001
June; 48(3): 683-694.
2. Eugene Ramsay R. Treatment of Status Epilepticus; Epilepsia 1993; 34 (suppl-1): S71-S81.
3. Browne TR. The Pharmacokinetic of agents used to treat status epilepticus. Neurology 1990;40 (supp-2):
S28-S32.
4. Gross-Tsur V, Shinner S. Convulsive Status epilepticus in children. Epilepsia 1993;34(suppl-1): S12-S20.
5. Brown JK, Hussain IH. Status Epilepticus: Treatment Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 1991;
33: 97 109.
6. Shorvon S. Tonic clonic status epilepticus. J Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry; 1993 , 56 : 125
134.
7. Treiman DM.The role of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus. Neurology 1990; 40
(suppl-2):S32 42S.
8. Appleton R, Sweeney A, Robson J, Molyneux E. Lorazepam versus Diazepam in the treatment of
epileptic seizures and status epilepticus. Developmentsl medicine & Child Neurology , 1995 ; 37 : 682688.
9. pellock JM. Use off Medazolam for refractory status epilepticus . J child Neurology 1998; 13 : 581-587.
10. Knapp LE, Kugler AR. Clinical experience with Fosphenyton in adults: pharmacokinetice safety , and
efficacy . J Child Neurology 1998; 13 (suppl-1): S15 S18.
11. Morton LD. Clinical experience with Fosphenyton in children .J Child Neurology 1998 ; 13 (suppl-1):
S19 S222.
Guidelines in the Management of Acute Bronchial Asthma
Patient in Emergency room

Asses the severity of acute asthma
attack
(see table-Gina Guidelines page 33)
O2 to keep SaO2 > 92%

Salbutamol neb 0.03 ml/kg
Minimum 0.5 ml/dose
m Maximum 1 ml/dose
Severe
(refer to page 32)
Reassess
after 20 min
(Good response)
Mild
Home on
B2 agonist q4-6 hr
Prednisolone 1-2 mg/kg/day
single dose x 3 days PO
maximum 40mg/day
If already on inhaled steroids,
double the dose for 1-2 wks
F/U OPD
(Partial response)
Moderate
Steroids
Prednisolone 1-2mg/kg PO
OR
Hydrocortisone 5mg/kg/dose q6h IV
OR
Methyl prednisolone IV 0.5-1 mg/kg/dose q6h
Nebulized salbutamol back to back
x 3 doses/20 min. Then space out gradually
according to response
Reassess
improved
Follow mild asthma

pathway
No improvement
Follow severe asthma

pathway
Severe asthma
Admit to hospital
Cardiorespiratory monitor
O2 to maintain SaO2 >92%
Nebulized salbutamol back to back
0.03 ml/kg
Minimum 0.5 ml/dose
m Maximum 1 ml/dose
Nebulized Ipratropium bromide
1-2 ml/20 min x 3 doses (1ml : 250 g)
Steroid IV
Hydrocortisone 5mg/kg/dose q6h
OR
Methyl prednisolone 0.5-1 mg/kg/dose q6h
Reassess
Good response
Gradual spacing of salbutamol
Patient improved
Discharge
F/U by respirologist
High risk patients:
Previous ICU admission
Need for systemic steroids
High dose inhaled steroids
Multiple asthma medications
Poor response
ICU
O2 to maintain SaO2 >92%
Continuous salbutamol nebulization
IV steroids
IV salbutamol
Stat dose: 10 g/kg over 10 min.
Maintenance: 0.2 0.4 g/kg/min
Then increase by 0.1 g/kg/15 min. to
a maximum of 10 g/kg/min.
May consider:
- Aminophylline
Loading: 5 mg/kg/dose
Maintenance: 1 mg/kg/hr
- Magnesium sulphate
50 mg/kg over 30 60 min. infusion
maximum dose 2 g
Severity of Asthma Attacks

Parameter
Breathless
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Respiratort
arrest
imminent
Talks in
Walking
Can lie down
Sentences
Phrases
Words
Alertness
May be agitated
Usually agitated
Usually agitated
Drowsy or
Confused
Respiratory rate
Increased
Increased
Often > 30/min
Paradoxical
Accessory
muscles and
suprasternal
retractions
Usually not
Usually
Usually
Moderate, often
only end
expiratory
< 100
Normal test
Not usually
necessary
Loud
Usually loud
Paradoxical
thoracoabdominal
movement
Absence of
wheeze
100-120
>8
> 120
<8
possible
cyanosis
>6
possible
respiratory
failure
< 90%
< 60%
Wheeze
Pulse/min
PaO2 (on air )
And/or
PaCO2
< 6 Kpa
<6
SaO2 % (on air)

PEF
After initial
bronchodilator
% predicted or
% personal best
> 95%
> 80%
91-95%
Approximately
60-80%
Bradycardia
Guide to rates of breathing associated with respiratory distress in a wake child

Age
< 2 months
2-12 months
1-5 years
6-8 years
Normal rate
< 60/min
< 50/min
< 40/min
< 30/min
Guide to limits of normal pulse rate in children

Age
2-12 months
1-2 years
2-8 years
Normal rate
< 160/min
< 120/min
< 110/min
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert panel report 2: guidelines for the diagnosis
and management of asthma. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of health, April 1997; publication NO. 97
4051.
National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert report: guidelines for the diagnosis and
management of asthma. Bethesda, MD: National institute of health, 1991; NIH publication NO. 92
3042 on line (http: //www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdin.htm)
kendigs Disorders of Respiratory Tract in Children. By Victor, md. Chernick (Editor), Thomas F., Md
Boat ( Editor), Edwin L., Jr. Md., Kendig (Editor).
Pediatric Respiratory Medicine by Lynn M. Taussig (Editor), Louis I Landau (Editor) (Hardcover January 15, 1999)
Zorc JJ et al. Ipratropium bromide added to asthma treatment in the pediatric emergency department.
Pediatrics 1999 Apr;103(4 Pt 1):748-52.
Superiority of ipratropium plus albuterol over albuterol alone in the ED mgmt of adult asthma : a
randomized clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med 2/98;31:208-213.
Craven D et al. Ipratropium bromide plus nebulized albuterol for the treatment of hospitalized children
with acute asthma. J Pediatr 2001 Jan;138(1):51-58
Becker JM et al. Oral versus intravenous corticosteroids in children hospitalized with asthma. : J
Allergy Clin Immunol 1999 Apr;103(4):586-90.
Gries DM et al. A single dose of intramuscularly administered dexamethasone acetate is as effective as
oral prednisone to treat asthma exacerbations in young children. J Pediatr 2000 Mar;136:298-304 &
276-8.
Browne G, Penna A, Phung X, et al: Randomized trial of intravenous salbutamol in early management
of acute severe asthma in children. Lancet 1997; 349: 301305
Shan F: Dose of intravenous infusion of terbutaline and salbutamol. Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 2179
2180
Ciarallo L et al. Higher-dose intravenous magnesium therapy for children with moderate to severe
acute asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000 Oct;154(10):979-83
Rowe BH et al. Magnesium sulfate for treating exacerbations of acute asthma in the emergency
department. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(2):CD001490.
Yung M et al. Randomised controlled trial of aminophylline for severe acute asthma. Arch Dis Child
1998 Nov;79(5):405-10.
Foreign body aspiration

Can be a life threatening event. Aspirated object can lodge in the larynx or trachea.
If the object is large enough, it can cause complete obstruction and death.
Symptoms depend on the site, duration, size and type of foreign body.
Commonest age 1-3 years but can occur at any age
Signs of upper airway obstruction: Respiratory distress, coughing, stridor, hoarseness of
voice, wheezing, and cyanosis
Signs of lower airway obstruction: Cough, recurrent infections, asthma like symptoms not
responding to treatment, hemoptysis and bronchiectasis
Approach:
Suspected foreign body in the upper airway
patient should be assessed and stabilized in the resuscitation roon in the presence of
experienced personal in airway management
If the child has respiratory distress and is unable to speak or cry, complete airway
obstruction is likely present, and the likelihood of morbidity or mortality is high. In
those cases, a Heimlich maneuver may be used. If the child is able to speak, the
Heimlich maneuver would be contraindicated, as it might dislodge the material to an
area where it could cause complete airway obstruction.
Patient should be referred to a specialized center for rigid bronchoscopy (chest
hospital)
NB. If the patient is stable enough, CXR PA and lateral should be done
Suspected foreign body in the lower airway
Absence of history and/or normal CXR cannot exclude foreign body aspiration.
Check ABCs and stabilize the patient.
keep NPO and no chest physiotherapy.
May try bronchodilators.
If organic foreign body is suspected, start (hydrocortisone IV 5 mg/kg/dose) prior to
bronchoscopy.
CXR inspiratory/expiratory films in cooperative patients or right & left lateral
decubitus films.
CXR findings:
- normal lung fields (fig.1)
- unilateral hyperinflation (fig. 2)
- atelectasis
- foreign body (radio-opaque)
- if severe and chronic might show bronchiectatic changes.
Patient should be referred to a specialized center for rigid bronchoscopy (chest
hospital)
Fig. 1: Normal chest XR (inspiratory film )
Fig. 2: Expiratory film shows marked air trapping in right lung

with right-to-left mediastinal shift.
References:
1.
2.
3.
Bloom DC, Christenson TE, Manning SC, et al: Plastic laryngeal foreign bodies in children: a
diagnostic challenge. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2005 May; 69(5): 657-62.
CDC: Nonfatal choking-related episodes among children--United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal
Wkly Rep 2002 Oct 25; 51(42): 945-8.
Eren S, Balci AE, Dikici B, et al: Foreign body aspiration in children: experience of 1160 cases. Ann
Trop Paediatr 2003 Mar; 23(1): 31-7.
Laryngeotracheobronchitis (LTB) Croup
Consider other causes of upper airway obstruction (e.g. foreign body aspiration,
epiglotitis, tracheitis).
X-rays in the acute phase are rarely justified and may compromise the airway, with the
exception of a positive history of foreign body aspiration or in the face of poor response to
treatment.
Keep the child upright and comfortable. Minimise upsetting examinations or
procedures.
Severity scoring - Westley Modified Croup Score
Clinical feature
Stridor
Recession
Air entry
Cyanosis
Consciousness level
Degree
None
At rest on auscultation
At rest without auscultation
None
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Normal
Decreased
Severely decreased
None
With agitation
At rest
Normal
Altered
Score
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
0
4
5
0
5
Possible score 0-17

Mild < 4 , Moderate 4-6, Severe >6
Mild (< 4)
Moderate (4-6)
Reassurance
May worsen at
night
Advise to return if
worse
Dexamethasone
PO
Cardiorespirato
ry
monit
or.
Dexamethaso
Reassess in 2 hrs
Improved
Score < 4
Discharge
No improvement
Consider nebulized
adrenaline 1:1000
2.5 ml < 1 year
2.5 5 ml > 1 year
Improved
observe for 4 hrs if Score < 4 discharge
Severe (> 6)
Admit
Cardiorespiratory monitor
Adrenaline neb. 1:1000
Q1-4 hr
2.5 ml < 1 year
2.5-5 ml > 1 year
IV Dexamethasone
0.3 0.6 mg/kg/dose
Nebulized Budesonide
(Pulmicort) 2 mg
Consider ABG, ICU
Reference:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ausejo M, Saenz A, Pham B, Kellner JD, et al: The effectiveness of glucocorticoids in treating croup:
meta-analysis. BMJ 1999 Sep 4; 319(7210): 595-60.
Cressman WR, Myer CM 3rd: Diagnosis and management of croup Beckmann and epiglottitis. Pediatr
Clin North Am 1994 Apr; 41(2): 265-76.
Cruz MN, Stewart G, Rosenberg N: Use of dexamethasone in the outpatient management of acute
laryngotracheitis. Pediatrics 1995 Aug; 96(2 Pt 1): 220-3.
Geelhoed GC, Macdonald WB: Oral and inhaled steroids in croup: a randomized, placebo-controlled
trial. Pediatr Pulmonol 1995 Dec; 20(6): 355-61.
Geelhoed GC, Macdonald WB: Oral dexamethasone in the treatment of croup: 0.15 mg/kg versus 0.3
mg/kg versus 0.6 mg/kg. Pediatr Pulmonol 1995 Dec; 20(6): 362-8.
Griffin S, Ellis S, Fitzgerald-Barron A: Nebulised steroid in the treatment of croup: a systematic review
of randomised controlled trials. Br J Gen Pract 2000 Feb; 50(451): 135-41.
Hvizdos KM, Jarvis B: Budesonide inhalation suspension: a review of its use in infants, children and
adults with inflammatory respiratory disorders. Drugs 2000 Nov; 60(5): 1141-78.
Rehydration in gastroenteritis
Make sure you are familiar with the commonly used rehydration solutions:
Normal saline
0.45 NS 5% D
0.225 NS
4 % KCL
15 % KCL
8.4 % NaHCO3
Human plasma
WHO-ORS
Content
Na = 150 mmol/L
Cl = 150 mmol/L
Na = 75 mmol/L
Cl = 75 mmol/L
Glucose = 50 g/L
Na = 37 mmol/L
Cl = 37 mmol/L
K = 0.5 mmol/ml
K = 2 mmol/ml
HCO3 = 1 mmol/ml
Na = 1 mmol/ml
Na = 145 mmol/L
K = 4.5 mmol/L
Na = 90 mmol/L
K = 20 mmol/L
Citrate = 30 mmol/L
Glucose = 110 mmol/L
Osmolality
300 mOsmol/kg
428 mOsmol/kg
290 mOsmol/kg
320 mOsmol/kg
NB:
1. Carbonated drinks and apple juice should NOT be used for rehydration (they contain
no sodium and have 10-12% sugar concentration).
2. The type of rehydrating solution is chosen according to its Sodium content.
Principles:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Correction of hypovolemia or shock.

Replacement of deficit.
Provision of maintenance.
Allowance for ongoing losses (if any).
Attention to the sodium status.
1. Hypovolemia or shock
20 ml/kg NS over 30 60 minutes (for adolescents start with 10 ml/kg)

can be repeated if no response.
2. Deficit Replacement
1) Volume (depends on degree of dehydration)
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Younger children
50 ml/kg
75 ml/kg
100 ml/kg
Older children
30 ml/kg
50 60 ml/kg
70 90 ml/kg
2) Sodium content ( depend on sodium losses)

Status
Isonatraemia (acute)
Isonatraemia (chronic)
Hyponatremia
Hypernatraemia
Approximate Na loss
100 mmol/L
70 80 mmol/L
120 mmol/L
40 60 mmol/L
Apart from hypernatremia:

The sodium content of a rehydrating solution for deficit replacement is 80 100 mmol/L
3. Maintenance Requirements
a) Volume:
For water or calories
Weight
Birth 10 kg
11 20 kg
21 30 kg
Water (or calorie) requirement

100/kg
1000 + 50 /kg above 10
1500 + 20 /kg above 20
b) Sodium: 2-4 mmol/kg/day

c) Potassium: 2-3 mmol/kg/day
4. Ongoing losses
Practical :
If IV hydration is considered, you can successfully rehydrate most children with these
solutions:
- Normal Saline
(150 mmol Na/L)
- 0.45 NS in D5% (75 mmol Na/L)
and add 4 % KCL
(0.5 mmol/ml)
You start with 20 ml NS in any child with more than moderate dehydration, discount them
from the deficit.
You can then give:
Portion 1: deficit + 1/3 maintenance 6 8 hours
Portion 2: deficit + 2/3 maintenance 16 hours
Notice that:
Na content in deficit fluid: 80 120 mmol/L
Na content in maintenance fluid: 30 mmol/L
They are mixed in portion 1 and portion 2
Hence one solution is satisfactory
0.45 NS = 75 mmol/L
Potassium:
To each litre:
add 20 30 mmol K = 40 60 ml 4% KCl
OR To each 500 ml: add 10 15 mmol K = 20 30 ml 4% KCl
maximum potassium concentration
in peripheral IV = 40 mmol/L (20 mmol/pint = 40 ml 4% KCl)
in central IV = up to 80 mmol/L (40 mmol/pint = 80 ml 4% KCl)
Example :
A 12 months old child with GE is admitted with severe dehydration. His weight was 10 kg.
Total fluid needed:
Deficit = 10 x 100 = 1000 ml
Maintenance = 10 x 100 = 1000 ml
Step 1:
IV 0.9%NS 200 ml over 60 minutes
Step 2:
IV 0.45 NS in 5% D 500 ml + 4% KCl 25 ml
- Volume: 700 ml
-Duration: 7 hrs
This provided: the remaining deficit (400) + 1/3 of the maintenance (300) = 700 ml
Step 3:
IV 0.45 NS in 5% D 500 ml + 4% KCl 25 ml
-Rate: 60 ml/h -Duration: 16 hrs -Volume: 1000 ml (approx.)
This provided the remaining deficit + 2/3 of the maintenance
Hyponatraemic dehydration
Serum Sodium < 130 mmol/L
1. Asymptomatic hyponatraemia
In the previous example
Step 1: IV 0.9%NS 200 ml over 60 minutes (same as in isonatraemia)
Step 2: IV 0.45 NS in 5% D 500 ml + 25 ml 4%KCl (Rate/duration as in isonatremia)
Step 3: IV 0.45 NS in 5% D 500 ml + 4% KCl 25 ml (Rate/duration as in isonatremia)
2. Symptomatic hyponatraemia
- Critical care
- Consider 3% saline 5 ml/kg over 10 15 minutes
- Call your senior for possible repeat
- Then proceed as in hyponatraemia
This situation is exceedingly rare in GE; consider other diagnosis e.g. congenital adrenal
hyperplasia, severe brain insult, etc.
Hypernatraemic dehydration
Serum Sodium 150 mmol/L
In the previous example:
1. Step 1 (shock): 200 ml 0.9%NS IV over 1 hour
2. Step 2: Remaining deficit 800 ml + Maintenance of 2 days (1000 ml x 2) = 2800 ml
Give uniformly over 48 hrs
Solution: 0.45 NS in 5 %D 500 ml + 25 ml KCl for each bottle
3. Avoid: Rapid infusion and hypotonic solutions.
General guidelines
1. better under hydrate than over hydrate
- Do not exceed 100 ml/kg for deficit replacement
- Loss usually occurs over days and rehydration over hours. This process is
not physiological
2. care for the kidney and she will care for minor miscalculations. This is by providing 20
ml NS/kg in case of hypovolemia
3. the total fluid volume should rarely exceed 200 ml/kg/day in infants, and be lower than 175
in toddlers.
4. an acute stormy onset, especially with prominent vomiting is a reason for concern
- is it really GE?
- Shock is early
- Sodium losses are severe
5. an overweight infant is misleading
signs of dehydration are late and can be missed
they may be already in shock when recognized
hypernatraemia is a risk
6. an underweight infant
has poor tolerance to the usual calculations
needs calories more than water and sodium
signs of dehydration are exaggerated
7. a drowsy child with GE is critical
associated CNS infection
Brain oedema (hyponatraemia)
Brain dehydration (hypernatraemia)
8. abdominal distension with GE is always abnormal (expected to have scaphoid abdomen)
perforated appendix
intussusception
septicaemia, late NEC
hypokalaemia
9. revisits are mandatory specially during the first few hours
10. is it really GE ? is always a wise question to ask yourself, before a surgeon does!
Management of electrolytes disturbances

1. Hyperkalemia
Definition: serum potassium > 5.5 mmol/L (child).
> 6.5 mmol/L (infant)
Etiology:
Acidosis, hemolysis, Renal failure, Tumor lysis syndrome, Addison disease, Obstructive
uropathy,
Adrenogenital syndrome, Hypoaldosteronism, spironolactone, Digitalis
intoxication, Rhabdomyolysis, hemolyzed sample.
ECG changes:
Tall T wave.
Long PR interval, wide QRS,
Absent P wave, sinusoidal wave.
Fig.1 Tall T wave
Fig.2 Sinusoidal wave
Management:
Ensure sample not hemolyzed.

Stop all exogenous potassium (IV ,oral ,drugs ,blood product transfusion)
Cardiac monitor.
Serum K > 7 mEq/L OR any hyperkalemia with ECG changes
1. Calcium (cardioprotective) with ECG monitoring
Calcium gluconate 10% 0.5-1 ml/kg/dose IV over 5-10 min.
OR
Calcium chloride 10% 0.2 ml/kg/dose IV over 5-10 min.
- Can be repeated up to 4 times or until serum calcium increases or
ECG normalizes.
- Its effect lasts about 30 minutes.
2. NaHCO3 1-2 mmol/kg/dose IV over 30 min. q 2-4 hr. Do not mix
with calcium in same IV line (results in precipitation)
3. Glucose 1 g/kg IV +/ insulin 0.1 unit/kg IV over 30 min.
May repeat in 30-60 min.
4. Ca resonium 1 g/kg/dose q 4-6 hr PO/PR
5. Salbutamol nebulization.
6. Consider dialysis if above measures unsuccessful.
2. Hypokalemia
Definition: serum potassium less than 3.5 mmol/L
Etiology: vomiting, diarrhea, metabolic alkalosis, Barter syndrome, mineralocorticoid excess,
prolonged use of corticosteroid, loop diuretics, laxatives, beta2 adrenergic agent, insulin,
distal renal tubular acidosis, recovery phase of DKA, polyuric acute renal failure.
Clinical features: weaknesss, hyporeflexia, paresthesia, polyuria, polydypsia, ileus.
ECG changes: prolonged QT interval, ST segment depression, flat T wave, U wave,
dysrrhythmia.
Management:
Oral potassium 2-4 mmol/kg/d in divided doses (for mild asymptomatic

hypokalemia)
OR
Potassium IV (infusion) not to exceed 0.3-0.4 mmol/kg/h

Maximum IV (infusion) rate = 0.5 mmol/kg/h can be given under ECG
monitoring.
*maximum potassium concentration
in peripheral IV = 40 mmol/L (20 mmol/pint)
in central IV = up to 80 mmol/L (40 mmol/pint)
3. Hyponatremia
Definition: Serum sodium concentration of less than 130 mmol/L
Etiology:
1. low sodium intake (infants fed with hypotonic formula)
2. Excessive loss of sodium (Renal loss: renal failure, adrenal insufficiency, diuretics)
(Extrarenal losses: G.I. loss, skin loss, third space)
3. Excessive water retention (SIADH, nephrotic syndrome, congestive heart failure)
4. Pseudohyponatremia.
Clinical picture: Symptoms usually appear when serum sodium < 125 mmol/L. Muscle
cramps, weakness, headache, anorexia, emesis, seizures, coma and death.
Management: Sodium deficit = Weight in kg x 0.6 x (desired Na actual Na)

Symptomatic hyponatremia (seizures)
o
3% sodium chloride IV at a rate of 5 ml/kg over 10-20 min. Following

resolution of symptoms, correction can proceed at a slower rate (deficit
over 16 hours to raise serum sodium to 125mmol/L).
OR
o correct serum sodium to 125 mmol/L over 0.5-4 hr. Then raise serum
sodium to 135 meq/L over subsequent 24h.
Asymptomatic hyponatremia (no seizures)

o In hypovolemic hyponatremia, correct 50% of deficit over first 8 hr and
remainder over next 16 hr. Use 0.9% or 0.45% saline for replacement and
maintenance therapy.
o In normovolemic hyponatremia, restrict fluids (two-thirds maintenance).
o In hypervolemic hyponatremia, restrict fluids (two-thirds maintenance). Can use
diuretics (furosemide 1-2mg/kg q6-12hr).
Rapid correction in compensated chronic hyponatremia results in central pontine
myelinosis. However, rapid correction in acute hyponatremia is well tolerated.
1 mL of 3% sodium chloride = 0.5 mmol Na/L.
1 mL/kg of 3% sodium chloride raises the serum sodium by 1.6 mmol/L.
4. Hypernatremia
Definition: serum sodium > 150 mmol/L
Etiology:
1. Decreased total body water (diarrhea, diabetes insipidus, increased insensible
water loss).
2. Excess total body sodium (salt poisoning, primary hyperaldosteronism, cushings
syndrome).
Clinical presentation: Lethargy alternating with irritability, high pitched cry, tremors, ataxia,
seizures, altered mental status, hypertonia, fever, doughy skin.
Management:
Rapid correction can cause cerebral edema.

Restore circulating volume and urinary output as priority.
Give fluid deficit and maintenance of 2 days over 48 hours.
Fluid to be used should be 0.45% NS. With altered mental status or seizures, higher
sodium concentration may be needed.
If sodium fall is too rapid; increase the sodium concentration in the fluid.
Recommended rate of correction is 0.5 mmol/L/h.
If the serum sodium concentration is more than 200 mmol/L, peritoneal dialysis
should be done using a high glucose, low sodium dialysate.
5. Hypocalcemia
Definition:
Serum calcium < 2 mmol/L
albumin (g/L)
Adjusted Ca (mmol/L) = [Ca (mmol/L) ] + 1
40
Clinical presentation:
Lethargy, poor feeding, vomiting, abdominal distension, twitching, tetany, seizures,
apnea, stridor, laryngospasm.
ECG changes:
Prolonged Q-Tc interval. (normal < 0.45 sec)
Q-Tc =
measured Q-T interval
R-R interval
Management:
Asymptomatic hypocalcemia
100 mg/kg/d elemental calcium PO divided q6-8h.
Symptomatic hypocalcemia (seizures, laryngospasm, cardiac dysrhythmia, muscle

spasm/cramps)
10% Calcium gluconate 0.5-1.0 ml/kg/IV (diluted) over 5-10 min
followed by:
- 10% Calcium gluconate 1-2 ml/kg/dose q4-6hr bolus infusion
diluted to 2% (mix 10 ml of 10% calcium gluconate in 40 ml NS to
obtain 2% solution)
OR
- continuous IV infusion 5 8 ml/kg/day of 10% calcium gluconate
diluted to 2%
All patients on IV calcium should be on cardiac monitor.

Integrity of the intravenous site should be ascertained before administering calcium
through a peripheral vein.
Adjust infusion rate q4h based on plasma Ca level. Reduce infusion rate slowly once
desired level reached then start oral calcium.
Monitor IV site for extravasation burns and venous thrombosis.
Correct hypomagnesemia (Mg < 0.6 mmol/l) because hypocalcemia does not respond
until magnesium level is corrected.
- Magnesium sulfate 50% 0.2 ml/kg/dose IM/IV slowly.
Consider starting vitamin D
Alfacalcidol (One-Alpha drops): 0.05 g/kg/day (one drop provides 0.1 g)
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Barkin R, Rosen P. Emergency Pediatrics A Guide to Ambulatory Care: fifth edition 1999.
Crain E, Gershel J, Gallager E. Clinical Manual of Emergency Pediatrics: forth edition 2002.
Shefler A. The HSC Handbook of Pediatrics: ninth edition 1997.
Behrman R. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics: fourth edition 1992.
Jarvis D, Greenway K, Venturelli J. Pediatric Advanced Life Support: fifth edition.
Harry E, Zimmerman J. Hyperkalemia. March 2005. www.emedicine.com.
Verive M, Jaimovich D. Hypokalemia. August 2004. www.emedicine.com.
Vellaichamy M. Hyponatremia. January 2003. www.emedicine.com.
Vellaichamy M. Hypernatremia. January 2003. www.emedicine.com.
Singhal A, Campbell D. Hypocalcemia. October 2002. www.emedicine.com.
M. William, L. Brown, B. Clark. Clinical Handbook of Pediatrics.
Colin R, Abraham R, Margaret H, George E, Norman S. Rudolphs Pediatrics. Twenty first edition.
Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children

Definition:
Hyperglycemia ( Blood Glucose > 11.1mmol/L)
PH < 7.3 and / or bicarbonate < 15 mmol/L and
Heavy glycosuria and Ketonuria and who are 5 % or more dehydrated vomiting
drowsy.
Emergency assessment: Confirm the diagnosis
History of polyuria, polydepsia, weight loss, vomiting and abdominal pain.
Biochemical confirmation
Glycosuria.
Ketonuria
Blood Glucose (BG)
Blood gas analysis (BGA)/ bicarbonate
Clinical assessment:
Assessment of Conscious level
Severity of Dehydration:
3% just detectable
5% dry mucous membranes
10% capillary return 3 seconds or more, sunken eyes.
10 % + shock, poor peripheral pulses
Signs of Shock and poor perfusion.
Evidence of Acidosis and hyperventilation.
Immediate investigation:
Weigh the child.
Capillary blood glucose ( by finger prick)
Venous blood glucose, bicarbonate, electrolyte and urea.
Capillary, venous or arterial blood gases.
Height measurement to calculate body surface area
m2 =
Ht (cm) x wt (kg)
3600
Clinical observations and monitoring:

Careful frequent clinical and laboratory to detect warning signs of
complications is of paramount importance.
Hourly pulse rate, respiratory rate, BP.

Hourly or more frequent neurological observations including GCS.
Flow sheets: metabolic, fluid intake and output, fluid type, dose and exact time of
insulin administration.
Hourly capillary BG ( cross-check every 2 or 4 hours against venous glucose until

acidosis is corrected.
Venous bicarbonate & electrolytes every 2 hours after start of therapy then 4 hourly
until acidosis reversed.
Check for K+ hourly if abnormal ( < 3 or >6) an ECG monitoring is recommended.
Treatment during the first 24-48 hours in hospital:
Nil by mouth until acidosis is resolved.

ICU care if severe metabolic derangement ( PH < 7.1)
hyperventilation, in shock, depressed level of consciousness,
persistent vomiting, and in young children ( <5 years).
Resuscitation:
In shock with poor peripheral pulses, or coma:
Oxygen 100% by face mask.
Normal Saline 0.9% 10 ml/kg BW over 20 60 minutes ( should be repeated if
peripheral pulses remain poor. )
Vomiting / impaired consciousness insert nasogastric tube to drain stomach.
Rehydration and insulin management:
A. Fluids:
Calculate total amount of fluid ( deficit + 48 h maintenance).

Replace this volume evenly over 48 h as normal saline 0.9% initially
Subtract the resuscitation dose from the deficit.
Maximum volume of fluids: 4000ml/M2/d.
Total free water deficit:
Infant
Children
Mild:
5% = 50cc/kg
3% = 30 cc/kg
Moderate:
10% = 100cc/kg
6% = 60 cc/kg
Severe:
15% = 150cc/kg
9% = 90 cc/kg
Maintenance fluid requirements for the 48 hours ( full 2 days):

200cc/kg for the first 10 kg body weight ( BW).
+ 100 cc/kg for the next 10 kg BW.
+ 40 cc/kg for the rest of BW.
When the blood glucose falls to 12- 15 mmol/L add dextrose, the most recommended
saline 0.45% with 5% glucose.
B. Sodium & Osmolality:
Corrected Na for glucose: measured = Na +
2 x (BG 5.5)
5.5
( for practical use; for each 10mmol rise in BG, there is drop of 3 mmol in Na)
A fall in serum sodium has been noted as one of the few
laboratory correlation of impending cerebral edema.
If corrected serum sodium falls below 135mmol/L., reassess the fluid replacement
calculations, consider increasing the concentration of sodium and observe with
vigilance.
An initial serum sodium > 150 mmol/l might prompt even slower rehydration rate than
48 hours.
Serum osmolality should not be lowered by more than 2 3 Osm/kg/hour.
Serum osmolality ( mOsm) = 2 x ( Na + K ) + BG ( mmol).
C: Potassium:
Patient not urinating: add no K+

K + > 6.0mmol/L add no K+
5.0 6.0 mmol/L add 20mmol/L
(1ml of 15% KCI = 2meq)
3.5 5 mmol/L add 30 mmol/L
< 3.5 mmol/L add 40mmol/L
Consider central venous line to give K+ > 40mmol/L. Maximum safe rate of K
supplement 0.5 mmol/kg/hour.
D: Bicarbonate:
There is no evidence that BICARBONATE is either necessary or safe in DKA.
BICARBONATE should NOT be used in the initial resuscitation
E: Insulin
Insulin should not be started until shock has been successfully reversed by emergency
resuscitation and saline/potassium regimen has begun.
Recommended dose of insulin 0.1 unit/kg per hour by separate drip infusion
(0.05u/kg/hour for younger patients, less than 2 years).
No initial bolus of insulin.
A solution of soluble insulin 5 units/kg in 250 ml NS (infusion rate 5 ml/h = 0.1 u/kg/h
) OR solution of 10 u insulin in 100 ml NS = 1 u/10 ml.
The rate of insulin infusion is adjusted to maintain a fall of 5mmol/L/h ( the rate of fall
in first 2 hours may exceed this due to rehydration).
When BG falls to 12 15 mmol/L change to Dextrose Saline infusion ( as above) to
maintain BG in the desired range of 8 12 mmol/L.
If BG rises above 15 mmol/L, increase the insulin infusion by 25%
If BG falls to < 8mmol/L or falls too rapidly, increase the concentration of Dextrose to
10% ( or more ) .
Do not stop insulin or decrease below 0.05 units/kg/h until acidosis is corrected.
What to do in persistent acidosis?

Persistent acidosis is likely to be caused by inadequate resuscitation, inadequate insulin effect
or sepsis.
In presence of ongoing acidosis (with normalization of blood glucose) the amount
of glucose should be adjusted in the infusion to maintain BG between 8 12
mmol/L, by adding 7.5% or 10% dextrose and to continue insulin infusion at a
rate of 0.1u/kg/h. Reduce insulin dose only after acidosis has been corrected.
7.5% D : add 25ml of 50 % D to 500ml 5% dextrose.
10% D: add 50ml 0f 50% D to 500ml 5% dextrose.
Transition to SC insulin injections:
Oral fluids should only be introduced when substantial clinical improvement has
occured ( mild acidosis: Bicarbonate > 15mmol/L / ketosis may still present.)
When oral fluids are tolerated IV fluids should be reduced.
Start the SC insulin at appropriate timing ( before breakfast, lunch or dinner, never at
midnight) for subsequent convenience:
- 0.4 0.6 u/kg/day of fast and intermediate acting insulin.
- As starting dose, 2/3 of the dose before breakfast and 1/3 before dinner.
- If before lunch, give 0.25u/kg SC of fast acting insulin.
- These are just starting doses , it is to be adjusted based on the BG
levels.
Cerebral Oedema:
Occurs in the first 24 hours after starting rehydration when the general condition of the child
might seem to be improving.
Monitor at regular interval to detect any changes consistent with cerebral edema.
Risk Factors:
o High serum urea nitrogen concentration at presentation.
o Hypocapnia ( low CO2)
o Slow rise of serum Na
o Severe acidosis.
Warning signs/symptoms:
o Headache & slowing of heart rate.
o Change in neurological status ( restlessness, irritability, increased drowsiness,
incontinence), specific neurological signs ( e.g. cranial N palsies).
o Rising BP, decreased O2 saturations
o Convulsions, papiloedema, respiratory arrest are late signs.
Management of cerebral edema:
o Exclude hypoglycemia
o If warning signs occur (see above) give immediate IV Mannitol 0.25 1g/kg
over 20 minutes (i.e. 1.25 5ml /kg 20% solution).
o Halve rehydration infusion rate until situation is improved.
o Nurse with childs head elevated.
o Move to intensive care unit.
o Alert anesthetic and senior pediatric staff.
o Cranial imaging should only be considered after child has been stabilized.
Intracranial events other than edema may occur e.g. hemorrhage, thrombosis
and infarction.
Management of new cases who do not present with DKA

(only hyperglycemia)
Patient is to be admitted to the hospital (even if not in acidosis at first presentation).

Same initial investigation.
IV fluids to be administered according to the level of dehydration.
Insulin therapy:
1. If patient is admitted to the ward in the morning can be given SC insulin. A
combination of rapid acting and intermediate acting ( and ). The starting
dose is 0.5 0.7 units/day. in the morning.
2. If the patient is admitted around noon time (lunch time), can be given 0.25
u/kg as rapid acting before lunch.
3. If the patient is admitted in the evening, calculate the dose as 0.5 0.7
u/kg/day, and give of that as a combination of rapid and intermediate acting.
4. If the patient is admitted at any other time, i.e. middle of the night or mid
morning, afternoon:
Can give small dose of insulin SC 0.1U/kg or less in children < 2 years
old.
Monitoring of blood sugar regularly, every 2 hours.
Management of Children with Diabetes

During Surgical Procedures:
General Anaesthesia:
Elective surgery:
1. Operation to be scheduled for early morning to avoid prolonged fasting.
2. Admit to hospital the afternoon prior to surgery for morning and major operations or
early morning for minor operations later in the day.
3. Evening prior to surgery:
a. Usual evening insulin and regular dinner, and bed time snack.
b. Ketosis or severe hyperglycemia will necessitate correction, by overnight IV
insulin infusion and might cause a delay in surgery.
4. Morning Operations:
a. Fast from midnight.
b. Water allowed up to 4 hours preoperatively
c. Omit usual morning insulin dose.
d. Start IV fluid and insulin at 6.00 7.00 am (see table)
e. Hourly blood glucose (BG) monitoring preopertively; half-hourly during
operation and until waken-up anesthesia.
f. Hourly BG for 4 hours post operatively.
g. Aim is to keep BG 5 12 mmol/L
h. Continue IV infusion until the child tolerates oral fluids and snacks.
i. Change to usual SC insulin before the first meal is taken.
j. Stop insulin infusion 30 minutes after SC insulin is taken.
5. Afternoon Operations:
a. Give 1/3 of the usual morning insulin dose as short acting insulin.
b. Allow a light breakfast.
c. Clear fluids up to 4 hours before the surgery.
d. Start IV fluids and insulin infusions at mid-day (table 1).
e. Then as morning operations.
Emergency Surgery:
1. May not be sufficient time to optimally evaluate and stabilize the patient.
2. Efforts should be made to delay surgery until DKA is treated, even if not complete
resolution.
3. If can not be postponed, treatment of DKA should be initiated and continue
throughout the operative and perioperative period.
4. If no ketoacidosis, start IV fluid and insulin infusions as for elective surgery.
5. Potassium specially is checked frequently.
Local Anesthesia:
- Preferably in the morning to avoid prolonged fasting.
- Insulin is to be decreased:
- 1/2 - 2/3 of the intermediate acting.
- No short acting.
- BG is to be measured before surgery:
If > 15mmol/L, give small amount of short insulin (0.25U/kg)
If < 5mmol/L, IV glucose is to be given

Usual meal plan and insulin schedule is to be resumed
postoperatively.
Short Surgical Procedures (< 1 hour) and During Investigations (CT, MRI):
1- Give 2/3 of the daily dose of the insulin as intermediate acting SC.
2- Do not give any short acting insulin.
3- The patient must have a sugar containing IV fluid (D5%-0.45NS) with added
potassium at the maintenance rate.
4- BG is to be checked every 2 hours before the procedure and amount of glucose is
adjusted accordingly.
5- Post-operatively, BG should be checked immediately and every 4 hours.
6- Maintain BG between 5 12 mmol/L.
7- Oral intake is to be started according to patients state of wakefulness, usually with
clear fluids and then gradually to normal diet. Can be discharged once oral intake is
tolerated on previous insulin regimen.
Table 1
1. Maintenance fluid guide:
Glucose 5% or 10% with 0.45 normal saline
If infusion for > 12 hours add KCl 20mmol/L
Body weight
Fluids/12 hours
3-9 kg
100ml/kg
For each kg between 10-20 kg, Add 50 ml/kg
For each kg over 20 kg, Add 20ml/kg (max 2000ml).
2. Insulin infusion:
Add 10 units of soluble (short acting) insulin to 100ml 0.9% NS making
solution of 1 unit/10ml (1ml = 0.1 unit)
Start infusion at rate 0.5ml/kg/hr
Maintain BG between 5 12 mmol/L
Do not stop insulin if BG < 5mmol/L reduce the rate and give IV glucose.
If BG < 3, stop infusion for only 15 minutes.
Hypoglycemia in D. M.
Definition:
1. In theory, hypoglycemia is the level of blood glucose ( BG) at which physiological
neurological dysfunction begins.
2. In practice, neurological dysfunction can be symptomatic or asymptomatic, and the
level at which it occurs varies between individuals, time and circumstances, usually
less than 3.5mmol/l.
Causes: (a mismatch between insulin, food and exercise)
1. Excessive insulin administration.
2. Delayed or missed meals and/or snacks.
3. Inter-current illness with vomiting.
4. Unanticipated exercise.
Symptoms & Signs:
1. Autonomic activation : (BG 2.1 3.5mmol/L) hunger, trembling of hands or legs,
palpitations, anxiety, pallor, sweating).
2. Neurological symptoms ( impaired thinking, change of mood, irritability, dizziness,
headache, tiredness, confusion and later convulsions and coma).
Neuroglycopenia may occur before autonomic activation (causing hypoglycemia
unawareness).
Grading of severity:
1. Mild ( grade 1): Child is aware of, responds to, and can self-treat the hypoglycemia
2. Moderate ( grade 2): Child cannot self-treat hypoglycemia and requires help from
someone else, but oral treatment is successful.
3. Severe ( grade 3): Oral treatment cant be applied; glucagon ( at home) or IV glucose (in
the hospital ) is needed.
Treatment: The level of BG should be maintained above 4mmol/l.
A. Mild or Moderate ( grade 1 or 2):
Immediate oral rapidly absorbed simple carbohydrate E.G., 5 15 g glucose or
sucrose ( tablets/ sugar lumps), 100ml sweet drink.
Wait 10 15 minutes, if no response:
Repeat Oral intake as above.
A small snack ( milk, sandwich ..)
Attempt to identify underlying cause.
B. Severe ( grade 3)
Treatment is urgent: may start at home but needs to come to hospital
At Home:
- Glucagon:
0.5mg ( the ampoule) for age < 12 years.
1.0 mg for age 12 years.
or 0.1 0.2 mg/10kg body weight.
At Hospital:
- IV glucose should be administered slowly over several minutes:
0.5 g/kg glucose = 5 ml/kg 10% glucose(10% D 100 mg/ml).

Recovery phase:
- Close observation and BG monitoring.
- Additional oral carbohydrate is required.
- If oral intake is not possible give IV infusion of glucose 10% D
2 5 mg/kg/min ( 1.5 3.0 ml/kg/h)
- Think of the precipitating factors (insulin overdose, not eating, sickness)
If no apparent cause found; consider adjusting insulin dose
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology (ESPE)/ Lawson Wilkins

Pediatric Endocrine Society Consensus Statement of DKA in Children and Adolescence 2004.
Consensus Guidelines of Diabetic ketoacidosis, ISPAD Guidelines 2000.
British Colombias Children Hospital, Daibetic Ketoacidosis Protocol 1996.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) Treatment Guidelines, Clinical Pediatrics, 1996
Fulminant Hepatic Failure

Definition:
The development of signs of advanced liver failure such as hepatic encephalopathy which
present within 8 weeks of the onset of liver disease, in the absence of previous liver disease.
Etiology:
Infections (CMV, EBV, hepatitis A B C, adenovirus, toxoplasmosis & others)
Metabolic (galactosemia, tyrosinemia, wilsons & mitochondrial disease& others) Toxins &
medications, autoimmune hepatitis, ischemia, malignancy and other.
Clinical manifestations:
Fever, jaundice, vomiting, abdominal pain, bleeding, ascitis, hepatosplenomegaly,
encephalopathy.
Biochemical parameters:
Hypoglycemia
Electrolyte disturbance (hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia)
Acid-base disturbances
Coagulopathy (prolonged PT, APTT, INR)
Hypoalbuminemia & hypoprotinemia
High ammonia, liver enzymes, bilirubin
Renal failure
Poor prognostic factors:
Adult respiratory distress syndrome and ventilatory failure
Hepatorenal syndrome
Cerebral oedema
Bleeding (GI tract, nasopharynx, retroperitonial, genitourinary tract and intracranial)
Massive hepatocyte necrosis on liver biopsy
Bilirubin > 300 mol/dl
INR > 3.5
Factor V level < 30%
Management:
Assess ABCs and admit to ICU

Consult gastroenterologist on call
Asses neurological status and level of consciousness (GCS 7 need intubation and
ventilation)
Fluids: 2/3 maintenance, 10-20% dextrose according to blood glucose.
Correct electrolyte disturbance, avoid hypertonic saline in hyponatremia, which can
worsen hepatic encephalopathy
Vitamin K1: Infants 1-2 mg/dose IV
Children 5-10 mg/dose IV
Lactulose (aim for 2 3 stools/day ): Infants 2.5 ml q12h PO
Children 5-10 ml q8h PO
Ranitidine 2 4 mg/kg/day IV q12h
IV antibiotics if indicated (not prophylactic)
Fresh frozen plasma should only be given for DIC or who is actively bleeding; to avoid
masking worsening liver function by correcting coagulation parameters.
Mannitol infusion if ICP is suspected
N-acetylcystine used for acetaminophen over dose and could be effective also in
fulminant hepatic failure from other causes.
20% N-acetylcystine:
150 mg/kg IV bolus in 3 ml/kg of D5%
then 70 mg/kg in 3 ml/kg of D5% q4h x 12 doses to be given over 1 h
Follow up and monitoring:

Liver function test (including glucose, albumin, coagulation, ammonia, bilirubin, ALT,
AST, ALK, GGT) q12-24h; depend on clinical situation.
Serum electrolytes and renal function
CT head if suspecting cerebral oedema
Head EEG for encephalopathy grading
Abdominal U/S
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wyllie, Hyams. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease.1999.

Walker, Durie, Hamilton, Walker Smith, Watkins. Pediatric gastrointestinal disease. 2002.
Hambidge Krebs, Seideman. Sokol etal. Pediatric clinical gastroenterology. Forth edition.1995.
Frederick J Suchy, Ronald Jsokol, William F Balistreri. Liver disease in children . second edition 2001.
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Hematemesis is the passage of vomited material that is coffee grounds in colour or contains
frank blood. Melena is the passage of black tarry stool results from bacterial degradation of
hemoglobin.
Investigations:
CBC, ESR
Coagulation profile
Liver function test
Etiology:
Swallowed maternal blood (nipple fissure in breast feeding mother)
Esophagitis, gastritis, duodenitis and stress ulcers
Vascular malformation, aorto-esophageal fistula, esophageal varices
Coagulopathy, Vitamin K deficiency
Foreign body
Non GI causes ( hemoptysis)
Management:
Check ABCs and give appropriate supportive care and monitoring

Inform Pediatric gastroenterologist on call
For stable patients:
- NPO, start on IV fluids
- IV ranitidine 3-4 mg/kg/day q6-8h, maximum: 50 mg/dose
- Observe for 24 hours
For unstable patients:

- Admit to ICU
- Cardio-respiratory monitoring
- Two IV lines should be placed
- urgent blood grouping and cross matching
- Start 0.9% NS 20ml/kg bolus and can be repeated till blood products are
available (whole blood, packed RBCs, fresh frozen plasma)
- NG normal saline lavage used to asses if the patient is continuing to bleed, and
to be omitted if the source is esophageal varices
- IV Ranitidine 3-4 mg/kg/day q6-8h, maximum: 50 mg/dose
- Somatostatin or Octreotide
Dose: 1 g/kg IV bolus
then
1 5 g/kg/h IV continuous infusion diluted in D5W or NS
Indications: patient with upper GI bleeding mainly secondary to
esophageal varices or who is likely to have esophageal
varices clinically.
Mechanism of action: it is a long acting synthetic analogue of
Somatostatin act by inducing relatively selective
splanchnic vasoconstriction
After stabilizing the patient, Upper GI endoscopy to be performed and to

treat accordingly
- If uncontrolled hemorrhage: urgent endoscopy should be performed for
injection, heat probe laser, varical injection or ligation.
References:
1.
2.
3.
Wyllie, Hyams. Pediatric Gastroentestinal Disease: 1999.

Walker, Durie, Hamilton, Walker Smith, Watkins. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: 2000.
Hambidge Krebs, Seidman, Sokol etal. Pediatric Clinical Gastroenterology. Forth edition.
1995
Foreign Body (FB) Ingestion
Foreign body ingestion can occur at any age (peak 6 months to 3 years)
Most commonly reported foreign bodies are coins
Radio-opaque FB found in 60-88%, most often due to coins
Most non-opaque FB are due to retained food
Most of the ingested FB pass through the GI tract and excreted without serious
consequences
Predisposing factors:
Anatomical abnormalities (esophageal stricture secondary to GERD, caustic ingestion and
post esophageal atresia repair)
Mental retardation, psychiatric disorder, and child abuse
Motility disorder
Signs and symptoms:
Chest pain, cough, wheezing, stridor, dyspnea, dysphagia, hypersalivation, hoarseness.
Neck swelling, erythema, tenderness, crepitus
Refuse to eat, vomiting, hematemesis, melena, abdominal pain, signs of peritonitis or
bowel obstruction.
Complications:
Failure to progress with mucosal ulceration, perforation, obstruction, fistula (TEF, EOF),
hemorrhage, neck abscess, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, esophageal pouch.
Management:
Check ABCs and stabilize the patient

History & clinical examination
Plain abdominal and chest X-ray A-P view to localize the FB
Call gastroenterologist on call for any FB ingestion
Indication for FB removal and admission:

1. All esophageal FB
2. Gastric and duodenal FB if:
Sharp, pointed objects
Symptomatic
> 5 cm in length & 3 cm in width
Containing toxic substances
Button batteries
Blunt object remaining > 2 weeks in the stomach, > 1 week in the
duodenum
When to refer to ENT:
Fish/chicken bones in pharynx/ upper oesophagus
Presence of FB in the larynx, upper airway
References:
1.
2.
3.
Wyllie, Hyams. Pediatric Gastroentestinal Disease: 1999.

Walker, Durie, Hamilton, Walker Smith, Watkins. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease: 2000.
Hambidge Krebs, Seidman, Sokol etal. Pediatric Clinical Gastroenterology. Forth edition. 1995
Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia
There are no guidelines which are accepted all over the world in the management of neonatal
jaundice and the differences are great between one place and another.
Consider the following in the management of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia:
Gestational age
Hemolytic process (immune/non immune)
Age at onset of hyperbilirubinemia and rate of rise of bilirubin
Factors altering blood brain barrier (Temp / PH / Sepsis / Prematurity / Acidosis)
Important remarks
Refer to standard charts of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia for management of

jaundice in neonates (page 65-69).
Prolonged neonatal jaundice requires the measurement of direct and indirect
bilirubin, CBC and retics, serum albumin, direct coombs test, blood group of the
baby and his mother, thyroid and galactosemia screen, and urine culture.
Gastroenterologist should be involved in cholestatic jaundice.
Do exchange transfusion immediately if the newborn got signs of encephalopathy
or kernicterus
If bilirubin in level of exchange transfusion, give intense phototherapy for 2-3
hours or/and IVIG if it is indicated while you are waiting the blood for exchange
transfusion and check TSB every 1-2 hr initially
Supplementation with water or dextrose does not decrease the TSB
In most neonates with TSB < 257 umol/L, noninvasive transcutaneous bilirubin
(TCB) measurement devices give a valid estimate of TSB
Cephalhematoma or significant bruising are risk factors for developing severe
jaundice
Start management at lower values of bilirubin for sick neonates than what is used
for healthy neonates
Sick neonates mean those who have asphyxia, significant lethargy, temperature
instability, sepsis, acidosis or low albumin
Visual estimation of the degree of jaundice lead to errors especially in dark babies
Any baby who is jaundiced at dicharge should come for recheck his TSB, unless
the jaundice is coming down
The modalities of management:

Observe and monitor serum bilirubin levels
Phototherapy
IVIG
Exchange transfusion
PHOTOTHERAPY: (blue light / green light / cool white / quartz halide / biliblanket)
Factors increasing effectiveness of phototherapy:
Blue lamps (peak output at 435-475 nm)
Irradiance (> 5 W/cm/nm to 9 uW/cm/nm)
Distance between baby and lamp < 50 cm
Nursing the infant naked except eye patches and diaper
Turning every 2 hours
Side effects of phototherapy:

Fluid and electrolytes
- Term infants: increased insensible water loss by 40 % (IWL: 30 ml/kg/day)
- Preterm infants: increased insensible water loss by 80 % (IWL-VLBW: 40
ml/kg/day) (IWL-VVLBW: 50 ml/kg/day)
Increase fluids appropriately
Neo Blue Cool Light may not require fluid increase
Diarrhoea and watery loose stools
Decrease calcium levels
Retinal damage (shield the eyes)
Cellular DNA damage (shield the genitalia/testis)
Frequency of monitoring bilirubin:
Q 8-12 hours while on phototherapy
Check one level 12 hours after therapy is stopped
Stopping phototherapy:
When bilirubin reach 200 umol/L
Discharge 12 hours after stopping phototherapy if bilirubin level is < 200 umol/L in
term infant.
Double phototherapy and triple phototherapy:
The number of lights are increased to give higher irradiation may be up to 12
uW/cm/nm
High dose IV immunoglobulin in hemolytic disease of newborn:
It is recommended for use in Rh, ABO, and minor group incompatibility causing
hemolytic disease.
Criteria for use:
In the presence of a positive direct Anti-Globulin test (DCT) with:
- Jaundice in day one close to exchange level (in the double phototherapy range)
- Significant rise in bilirubin > 10 mcmol/L/hour inspite of 4 hours of
phototherapy.
- Anemia (Hb < 13 g/dl) progressive and a high reticulocyte count > 80 %
Recommended dose:
- 500-1000 mg/kg/day (maximum daily dose of 2.5 gm)
- total number of doses should not exceed 3 doses
Continue PT as per recommended schedule (page 65-69)
Perform exchange transfusion as per recommended schedule (page 65-69)
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
AAP subcommittee on hyperbilirubinemia, Pediatrics July (114) 2004

Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003; 88: F459
Jaundice, neonatal by Tho Hansen e Med. Update on June 2002
Textbook of neonatal-perinatal Medicine by Faranoff Martin Ed. 2002
Systematic review of intravenous immunoglobulin in haemolytic disease of the newborn. Arch Dis
Child Fetal Neonatal Ed.2003 Jan;88(1) :F6-10. review
NeoReviews Vol. 1 No. 2 February 2000.
POISONING AND INTOXICATION
Poisoning should be considered in any well patient presenting with an acute change in mental
status such as lethargy, agitation, delirium, seizures or coma.
General Rules:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Assess and maintain ABCs

Secure large I.V line.
Attach cardiac monitor.
Give a bolus of 20 ml/kg of 0.9% NS if there are signs of hypoperfusion.
Insert urine catheter in unconscious patient and collect urine sample for routine
examination and toxicological screening.
6. Even with clear history of over dose or ingestion perform full neurological examination
in unconscious patient to rule out possibility of occult head injury.
7. Collect investigations: CBC, BGA, LFT, blood glucose, Electrolytes, Urine and Blood
for Toxicological screening.
8. In suspected eye exposure:
Remove contact lenses.
Remove solid material gently with cotton swab.
Irrigate with NS for at least 30 min.
Alkali corneal burn is an emergency, call an ophthalmologist.
9. Remove contaminated clothes, wash skin and hair with soap and water for at least 30
minutes.
10. Prevent or minimize absorption of the ingestant by oro-gastric lavage with a large-bore
tube in patients who arrived soon after a life threatening ingestion. (It should not be a
routine and its role in decreasing absorption is doubtful. If to be done, patient must be on
his left side to delay gastric emptying).
11. If sensorium is depressed, protect airway and intubate if necessary before lavage. Use
aliquots of 50 ml. NS.
12. Corrosive and non-toxic ingestions are contraindication to gastric lavage.
13. Syrup of ipecac is no longer used.
14. Activated charcoal is now recommended as the sole intervention for almost all cases of
drug over-dose or intoxication. Dose: 1gm/kg can be repeated once or twice at 1 2
hours interval in case of large ingestion. There is no contraindication for its use but the
following agents are not effectively adsorbed by it: Iron and heavy metal poisoning,
alcohol, organophosphorus compounds, hydrocarbons, lithium, caustics & corrosives.
15.Whole bowel irrigation through rapid administration of
polyethylene glycol
(GoLYTELY) 40ml/kg/hr PO/NGT, max.2 L/hr. (the end point is a clear rectal fluid) is
useful in substances not absorbed by charcoal as iron and slow released medication.
Ileues, obstruction, perforation and GI hemorrhage are contraindication.
NB: In obtunded, comatosed or convulsive patients it should be used only if airway is

protected.
IRON TOXICITY
Iron toxicity occurs when the peak plasma level > 400 g/dl.
Symptoms are unlikely if < 20 mg/kg of elemental iron has been ingested.
Ingestion of 40 mg/kg is potentially serious.
(NB. Elemental iron in ferrous gluconate is 12%, in ferrous fumarate is 33% and in ferrous
sulfate is 20%).
Stages of Toxicity:
Stage 1: (1/2 12 hrs.) nausea, vomiting, haematemesis, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea,
shock, seizures and coma may occur.
Stage 2: (8 - 36 hrs.) a latent period with false improvement of symptoms. Observe closely.
Stage 3: (12 48 hrs.) hepatic failure with hypoglycemia, metabolic acidosis, coagulopathy,
shock, coma, convulsions and death.
Stage 4: (4 8 wks.) pyloric stenosis or other intestinal obstructions.
INVESTIGATIONS:
1. CBC, Urea and Electrolyte, LFT.
2. Collect Serum Iron, on admission, 4 hours and 8 hours after ingestion.
3. X-Ray Abdomen to visualize Iron tablets.
MANAGEMENT:
General supportive measures.

Avoid use of activated charcoal (iron not adsorbed to it).
Start Desferroxamine (DFO) infusion if
1. serum iron > 500 g/dl {=89.5 umol/L} (regardless of symptoms)
2. in moderate to severe symptomatic patient (regardless of serum iron level)
3. or with history of significant ingestion.
Give 10-15 mg/kg/hr of DFO in D5% IV (max. 6 gm/day), the classic vin-rose
urine
color changes may be a clue for significant ingestion but its absences do not role out this
possibility.
Stop chelation if urine is no more vin-rose or patient is asymptomatic.
Prolonged DFO (more than 36 72 hrs.) has been associated with ARDS and yersinia
sepsis.
{NB: 1 g/dl x 0.1791 = 1 umol/L of Iron }
Paracetamol/Acetaminophen
Acute ingestion of 150 200 mg/kg is potentially hepatotoxic.

Children may develop toxicity after daily consumption of as little as
60-150 mg/kg day for 2 8 days.
Stages of toxicity:
Phase1 (1-24 hr) non specific symptoms (anorexia, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain).
Phase 2 (24-72 hr)latent period. There may be RUQ pain and elevated liver enzymes.
Phase 3 (3-4 days) hepatic failure, coagulopathy, encephalopathy and possible death.
Phase 4 (7-8 days) in survivors with resolution of all symptoms.
Management:
Activated charcoal and gastric lavage (up to 6 hrs. after ingestion).

Check blood acetaminophen level 4 hrs after ingestion and blot it on the nomogram (page
102).
Give N-acetylcysteine (NAC) if the level is in the toxic range. Most effective if given
within 810 hrs after ingestion and should be given up to 36 hrs after ingestion.
* I.V. dose : 150 mg/kg in 200 ml D5% over 15 60 min. then
50mg/kg in 500ml D5% over 4 hrs., then 100 mg/kg in
1000 ml D5% over next 16 hours.
If allergic reaction develops given antihistamines, hydrocortisone
and slow down the infusion rate.
* Oral dose: give 20% of NAC diluted 1 : 4 in carbonated beverage as
a loading dose of 140 mg/kg, then 70mg/kg q4 hrs. for 17 doses.
N.B oral preparations are not for IV dose.
- Follow the patient with LFT, Urea, Elect., glucose..
- Continue NAC till improvement of liver functions.
- Most patients recover in a weak time.
Salicylates
* The minimum acute toxic dose is 150mg/kg.
* Salicylate delays gastric evacuation so it prolongs the time of absorption.
Clinical picture:
Mild poisoning: abdominal pain, vimiting and tachypnoea.
Moderate poisoning: severe tachypnoea, fever, lethargy, dehydration, metabolic acidosis
and hypo or hyperglycemia.
Severe poisoning: coma, seizures, oliguria, pulmonary edema, hemorrhage and death.
Management:
General supportive cares.

Gastric wash and activated charcoal (as soon as possible)
(with large ingestions; Repeated dose of activated charcoal is advisable till salicylate level
is falling, whole bowel irrigation is also helpful.).
Obtain serum salicylate level at presentation and 6 hrs. after ingestion.
Collect blood for ABG, electrolytes, sugar, PT, and CBC.
Ensure adequate urine output by boluses of 20ml/kg of fluids.
(at least 1 ml/kg/hr of urine).
After ensuring adequate urine output alkalinize urine by infusing a solution of D5% with
44mEq/L of sodium bicarbonate and 30 40 mEq/L of KCl at twice the maintenance rate.
The aim is a urine output of 3 ml/kg/hr with a urine pH of >7.5.
Keep serum potassium level in higher normal range (both sodium bicarbonate and
tachypnoea lower potassium level).
Treat fever by sponges.
Indication of dialysis:
* Salycilate over 100mg/dl, as this level is usually associated with severe toxicity.
* Severe acidosis, oliguria or anuria.
* Pulmonary oedema.
* Intractable seizures.
Caustic ingestion / exposure

(Strong acids and alkalis)
Alkalis: ammonia, oven and drain cleaners, dish washer detergents.
Acids: toilet bowl & drain cleaners, battery fluid, metal cleaner and industrial acids.
Patient with significant exposure is usually critical and develop symptoms early.
Absence of oral burns does not mean absence of serious esophageal injury.
Caustics in liquid form are more commonly associated with oesophageal burns.
Clinical picture:
Oropharyngeal and/or abdominal pains.

Drooling, vomiting, retro-sternal burning.
Stridor, dyspnea.
Peri-oral burns.
Management:
- General supportive measures.
- Determine the substance and time of ingestion.
- Remove all clothes.
- No emesis, activated charcoal or gastric lavage.
- Collect CBC, electrolytes
- X-Ray abdomen (for free air)
- X-Ray chest for pneumonitis, mediastinitis, aspiration.
- Irrigate the eye with NS or water and consult ophthalmologist if alkali burn to the cornea is
suspected.
- Patient with oro-pharyngeal burns, vomiting, stridor or drooling are at risk of esophageal
injuries, arrange for endoscopy.
NB: Button batteries ingestion cause tissue injury because of alkali leakage.
- X-Ray is needed to localize the battery.
- Consult gastroenterologist.
Hydrocarbons
kerosene, gasoline, charcoal lighter fluid and mineral seal oil
Chemical pneumonitis is the major complication of hydrocarbon ingestion.
Clinical picture:
Most patients are asymptomatic.
Respiratory symptoms may occur 4 6 hours after ingestion, but may be seen as
soon as 30 minutes. CNS symptoms may occur within few hours.
Diagnosis:
Determine the nature of the ingested material.
X-Ray chest for symptomatic patients.
Management:
Observe for at least 24 hours.

Avoid activated charcoal, NEVER induce vomiting.
Never do gastric lavage in mineral oil ingestion because of risk of aspiration.
Antibiotics are reserved for cases with secondary infection.
Moth ball (Naphthalene)
It may cause severe haemolysis in patient with G6PD deficiency.

Most cases are asymptomatic.
Haemolysis can occur up to 1 2 days after ingestion
Investigations:
CBC and Retics.
G6PD screening.
Management:
Activated charcoal.
Ask for packed RBCs if there are symptoms of haemolysis.
Cholinergic Insecticide
Organophosphorus compound poisoning.
Toxicity is usually associated with products formulated for outdoors; household products
rarely cause significant toxicity.
Clinical presentation:
Muscarinic effects: Excessive salivation, lacremation, bronchorrhea, bronchospasm,
diarrhea, excessive sweating, miosis, heart rate may increase, decrease or normal.
Nicotinic effects: Muscle fasciculation, weakness and paralysis. Death is usually due to
respiratory failure.
CNS effects: Confusion, seizure and coma.
Management:
maintain ABCs and secure air way and an IV line.

Remove all clothes, wash skin with soap and water.
Administer activated charcoal.
Collect basic investigations with plasma pseudocholinesterase and RBCs cholinesterase.
Atropine: anatagonises the muscarinic symptoms
- 0.01 mg/kg IV(recommended)/IO/ETT/SC q 5-10 minutes
(0.5mg for toddlers and 2 mg in adolescents)
- Tachycardia is not a contraindication.
- The end point is satisfactory gas exchange not pupil size or heart rate.
Pralidoxime (Protopam): regenerate cholinesterases & ameliorates the nicotinic
symptoms
- Must be given with atropine
- Most effective if given within 24 48 hours.
- Dose: 25 50 mg/kg IV over 10 20 min. diluted to D5% in N.S.
- Repeat the dose after 1 hr. and every 6 12 hrs if symptoms not relieved.
Phenothiazines
Example: Chlorpromazine (largactil), prochlorperazine (stemetil), and thioridazine
(melleril).
Widely used as antiemetic and tranquilizer.
Symptoms: extrapyramidal manifestations (torticollis, opithtotonous, difficult speech and
oculo-gyric crisis) hypotension, dry mouth, urine retention, blurred vision, depressed
sensorium, and tachycardia.
Management:
Supportive care.
Activated charcoal (if less than 4 hrs.)
Diphenhydramine 0.5 1 mg/kg (up to 50mg IV or IM).
Use same dose orally / 4 6 hrs for 2 3 days to prevent recurrence.
Benzatropine mesylate (Cogentin) 0.02 mg/kg IV/IM in children 3 years
maximum 1 mg, repeat in 15 min if no response.
Treat seizures with Valium and IV loading dose of phenytoin.
N.B: Coagentin is not recommented under 3 years of age. Use it if there is no response to
diphenhydramine.
Tricyclic antidepressants
Imipramine (tofranil), amitriptyline (tryptizol) and doxepin (sinequan)

It has a direct myocardial (quinidine like) depression, and anticholinergic
(atropine
like) activity.
It should be suspected in any child with disturbed sensorium, and/or seizures
that is
associated with prolonged QRS.
Clinical features:
Depressed level of consciousness, seizures, delirium, lethargy and coma.
Anticholinergic (atropine-like) effect can occur.
Cardiovascular manifesttions include tachycardia, ventricular arrhythmia and
hypotension.
Management:
- General supportive care: (ICU care may be needed in severe cases).
- Activated charcoal.
- Continuous ECG monitor.
- Hypertension is transient, usually needs no treatment.
- For prolonged QRS and hypotension give 20 ml/kg NS and sodium bicarbonate
1 2 mEq/kg, repeat to keep PH between 7.45 7.55.
- Give IV valium and loading dose of phenytoin for seizures.
- Treat life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias with lidocain or phenyutoin.
- Supraventricular arrhythmias usually need no treatment.
Beta blockers
Clinical features:
Bradycardia (sinus, AV nodal or ventricular)
ECG abnormalitites include wide ORS and BB block, ventricular arrhythmia.
Hypotension, hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia
CNS manifestations occur especially with propranolol and include Depressed sensorium,
delirium, coma and convulsions.
Bronchospasm can occur especially in patient with asthma.
Management:
General supportive care.

Continuous ECG and blood pressure monitoring.
Obtain serum electrolytes and blood glucose level.
Correct hypotension with a bolus of normal IV saline.
Treat bradycardia with atropine (0.01 = 0.03), give isoprotrenol if no response.
Treat hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia accordingly.
Treat seizures with IV valium.
DIGOXIN
Manifestations:
Anorexia, nausea, vomiting occur early followed by headache, disorientation,
somnolence. Cardiac findings include bradycardia with AV block and prolonged P-R
interval. Any form of cardiac arrhythmia can occur.
Massive over dose lead to severe hyperkalemia, VF, ventricular tachycardia, coma and
seizure.
Toxicity increases with hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, and hypomagnesemia.
Investigations:
Collect serum digoxin & electrolyte level.
Obtain an ECG, determine P R interval.
Management:
Basic measures including activated charcoal (even several hours
after ingestion).
Continuous ECG monitoring.
Treat clinically significant arrhythmia:
* Bradycardia due to AV or SA block atropine
0.01 mg/kg IV (Max. 0.5 mg.)
* Ventricular arrhythmia phenytoin (2mg/kg IV slowly over 20 min). Repeat every
5 min. till arrhythmia stopped or max. of 15-20 mg/kg. Lidocaine can also be used, 1mg IV
bolus then 20-50 gm/kg/min. continuous infusion.
* Treat hyperkalemia aggressively. If serum potassium is more than 5.5 mEq/L use IV
sod. Bicarb (1 mEq/kg), IV glucose (0.5 g/kg) & insulin (0.1 U/kg) infusion, and oral
Kayxalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate, 0.3 0.6 gm/kg) or Calcium resonium (oral or
enema, 0.5 1 gm/kg).
Do not use calcium as it may worsen ventricular arrhythmia.
- Use Fab antibodies (digoxin antibodies or Digibind) in case of uncontrolled arrhythmia or
severe hyperkalemia unresponsive to treatment.
(one vial = 40 mg, each can bind 0.6 mg digoxin).
Dose: body load = serum level in ng/mL x 5.6 x wt. ( kg.)
1000
Number of vials to be given = body load (IV over 30 min.)
0.5
NB. 1. Give as bolus if cardiac arrest is imminent.
2. nmol/L = ng/mL digoxin level.
1.281
REFERENCES:
1. Poisoning and drug overdose, 2004
Kent R. Olson.
2. Nelson Text Book of Pediatric. 2004.
Richard E. Berman.
Community Acquired Pneumonia

Etiology:
Birth to 20 days:
GBS, gram negative enteric cocci and listeria monocytogenes
3 weeks 3 months:
respiratory virus (RSV, influenza, parainfluenza, adeno, rhinovirus), chlamydia
trachomatis, streptococcus pneumonia, bordetella pertussis, staphylococcus
aureus, mycobacterium TB
4 months 4 years:
respiratory viruses, streptococcus pneimonia, haemophilus influenzae,
mycobacterium TB
5 15 years:
mycoplasma pneumoniae, chlamydia pneumoniae, streptococcus pneumoniae,
mycobacterium TB
investigations:
CBC and differential, ESR/CRP, blood culture, CXR, ABG if in distress,
If required nasopharyngeal aspirates for immunoflurescence for respiratory viruses
(done at virology unit/faculty of medicine)
Mycoplasma or chlamydia serology (Shaab virology)
Management:
Check O2 saturation. Aim > 92%

Antibiotics: (7 - 10 days)
- Birth to 20 days:
Ampicillin 100-200 mg/kg/day q6h + Cefotaxime 150 mg/kg/day q8h
- 3 weeks 3 months:
afebrile pneumonia: Erythromycine 40 mg/kg/day q6h
febrile pneumonia:
Cefotaxime 100-150 mg/kg/day q8h
- 4 months 4 years:
Cefuroxime 100 mg/kg/day q8h
- 5 years 15 years:
Erythromycine IV/PO 40 mg/kg/day q6h
OR
Clarithromycin PO 15 mg/kg/day q12h
OR
Azithromycin PO 10 mg/kg/day q24h x 5 days
If febrile with high WBC add Cefuroxime 100 mg/kg/day q8h
References:
1.
2.
Macintosh K, Community Acquired Pneumonia in Children, N Eng.J Med 2002 ; 346:429-37.

Jadavji T, Law B. Label MH etal. A practical guide for the diagnosis and treatment of Paediatric
Pneumonia. Can Med Asso J 1996; 156: S703 - 11
Acute Meningitis
Etiology:
Neonates: GBS, E.coli, Listeria monocytogenes
1 to 3 months: Streptococcus pneumoniae, N. meningitides, H.influenzae, GBS,
Listeria monocytogenes.
Beyond 3 months: Streptococcus pneumoniae, N. meningitides, H.influenzae
Post craniotomy, V-P shunt: Coagulase negative staphylococci, Staph. Aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Investigations:
CBC, ESR/CRP, blood C/S, s. electrolytes, glucose.
FDP, coagulation profile if suspecting DIC
Lumbar puncture:
CSF:
- gram stain
- cell count: WBC and differential, RBC
- chemistry: glucose (compared with blood), protein
- C/S
- latex agglutination for Ag detection (if received antibiotics)
- if suspect TB: acid fast bacilli stain and mycobacterium TB culture
- if suspect viral encephalitis:
send viral PCR to (HSV, VZV, CMV and
enterovirus)
- always keep an extra tube of CSF for AFB and mycobacterium culture
Withhold LP if
patient in cardio-respiratory compromise.

Comatosed patient.
Evidence of increased intracranial pressure.
Platelets < 50 000 or bleeding diathesis
CT head is indicated if
Focal neurological signs

Prolonged convulsions
Impaired level of consciousness
Evidence of increased intracranial pressure
WBC
Predominant
cells
Glucose
Protein mg/l
Normal
child
<5
Normal
neonate
<22
Bacterial
viral
TB
300-2000
10-500
> 75%
lymphocytes
Polymorphs
+
lymphocytes
polymorphs
> 50%
> 50%
Low
Increased
rarely
>1000
Early:
polymorphs
then
lymphocytes
normal
200-450
200-1700
High
Normal or
slightly high
Partially
treated
300-2000
lymphocytes
Polymorphs
or
lymphocytes
Very low
Low or
normal
high
Very high
Management:
Check ABCs
Restore circulating volume and urinary output as priority.
Monitor vital signs, hydration and neurological status
If impaired consciousness keep patient NPO
Start antibiotics after collecting cultures as soon as possible
- Full term neonates < 1 week:
Ampicillin 150 mg/kg/day IV q8h + Cefotaxime 150 mg/kg/day IV q8-12h
- 1 week 3 months:
Ampicillin 200 mg/kg/day IV q6h + Cefotaxime 200 mg/kg/day IV q6h
- Children > 3 months:
Cefotaxime 200 mg/kg/day IV q6h
Add
Vancomycin 60 mg/kg/day IV q6h if:
1. Gram stain showing gram positive cocci
OR
2. very ill child with hemodynamic instability
Once the organism and sensitivities are recognized switch to appropriate
and narrowest spectrum antibiotic.
Supportive care and monitoring

- Input and output chart + weight
- Daily head circumference
- Watch for SIADH (urine specific gravity & serum Na)
- IV fluids: maintenance (if SIADH restrict to 2/3 maintenance)
- Anticonvulsant: if convulsions.
Duration of antibiotics:
Neonates:
S.Pneumoniae:
H.fleunzae:
N.meningitides:
Gram negative:
2 weeks (3 wks if gram negative)

10 14 days
7 10 days
5 7 days
3 weeks
Prophylaxis
S.pneumoniae: not indicated
H.infuenzae: Rifampicin 20 mg/kg or 600 mg
q24h x 4 days
N.meningitides:
- Rifampicin:10 mg/kg q12h (600 mg q12h)x2 days
OR
- Ciprofloxacin: 500 mg single dose
OR
- Ciftriaxone: 125 mg IM (pediatrics)
250 mg IM (adult)
Indications
All household & school contacts within last 7 days.

In H.infuenzae: (for adult only if household with
presence of children < 4 years other than index
patient who is unimmunised or incompletely
immunized).
Contact with patients oral secretions (within 7 days
of presentation)
Health care workers: only if mouth resuscitation,
endotracheal intubation or has been in direct contact
with the patients oral secretions
No prophylaxis for indirect contact (contact with
patient NOT oral secretions and contacts of
direct contacts of patients)
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Quagliarrelo & Sheld. NEJM, 337: 708.

Red book 2003, AAP, 26th edition.
The Harriet Lane Handbook. Sixteenth edition 2002.
Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th edition 2004.
Guidelines for management of UTI in Children

UTI = Significant bacterial growth within urinary tract.
Bacterial Pathogen of urinary tract infection.
Escherichia coil, Klebsiella spp., Proteus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Entrococcus spp.,
Psuedomonas aeroginosa (Obstructive uropathy)
Clinical Manifestations and classification.
o Acute pyelonephritis: Abdominal or flank pain, fever, vomiting, diarrhea.
Some newborn and infants may show jaundice, poor feeding, irritability,
and weight loss.
o Acute cystitis: Dysuria, urgency, frequency, suprapubic pain,
incontinence, malodorous urine, and no fever.
o Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU): Individuals who have a positive urine
culture without any manifestations of infection and occurs almost
exclusively in girls.
Physical exam points to cover
Growth parameter
Temperature (Fever in pyelonephritis), always check blood pressure
Abdomen (kidney, bladder, stool)
Neurological exam
Spinal exam dimple, hair etc
External genitalia (Sexual abuse)
Investigations:
CBC
ESR, CRP (if possible)
Urine Analysis:
o May be normal
o Microscopy: (WBC > 10 cells / HPF, haematuria and
bacteruria)
o Leukocyte esterase test.
o Nitrite test.
Urine Culture:
A. Suprapubic aspiration.
1. Infant
2. Labial adhesion
3. Tight foreskin
4. Anatomical abnormality
o Significant colony count = any growth - (2000 3000
for staph.epidermis)
B. Bladder catheterization:
o Children without urinary control
o significant colony count > 10,000 CFU is significant
C. Midstream clean catch
o Children with urinary control
o Significant colony count > 100,000 CFUs single

organism.
NB. Bagged Urine only useful, if negative. Better results if perineum cleaned before bag
placed and removed as soon as voids.
TREATMENT:
Indication for admission:
Neonates and infants
Children of any age with high fever and / or flank pain, sepsis or shock.
Known complex underlying urological pathology.
Persistent vomiting, dehydration or inability to take oral medication
Known / suspected causative organism resistant to oral medication.
Psychosocial issues: inability of family to care for child appropriately.
Antibiotic Therapy
Bacterial antibiotic resistance patterns are geographically determined and should be reviewed
at each hospital to determine the best initial oral antibiotics. Using broader spectrum
antibiotics might contribute in emergence of resistant organisms.
Note: Agents that are excreted in the urine but do not achieve therapeutic concentrations in
the bloodstream, such as nalidixic acid or nitrofurantoin, should NOT be used to treat UTI
in febrile infants and young children in whom renal involvement is likely.
Some antimicrobial for oral treatment of UTI

Antimicrobial
Dosage
Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole (Septrin)
Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin)
Cephalexin (keflex)
Cefixime (suprax)
Cefprozil (Cefzil)
Cefuroxime axetil (Zinnat)
Cefpodixime (orelox)
6-12 mg TMP, 30-60 mg SMX/kg/d q12 hrs

20-40 mg of amoxicillin / kg/day in 3 doses
50-100 mg / kg/d in 4 doses
8mg / kg/d in 2 doses
30 mg / kg/d in 2 doses
10 mg / kg/d in 2 doses
10 mg / kg / d in 2 doses
Some antibiotics for parenteral treatment of UTI

Antibiotic
Ceftriaxone
Cefotaxime
Ceftazidime
Gentamycim
Amikacin
Ampicillin
Daily Dosage
75 mg/ kg every 24 hour
150 mg/kg/day divided every 6 h
150mg / kg/ day divided every 6 h
7.5mg/kg/day divided every 8 h
15 mg/kg/day divided every 8 h
100 mg / kg/ day divided by every 6 h
Intravenous antibiotics can be switched to oral antibiotics once the causative agent and the
antibiotic sensitivities were identified. The patient can be discharged home if:
> 2 months of age
Afebrile for > 24 hours
Tolerating oral fluids
Duration of therapy:
Seven to ten days treatment regimens are recommended for pyelonephritis.
Longer duration up to 14 days might be necessary in some cases.
Three to five days treatment is usually adequate for simple lower urinary tract
infection.
Prophylactic antibiotics:
Prophylactic antibiotics should be initiated after the initial course of antibiotics until
having a normal MCUG (micturation cystourethrogram).
Prophylactic antibiotics
Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole
Nitrofurantoin
Cephalexin (Keflex)
Dosage
2 mg TMP once daily
1 mg/ kg dose once daily
25mg/kg/dose once daily
Follow up investigation
Investigation
Indication
Ultrasound abdomen
All children following UTI
MCUG
Acute pyelonephritis
First UTI in a boy of any
age.
First UTI in a girl <3
years of age
Second UTI in a girl >3
years of age
First UTI in a child of
any age with family
history of UTI's urinary
tract abnormalities or
abnormal voiding pattern
Suspected pyelonephritis
at young age
Recurrent UTI
Evidence
of
vesicoureteric reflux.
Used to follow up
vesicoureteric
reflux
after initial traditional
MCUG.
DMSA Scan
Radionuclide cystogram
Note:
MCUG can be performed once infection is cleared
DMSA should be done 4-6 weeks after a UTI episode.
Rationale
To rule out major urinary tract
structural pathology
To rule out
Vesicoureteric reflux.
Posterior
urethral
valve in boys
Anatomical
or
functional Bladder
abnormalities
Rule out renal scarring.
Advantage:
Less
radiation
Disadvantage:
Not as sensitive as
MCUG
Does not show urethral
or
bladder
abnormalities
References:
1.
2.
3.
American Academy of Pediatrics, subcommittee on urinary tract infection, 1999.

Management of Urinary Tract infections in children, child health network for the
Greater Toronto area 2002.
Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 2004
ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA
Patient received antibiotics in the

past month
If No give:
If Yes give:
Amoxicillin
High dose: 80-90 mg/kg/day q8h x 10 days
Treatment failure
still symptomatic at 48-72 hrs of treatment
Augmentin PO x 10 days
High dose: 80-90 mg/kg/day q12h
OR
Cefuroxime PO x 10 days
Dose: 30 mg/kg/day q12h
OR
Ceftrioxone IM
Dose: 50 mg/kg/day x 3 days
Augmentin
High dose: 80-90 mg/kg/day q12h x 10 days
Treatment failure
still symptomatic at 48-72 hrs of treatment
Ceftriaxone IM
Dose: 50 mg/kg/day x 3days
OR
Clindamycin PO x
10 days
Refer to ENT if failed after 48 hrs
Penicillin allergic:
Erythromycin: 50 mg/kg/day q6h
OR
Trimethoprimsulfamethaxazole (Septrin): 6-12 mg TMP, 30-60 mg SMX/kg/d q12 hrs
Reference:
American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines. Pediatrics, December 2004; 113; 1451.
SNAKE BITES
Symptoms and signs:
Hemotoxic effect: Intense pain, Edema, Weakness, Swelling,

Numbness or tingling, Ecchymoses, Muscle fasciculation,
Paresthesia (Oral), Unusual metallic taste, Vomiting,
Confusion, Bleeding disorders.
Neurotoxic effect: Minimal pain, Ptosis, Weakness,

Paresthesia (Often numb at bite site) Diplopia, Dysphagia,
Sweating, Salivation, Respiratory depression, Paralysis.
First aid:
First-aid measures for snakebite include avoiding excessive activity, immobilizing the
bitten extremity, and quickly transporting the victim to the nearest hospital.
1. Apply immediate hard pressure over the bite with finger or hand.
2. Apply tight constrictive bandage over the bitten limb, starting over the bite
site, and winding from distal to proximal. The band should be tight enough to
block lymphatic and venous flow, but loose enough to palpate pulse distal to
the bite.
3. Apply a splint outside the compressive bandage.
4. Stay with the victim all times, to administer CPR if required.
NB: No benefit from incision and suction.
Hospital Management:
1. Clean the wound + tetanus prophylaxis.
2. Start IV fluid and collect blood for investigation.
Laboratory Evaluation in Snakebite
1.
Complete blood count with platelets and differential*
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
PT*, PTT, Fibrinogen, FDP

Blood type and cross match
Liver function test
Serum electrolytes, glucose, urea, Creatinine.
Urinalysis: Including free protein, hemoglobin, and myoglobin
Arterial blood gas
Stool hemoccult
* Should be performed as soon as possible and repeated within 12 hours.

Should be tested if any signs or symptoms of respiratory compromise are evident.
Antivenin indication:
This depends on the severity of snake bites.
Degree of
envenomation
0. None
I. Mild
Presentation
Treatment
Punctures or abrasions; some

Local wound care, no
pain or tenderness at the bite
antivenin
Pain, tenderness, edema at the
Pain control and careful
bite; perioral paresthesias may
observation.
be present.
II. Moderate
Pain, tenderness, erythema,

edema beyond the area adjacent
to the bite; often, systemic
manifestations
and
mild
coagulopathy.
III. Severe
Intense pain and swelling of

entire extremity, often with
severe systemic signs and
symptoms; coagulopathy.
IV. Life-threatening
Marked abnormal signs and

symptoms; severe coagulopathy.
Antivenin indicated
Administration of Antivenin:
Antivenin is most effective if delivered within 4 hr of the bite and is
of little value if administration is delayed beyond 12 hours.
Polyvalent snake antivenin is available in every hospital pharmacy.
Pre-medication:
1. Antihistaminc: diphenhydramine (Benadryl) 1
mg/kg, and cimetidine 6mg / kg.
2. A trial of small dose antivenin IV
3. If signs or symptoms of anaphylaxis develop,
treat with epinephrine and steroid.
Administration:
Choice of antivenin product
Rapidity of administration
The volume of antivenin administered
are best decided in consultation with toxicologist.
SCORPION BITES
Signs:
Severe burning pain, numbness and marked swelling of affected limb.
Restlessness, sweating, muscle spasm, increased lacrymal secretion,
tachycardia, bradycardia and arrhythmias.
Death is usually due to respiratory or cardiac failure.
First aid:
Constructive bandage and splint. Release bandage every 10 minutes.
Apply ice packs for 2 hours
CPR when required.
For severe pain inject lignocaine locally with systemic analgesics.
Observation in hospital for 24 48 hours, if cardiopulmonary
compromise occur consider antivenin (If available with same
precaution as in snake bite)
Atropine to counter the cholinergic effect of venom (0.02 mg/kg, max.
0.6mg)
For severe tachyarrhythmias: Propranolol 0.010.1 mg/kg slow IV
over 510 minutes.
STONE FISH (FIRYALAH)

The stone fish is the most venomous fish in the world. It looks like encrusted rock. It
has 13 hard spines which secrete neurotoxic venom into the wound.
Most victims injure themselves when they accidentally step on it.
The foot or hand becomes swollen very quickly.
Pain is sudden and severe.
Shock may develop.
First Aid:
Remove any spines left in the wound. Rinse the area with seawater.
Soak the wound in hot water (43 to 450C) for 30 90 minutes or until pain
decreases.
If pain recurs you should soak the wound in hot water again.
Compressive band is contraindicated.
Inject lingnocaine 1% along the track of spines.
IV Pethidine (0.5 1.0 mg/kg/dose) / Morphine (0.1 0.2mg/kg/dose) for
pain.
Surgical debridement for lacerations.
Antibiotic and tetanus covers are essentials.
Use antivenom IV or I.M in a non involved limb for severe cases if available.
JELLY FISH
Has small tentacles containing nematocysts. Victims who touch these tenatacles experience
severe burning pain. Headache and shock may occur.
Management:
Apply vinegar on the stung skin. Scrap any visible tentacles off with a knife or
a razor.
Apply 5% lignocaine jelly.
Oral analgesia.
Steroids locally or systemically may be helpful for severe envenomations.
References:
1.
Venomous Snakebites in the United States: Management Review and Update.

American Family Physician: April 2002. Volume 65, number 7
2. Nelson Text Book of Pediatric. Richard E. Berman. 2004.
Intraosseous Access (IO)
IO is required in life-threatening situations

IO is indicated when intravenous access fails (3 attempts or >90 seconds).
Can be used for administration of Crystalloids, colloids, blood products and drugs.
IO may be left in place for 72-96 hours.
Remove IO as soon as intravenous access has been established.
Contraindications:
Ipsilateral fracture (risk of extravasation and compartment syndrome).
Previous attempt or placement of IO in the same leg (risk of extravasation)
Osteogenesis imperfecta ( risk of fracture)
Osteopetrosis (risk of fracture )
Obvious overlying infection (a relative contraindication)
Procedure:
A. Proximal tibia (Fig.1)
Figure 1. IO in Proximal tibia
1.
2.
3.
4.
Strict aseptic technique

Local infiltration with 1 2 ml of 1% lidocaine
Flex the knee and put a towel roll or a sandbag as support behind the knee.
hold the stylet ball in the palm of your hand, and place the tip of your index
finger 1- 1.5 cm from the tip of the needle
5. Insert the IO needle 1-3 cm below the tibial tuberosity on the anteromedial
surface of the tibia. at 90 degrees to the skin (perpendicular) and slightly
caudal (towards the foot) to avoid the epiphyseal growth plate.
6. Advance the needle using a screwing motion until a 'give' is felt when the
needle penetrates the cortex of the bone.
7. Correct placement of IO needle is confirmed by the aspiration of blood and
marrow, if it stands upright without support and the infusion flows smoothly.
B. Other sites
Distal tibia (Fig.2)
Distal femur (Fig.3)
Figure 2. IO in Distal tibia
Figure 3. IO in Distal femur
Complications:
Local infection (cellulites, osteomyelitis)

Compartment syndrome secondary to fluid extravasation
Local hematoma
Pain
Potential for growth plate injuries
Fat embolus& Bone embolus, although not reported in humans
References:
1.
2.
3.
Eric V, Anamaria B, Peter R, Xavier L. Update in Anesthesia. Issue 12 (2000)

Article 10:1.
Barkin R, Rosen P. Emergency A Guide to ambulatory Care: fifth edition 1999.
Pegeen E. Intraosseous Access. October 2004.emedicine.com.
Lumbar Puncture (LP)

Contraindications:
1. Signs of raised intracranial pressure (unequal pupils, rigid posture or paralysis,
irregular breathing ).
2. Lateralizing neurological findings or papilledema.
3. Patient is unstable ( in cardio-respiratory compromise).
4. Skin infection in the area through which the needle will have to pass.
5. Bleeding diathesis, thrombocytopenia (< 50,000)
Procedure:
Proper positioning and adequate restraint of patient is essential to a successful tap.

Place patient with back fully flexed and either lying on one side or sitting up with hips,
knees, and neck flexed (figure 1,2). Make sure that the child can breathe normally.
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Locate the space between L3-L4 (at the junction of the line between the iliac crests and
the vertebral column). or between L4-L5 (fig.3) Avoid L2-3 space in infant (cord lower
than in older child).
Use aseptic technique. Scrub the hands and wear
sterile gloves. Prepare the skin around the site with
an antiseptic solution. Sterile towels can be used.
May infiltrate the skin and subcutaneous tissue with
1 % lidocaine (not in neonates).
Use an LP needle with stylet (22 gauge for a
young infant, 20 gauge for an older infant and
child). Insert the needle into the middle of the
intervertebral space and aim the needle towards the
umbilicus. Advance the needle slowly until a pop
is felt, withdraw the stylet, and cerebrospinal fluid
will drop out of the needle.
Figure 3.
Collect CSF in appropriate tubes. If no cerebrospinal fluid is obtained, the stylet can be
reinserted and the needle advanced slightly.
Withdraw the needle completely and put pressure over the site for a few seconds. Put a
sterile dressing over the needle puncture site.
If the needle is introduced too far a lumbar vein may be punctured. This will result in a
"traumatic tap" and the spinal fluid will be bloody. The needle should be withdrawn and
the procedure repeated in another intervertebral space.
Complications:
The use of needles without a stylet has an associated risk of spinal epidermoid tumours.
Postlumbar puncture headache occurs in 10% to 30% of patients.
Risk of infection (theoretical).
References:
1.
2.
WHO 2000. IMCI reference Guide Appendix I-Practical procedures.

The HSC Handbook of Pediatrics 1992.
Blood Pressure Measurement

Appropriate measurement devices and age-adjusted normal values are necessary for
accurate measurement and interpretation of blood pressure in children.
1. The child whose BP is to be measured (ideally) should:
have avoided stimulant drugs or foods
have been sitting quietly for 5 minutes
seated with his or her back supported
feet on the floor and right arm supported,
The right arm is preferred because:
standard BP tables are based on blood pressure measurements
in the right arm with the child seated.
the possibility of coarctation of the aorta, which might lead to
false (low) readings in the left arm
2.
The cuff should cover at least two thirds of the upper arm and the bladder
should encircle 80% to 100% of the circumference of the arm (fig. 1&2).
There are six different sizes of cuffs for use in children (table 1). BP is
overestimated with a cuff that is too small than they are underestimated by a
cuff that is too large
3. The cuff bladder width should be 40% of the circumference of the arm
measured at a point midway between the olecranon and acromion (fig. 3).
4. Blood pressure should be measured with cubital fossa at heart level. The arm
should be supported. The stethoscope bell is placed over the brachial artery
pulse, proximal and medial to the cubital fossa, below the bottom edge of the
cuff (fig. 4).
5. SBP is determined by the onset of the tapping Korotkoff sounds (K1). The
(K5) (the disappearance of Korotkoff sounds) is the definition of DBP. In
some children, Korotkoff sounds can be heard to 0 mm Hg. Under these
circumstances, the BP measurement should be repeated with less pressure on
the head of the stethoscope. If the very low K5 persists; K4 (muffling of the
sounds) be recorded as the DBP.
Table 1. Blood pressure cuff size in children

Cuff
Bladder width (cm)
Bladder length (cm)
2.5 4.0
5.0 9.0
Neonate
4.0 6.0
11.5 18.0
Infant
7.5 9.0
17.0 19.0
Child
11.5 13.0
22.0 26.0
Adult
14.0 15.0
30.5 33.0
Large adult
18.0 19.0
36.0 38.0
Thigh
Figure 1. Blood pressure cuff dimensions. Dimensions of bladder and cuff in relation to arm
circumference. A, ideal arm circumference; B, range of acceptable arm circumferences; C,
bladder length; D, midline of bladder; E, bladder width; F, cuff width.
Figure 2. Determination of proper cuff size. The cuff bladder should cover 80% to 100% of
the circumference of the arm.
Figure 3. Determination of proper cuff size. The cuff bladder width should be approximately
40% of the circumference of the arm measured at a point midway between the olecranon and
acromion.
Figure 4. Blood pressure measurement. Blood pressure should be measured with cubital
fossa at heart level. The arm should be supported. The stethoscope bell is placed over the
brachial artery pulse, proximal and medial to the cubital fossa, below the bottom edge of the
cuff.
References:
1.
2.
Selected excerpts from The Fourth Report on the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment
of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents, Pediatrics, Vol. 114, No. 2, August
2004
K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines on Hypertension and Antihypertensive Agents in
Chronic Kidney Disease.
Body Surface Area Nomogram
Nomogram for Paracetamol Poisoning
Children's Coma Scale

(Modified Glasgow Coma Scale,Paediatric Coma Scale)
One of the components of the Glasgow coma scale is the best verbal response, which cannot
be assessed in nonverbal small children. A modification of the original Glasgow coma scale
was created for children too young to talk.
Parameters:
1. eyes opening
2. best verbal or nonverbal response (depending on development status)
3. best motor response
Eye Opening
Spontaneously
To verbal stimuli
To pain
Never
Nonverbal Child
smiles, oriented to sound, follows
objects, interacts
Consolable when crying and
interacts inappropriately
Inconsistently consolable and
moans; makes vocal sounds
inconsolable, irritable and restless;
cries
no response
Score
4
3
2
1
Verbal Child's Best Verbal

Response (Glasgow coma scale)
oriented and converses
Score
5
disoriented and converses
inappropriate words
incomprehensible sounds
no response
Best Motor Response

obeys commands
localizes pain
flexion withdrawal
abnormal flexion (decorticate rigidity)
extension (decerebrate rigidity)
no response
Score
6
5
4
3
2
1
Additional markers associated with prognosis:

1. Oculovestibular reflex (all children with absent reflexes died; 50% of children with
impaired reflex died; 25% with normal reflexes died)
2. Abnormal pupillary response (77% with bilateral fixed and dilated pupils died)
3. Intracranial pressure (pressures > 40 torr with CCS scores of 3, 4 or 5 was inevitably
fatal)
Children's coma scale =
(score for eye opening)+(score for best nonverbal or verbal response)+(score for best motor response)
Interpretation:
1. minimum score is 3, which has the worst prognosis
2. maximum score is 15, which has the best prognosis
3. Scores of 7 or above have a good chance for recovery.
4. Scores of 3-5 are potentially fatal, especially if accompanied by fixed pupils or
absent oculovestibular responses or elevated intracranial pressure.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
2006-2007, Institute for Algorithmic Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.

Hahn YS, Chyung C, et al. Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Child's Nerv Syst. 1988;
4: 34-40.
Jaffe D, Wesson D. Emergency management of blunt trauma in children. N Engl J Med. 1991;
324:1477-1482.
Simpson D, Reilly P. Pediatric Coma Scale (Letter to the Editor). Lancet. 1982; 2: 450.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE

Clinical Guidelines Committee

Members of the Clinical Guidelines Committee:

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

Use 100% oxygen during resuscitation.

To minimize gastric inflation

Check pulse (brachial artery in infants carotid/femoral artery in children).

Characteristics of good chest compressions:

Figure 1. Two-finger chest compression.

Figure 2. Two thumb-encircling hands chest

Drugs are preferably administered through IV or IO than by ETT.

Medications for Pediatric Resuscitation and Arrhythmias

0.02 mg/kg IV/IO

15 mg/kg IV/IO over 30-60 min

1 mEq/kg/dose IV/IO slowly

* flush with 5 ml of normal saline and follow with 5 ventilations

Monitor ECG and BP

Adjust administration rate to

Use caution when administering

Use lower doses to reverse respiratory

Medications to maintain cardiac output and for postresuscitation

6 x body weight (in kg) = mg of drug to add to 100 ml D5W

Alison Shefeler. The HSC Handbook Of Pediatrics. 1992.

Give 1 shock 2 J/kg

Resume CPR immediately

Push hard and fast (100/min)

Bradycardia still causing

Persistent symptomatic bradycardia?

Probable sinus tachycardia

Search for and treat cause

Evaluate QRS duration

Probable supraventricular tachycardia

If IV access readily available:

Expert consultation advised

Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT)

Probable sinus tachycardia

Assess and support ABCs.

Probable supraventricular tachycardia

Vagal maneuvers (ice bag over the infant

Consider vagal maneuvers (no delays)

Do not use ocular pressure.

If IV access readily available:

Expert consultation advised

Management of Cyanotic Spell

Morphine sulphate 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV/SC

Management of Heart Failure

Common causes of heart failure:

Management of heart failure due to acute myocarditis

o Sedation: Needed in the initial stages in the form of morphine or

After stabilization of the patient (may take few days):

Reduce IV inotropes gradually

Management of heart failure due to shunt lesions (VSD, PDA, AVSD)

Spironolactone: 2 mg/kg/day q12h

Captopril: (vasodilator/reduction of afterload)

Digoxin can be started in some cases of heart failure in infants