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Identity and identification at work

Organizational Psychology Review
Article January 2016
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Organizational
Psychology
Article Review
Organizational Psychology Review

2016, Vol. 6(3) 215247
Identity and identification The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permission:
at work sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/2041386615584009
opr.sagepub.com
Darja Miscenko
Maastricht University, The Netherlands; The University of Western Australia,
Australia
David V. Day
The University of Western Australia, Australia
Abstract
Work identity and identification have generated a great deal of interest in the fields of organiza-
tional psychology and organizational behavior. Given several theoretical perspectives available to
study work identity, the field has developed in somewhat haphazard fashion with independent
streams of research investigating the same or highly similar phenomena. In the present review, we
provide a broad overview of theoretical approaches and topics in work identity literature to
inform and guide future integration. We review over 600 published articles and organize the lit-
erature along two dimensions: level of identity inclusiveness (i.e., individual, interpersonal, and
collective) and static/dynamic approaches to identity change. Within each review category, a brief
summary of extant research is provided, along with suggestions for future research.
Keywords
Multiple identities, occupational identity, organizational identification, team identification, work
identity
Identity has emerged as a topic of keen interest identity and consider it a prominent factor behind
in management and organizational studies. many work-related behaviors. Sociologists and
Scholars across myriad disciplines, including psychologists have considered various aspects of
organizational psychology and organizational individuals self-concept for more than a century,
behavior, are intrigued with the construct of but organizational researchers have turned their
Paper received 10 January 2015; revised version accepted 2 April 2015.
Corresponding author:
Darja Miscenko, Department of Organisation & Strategy, School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University,
Tongersestraat 53, 6211 LM Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Email: dmiscenko@gmail.com
Downloaded from opr.sagepub.com at University of Western Australia on July 15, 2016

216 Organizational Psychology Review 6(3)
attention to the topic only relatively recently work identity. In a concluding section, we
(Sveningsson & Alvesson, 2003). Because of broaden the lens to review theory and research
the various theoretical perspectives available to that consider multiple identities, which presents
study identity, the field of work identity studies a more complex picture of identities at work.
has developed in somewhat haphazard fashion.
As a result, there is an increasingly vast, het-
erogeneous, and fragmented body of literature.
Defining work identity
Even more troubling, researchers working with People spend a considerable portion of their
a specific conceptualization of identity rarely lives at work or otherwise engaged in work-
consider the work of colleagues who have related activities. Correspondingly, organiza-
adopted different theoretical lenses (Alvesson, tions are often crucial in shaping a persons
2010). If we are to advance the field, there must identity (Elsbach, 1999). There is a dynamic
be a recognized need to engage in informed interaction between identity and work envir-
conversations across field and paradigmatic onments such that they influence each other
boundaries (Brown, 2015, p. 23). reciprocally. Recent research suggests that not
In the present review of work identity liter- only are individuals inclined to choose occu-
ature we attempt to make sense of and structure pations that correspond to their innate traits, but
the studies published thus far to encourage and occupational environments can also motivate
facilitate these conversations. We acknowledge change in personal traits and identity (Wille &
that several insightful reviews have been pub- De Fruyt, 2014). Identity can influence work
lished on the topic of work identity and iden- environments as the perception of misalignment
tification in the last decade (e.g., Alvesson, between ones preferred work identity and work
Ashcraft, & Thomas, 2008; Ashforth, Harrison, situation can influence attempts to change the
& Corley, 2008; Brown, 2015; Haslam & environment through job crafting (Kira & Balkin,
Ellemers, 2005; Ramarajan, 2014; van Dick, 2014). It is also the case that a strong professional
2004; van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De identity can be a source of job satisfaction and
Cremer, & Hogg, 2004). Nonetheless, these sense of accomplishment (Pearson, Hammond,
reviews either offer in-depth accounts of certain Heffernan, & Turner, 2012). Given this evidence,
aspects of work identity (e.g., identity work) or it is not surprising that work identity and identi-
consider just one of the available theoretical fication are generating interest among scholars in
lenses to study work identity (e.g., social various fields and from different traditions.
identity theory). What we hope to accomplish is For the purpose of the present review, we
to provide the reader with insight into the var- define work identity as the collection of meanings
ious topics and theories discussed to date in the attached to the self by the individual and others in
literature and facilitate future work across a work domain (Gecas, 1982). These meanings
topical and theoretical boundaries. We accom- can be based on unique individual characteristics,
plish this aim by reviewing peer-reviewed group membership, or social roles (Ashforth,
journal articles published on the topic of work 2001). For example, grounded in symbolic
identity and identification. interactionism, identity theory argues that iden-
We first introduce the concept of identity and tity is defined by the different social roles that an
its main characteristics, then present the frame- individual holds (Gecas, 1982; Mead, 1934).
work used to structure the review, and suggest Because each role (and thus identity) is associated
directions for future research. This framework with certain social expectations, these roles pro-
is based on two dimensions: levels of identity vide structure as well as meaning to human
inclusiveness (individual, interpersonal, collec- behavior (Stryker & Burke, 2000). Identities may
tive) and static versus dynamic approaches to be represented as cognitive schemas that store

Miscenko and Day 217
information and meanings attached to a particular level of inclusiveness at which it is constructed

role (Kihlstrom, Beer, & Klein, 2003). Thus, (see also van Knippenberg et al., 2004). Levels
identity serves as a framework to interpret of identity inclusiveness and levels of analysis
experiences (Stryker & Burke, 2000). People are not to be confused, as the former describe
tend to attach positive value to their identities, how someone conceives identity, whereas the
as identity relates to their sense of self-worth latter refer to identity at higher levels than the
(Gecas, 1982; Hogg & Terry, 2000). There- individual (e.g., group, organization; Ashforth,
fore, individuals strive to maintain positive Rogers, & Corley, 2011). Work identity is
identities even when their work fails to become typically conceived at three different levels of
a source of beneficial identity (Dutton, Roberts, inclusiveness: individual, interpersonal (rela-
& Bednar, 2010; Lucas, 2011). In contrast, tional), and collective (Brewer & Gardner,
social identity theory (Tajfel, 1982) postulates 1996). Work identity at the individual level
that an individuals identity at work is derived focuses on the unique traits and characteristics
from membership in a collectivity, through a that differentiate someone from others in a
process of identification, as people define them- work domain. Interpersonal work identity is
selves and enable others to define them based derived from relationships with significant
on the groups to which they belong (Hogg, others, such as ones boss or peers in the
2003). Thus, identification with the social group workgroup. Finally, collective identity is based
involves a certain degree of depersonalization on self-perceived organizational and social
(Stets & Burke, 2000). category membership. Although both inter-
Unfortunately, there is a lack of clear distinc- personal and collective identities include others
tion between identity and identification in the in the self-definition, they differ with regard to
literature with theorists tending to treat the the quality of these social connections. Inter-
constructs as synonyms (e.g., Brewer & Gardner, personal identities are constructed based on
1996). It is difficult to draw a sharp distinction personalized bonds in dyadic relationships,
that encompasses the various levels of identity including those established in small, face-to-
inclusiveness (individual, relational, collective). face work groups. Collective identities are
For example, Sluss and Ashforth (2007) distin- derived from common identification with some
guish relational identity and relational identifi- symbolic group and thus do not require per-
cation, but do not discuss the distinction at the sonal relationships. Identities at different levels
other levels (i.e., individual, collecitve). In an of inclusiveness are distinct in their social
attempt to draw a clearer distinction between motivation, type of self-knowledge, and source
identity and identification, we propose that of self-worth (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).
identity refers to the meaning of a particular entity Finally, identity activation at the specific level
(i.e., role, organization) that is internalized as part of inclusiveness depends on organizational
of the self-concept. Identification is a cognitive/ context (e.g., task and reward structures;
psychological/emotional attachment that an Brickson, 2000). Thus, we use levels of identity
individual makes to a role, team, organization, inclusiveness as a first organizing principle for
or other entity. From this perspective, identity our review of work identity literature.
is more internally oriented whereas identifica- Another key point shaping the structure of
tion is more externally oriented. the present review is the issue of identity sta-
bility versus fluidity (Brown, 2015). Scholars
offer different perspectives, which often reflect
Structure of the review a preference for the particular theory that guides
A key point that shapes how we structure the identity conceptualization. For example, social
present review is that identity may differ in the psychologists generally describe identity as a

relatively stable set of meanings and argue that as they pertain to holding a single identity, and
this degree of stability is required for employ- thereafter address the more complex perspec-
ees to function effectively (Stryker & Burke, tives that consider multiple identities.
2000). In contrast, discursive sociologists and Before reporting the outcomes of our review,
postmodernists deny the notion of enduring and three caveats are in order. First, we consider
stable identity (Brown, 2015) and view identity work identity at multiple levels of inclusive-
as always provisional and contested (Alvesson ness, but our level of analysis focuses on the
et al., 2008). According to the latter perspec- individual.1 In other words, we mainly review
tive, employees are portrayed in a constant state studies that consider identity as nested within a
of liminality (Beech, 2011), while engaged in focal individual. As such, we include articles
dynamic construction of the self. For example, that discuss an individuals identification with
gender or ethnicity may be viewed as an the specific occupational group, but exclude
ascribed social identity that hardly changes articles that investigate occupational identity at
throughout an individuals life (Deaux, 1991); the group level. Similarly, we exclude any
however, the meaning attached to this identity articles that discuss organizational identity, but
by an individual and others can be more fluid include articles on individuals identification
(see Ely & Meyerson, 2010). In an attempt to with the organization. Second, a degree of
consolidate these views, it has been proposed simplification was required to conduct and
that identities are mutable to varying degrees report our review of the literature. Many studies
(Markus & Wurf, 1987). Although compre- draw upon several theoretical perspectives, but
hensive treatment of the arguments on the we attempted to identify the dominant focus in
changing nature of identity is beyond the scope each article for the purpose of classification.
of this review, we use static (i.e., little or no We also recognize that several main approaches
change) and dynamic categories as the second in the study of work identity outlined here do
organizing principle in our review. not cover the full range and spectrum of the
It is also the case that identity is multi- literature available on this topic (see Alvesson,
dimensional, consisting of many different yet 2010). Given the state of the work identity lit-
interconnected subidentities. Although indi- erature, which at best can be best described as
viduals typically hold several subidentities, fuzzy, we emphasize the value of parsimony in
only one is believed to be active at any given an attempt to organize the current trends and
point of time (Lord & Brown, 2004; Markus & paradigms with an overarching goal of encoura-
Wurf, 1987). For example, the salience of a ging authors to look beyond their preferred con-
social group increases the identification with a ceptualization of identity. Third, our review is
relevant social category (van Dick, Wagner, focused on individual work identity in the context
Stellmacher, & Christ, 2005). In addition, of so-called traditional work, which is char-
identities differ with regard to identity salience acterized by a predefined compensation scheme
or the level of importance an individual places and work schedule, hierarchical organizational
on a particular identity (Ashforth, 2001; Stryker structure, and clearly defined job positions and
& Serpe, 1994). Higher levels of identity sal- responsibilities. Therefore, we exclude studies on
ience mean that there is a greater likelihood that identity among entrepreneurs, self-employed,
identity will be more often invoked across a and employees of not-for-profit organizations,
variety of situations (Stryker & Burke, 2000). whose work lacks some or all of these charac-
We discuss those studies that investigate several teristics (e.g., students). In addition, we also
identities (i.e., multiple identities) in a separate, exclude leader identity and identification litera-
concluding section of the review. This allows us ture, partly because of the ambiguous and con-
to introduce different theoretical perspectives tested nature of leader identity (e.g., DeRue,

250 90
80
200 70
60
150
50
40
100
30
50 20
10
0 0
1996 - 2000 2001 - 2005 2006 - 2010 2011 - now
Individual work identity Interpersonal work identity
Organizational identification Occupational identity
Multiple identities Total number of work identity articles
Figure 1. The number of articles published on work identity and identification after 1995 in total and by
review category.
Ashford, & Cotton, 2009), and refer interested To sort and analyze the identified literature
readers to separate reviews of this literature we engaged in several rounds of inductive and
(Ibarra, Wittman, Petriglieri, & Day, 2014; van deductive coding. First, articles were coded
Knippenberg et al., 2004). inductively to identify main topics (categories)
that emerged as we systematically analyzed the
abstracts. Second, articles were assigned a
Methodology predefined category (individual identity, inter-
To get the most comprehensive overview of personal identity, organizational identification,
the published studies in the domain of work occupational identity, and multiple identities),
identity and identification, we conducted an derived from the main topics identified in the
extensive search using Business Source Pre- first coding round and review of the relevant
mium and Web of Science databases. In both literature. Apart from assigning a topical cate-
databases, we narrowed our search to peer- gory, we also coded for type of study (quanti-
reviewed journal articles published up to and tative, qualitative, theoretical (conceptual/
including August 2014. Prior to the search, we review), mixed, methodological). In addition,
identified a list of keywords: work identity, information on journal name, year of publica-
professional identity, occupational identity, tion, title, authors, and abstract were recorded.
organizational identification. We searched for Concluding the second coding round, the final
peer-reviewed journal articles that included sample for this review consists of 6422 articles.
the keywords in the title and/or abstract. The Figure 1 graphically presents the timing of
initial search uncovered approximately 900 publication for the articles included in the
published, peer-reviewed articles. present review in total and by review category.

Table 1. Top 15 most popular outlets in the field of work identity and identification by the number of articles
published since 1956 and their relative importance
# Journal Total number of articles %
1 Human Relations 45 7.0%

2 Academy of Management Review 28 4.4%
3 Academy of Management Journal 26 4.0%
4 Journal of Organizational Behavior 20 3.1%
5 Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology 18 2.8%
6 International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 2.6%
7 Organization Science 17 2.6%
8 Administrative Science Quarterly 17 2.6%
9 British Journal of Management 16 2.5%
10 Journal of Applied Psychology 15 2.3%
11 Gender, Work & Organization 15 2.3%
12 Journal of Business Ethics 14 2.2%
13 Journal of Applied Social Psychology 13 2.0%
14 Management Communication Quarterly 11 1.7%
15 Organization Studies 11 1.7%
Note. Percentage is calculated by using the total number of articles in a particular outlet divided by the total number of
articles reviewed, that is, 642.
The first article appeared in 1956 (Becker & identity and identification literature, including
Carper), but due to a very small number of suggestions for future research in each review
articles published prior to 1995 (41 in total), we category. In the following sections, we provide
chose to plot the distribution from 1996 to 2014 an account of the literature identified in each of
for better representation of the data. We note the the review categories.
exponential growth of work identity literature
over the last decade in all review categories,
except interpersonal and occupational identity. Individual-level work identity
Table 1 lists the top 15 outlets for work identity In this section, we review themes emerging
literature by the total number of articles published from our analysis of the articles investigating
over the years and the relative importance of a work identity at the individual level. Studies
particular outlet. We note many of the top-tier in this category represent roughly one quarter
organizational psychology and organizational of all articles reviewed (23%, see Table 2).
behavior (OB) journals have served as high- We first discuss articles that treat work iden-
quality outlets for the publication of identity and tity from a static perspective then later con-
identification studies. This highlights the impor- sider studies that view work identity as more
tance of the work identity topic to the organiza- dynamic and fluid.
tional psychology and OB scholarly communities.
Table 2 presents the types of studies included
in the present review. Overall, nearly 80% of Static approaches
articles were empirical with quantitative meth- Role transitions. Most of the studies that consider
odologies dominating the field of work identity work identity from a static perspective use
and, especially, identification. We refer to this identity theory as the theoretical foundation
table throughout our review. Finally, Table 3 (i.e., treat identity as defined by the work role).
lists top 10 insights from our review of work From this theoretical perspective, identity is

Table 2. Number of articles by review category and the type of study
Type of studya
Review category Totalb Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Theoretical
Individual work identity 149 (23%) 83 (56%) 22 (15%) 5 (3%) 39 (26%)

Interpersonal work identity 38 (6%) 1 (3%) 31 (82%) 6 (16%)
Organizational identification 193 (30%) 13 (7%) 140 (73%) 6 (3%) 33 (17%)
Occupational identity 38 (6%) 22 (58%) 8 (21%) 8 (21%)
Multiple identities 224 (35%) 75 (33%) 91 (41%) 12 (5%) 45 (20%)
Totalb 642 194 (30%) 292 (46%) 23 (4%) 131 (20%)
Note. Quantitative study type includes quantitative empirical studies, methodological (i.e., measurement) articles, and meta-
analyses. Theoretical type includes conceptual articles and narrative reviews. Some numbers in the rows and columns do
not match up with a total because methodology was not reported.
a
Percentage is calculated by using the number of articles per type of study/review category divided by the total number of
articles in review category (i.e., for individual work identity: 149).
b
Percentage is calculated by using number of articles per review category or type of study divided by the grand total number
of reviewed articles (i.e., 642).
Table 3. Summary of primary learnings and future research needs
1 The topics of identity and identification at work have captured an increasing attention of organizational
psychology and organizational behavior scholars in the recent decades (over a 600% growth rate in
publications over the last 20 years, see Figure 1). As a result, this body of literature is increasingly vast,
heterogeneous, and fragmented.
2 Work identity and identification literature can be classified along two dimensions: level of identity
inclusiveness (i.e., individual, interpersonal, and collective) and static versus dynamic view on identity
changes (page 3).
3 Articles on individual-level work identity rely on a variety of theoretical perspectives (e.g., identity theory,
identity work, narrative identity, discourse analysis), resulting in a stream of literature that is
disorganized, but also heavily skewed toward qualitative methodologies (see Table 2).
4 Future research on individual-level work identity should focus on consolidation of different theoretical
perspectives along the present overlap lines, for example, the contextual influence on identity
reconstruction.
5 There are a relatively small number of articles published on interpersonal-level (relational) work identity
(see Table 2) and virtually no studies that would consider this type of identity from a dynamic
perspective. Research in this domain is further hindered by the ambiguous definition of team
identification (page 13).
6 Future research on interpersonal-level work identity should focus on the relational component of team
identification and consider its fluctuations over time.
7 The most popular type of collective-level identity (i.e., organizational identification) has been extensively
studied, producing a wealth of knowledge on its antecedents, outcomes, and interaction effects.
Notwithstanding the large number of studies (see Table 2), underlying process issues, such as
development of organizational identification over time, remain largely ignored.
8 Future research on organizational identification should move from a static to a more dynamic views of the
phenomenon. Qualitative methodology (at present largely ignored, see Table 2) could constitute a first
step in that direction.
9 Literature on multiple identities at work, which either considers an interaction of different work-related
identities or of work and nonwork identities, represents the largest review category (see Table 2).
Studies suggest that different foci of identification at work have both unique and synergetic predictive
power of work outcomes. The focus on identity has also helped researchers investigate the effects of
diversity in the workplace.
10 Future research on multiple identities should focus on deepening our understanding of the interaction
between different work-related identities. In addition, as with many other review categories, more
research adopting a dynamic perspective on multiple identities is needed.

seen as a relatively stable and enduring con- Role transitions and associated changes
stellation of attributes (Ibarra, 1999, p. 765), in identity can be vertical (moving up the
which implies that identity changes are rare and hierarchical ladder) or horizontal. A study of
usually imposed. Because identity theory views repatriated employees found that they experi-
identity as closely linked with a work role, ence a considerable amount of identity strain,
identity changes are profoundly related to role as their strong international employee identity
transitions. Initially, when an individual assumes leads to perceived job deprivation compared to
a new role, he or she engages in symbolic noninternational employees (Kraimer, Shaffer,
interactions with others to negotiate meaning of Harrison, & Ren, 2012). The issue of identity
these roles (Ibarra, 1999). This negotiation cre- loss following a role transition has yet to be
ates a consistent set of behaviors that reinforce addressed in much detail in the literature. A
the identity (Stryker & Burke, 2000). If the role recent conceptual paper (Conroy & OLeary-
remains stable, the associated identity remains Kelly, 2014) proposed a model of employee
unchanged. reactions following the loss of work-related
We identified several key themes related to identity, whereby cognitive and emotional
role transitions. First, studies suggest that work processing in the domains of loss/restoration
identity will change (or rather will be created) orientation is required for identity recovery.
once an individual assumes a new job position. Besides formal role transitions, a worker
An early study investigated the relationships might experience identity change following
between identity stress individuals experienced modification of role content due to contextual
in the first months on the new job and overall influences. Results from a study of vocational
job satisfaction (Mansfield, 1972). Friendships teachers reactions to a major institutional
formed with other new recruits had a positive reform suggest that employees adopt three major
effect in decreasing this identity stress. Find- orientations (resistance, approval, ambiguous),
ings from a longitudinal data of business school which further influence the reconstruction of
graduates taking up their first job suggest that their professional identity (Vahasantanen &
different socialization tactics influence role Etelapelto, 2009). Whereas this study empha-
ambiguity, role conflict, and stress (Ashforth & sized individual agency in identity reconstruc-
Saks, 1996). A larger number of studies inves- tion through reliance on personal resources, a
tigated changes in identity following a role different investigation into multilevel influ-
transition. In her foundational study, Ibarra ences on the reconstruction of role identity
(1999) proposed that young professionals tran- among health care professionals emphasized
sitioning to senior roles negotiate their new the role of institutional environment as con-
role identity by constructing provisional pro- straining individual agency (Chreim, Williams,
fessional identities. Her findings suggest that in & Hinings, 2007). The authors suggest that
this process individuals observe suitable role institutional environment constrains identity
models, experiment with provisional identities, negotiation by affecting organizational arrange-
and evaluate internal/external feedback. Simi- ments and providing different resources for
larly, Tansley and Tietze (2013) in their study identity adaptation and adoption. Several studies
of accountants participating in an organizations further examined changing organizational con-
talent management program found that recon- texts, such as an introduction of information
struction of professional identity is a necessary technology in the workplace, which influence
element to transition into a more senior role, as role definitions and incur changes in work
participants are required to develop and display identities. In their longitudinal study of the
appropriate identities consistent with norma- introduction of new e-business system for pur-
tive organizational assumptions. chase decisions, Eriksson-Zetterquist, Lindberg,

and Styhre (2009) demonstrate that technol- it is proposed that based on an individuals
ogy changed the established organizational subjective appraisal of an identity threat, they
practices among purchasing professionals, can respond either by protecting their identity
which triggered the redefinition of their pro- (e.g., denigrate the experience that could
fessional identity. potentially harm identity) or by restructuring
their identity (e.g., decrease the importance of
Identity threats. The concept of identity threat the threatened identity). Some of these propo-
denotes contextual factors that affect identity sitions have been supported empirically. For
change. Formally, identity threats are defined example, victims of adult bullying engage in
as experiences appraised as indicating poten- identity stabilizing, sensemaking, reconciling,
tial harm to the value, meanings, or enactment repairing, grieving, and restructuring depending
of an identity (Petriglieri, 2011, p. 644). In her on the appraisal of the identity threat (Lutgen-
review of the identity threat literature, Pet- Sandvik, 2008). Importantly, identity threats
riglieri identifies three possible sources of can be detrimental not only for the focal indi-
identity threats: the individual, others, or the vidual, but also for those around him or her.
material world. Within the individual, an Aquino and Douglas (2003) find that individ-
identity threat can arise in the case of incon- uals who often experience identity threats are
sistency (conflict) between different iden- more likely to engage in antisocial behavior
titiesan issue that is discussed in a final toward coworkers.
section on multiple identities. One can also
experience identity threat when the meaning Identity motives. Several studies discussed the
associated with a particular identity is incon- properties of individual-level work identity. In
sistent with actions. Morales and Lambert identity theory, self-verification is a need to
(2013) show how work tasks can become a affirm ones identity by expressing it through
source of identity threat when they are per- identity-relevant behavior (Burke, 1991). Stud-
ceived as incompatible with professional iden- ies show that employees who are unable to
tity among accountants. Others actions such as verify their professional identity by fulfilling
workplace bullying (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2008) work tasks that are central to role definition will
can be perceived as harmful to an individuals experience a range of negative individual out-
identity and thus constitute an identity threat. comes including negative affect (Gabriel, Die-
Organizational changes, such as mergers and fendorff, & Erickson, 2011) and emotional
acquisitions, also constitute a potential source of exhaustion (Haines & Saba, 2012). The negative
others identity threat (van Dijk & van Dick, effects produced by the lack of self-verification
2009). The final source is the material world, can be diminished through some relatively sim-
which Petriglieri (2011) conceptualizes as trau- ple techniques. Employees who were encour-
matic events such as an acquired hearing loss aged to create their own job titles reported a
(Jennings, Southall, & Gagne, 2013). Material decrease in emotional exhaustion as compared to
world can also be conceptualized somewhat a control group and this relationship was medi-
differently. In a study among employees moved ated by self-verification (Grant, Berg, & Cable,
to a newly established office, employees per- 2014). Self-verification motivates people to
ceived their workplace identities threatened seek affirmation for their identity from peers
because the surroundings constrained their dis- (Swann, 1983). A recent conceptual article
play of personal possessions (Elsbach, 2003). introduced the notion of internal identity
Petriglieri (2011) also proposes a model of asymmetry experienced by employees when
cognitive processes and responses that indi- their colleagues do not recognize their work-
viduals use to resolve an identity threat. Briefly, related identities (Meister, Jehn, & Thatcher,

2014). Empirical evidence suggests that mutual Dynamic approaches

identity verification in a workgroup context
Scholars who adopt a more dynamic approach
predicts greater cooperation and performance
to studying work identity argue for the inher-
(Milton & Westphal, 2005). The authors also
ent instability and ambiguity of contemporary
suggest that the similarity of the extent to
organizational contexts (Alvesson, 2010).
which two individuals have verified their
Because social processes derived from these
identity vis-a`-vis peers predicts the level of
changing contexts are complex, recursive,
cooperation between these individuals. Simi-
reflexive, and play an important role in iden-
larly, identity verification by important others
tity development, identity is viewed as con-
in the work team was positively related to
stantly under construction (Ybema et al.,
individual creativity and satisfaction and
2009). In addition, literature in this stream
negatively related to absenteeism (Thatcher &
typically relies on postmodernist ideas to dis-
Greer, 2008).
cuss identity construction and negotiation. A
In contrast to self-verification, whereby
popular notion is identity work, defined as
individuals attempt to affirm both positive and
people being engaged in forming, repairing,
negative aspects of their identity (Swann,
maintaining, strengthening, or revising their
1983), self-enhancement motive drives indi-
identities (Sveningsson & Alvesson, 2003,
viduals to promote only the positive aspects of
p. 1165). Confusingly, scholars have used the
identity and avoid the negative ones (Sedikides,
term identity work to refer to either ongoing
1993). For example, individuals efforts to
engagement with ones identity construction
portray a positive work identity are associated
or identity change following transitions and
with workplace time commitment (Kuhn,
crises (Alvesson, 2010). As we have discussed
2006). Other studies investigated the strategies
the latter, here we review studies that consider
individuals adopt to enhance their workplace
a more or less ongoing process of identity
identity. Anteby (2008) studied how managerial
construction.
lenience that allows employees to use work
In our review of the identity work literature,
time and resources to produce artefacts for
we identified two predominant theoretical app-
personal use enhances workers identities. In a
roaches: narrative theory and poststructuralism
similar vein, Elsbach (2009) showed how toy
(discourse analysis). Although a narrative can be
designers developed personal signature styles
considered as a form of individual discourse
to affirm their creative professional identity.
(Ybema et al., 2009), the two approaches differ
Self-verification and self-enhancement
with regard to the degree of identity coherence and
motives also predict individual response to
individual agency. The narrative approach advo-
identity threats. In their study of organiza-
cates individual agency in constructing a coher-
tional mergers, van Dijk and van Dick (2009)
ent, integrated, and meaningful identity, whereas
suggest that the use of self-enhancement stra-
poststructuralists view identity as fragmented and
tegies in response to the perceived work-based
fluid, mostly shaped by multiple social discourses
identity threat produces resistance to change.
(Alvesson, 2010).
Self-enhancement also mediates the relation-
ship between identity threat (produced by
strategic organizational change) and employ- Identity narratives. Using a psychological app-
ees voice, whereas self-continuity (a concept roach to identity, some scholars view crafting
similar to self-verification) mediates the rela- and revising identity narratives as a central task
tionship between identity threat induced by of identity work (Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010).
role change and turnover (Schilling, Werr, This stream of research defines identity in line
Gand, & Sardas, 2012). with McAdams (1999): the internalized and

evolving story that results from a persons literature views identity work as mainly regu-
selective appropriation of past, present and lated by the socioorganizational forces con-
future (p. 486). Furthermore, narrative identity stituted in discourse (Alvesson, 2010; Alvesson
work requires both introspection and interaction & Willmott, 2002). As language is dynamic,
with the social partners. An important intro- unstable, and contains many, often contra-
spective attribute of narrating process is coher- dictory, meanings, identity requires constant
ence, as the construction of a personal story changes as it is grounded in the dominant social
should help an individual maintain a sense of discourse (Ybema et al., 2009). An early study
self-coherence (Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010). For in this tradition showed how discourse provides
example, in a qualitative account of narrative the linguistic material for the formation and
identity work following a job loss, Fraher and expression of professional identity, but at the
Gabriel (2014) found that airline pilots relied on same time, an individuals dynamic capacity is
their childhood dreams of flying as an anchor required to use this material (Alvesson, 1994).
during the negotiation of a new work identity, Alvesson emphasizes that contemporary pro-
thereby trying to achieve self-coherence during fessional work is not defined by physical con-
stressful job transitions. The social world helps ditions (e.g., knowledge workers with flexible
to situate narrative identity in a broader narrative work arrangements), which makes social reality
repertoire (Westenholz, 2006) and provides an more ambiguous and increases the significance
audience for the constructed personal story of language in shaping this reality. Studies that
(Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010). A tension can arise adopt a discourse analysis paradigm to inves-
when the social others do not fit with ones tigate identity construction often consider the
narrative, so individuals may renarrate the same role transitions as identity theorists.
characters of others, which consequently affects Coupland (2001) studied graduate trainees
the relationship with them (Beech, Gilmore, during the first 6 months after joining an
Cochrane, & Greig, 2012). Workers may also organization and demonstrated the role of
incorporate the material world in their narratives. dominant organizational discourse constituted
For example, information technology artefacts in norms, culture, and language in the process
can become part of professional identity by of work identity construction. Another study
acting as landmarks in self-narratives around among older workers following loss of
which the self and others are positioned (Stein, employment relied on physical and psy-
Galliers, & Markus, 2013). Finally, several chotherapeutic discourse to position identity
studies in our review investigated narrative work of these employees through the notion of
identity work in response to organizational grief (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2009). Discourse
changes. In their study of knowledge workers, studies also offer an interesting insight into
Mallett and Wapshott (2012) conceptualize identity negotiation at the micro level, such as
organizational change as a source of multi- during meetings. McInnes and Corlett (2012)
plicity, complexity, and contradictions that enact offer a description of identity work process
narrative identity work to mediate between in a routine everyday business meeting and
social and personal identities. Similarly, orga- discover five prevalent identity work forms
nizational changes were found to affect workers to illustrate how discursive issues inform
expectations and trigger major revisions of interactions.
individual narratives to reconnect past experi- A separate stream of literature within the
ence and future expectations (Reissner, 2010). discourse tradition focuses on issues of power
in identity construction. These studies view
Discourse and identity. In line with post- workers identities as being forcefully shaped
structuralist ideas, a different stream of by external forces whereby identity itself is

perceived as less fluid compared to language- Interpersonal-level work identity:

focused studies (Alvesson, 2010). For exam- Group members
ple, in adopting a critical approach to power in
organizations, Covaleski, Dirsmith, Heian, and We identified a small subset of articles that
Samuel (1998) examined how formal control investigated identity at the interpersonal level
practices become encoded in professionals of inclusiveness in a team setting. We did not
identities through organizational discourse. find any studies that addressed this form of
Similarly, discursive construction of profes- work identity from a dynamic perspective;
sional identities was found to be subjected to therefore, we omit such division in this section.
disciplinary processes with power intrinsically In addition, another form of interpersonal work
embedded in organizational routines (Brown & identity is based on the relationship with ones
Lewis, 2011). leader; however, we did not review this stream
In summary, although articles on individual of literature due to reviews inclusion criteria.
work identity rely on different theoretical and As work teams often rely on personal bonds
methodological approaches, there exists a con- and face-to-face communication, an individu-
siderable overlap between different streams of als identification with a work group is located
literature. For example, many of the articles at the relational level of work identity (Brewer
considered the reconstruction of work identity & Gardner, 1996). The personal nature of the
following imposed contextual (i.e., organiza- ties that form a basis for identification with
tional) changes. This suggests that future ones team presumes physical proximity of
research should attempt to develop a more workgroup members. Thus, an interesting
integrated view of individual work identity that issue is team identification in virtual settings.
relies on both identity theory and identity work Fiol and OConnor (2005) proposed a con-
conceptualizations. Two existing studies guide ceptual model of mechanisms and moderating
such integration. First, Pratt, Rockmann, and processes for development of team identifica-
Kaufmann (2006) combine the insights from tion in hybrid and virtual, as compared to
the literature on role transitions, socialization, traditional, teams. Empirical data suggests that
and identity work in a qualitative study of work configurations of geographically dispersed
identity construction among medical residents. teams considerably affect team identification,
The authors find that employees responded such that having all members isolated is more
to workidentity mismatch (the difference beneficial for identification than having several
between what physicians did and who they geographic subgroups (OLeary & Mortensen,
perceived themselves to be) through identity 2010).
customization processes, which formed part of
work learning cycles. Second, Sveningsson and
Alvesson (2003) considered the role of orga-
Measurement
nizational discourses, role expectations, narra- Conceptualization and measurement of a team
tive self-identity, and identity work in the identification construct is a topic of active dis-
process of managerial identity construction and cussion among scholars. For example, Henry,
maintenance. Furthermore, as evident in Table Arrow, and Carini (1999) note that group
2, this literature is presently dominated by identification is often confused with social
qualitative approaches; therefore, additional identity or group cohesion. The authors pro-
consideration for future empirical research posed a tripartite measurement model based on
would be to use quantitative methodologies to sources of team identification: cognitive (social
further generalize and validate the qualitative categorization), affective (interpersonal attrac-
findings. tion), and behavioral (interdependence).

Similarly, van Dick, Wagner, Stellmacher, and conflict between workgroups (Brown & Wil-
Christ (2004) differentiated cognitive, affec- liams, 1984).
tive, evaluative, and behavioral dimensions of
team identification as predictors of different
team-related outcomes. However, it has been Diversity
argued that cognitive and affective dimensions Some studies have considered the intersection
of group identification form one factor, but of diversity and team identification. First, dif-
evaluative dimensions can be split into self- and ferent types of diversity seem to have a negative
other-perceptions (Dimmock, Grove, & Eklund, effect on an individuals identification with the
2005). Finally, workgroup identification could workgroup, including objective and perceived
develop at the relational as well as at the col- age diversity (Ellwart, Bundgens, & Rack,
lective level when employees identify with 2013) and educational diversity (Kearney,
shared characteristics of the workgroup instead Gebert, & Voelpel, 2009). However, other
of with their peers in general (Zhang, Chen, studies find that expertise diversity is detri-
Chen, Liu, & Johnson, 2014). The authors mental for team identification only under cer-
validate a context-specific measure for work- tain conditions, such as goal incongruence (van
group relational and collective identification, der Vegt & Bunderson, 2005). It also seems that
and propose a set of unique antecedents and the negative relationship between diversity and
outcomes for both identification types. For team identification diminishes when individu-
example, Li, Zhang, Yang, and Li (2014) find als hold strong positive beliefs about value of
that collectivism-oriented human resource diversity (van Knippenberg, Haslam, & Platow,
management approach positively affects team- 2007). Interestingly, whereas workgroup diver-
level relational identification among Chinese sity can have a detrimental effect on team
employees. performance, identification might buffer this
effect. Studies find that the relationship between
work experience or expertise diversity and team
Outcomes performance was positively moderated by team
Team identification is positively associated identification (Bezrukova, Jehn, Zanutto, &
with individual effectiveness (Janssen & Thatcher, 2009; van der Vegt, van de Vliert, &
Huang, 2008), team performance (Solansky, Oosterhof, 2003). In addition, team identifica-
2011), and team innovation (Mitchell, Parker, tion can buffer some other negative behaviors
Giles, Joyce, & Chiang, 2012); and negatively in the workgroup. Competition and collective
associated with team conflict (Han & Harms, injustice predicts employees willingness to
2010), and the likelihood of being bullied engage in counterproductive work behavior, but
(Escartn, Ullrich, Zapf, Schluter, & van Dick, less so for the employees who strongly identify
2013). Based on social identity theory, strong with their workgroup (Enns & Rotundo, 2012).
identification with ones workgroup could Similarly, envious employees are likely to
generate negative feelings toward other engage in social undermining behavior when
workgroups (Hogg & Terry, 2000); however, they have lower team identification (Duffy,
whether or not employees have negative feel- Scott, Shaw, Tepper, & Aquino, 2012).
ings toward out-group members does not In summary, we found a very small number
necessarily depend on the strength of work- of studies discussing interpersonal identity in a
group identification. For example, an early team setting (only about 6% of all articles). This
study showed that strong identification with might be due to the problematic and contested
ones workgroup was related to group differ- conceptualization of team identification con-
entiation only when there was perceived struct and its measurement, as discussed. We

encourage future research to reconceptualize social identity theory, Ashforth and Mael
team identification more in line with relational (1989) distinguish the two constructs by pro-
level of identity inclusiveness, which relies posing that organizational identification is
on interpersonal bonds and relationships, and always organization-specific, whereas commit-
clearly distinguish it from team identification at ment is not. Others point out that identification
the collective level of inclusiveness. Zhang relies on self-definition, whereas commitment
et al. (2014) provide first steps in this direction. does not (van Knippenberg & Sleebos, 2006).
Furthermore, present literature on interpersonal Nonetheless, one review notes the growing
work identity in a team setting lacks studies that amount of confusion surrounding the two con-
consider it from a dynamic perspective. Several structs (Ashforth et al., 2008).
conceptual articles have pointed out that the Over time, the construct of organizational
process of relational work identity development identification grounded in social identity theory
is poorly understood (e.g., Fiol & OConnor, was extended. Kreiner and Ashforth (2004) sug-
2005). In addition, intraindividual team identi- gest an expanded model of organizational iden-
fication could dynamically fluctuate, similar to tification, which consists of four dimensions:
other workplace attitudes (e.g., affective com- identification, disidentification, ambivalent
mitment to teams; see Becker, Ullrich, & van identification, and neutral identification. In
Dick, 2013). We found no empirical studies that addition, the authors proposed antecedents that
investigate the change in team identification uniquely relate to different forms of organiza-
over time; therefore, we encourage future tional identification. For example, negative
researchers to consider how interpersonal work affectivity and cynicism positively predict dis-
identity in a team setting forms and develops. identification (when employee defines himself as
not having the same attributes that represent the
organization), but intrarole conflict is positively
Collective-level work identity:
related to ambivalent identification (when
Organizational identification employee simultaneously identifies and dis-
Organizational identification is one of the most identifies with the organization). A different
frequently studied types of work identity pro- approach to enrich the construct of organizational
cesses. Studies in this field primarily rely on identification was proposed by Johnson, Morge-
quantitative methods, which is reflective of the son, and Hekman (2012), who advocate the need
so-called objective nature of social identity the- to differentiate between cognitive and affective
ory. Employees are said to identify with their aspects of organizational identification, and find
organization when they define themselves at that personality traits such as neuroticism and
least partly in terms of what the organization is extraversion differently predict these aspects.
thought to represent (Kreiner & Ashforth, Recently, Galvin, Lange, and Ashforth (2014)
2004, p. 2). Although studies on organizational proposed a construct of narcissistic organiza-
identification first started to appear in the liter- tional identification, whereby an individual sees
ature around the 1970s, this stream of research oneself as core to the definition of the organiza-
really took off after a seminal paper by Ashforth tion, which could potentially lead to behaviors
and Mael (1989) who proposed social identity that exploit the organization for personal benefit.
theory as the new paradigm for advancing
organizational identification studies. Earlier
approaches to organizational identification
Static approaches
conceptualized it in line with organizational Antecedents. Perceived organizational support
commitment, thus creating a large degree of (POS) is one of the more often studied ante-
confusion, which persists today. In line with cedents of organizational identification (e.g.,

Gibney, Zagenczyk, Fuller, Hester, & Caner, on a broad sample across different occupational
2011). Several studies have proposed that POS groups and countries. Among other frequently
was a relatively proximal positive predictor of studied outcomes, organizational identification
organizational identification and mediated the negatively predicts intention to quit (Cole &
relationship between distal outcomes, such as Bruch, 2006; Kumar Mishra, & Bhatnagar,
organizational justice (Cheung & Law, 2008) 2010) and positively predicts job performance
and psychological contract breach (Zagenczyk, (Liu, Loi, & Lam, 2011; Madjar, Greenberg, &
Gibney, Few, & Scott, 2011). Job involvement Chen, 2011). A subset of studies investigated
was among the earliest studied predictors of the potential negative outcomes of organiza-
organizational identification (Hall & Schneider, tional identification. For example, an experi-
1972) and continues to be popular in the recent mental study demonstrated that highly
literature. Employee involvement (con- identified members were more likely to defend
ceptualized as control over office space man- their organization when confronted with evi-
agement or compensation systems) was dence of organizational wrongdoing (Ploeger &
positively related to organizational identification Bisel, 2013). Similarly, a field study found that
(Hunt, 2012; Knight & Haslam, 2010). Further- employees with higher organizational identifi-
more, several studies investigated the predictors cation are more likely to engage in unethical pro-
of organizational identification specifically in the organizational behavior and this relationship is
virtual context. Bartel, Wrzesniewski, and Wie- strengthened by reciprocity beliefs (Umphress,
senfeld (2012) found that physical isolation Bingham, & Mitchell, 2010). Finally, several
negatively predicts organizational identification studies considered the contextual effects of
among virtual employees and this relationship organizational identification. For example,
was mediated by perceived respect. Similarly, organizational identification was found to mod-
Wiesenfeld, Raghuram, and Garud (2001) found erate the relationships between individual value
that virtual employees need for affiliation posi- dimensions (Lipponen, Bardi, & Haapamaki,
tively predicted organizational identification, and 2008) or perceptions of autonomy (Tangirala &
this relationship was moderated by perceived Ramanujam, 2008) and employee voice.
work-based social support. Finally, although it
would be impossible for us to give an overview of Context. We identified a set of studies that
all organizational identification antecedents, we investigated the effect of organizational changes
want to draw attention to one particular study that on organizational identification. Similar to
adopted a non-self-rated predictor. Mael and changes in individual-level work identity fol-
Ashforth (1995) used biodata that quantified lowing role transitions, here organizational
individuals previous experiences to positively identification is treated statically as it is assumed
predict organizational identification among to remain relatively stable after adjustment for the
army recruits, finding that both organizational contextual change. For example, van Dick,
identification and biodata predict subsequent Wagner, and Lemmer (2004) proposed that pre-
attrition. and postmerger identification can be clearly dis-
tinguished as independent constructs, thus indi-
Outcomes. Organizational citizenship behavior viduals do not experience a change in one
(OCB) is the most studied outcome of organi- identity, but rather adopt an entirely new one.
zational identification. Van Dick, Grojean, Furthermore, van Dick et al. (2004) find that
Christ, and Wieseke (2006) offer robust support postmerger identification moderates the rela-
for the hypothesized positive influence of tionship between premerger organizational
organizational identification on OCB by testing identification and employee outcomes, such as
this relationship in several studies, which rely job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Bartels,

Douwes, Jong, and Pruyn (2006) conducted a construct. This is surprising given a large
quasi-experimental case study to investigate the proportion of studies that investigate organi-
difference in expected organizational identifica- zational identification in our review. It seems
tion among employees who would be directly that the overwhelming influence of the social
involved in an upcoming merger versus indirectly identity theory on the theorizing and analytical
involved employees. Their findings suggest that strategies that investigated organizational
the identification with the premerger organiza- identification have left the domain relatively
tion, sense of continuity, and expected utility of static. Even though the theorists of social
the merger predicted expected identification with identity theory emphasize that organizational
the postmerger organization, although the influ- identification can be of dynamic nature (Ash-
ence of communication differed between the two forth, 1998), the empirical work to date has
groups of employees. Overall, literature on largely ignored this possibility. Several theorists
mergers and acquisitions has extensively studied have noted the prevalence of this problem and
changes in organizational identification (e.g., proposed varying methods for studying the
strength, foci) and we refer interested readers to process of organizational identification. For
other specialized reviews on the topic (see example, Ekmekci and Casey (2009) suggest a
Giessner, Ullrich, & van Dick, 2012). cognitive model of organizational identification
A qualitative investigation of organizational grounded in memory and advocate the need for
changes proposed a model of identification longitudinal studies.
transformation at the interaction between an An early longitudinal study examined the
individuals organizational identification and relationship between perceptions of person
organizational identity (Fiol, 2002). The author job and personorganization fit on work out-
proposes that identity transformation happens in comes, including organizational identification
stages and specific linguistic markers and rhetoric (Saks & Ashforth, 1997), where outcomes
techniques symbolize the transition between were measured twice in a 10-month period.
stages. A study of organizational changes at two The authors report a significant positive cor-
Canadian banks adopted a somewhat unconven- relation between the two measures of organi-
tional analytical approachcontent analysis of zational identification (r .75). An
internal organizational publicationsto investi- investigation recently reported on the effects
gate the use of communication strategies to of community and job embeddedness on var-
influence the shift in employees organizational ious job outcomes, including organizational
identification (Chreim, 2002). Given that strong identification (Ng & Feldman, 2014). The
organizational identification can sabotage change authors measured the study variables three
efforts by inducing resistance to change among times over a period of 10 months and used
employees, this study illustrates that management latent growth curve modeling to analyze data.
can use different communication channels to They find an insignificant slope (i.e., change) in
influence the desired change in organizational organizational identification and explain this
identification. Finally, the strength and content finding by the presence of different develop-
of employees organizational identification mental trajectories, but do not elaborate on this
was shown to change following an involuntary or test it formally. Ekmekci and Casey (2011)
job loss (Tosti-Kharas, 2012). studied the development of organizational
identification among a large sample of tempo-
rary workers using computer simulation model-
Dynamic approaches ing and found that over time the strength of
We uncovered few studies that considered organizational identification depends on the
organizational identification as a dynamic frequency of interaction with other members of

the organization and amount of information variety of theoretical arguments and versatile
about the organization an individual receives. methodologies. In the following, we first review
In summary, a major concern with the lit- static approaches to occupational identification,
erature on organizational identification is the and later consider studies that treat it as more
lack of studies investigating underlying process dynamic construct.
issues, such as the formation and development
of organizational identification over time
(Alvesson, 2010). Even if organizational iden-
Static approaches
tification is conceptualized as a relatively stable Recently, Ashforth et al. (2013) proposed to
part of a workers identity, we lack under- extend the expanded model of organizational
standing of how employees come to internalize identification to occupations by empirically
the organization as a part of self-perception. differentiating occupational, ambivalent, and
Similarly, Ashforth et al. (2008) suggest that neutral identification, as well as disidentifica-
researchers should account for the inherent tion. In addition, the authors find unique ante-
dynamism of organizational identification, cedents and outcomes for each of the four types.
which could be characterized by the periods of In terms of occupational identity changes,
both stability and intense transformation. In studies suggest that external influence, such as
addition, future researchers should critically new public management agenda, alters the basis
examine the assumption that organizational for occupational identification among man-
identification is stable. A first step to address agement accountants, induce their resistance
both of these issues could be to adopt qualita- toward changes, and prompt the redefinition of
tive approaches, which currently are under- occupational identity (Jarvinen, 2009). Another
represented in the literature on organizational source of occupational identity change is iden-
identification (only 7% of studies are qualita- tity threats stemming from stigma associated
tive; see Table 2). with certain occupations commonly referred to
as dirty work (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999).
Recently, Ashforth and Kreiner (2014) intro-
Collective-level work identity:
duced the differences between types of dirty
Occupational identification work (i.e., physical, social, and moral), con-
Another form of work-related identity at the sidering how much each type threatens ones
collective level of inclusiveness is occupational occupational identity. Moral dirty work (e.g.,
identification, which is defined as the extent to sex work) was most threatening to identity,
which an individual internalizes the occupa- because it is widely condemned and therefore
tions identity as a valid definition of self requires more defense tactics. Therefore, con-
(Ashforth, Joshi, Anand, & OLeary-Kelly, flicting occupational and societal influences
2013, p. 2427). Occupations are a broader impact whether stigmatized workers experience
social category as they transcend any given identification, disidentification, or ambivalence
workplace; therefore, these represent a more with their occupation (Kreiner, Ashforth, &
ambiguous identification target (Ashcraft, Sluss, 2006).
2013). In contrast to organizational identifi- Because occupational groups potentially
cation literature, where social identity theory transcend national borders, several studies
remains a dominant theorizing approach that investigated whether occupational identifica-
leads authors to view identity as largely static tion might differ between countries. In an early
and primarily use quantitative methodologies narrative review of comparative studies, Bur-
to study the phenomenon, scholars in the rage (1972) argued that occupational identity is
domain of occupational identification adopt a stronger in Britain than in the United States due

to greater other-orientation that characterizes identities, such that it creates a strain between
British culture. However, a study of occupa- normative occupational expectations and social
tional autobiographies found that both British situational demands (Paretti & McNair, 2012).
and German management accountants con- Finally, dynamic negotiation and reproduction
structed common occupational identities out of of occupational identity has been studied
their diverse experiences (Ahrens & Chapman, among dirty workers. Using a critical dis-
2000). Similarly, Caven and Diop (2012) course analysis, Dick (2005) explored how
studied specific antecedents of occupational police officers deal with the moral dilemma of
identification and found that both British and whether or not to use coercive authority. The
French architects rely on professional relation- author shows that police officers engage in
ships as the basis for intrinsic motivation and occupational identity work to resolve differing
professional identity. It seems that growing moral and social orders.
globalization of occupations bring about com-
mon practices allowing professionals to iden-
tify with an occupation that transcends national
Multiple identities at work
borders. As noted earlier, identity is not a unidimen-
sional construct, but typically consists of many
different yet interconnected subidentities. The
Dynamic approaches idea that diverse roles and associated identities
Scholars adopting a dynamic approach argue can present competing or conflicting expecta-
for the inherent dynamism and fluidity of tions has long been recognized in sociology and
occupational identification. Ethnographic social psychology (Stryker & Burke, 2000),
research among restaurant cooks demonstrated dating back to the writing of William James
that workers rely on varied occupational (1890). Literature on multiple identities at work
rhetoric to define their work and identity, represents the largest category of studies in our
therefore occupational identity was socially, review, with roughly one third of all published
temporally, and spatially situated, rather than articles dedicated to the topic (see Table 2).
stable across individuals and situations (Fine, Therefore, having introduced the different
1996). Similar to studies considering individual- approaches used to study a single work identity,
level work identity, authors investigating the we now consider studies that attempt to build a
development of occupational identity adopt a more complex and realistic picture and consider
number of theoretical perspectives. Using a how different identities interact in the work
narrative approach, Lefsrud and Meyer (2012) domain. In a recent review, Ramarajan (2014)
studied the construction of occupational iden- synthesizes the research on multiple identities
tity among environmental professionals, who in organizations by providing an in-depth dis-
struggle to legitimize their expertise within cussion of different theoretical perspectives
organizations. Authors find that professionals (e.g., social psychological, microsociological,
use a variety of ways to establish their identity, psychodynamic, and critical) and proposes a
including knowledge claims, legitimating unifying framework to advance research in this
strategies, emotionality, and metaphors. Man- domain. Whereas her review provides a com-
agement consultants also experience consider- prehensive account of different theoretical tra-
able difficulty in legitimizing their occupation ditions used to study multiple identities, we
and rely on the use of rhetoric and imagery to briefly summarize the main topics discussed in
construct their work identities (Kitay & Wright, this literature.
2007). Institutional discourse also plays a role in We identified two broad issues related to
the construction and enactment of occupational multiple work identities. First, different work-

related identities (e.g., professional identity perceived moral obligations, such that activa-
and organizational identification) interact to tion of universalistic occupational identity
influence important organizational and indi- leads to more principled moral judgment,
vidual outcomes. Second, work identity is whereas particularistic identity allows greater
influenced by, and interacts with, nonwork moral flexibility (Leavitt, Reynolds, Barnes,
identities, specifically, broader social iden- Schilpzand, & Hannah, 2012).
tities (i.e., gender, ethnicity). Nonwork iden-
tities are also influenced by and negotiated in Different levels of inclusiveness. We found that
the work environment (Ramarajan & Reid, workgroup and organization are the most
2013); however, this issue falls outside the frequently studied foci of identification. With
scope of the present review. regard to the relative strength of the two,
several studies reported that workgroup iden-
tification is stronger than organizational
Interaction of different work identities identification and more predictive of job out-
Because organizations are highly complex and comes such as satisfaction, involvement, and
differentiated systems, they offer an individual turnover intentions (e.g., van Knippenberg &
many potential identification targets: work- Schie, 2000). This finding was supported in a
group, organization, occupation (Ashforth meta-analysis (Riketta & van Dick, 2005).
et al., 2008). The majority of studies that Further, workgroup and organizational identi-
consider multiple work identities focus on fication appear to interact: when both are high,
various foci of identification in organizations, employees are more satisfied with their jobs
located at either the same or different levels of and engage in extrarole behaviors (van Dick,
inclusiveness. van Knippenberg, Kerschreiter, Hertel, &
Wieseke, 2008). In addition, strong organiza-
Dual identification. Although many theorists tional identification attenuates the negative
suggest that only one identity is salient at any effect of high team identification on effective
given time, some scholars proposed that indi- intergroup relations (Richter, West, van Dick,
viduals might simultaneously identify with & Dawson, 2006). However, workgroup and
two foci at the same level of inclusiveness organizational identification have different
(e.g., home and client organization)an antecedents: interpersonal interaction, job
arrangement referred to as dual identification. circumstances, and interactional justice pre-
Several antecedents influence dual identifica- dict workgroup identification, but professional
tion at the organizational level. For example, motivation, and procedural and distributive
perceived organizational characteristics were justice predict organizational identification
more closely related to identification with an (Eisenbeiss & Otten, 2008; Olkkonen &
employer, whereas social relations were more Lipponen, 2006). Interestingly, workplace
closely related to identification with a client physical arrangements also predict a type of
organization among contract workers (George identification. Millward, Haslam, and Postmes
& Chattopadhyay, 2005). Dual identity may be (2007) find that assigning work desks leads to
beneficial as it facilitates the resolution of stronger workgroup identification, whereas
intergroup conflicts (Fiol, Pratt, & OConnor, not assigning desks (e.g., hot desking)
2009) but also problematic because differing increases organizational identification.
knowledge content of the two identities at the Several studies investigated the interaction
same level might change employees cogni- between occupational and organizational iden-
tions and behavior. For example, dual occu- tification. Contrary to a positive amplifying
pational identities may differ with regard to interaction in the case of workgroup

identification, occupational identification is identification is a more proximal predictor of

more likely to conflict with organizational affective organizational commitment and
identification (Gouldner, 1957). Empirical mediates the effects of occupational and
findings suggest that strong organizational workgroup identifications (Marique & Stingl-
identification decreases the salience of occu- hamber, 2011).
pational identity and leads lawyers to engage in
unethical behavior (Gunz & Gunz, 2007). In a Identity conflicts. In general, whereas some work
different study, an interaction between occu- identities benefit each other, there are occasions
pational and organizational identification when individuals need to reconcile identity
influenced the relationship between perceived conflicts arising between two or more work
organizational support and employee perfor- identities. Scholars have proposed and studied a
mance, such that it was most positive when variety of strategies individuals use to deal with
organizational identification was high and identity conflicts. In their review of workplace
occupational identification was low (Hekman, identity conflicts, Horton, Bayerl, and Jacobs
Bigley, Steensma, & Hereford, 2009). Similar (2014) distinguish between intra- and interunit
conflict might arise between occupational and conflicts, which have differing roots, mod-
team identification. Preliminary empirical erators, and reconciliation strategies. Beyond
results suggest that whereas team identification this review, we highlight two studies proposing
has a positive influence on the relationship somewhat novel approaches to study workplace
between diversity and team effectiveness, identity conflicts. Pratt and Rafaeli (1997)
occupational identity threat has a negative describe how organizational members use dress
influence (Mitchell, Parker, & Giles, 2011). to negotiate issues inherent to hybrid identities.
Some researchers have assessed the inter- In addition, courage has been proposed as a
actions between three foci of identification. In form of identity work that aims to reconcile
a study of veterinarians, Johnson, Morgeson, multiple identity conflicts (Koerner, 2014).
Ilgen, Meyer, and Lloyd (2006) show that Finally, we note that workplace identity con-
employee versus owner/partner status and flicts may be beneficial for both employees and
organizational context (veterinary or non- the organization if they serve as constructive
veterinary medicine organization) predict forces for individual and organizational change
whether employees will identify mainly with (Horton et al., 2014).
their profession, workgroup, or the organiza-
tion. In a quasi-experimental study, the rela-
tive strength of organizational, workgroup,
Work and social identities
and career identification was related to orga- People inevitably bring their nonwork selves to
nizational differences (public vs. private) and work (Berg, 2002). In particular, this concerns
manipulated differences in the identity fit membership of and identification with highly
(Millward & Haslam, 2013). In a qualitative visible social categories, such as gender. In this
investigation of how employees make sense of section, we review studies that consider the
their identification with different foci, Vough interaction of social and work identities.
(2012) finds that workgroup identification relied
on personal relationships, whereas organiza- Gender. A relatively large set of studies has
tional identification was explained by organi- investigated the relationship between gender
zational ideology, support, and prestige, but and work identities, such as among women in
professional identification was related to pro- stereotypically masculine jobs. First, women
fessional archetypes, work enjoyment, and are less likely to seek occupations that are tra-
professional norms. Finally, organizational ditionally occupied by men, partly due to their

lower identification with such positions (Bar- (Ashcraft, 2005). Overall, it seems that men and
bulescu & Bidwell, 2013). Second, women in women encounter similar challenges in nego-
male-dominated occupations experience iden- tiating their gender identity at work. This pro-
tity tensions due to contradictory expectations position is further supported by the research on
for behaving in a feminine way, but performing home-based work concluding that in this con-
in a masculine way. Studies find that women text both genders experience significant strain
deal with these identity demands by engaging in between their work and family identities
reflexive gender displays and emphasizing the (Marsh & Musson, 2008; Wilson & Greenhill,
most advantageous identity in a given situation 2004).
(Denissen, 2010), employing impression man-
agement tactics and coping strategies during
Ethnicity/race. Some studies have examined the
interpersonal interactions (Hatmaker, 2013), or
accounts of ethnic identity at work. Similar to
adjusting the meaning of gender identity to suit
gendered identity studies, the interaction
the organization (Moore, 1999). Together these
between privileged professional identity and
findings suggest that women actively engage in
stigmatized cultural identity might increase the
identity negotiation to avoid marginalization,
identity strain among employees (Slay &
but also benefit from their dual identification
Smith, 2011). Ethnic identity can become more
with gender and profession. Beyond the nor-
salient through ethnic assignation and ethnic
mative characteristics of stereotypically mas-
identification, which further affect workplace
culine occupations, several studies have also
experiences of minority ethnic employees
discussed embodied physical images as a
(Kenny & Briner, 2013). Some studies also
source of identity conflict for professional
investigated the intersection of ethnic and
women (Trethewey, 1999).
gender identity in organizations. Conceptually,
Researchers have also considered identity
Holvino (2010) proposed that the intersections
tensions among males who occupy female-
of race, ethnicity, gender, and class influence
dominated occupations. Comparisons of males
the process of work identity construction, while
employed in stereotypically masculine or fem-
internal organizational processes such as
inine occupations, such as firefighting and
everyday practices also shape employees
hairdressing, showed that men actively resist
identities. Empirically, Foldy (2012) demon-
gendered stereotypes that do not align with their
strated how interpersonal interactions within an
gender identity (Hall, Hockey, & Robinson,
organization contribute to the construction and
2007). Similarly, men entering into occupations
expression of worker race and gender identities,
traditionally undertaken by women experience
emphasizing that work identity construction
misalignment between their occupational and
can happen without intentional effort by indi-
gender identity, such that they need to rene-
vidual or organization.
gotiate one of those identities (Lupton, 2000).
Men also experience identity strain due to
increasing feminization of some professions. Group diversity. Workgroup and organizational
For example, males in the advertising industry diversity is another area of scholarly interest
were found to restructure gender relations and that has considered the role of different social
interactions at the workplace to restore sense of identities among employees. As we have
masculinity (Alvesson, 1998). Similarly, orga- already considered studies that investigate the
nizational efforts to induce crew empowerment influence of diversity on team identification,
were found to threaten pilot identityspecifi- here we focus on studies that specifically con-
cally the masculinity associated with this pro- ceptualize diversity through the notion of social
fessionand this led pilots to resist the changes identity.

Diversity can be both a benefit and a chal- remain in our understanding of how multiple
lenge. Studies that consider positive effects of identities interact. For example, considering the
diversity suggest that acknowledging employ- different foci of identification, the empirical
ees nonwork identities can benefit both indi- evidence indicates that whereas the interaction
viduals and organizations (Berg, 2002). For between workgroup and organizational identi-
example, because identity can be conceptualized fication is positive, occupational identification
as a knowledge structure, integration of work appears to negatively interact with (i.e., inhibit)
and social identities (i.e., engineer and Asian) organizational identification. It is not clear why
can lead to a better creative performance due to strong identification with ones occupation
simultaneous accessibility of two identity- prevents individuals from incorporating the
related knowledge domains (Cheng, Sanchez- organization into their self-definition, and vice
Burks, & Lee, 2008). Social identities can also versa. In addition, research on the interaction
be problematic. Chattopadhyay, Tluchowska, between employees work and personal iden-
and George (2004) suggest that based on self- tities is in its infancy and offers many inter-
enhancement motives, employees of high- esting opportunities for future exploration (e.g.,
status demographic categories (male, White) Kreiner, Hollensbe, & Sheep, 2006). Second,
are more likely to identify with their demo- although there are many studies that investigate
graphic category than their workgroup given the combinations of different identities (i.e.,
demographic dissimilarity, whereas the reverse identification foci, dual identification), there
is true for lower status employees. Demographic are virtually no studies that adopt a dynamic
dissimilarity also negatively affects organiza- approach as to how identities develop over time
tional identification (Gonzalez & DeNisi, 2009). in relation to one another. Future researchers
The negative effects of diversity become espe- should investigate whether, for example, an
cially pronounced when social identity is highly individual first forms a workgroup identifica-
salient, for example, gender identity salience tion that consequently spills over to form an
was found to strengthen the relationship between organizational identification, or the process is
group gender composition and workgroup rela- reverse (see also Marique & Stinglhamber,
tional conflict (Randel, 2002). However, lack of 2011).
organizational gender diversity negatively
affects minority groups. Ely (1995) found that a
relatively small proportion of senior women in a
Conclusions
given organization is associated with the con- The primary aim of the present review was to
struction of gender identity among female offer a comprehensive examination of pub-
employees, such that sex roles become more lished conceptual and empirical literature in
stereotypical and prompt women to respond to the domain of work identity. Given the recent
these constraints. Overall, gender diversity and explosive growth of the work identity and
organizational performance were found to have a identification literature in the field of organi-
curvilinear (inverted U-shape) relationship (Ali, zational psychology and OB, we find the cur-
Kulik, & Metz, 2011) reflecting both positive rent state of this literature to be disorganized
and negative effects of gender diversity in at best. By discussing a variety of topics,
organizations. theoretical perspectives, and methodological
In summary, literature on the interaction approaches, we hope to provide identity
between different work and nonwork identities researchers with a more consistent and struc-
represents the largest category in our review. tured understanding of various choices avail-
Nevertheless, several issues remain to be able when undertaking the study of issues
explored by future researchers. First, gaps pertaining to work identity. To accomplish this

aim, we have chosen to structure our review attempt to integrate the existing theoretical
along two main dimensions: level of identity approaches into a unified framework. Future
inclusiveness and static versus dynamic approa- researchers should investigate different forms
ches to identity. A summary of the primary of work identity and identification using a rich
learnings and future research needs identified toolset summarized in the present review.
in this review is presented in Table 3. Given the sheer volume of theory and research
Because we provide specific guidelines for on the topics of work identity and identifica-
future research in the concluding sections fol- tion, it appears that the field is ripe for con-
lowing each reviewed category of work iden- ceptual and empirical breakthroughs that will
tity, we now briefly focus on the big picture likely happen only through more systemic and
implications for the field of work identity and integrative approaches.
identification. One concern is the relatively
large gap in the literature corresponding to the Declaration of Conflicting Interests
relatively small number of studies that consider The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of inter-
work identity from a dynamic perspective. The est with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
evidence suggests that only about 4% of the publication of this article.
quantitatively oriented articles used long-
itudinal data with another 11% reporting using Funding
cross-sectional data with a time lag. Therefore, The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following
the field lacks a deep foundation of research financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
that investigates the process of identity and publication of this article: This work was supported
identification over time. The work identity lit- by the Australian Research Council (Discovery Proj-
erature is not unique in its absence of long- ect Grant #1093209) awarded to David V. Day.
itudinal process research, as indicated by the
Notes
recent calls to incorporate time and process
issues into organizational behavior research 1. Therefore, whenever we refer to level in the
(e.g., Spector & Meier, 2014). For these rea- remainder of this article, we discuss the level of
sons, we urge future researchers to consider identity inclusiveness and not level of analysis,
how work identity and identification form and unless, specified differently.
develop; how do their meanings change, or 2. A full list of references used for this review is
perhaps, get lost; and, how do different work available upon request from the first author.
and nonwork identities interact in the process of
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David V. Day is Winthrop Professor and
measurement development, and nomological net-
Woodside Chair in Leadership and Manage-
work building. Journal of Management, 40(6),
17001731. ment at The University of Western Australia
Business School. Day has core research inter-
ests in the areas of leadership and leadership
Author biographies
development, and is a Fellow of the American
Darja Miscenko is a PhD candidate at the Uni- Psychological Association, Association for
versity of Western Australia. Prior to starting Psychological Science, International Associa-
her PhD studies, Darja obtained two masters tion of Applied Psychology, and the Society for
degrees in International Business and Business Industrial and Organizational Psychology. He is
Research at Maastricht University. Her disser- the Editor of the Oxford Handbook of Leader-
tation research is in the field of leadership ship and Organizations published in 2014.

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Identity and identification at work

Article January 2016

Darja Miscenko David V. Day

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Organizational Psychology Review

Paper received 10 January 2015; revised version accepted 2 April 2015.

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information and meanings attached to a particular level of inclusiveness at which it is constructed

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# Journal Total number of articles %

1 Human Relations 45 7.0%

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Table 2. Number of articles by review category and the type of study

Review category Totalb Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Theoretical

Individual work identity 149 (23%) 83 (56%) 22 (15%) 5 (3%) 39 (26%)

Table 3. Summary of primary learnings and future research needs

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2014). Empirical evidence suggests that mutual Dynamic approaches

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perceived as less fluid compared to language- Interpersonal-level work identity:

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identification, occupational identification is identification is a more proximal predictor of

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framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, identification across work-related targets. Jour-

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