Calculations Used

in Analytical
CHAPTER 4 Chemistry

Avogadros number is one of the most important of all physical constants and is central to the
study of chemistry. A worldwide effort is under way to determine this important number to 1 part
in 100 million. Several spheres like the one shown in the photo have been fabricated specifically
for this task, and it is claimed they are the most perfect spheres in the world. The diameter of
the 10-cm sphere is uniform to within 40 nm. By measuring the diameter, the mass, the molar
mass of silicon, and the spacing between silicon atoms, it is possible to calculate Avogadros
number. Once determined, this number may be used to provide a new standard massthe silicon
kilogram. For more information, see Problem 4-41 and Web Works.

CSIRO Australia I n this chapter, we describe several methods used to compute the results of a quantitative
analysis. We begin by presenting the SI system of units and the distinction between mass
and weight. We then discuss the mole, a measure of the amount of a chemical substance.
Next, we consider the various ways that concentrations of solutions are expressed. Finally, we
treat chemical stoichiometry. You may have studied much of the material in this chapter in
your general chemistry courses.

4A SOME IMPORTANT UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

4A-1SI Units
Scientists throughout the world have adopted a standardized system of units known
SI is the acronym for the French
Systme International dUnits. as the International System of Units (SI). This system is based on the seven funda-
mental base units shown in Table 4-1. Numerous other useful units, such as volts,
hertz, coulombs, and joules, are derived from these base units.
To express small or large measured quantities in terms of a few simple digits, pre-
The ngstrom unit is a non-SI unit of fixes are used with these base units and other derived units. As shown in Table 4-2,
length that is widely used to express the
wavelength of very short radiation such these prefixes multiply the unit by various powers of 10. For example, the wavelength
as X-rays (1 5 0.1 nm 5 10210 m). of yellow radiation used for determining sodium by flame photometry is about
Thus, typical X-radiation lies in the range 5.9 3 1027 m, which can be expressed more compactly as 590 nm (nanometers);
of 0.1 to 10 . the volume of a liquid injected onto a chromatographic column is often roughly
50 3 1026 L, or 50 L (microliters); or the amount of memory on some computer
hard disks is about 20 3 109 bytes, or 20 Gbytes (gigabytes).

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 4ASome Important Units of Measurement"!63

TABLE 4-1
SI Base Units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

In analytical chemistry, we often determine the amount of chemical species

AFP/Getty Images
from mass measurements. For such measurements, metric units of kilograms (kg),
grams (g), milligrams (mg), or micrograms (g) are used. Volumes of liquids are
measured in units of liters (L), milliliters (mL), microliters (L), and sometimes
nanoliters (nL). The liter, the SI unit of volume, is defined as exactly 1023 m3. The For more than a century, the kilogram
milliliter is defined as 1026 m3, or 1 cm3. has been defined as the mass of a single
platinum-iridium standard housed in a
laboratory in Svres, France. Unfortu-
4A-2The Distinction Between Mass and Weight nately, the standard is quite imprecise
It is important to understand the difference between mass and weight. Mass is an relative to other standards such as the
meter, which is defined to be the dis-
invariant measure of the quantity of matter in an object. Weight is the force of at- tance that light travels in 1/299792458
traction between an object and its surroundings, principally the earth. Because gravi- of a second. A worldwide consortium
tational attraction varies with geographical location, the weight of an object depends of metrologists is working on deter-
on where you weigh it. For example, a crucible weighs less in Denver than in Atlan- mining Avogadros number to 1 part
tic City (both cities are at approximately the same latitude) because the attractive in 100 million, and this number may
then be used to define the standard
force between the crucible and the earth is smaller at the higher altitude of Denver.
kilogram as 1000/12 of Avogadros
Similarly, the crucible weighs more in Seattle than in Panama (both cities are at sea number of carbon atoms. For more on
level) because the Earth is somewhat flattened at the poles, and the force of attraction this project, see the chapter opening
photo and Problem 4-41.

TABLE 4-2
Mass m is an invariant measure of
Prefixes for Units the quantity of matter. Weight w is
Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier the force of gravitational attraction
yotta- Y 1024
between that matter and Earth.
zetta- Z 1021
exa- E 1018
peta- P 1015
tera- T 1012
giga- G 109
mega- M 106
kilo- k 103
hecto- h 102
deca- da 101
deci- d 1021
centi- c 1022
milli- m 1023
micro- 1026
nano- n 1029
pico- p 10212
femto- f 10215
atto- a 10218
zepto- z 10221
yocto- y 10224

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 64!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

increases measurably with latitude. The mass of the crucible, however, remains
constant regardless of where you measure it.
Weight and mass are related by the familiar expression

w 5 mg

where w is the weight of an object, m is its mass, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
A chemical analysis is always based on mass so that the results will not depend on
locality. A balance is used to compare the mass of an object with the mass of one or
more standard masses. Because g affects both unknown and known equally, the mass
of the object is identical to the standard masses with which it is compared.
The distinction between mass and weight is often lost in common usage,
and the process of comparing masses is usually called weighing. In addition, the
objects of known mass as well as the results of weighing are frequently called
weights. Always bear in mind, however, that analytical data are based on mass
rather than weight. Therefore, throughout this text, we will use mass rather
than weight to describe the quantities of substances or objects. On the other
hand, for lack of a better word, we will use weigh for the act of determining
NASA

the mass of an object. Also, we will often say weights to mean the standard
masses used in weighing.
Photo of Edwin Buzz Aldrin taken
by Neil Armstrong in July 1969.
Armstrongs reflection may be seen in
Aldrins visor. The suits worn by Arm- 4A-3The Mole
strong and Aldrin during the Apollo 11
mission to the Moon in 1969 appear The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI unit for the amount of a chemical sub-
to be massive. But because the mass of stance. It is always associated with specific microscopic entities such as atoms,
the Moon is only 1/81 that of Earth molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles
and the acceleration due to gravity is as represented by a chemical formula. It is the amount of the specified sub-
only 1/6 that on Earth, the weight of stance that contains the same number of particles as the number of carbon
the suits on the Moon was only 1/6 of
their weight on Earth. The mass of the
atoms in exactly 12 grams of 12C. This important number is Avogadros num-
suits, however, was identical in both ber N A 5 6.022 3 10 23 . The molar mass M of a substance is the mass in
locations. grams of 1 mole of that substance. We calculate molar masses by summing the
atomic masses of all the atoms appearing in a chemical formula. For example,
the molar mass of formaldehyde CH 2O is

1 mol C 12.0 g 2 mol H 1.0 g

MCH2O 5 3 1 3
mol CH2O mol C mol CH2O mol H
1 mol O 16.0 g
1 3
mol CH2O mol O
5 30.0 g/mol CH2O

and that of glucose, C6H12O6, is

Courtesy of David Harbaugh

6 mol C 12.0 g 12 mol H 1.0 g

MC6H12O6 5 3 1 3
mol C6H12O6 mol C mol C6H12O6 mol H
6 mol O 16.0 g
1 3 5 180.0 g/mol C6H12O6
A mole of a chemical species is mol C6H12O6 mol O
6.022 3 1023 atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, ion pairs, or subatomic Thus, 1 mole of formaldehyde has a mass of 30.0 g, and 1 mole of glucose has a mass
particles. of 180.0 g.

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 4ASome Important Units of Measurement"!65

FEATURE 4-1
Unified Atomic Mass Units and the Mole

The masses for the elements listed in the table inside the back cover of this text are
relative masses in terms of unified atomic mass units (u) or daltons (Da). The unified CHALLENGE: Show that the
following interesting and
atomic mass unit (often shortened to just atomic mass) is based on a relative scale in useful relationship is correct:
which the reference is the 12C carbon isotope, which is assigned a mass of exactly 12 u. 1 mol of unified atomic mass
Thus, the u is by definition 1/12 of the mass of one neutral 12C atom. The molar mass units 5 6.022 3 1023 u 5 1 g.
M of 12C is then defined as the mass in grams of 6.022 3 1023 atoms of the carbon-12
isotope, or exactly 12 g. Likewise, the molar mass of any other element is the mass in number of moles n of a
grams of 6.022 3 1023 atoms of that element and is numerically equal to the atomic The
species X of molar mass M is
X
X
mass of the element in u units. Therefore, the atomic mass of naturally occurring given by
oxygen is 15.999 u, and its molar mass is 15.999 g. mX
amount X 5 nX 5
MX
The units work out to
gX
mol X 5
g X/mol X
mol X
5 gX 3
gX
The number of millimoles
(mmol) is given by
gX
mmol X 5
g X/mmol X
mmol X
5 gX 3
gX
Charles D. Winters

When you make calculations

of this kind, you should include
all units as we do throughout
this chapter. This practice often
Approximately one mole of each of several different elements. reveals errors in setting up
Clockwise from the upper left we see 64 g of copper beads, 27 g of equations.
crumpled aluminum foil, 207 g of lead shot, 24 g of magnesium
chips, 52 g of chromium chunks, and 32 g of sulfur powder. The
beakers in the photo have a volume of 50 mL.

4A-4The Millimole
Sometimes it is more convenient to make calculations with millimoles (mmol) rather 1 mmol 5 1023 mol, and
than moles. The millimole is 1/1000 of a mole, and the mass in grams of a millimole, 103 mmol 5 1 mol
the millimolar mass (mM), is likewise 1/1000 of the molar mass.

4A-5Calculating the Amount of a Substance in Moles

or Millimoles
The two examples that follow illustrate how the number of moles or millimoles of a
species can be determined from its mass in grams or from the mass of a chemically
related species.

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66!!CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

EXAMPLE 4-1

Find the number of moles and millimoles of benzoic acid (M 5 122.1 g/mol)
that are contained in 2.00 g of the pure acid.
Solution
If we use HBz to represent benzoic acid, we can write that 1 mole of HBz has a mass
of 122.1 g. Therefore,
1 mol HBz
amount HBz 5 nHBz 5 2.00 g HBz 3 (4-1)
122.1 g HBz
5 0.0164 mol HBz
To obtain the number of millimoles, we divide by the millimolar mass (0.1221
g/mmol), that is,
Molecular model of benzoic acid, 1 mmol HBz
C6H5COOH. Benzoic acid occurs amount HBz 5 2.00 g HBz 3 5 16.4 mmol HBz
widely in nature, particularly in ber- 0.1221 g HBz
ries. It finds broad use as a preserva-
tive in foods, fats, and fruit juices; as
a mordant for dying fabric; and as a
standard in calorimetry and in acid/
base analysis.
EXAMPLE 4-2
What is the mass in grams of Na1 (22.99 g/mol) in 25.0 g of Na2SO4 (142.0 g/mol)?

Solution
The chemical formula tells us that 1 mole of Na2SO4 contains 2 moles of Na1,
that is,
2 mol Na1
amount Na1 5 nNa1 5 mol Na2SO4 3
mol Na2SO4
To find the number of moles of Na2SO4, we proceed as in Example 4-1:
1 mol Na2SO4
amount Na2SO4 5 nNa2SO4 5 25.0 g Na2SO4 3
142.0 g Na2SO4
Combining this equation with the first leads to
1 mol Na2SO4 2 mol Na 1
amount Na 1 5 nNa 1 5 25.0 g Na2SO4 3 3
142.0 g Na2SO4 mol Na2SO4
To obtain the mass of sodium in 25.0 g of Na2SO4, we multiply the number of moles
of Na1 by the molar mass of Na1, or 22.99 g. And so,
22.99 g Na 1
mass Na 1 5 mol Na 1 3
mol Na 1
Substituting the previous equation gives the mass in grams of Na1:
1 mol Na2SO4 2 mol Na 1 22.99 g Na 1
mass Na 1 5 25.0 g Na2SO4 3 3 3
142.0 g Na2SO4 mol Na2SO4 mol Na 1
5 8.10 g Na1

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 4BSolutions and Their Concentrations"!67

FEATURE 4-2
The Factor-Label Approach to Example 4-2

Some students and instructors find it easier to write out the solution to a problem so
that units in the denominator of each succeeding term eliminate the units in the nu-
merator of the preceding one until the units of the answer are obtained. This method
has been referred to as the factor-label method, dimensional analysis, or the picket
fence method. For instance, in Example 4-2, the units of the answer are g Na1, and
the units given are g Na2SO4. Thus, we can write
mol Na2SO4
25.0 g Na2SO4 3
142.0 g Na2SO4
First eliminate moles of Na2SO4
mol Na2SO4 2 mol Na 1
25.0 g Na2SO4 3 3
142.0 g Na2SO4 mol Na2SO4
and then eliminate moles of Na1. The result is:
1 mol Na2SO4 2 mol Na 1 22.99 g Na 1
25.0 g Na2SO4 3 3 3 5 8.10 g Na1
142.0 g Na2SO4 mol Na2SO4 mol Na 1

4B SOLUTIONS AND THEIR CONCENTRATIONS

Over the course of history, measurements and their corresponding units were invented
at the local level. By necessity of primitive communication and local technology, stan-
dards were nearly nonexistent, and conversions among the many systems were diffi-
cult.1 The result was many hundreds of distinct ways of expressing concentrations of
solutions. Fortunately for us, the advent of rapid communications technology and the
development of efficient travel have forced globalization of measurement science and,
along with it, the definition of global measurement standards. No field has enjoyed
more benefit in this regard than chemistry in general and analytical chemistry in par-
ticular. Even so, we use a number of methods for expressing concentration.

4B-1Concentration of Solutions
In the pages that follow, we describe the four fundamental ways of expressing so-
lution concentration: molar concentration, percent concentration, solution-diluent
volume ratio, and p-functions.

Molar Concentration
The molar concentration cx of a solution of a solute species X is the number of
moles of that species that is contained in 1 liter of the solution (not 1 L of the solvent).
In terms of the number of moles of solute, n, and the volume, V, of solution, we write
nX
cx 5 (4-2)
V
no. moles solute
molar concentration 5
volume in liters

1
In a humorous (and perhaps geeky) parody of local proliferation of measurement units, Robinson
Crusoes friend Friday measured moles in units of chipmunks and volume in old goat bladders. See
J. E. Bissey, J. Chem. Educ., 1969, 46 (8), 497, DOI: 10.1021/ed046p497.

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68!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

The unit of molar concentration is molar, symbolized by M, which has the dimen-
sions of mol/L, or mol L21. Molar concentration is also the number of millimoles of
solute per milliliter of solution.

mol mmol
1 M 5 1 mol L21 5 1 5 1 mmol L21 5 1
L L

EXAMPLE 4-3

Calculate the molar concentration of ethanol in an aqueous solution that con-

tains 2.30 g of C2H5OH (46.07 g/mol) in 3.50 L of solution.
Solution
To calculate molar concentration, we must find both the amount of ethanol and the
volume of the solution. The volume is given as 3.50 L, so all we need to do is convert
the mass of ethanol to the corresponding amount of ethanol in moles.

1 mol C2H5OH
amount C2H5OH 5 nC2H5OH 5 2.30 g C2H5OH 3
46.07 g C2H5OH
5 0.04992 mol C2H5OH

To obtain the molar concentration, cC2H5OH, we divide the amount by the volume.
Thus,
1 mol C2H5OH
2.30 g C2H5OH 3
46.07 g C2H5OH
cC2H5OH 5
3.50 L
5 0.0143 mol C2H5OH/L 5 0.0143 M

We will see that there are two ways of expressing molar concentration: molar ana-
lytical concentration and molar equilibrium concentration. The distinction between
these two expressions is in whether the solute undergoes chemical change in the solu-
tion process.

Molar Analytical Concentration

Molar analytical concentration is The molar analytical concentration, or for the sake of brevity, just analytical con-
the total number of moles of a solute, centration, of a solution gives the total number of moles of a solute in 1 liter of the
regardless of its chemical state, in 1 L solution (or the total number of millimoles in 1 mL). In other words, the molar
of solution. The molar analytical con-
centration describes how a solution of
analytical concentration specifies a recipe by which the solution can be prepared re-
a given concentration can be prepared. gardless of what might happen to the solute during the solution process. Note that in
Example 4-3, the molar concentration that we calculated is also the molar analytical
concentration cC H OH 5 0.0143 M because the solute ethanol molecules are intact
2 5

following the solution process.

In another example, a sulfuric acid solution that has an analytical concentration of
cH SO 5 1.0 M can be prepared by dissolving 1.0 mole, or 98 g, of H2SO4 in water
2 4

and diluting the acid to exactly 1.0 L. As we shall see, there are important differences
between the ethanol and sulfuric acid examples.

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 4BSolutions and Their Concentrations"!69

Molar Equilibrium Concentration

The molar equilibrium concentration, or just equilibrium concentration, refers Molar equilibrium concentration is
to the molar concentration of a particular species in a solution at equilibrium. To the molar concentration of a particular
specify the molar equilibrium concentration of a species, it is necessary to know how species in a solution.
the solute behaves when it is dissolved in a solvent. For example, the molar equilib-
rium concentration of H2SO4 in a solution with a molar analytical concentration Inyouyour study of chemistry,
will find that terminology
cH SO 5 1.0 M is actually 0.0 M because the sulfuric acid is completely dissociated
2 4
constantly evolves as we refine
into a mixture of H1, HSO4 2 , SO42 ions. There are essentially no H2SO4 molecules our understanding of the
in this solution. The equilibrium concentrations of the ions are 1.01, 0.99, and 0.01 processes that we study and
endeavor to describe them
M, respectively.
more accurately. Molarity,
Equilibrium molar concentrations are usually symbolized by placing square brack- which is a synonym for molar
ets around the chemical formula for the species. So, for our solution of H2SO4 with concentration, is an example
an analytical concentration of cH SO 51.0 M, we write 2 4
of a term that is rapidly going
out of fashion. Although you
[H2SO4] 5 0.00 M [H1] 5 1.01 M may find a few occurrences of
molarity as a synonym for molar
[HSO4 2 ] 5 0.99 M [ SO4 22 ] 5 0.01 M concentration in this textbook,
we avoid it whenever possible.

EXAMPLE 4-4

Calculate the analytical and equilibrium molar concentrations of the solute

The IUPAC recommends the
general term concentration to
express the composition of a
species in an aqueous solution that contains 285 mg of trichloroacetic acid, solution with respect to its
Cl3CCOOH (163.4 g/mol), in 10.0 mL (the acid is 73% ionized in water). volume, with four subterms:
amount concentration,
Solution mass concentration,
As in Example 4-3, we calculate the number of moles of Cl3CCOOH, which we desig- volume concentration, and
nate as HA, and divide by the volume of the solution, 10.0 mL, or 0.0100 L. Therefore, number concentration.
Molar concentration, molar
1 g HA 1 mol HA analytical concentration, and
amount HA 5 nHA 5 285 mg HA 3 3 molar equilibrium concentration
1000 mg HA 163.4 g HA are all amount concentrations
5 1.744 3 1023 mol HA by this definition.
this example, the molar
The molar analytical concentration, cHA, is then Inanalytical concentration of
H2SO4 is given by
1.744 3 10 23 mol HA 1000 mL mol HA
cHA 5 3 5 0.174 5 0.174 M cH2SO4 5 [ SO422 ] 1 [ HSO42 ]
10.0 mL 1L L
because SO4$$22 and HSO4$$2 are
In this solution, 73% of the HA dissociates, giving H and A : 1 2 the only two sulfate-containing
species in the solution. The molar
HA 8 H1 1 A2 equilibrium concentrations of the
ions are [SO4$$22] and [HSO4$$2].
The equilibrium concentration of HA is then 27% of cHA. Thus,

[HA] 5 cHA 3 (100 73)/100 5 0.174 3 0.27 5 0.047 mol/L

5 0.047 M

The equilibrium concentration of A is equal to 73% of the analytical concentration

of HA, that is,

73 mol A2 mol HA
[ A2 ] 5 3 0.174 5 0.127 M
100 mol HA L
(continued)

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70!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

Because 1 mole of H1 is formed for each mole of A2, we can also write

[H1] 5 [A2] 5 0.127 M

and

cHA 5 [HA] 1 [A2] 5 0.047 1 0.127 5 0.174 M

Molecular model of trichloroacetic
acid, Cl3CCOOH. The rather strong
acidity of trichloroacetic acid is usually
ascribed to the inductive effect of the
three chlorine atoms attached to the EXAMPLE 4-5
end of the molecule opposite the acidic
proton. Electron density is withdrawn Describe the preparation of 2.00 L of 0.108 M BaCl 2 from BaCl 2"?"2H 2O
away from the carboxylate group so (244.3 g/mol).
that the trichloroacetate anion formed
when the acid dissociates is stabilized. Solution
The acid is used in protein precipita- To determine the number of grams of solute to be dissolved and diluted to 2.00 L, we
tion and in dermatological prepara- note that 1 mole of the dihydrate yields 1 mole of BaCl2. Therefore, to produce this
tions for the removal of undesirable solution we will need
skin growths.
The number of moles of the 0.108 mol BaCl2 # 2H2O
species A in a solution of A is 2.00 L 3
L
5 0.216 mol BaCl2 # 2H2O
given by
The mass of BaCl2 # 2H2O is then
no. mol A 5 nA 5 cA 3 VA
244.3 g BaCl2 # 2H2O
molA 0.216 mol BaCl2 # 2H2O 3 5 52.8 g BaCl2 # 2H2O
molA 5 3L mol BaCl2 # 2H2O
L

where VA is the volume of the Dissolve 52.8 g of BaCl2 # 2H2O in water and dilute to 2.00 L.
solution in liters.

EXAMPLE 4-6

Describe the preparation of 500 mL of 0.0740 M Cl2 solution from solid

BaCl2 # 2H2O (244.3 g/mol).
Solution

0.0740 mol Cl 1 mol BaCl2 # 2H2O

mass BaCl2 # 2H2O 5 3 0.500 L 3
L 2 mol Cl
244.3 g BaCl2 # 2H2O
3 5 4.52 g BaCl2 # 2H2O
mol BaCl2 # 2H2O

Dissolve 4.52 g of BaCl2 # 2H2O in water and dilute to 0.500 L or 500 mL.

Percent Concentration
Chemists frequently express concentrations in terms of percent (parts per hun-
dred). Unfortunately, this practice can be a source of ambiguity because
percent composition of a solution can be expressed in several ways. Three
common methods are
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 4BSolutions and Their Concentrations"!71

weight solute
weight percent (w/w) 5 3 100%
weight solution
volume solute
volume percent (v/v) 5 3 100%
volume solution
weight solute, g
weight/volume percent (w/v) 5 3 100%
volume solution, mL

Note that the denominator in each of these expressions is the mass or volume of solu- Weight percent should more
properly be called mass percent
tion rather than mass or volume of solvent. Note also that the first two expressions do and abbreviated m/m. The term
not depend on the units used for weight (mass) as long as the same units are used in the weight percent is so widely
used in the chemical literature,
numerator and the denominator. In the third expression, units must be defined because
however, that we will use it
the numerator and denominator have different units that do not cancel. Of the three throughout this text. In IUPAC
expressions, only weight percent has the advantage of being temperature independent. terminology, weight percent is
Weight percent is often used to express the concentration of commercial aqueous mass concentration.
reagents. For example, nitric acid is sold as a 70% (w/w) solution, meaning that the
reagent contains 70 g of HNO3 per 100 g of solution (see Example 4-10).
Volume percent is commonly used to specify the concentration of a solution
prepared by diluting a pure liquid compound with another liquid. For example, a
Inpercent
IUPAC terminology, volume
is volume concentration.
5% (v/v) aqueous solution of methanol usually describes a solution prepared by dilut-
ing 5.0 mL of pure methanol with enough water to give 100 mL.
Weight or volume percent is often used to indicate the composition of dilute
aqueous solutions of solid reagents. For example, 5% (w/v) aqueous silver nitrate
often refers to a solution prepared by dissolving 5 g of silver nitrate in sufficient water
to give 100 mL of solution.
To avoid uncertainty, always specify explicitly the type of percent composition be-
ing discussed. If this information is missing, the investigator must decide intuitively
Always specify the type
of percent when reporting
concentrations in this way.
which of the several types is to be used. The potential error resulting from a wrong
choice is considerable. For example, commercial 50% (w/w) sodium hydroxide con-
tains 763 g NaOH per liter, which corresponds to 76.3% (w/v) sodium hydroxide.

Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is a convenient way to express
InperIUPAC terminology, parts
billion, parts per million,
and parts per thousand are mass
concentration: concentrations.

mass of solute
cppm 5
mass of solution
3 106 ppm Apartshandy rule in calculating
per million is to remember
that for dilute aqueous
where cppm is the concentration in parts per million. The units of mass in the numer- solutions whose densities are
approximately 1.00 g/mL,
ator and denominator must agree so that they cancel. For even more dilute solutions,
1 ppm 5 1.00 mg/L. That is,
109 ppb rather than 106 ppm is used in the previous equation to give the results in
parts per billion (ppb). The term parts per thousand (ppt) is also used, especially mass solute (g)
cppm 5
in oceanography. mass solution (g)
3 106 ppm
EXAMPLE 4-7 mass solute (mg)
cppm 5 ppm
volume solution (L)
What is the molar concentration of K in a solution that contains 63.3 ppm of 1
(4-3)
K3Fe(CN)6 (329.3 g/mol)?

(continued)

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72!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

In terms of the units, we have

Solution
Density of Conversion Because the solution is so dilute, it is reasonable to assume that its density is 1.00 g/mL.
solution factor
()* (')'* Therefore, according to Equation 4-2,
g g g 103 mg
5 3 3
g g mL 1g 63.3 ppm K3Fe(CN)6 5 63.3 mg K3Fe(CN)6/L
Conversion no. mol K3Fe(CN)6 63.3 mg K3Fe(CN)6 1 g K3Fe(CN)6
factor 5 3
(')'* L L 1000 mg K3Fe(CN)6
103 mL mg
3 5 106 1 mol K3Fe(CN)6 mol
1L L 3 5 1.922 3 10 24
329.3 g K3Fe(CN)6 L
In other words, the mass
concentration expressed in g/g 5 1.922 3 1024 M
is a factor of 106 larger than the
1.922 3 1024 mol K3Fe(CN)6 3 mol K1
mass concentration expressed [ K1 ] 5 3
in mg/L. Therefore, if we wish to L 1 mol K3Fe(CN)6
express the mass concentration
mol K1
in ppm and the units are 5 5.77 3 1024 5 5.77 3 1024 M
mg/L, we merely use ppm. If L
it is expressed in g/g, we must
multiply the ratio by 106 ppm.
mass solute (g) Solution-Diluent Volume Ratios
cppb 5
mass solution (g)
The composition of a dilute solution is sometimes specified in terms of the volume
3 109 ppb of a more concentrated solution and the volume of solvent used in diluting it. The
mass solute (mg) volume of the former is separated from that of the latter by a colon. Thus, a 1:4 HCl
cppb 5 ppb
volume solution (g) solution contains four volumes of water for each volume of concentrated hydrochlo-
Similarly, if we wish to express ric acid. This method of notation is frequently ambiguous in that the concentration
the mass concentration in ppb, of the original solution is not always obvious to the reader. Moreover, under some
we convert the units to mg/L and circumstances 1:4 means dilute one volume with three volumes. Because of such
use ppb. uncertainties, you should avoid using solution-diluent ratios.

p-Functions
Scientists frequently express the concentration of a species in terms of its p-function,
or p-value. The p-value is the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the molar con-
centration of that species. Thus, for the species X,

pX 5 2log [X]
The best-known p-function
is pH, which is the negative As shown by the following examples, p-values offer the advantage of allowing con-
centrations that vary over ten or more orders of magnitude to be expressed in terms
logarithm of [H1]. We discuss
the nature of H1, its nature of small positive numbers.
in aqueous solution, and the
alternative representation H3O1
in Section 9A-2. EXAMPLE 4-8

Calculate the p-value for each ion in a solution that is 2.00 3 1023 M in NaCl
and 5.4 3 1024 M in HCl.
Solution

pH 5 2log [H1] 5 2log (5.4 3 1024) 5 3.27

To obtain pNa, we write

pNa 5 2log[Na1] 5 2log (2.00 3 1023) 5 2log (2.00 3 1023) 5 2.699

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 4BSolutions and Their Concentrations"!73

The total Cl2 concentration is given by the sum of the concentrations of the two
solutes:

[ Cl2 ] 5 2.00 3 1023 M 1 5.4 3 1024 M

5 2.00 3 1023 M 1 0.54 3 1023 M 5 2.54 3 1023 M
pCl 5 2log [ Cl 2] 5 2log 2.54 3 1023 5 2.595 Molecular model of HCl. Hydrogen
chloride is a gas consisting of hetero-
nuclear diatomic molecules. The gas is
extremely soluble in water; when a solu-
Note that in Example 4-8, and in the one that follows, the results are rounded accord- tion of the gas is prepared, only then do
ing to the rules listed on page 117. the molecules dissociate to form aqueous
hydrochloric acid, which consists of
H3O1 and Cl2 ions. See Figure 9-1
EXAMPLE 4-9 and the accompanying discussion of the
nature of H3O1.
Calculate the molar concentration of Ag1 in a solution that has a pAg of 6.372.
Solution

pAg 5 2log 3 Ag1 4 5 6.372

log 3 Ag1 4 5 26.372
[ Ag1 ] 5 4.246 3 1027 < 4.25 3 1027 M

4B-2Density and Specific Gravity of Solutions

Density and specific gravity are related terms often found in the analytical literature.
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, and its specific gravity is the Density expresses the mass of a sub-
ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4C. Density has units of stance per unit volume. In SI units,
kilograms per liter or grams per milliliter in the metric system. Specific gravity is di- density is expressed in units of kg/L or
alternatively g/mL.
mensionless and so is not tied to any particular system of units. For this reason, spe-
cific gravity is widely used in describing items of commerce (see Figure 4-1). Since Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass
the density of water is approximately 1.00 g/mL and since we use the metric system of a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water.
throughout this text, we use density and specific gravity interchangeably. The specific
gravities of some concentrated acids and bases are given in Table 4-3.

EXAMPLE 4-10

Calculate the molar concentration of HNO3 (63.0 g/mol) in a solution that has
a specific gravity of 1.42 and is 70.5% HNO3 (w/w).
Solution
Let us first calculate the mass of acid per liter of concentrated solution

g HNO3 1.42 kg reagent 103 g reagent 70.5 g HNO3 1001 g HNO3

5 3 3 5
L reagent L reagent kg reagent 100 g reagent L reagent

Then,

1001 g HNO3 1 mol HNO3 15.9 mol HNO3

cHNO3 5 3 5 < 16 M
L reagent 63.0 g HNO3 L reagent

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74!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

Figure 4-1*Label from a bottle of reagent-grade hydrochloric acid. Note that the specific gravity of the acid
over the temperature range of 60 to 80F is specified on the label. (Label provided by Mallinckrodt Baker, Inc.,
Phillipsburg, NJ 08865)

TABLE 4-3
Specific Gravities of Commercial Concentrated Acids and Bases
Reagent Concentration, % (w/w) Specific Gravity
Acetic acid 99.7 1.05
Ammonia 29.0 0.90
Hydrochloric acid 37.2 1.19
Hydrofluoric acid 49.5 1.15
Nitric acid 70.5 1.42
Perchloric acid 71.0 1.67
Phosphoric acid 86.0 1.71
Sulfuric acid 96.5 1.84

EXAMPLE 4-11

Describe the preparation of 100 mL of 6.0 M HCl from a concentrated solu-

tion that has a specific gravity of 1.18 and is 37% (w/w) HCl (36.5 g/mol).
Solution
Proceeding as in Example 4-10, we first calculate the molar concentration of the con-
centrated reagent. We then calculate the number of moles of acid that we need for the

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 4CChemical Stoichiometry"!75

diluted solution. Finally, we divide the second figure by the first to obtain the volume of
concentrated acid required. Thus, to obtain the concentration of the reagent, we write

1.18 3 103 g reagent 37 g HCl 1 mol HCl

cHCl 5 3 3 5 12.0 M
L reagent 100 g reagent 36.5 g HCl

The number of moles HCl required is given by

1L 6.0 mol HCl

no. mol HCl 5 100 mL 3 3 5 0.600 mol HCl
1000 mL L

Finally, to obtain the volume of concentrated reagent, we write

1 L reagent
vol concd reagent 5 0.600 mol HCl 3 5 0.0500 L or 50.0 mL
12.0 mol HCl

Therefore, dilute 50 mL of the concentrated reagent to 600 mL.

The solution to Example 4-11 is based on the following useful relationship, which
we will be using countless times:

Vconcd 3 cconcd 5 Vdil 3 cdil (4-4)

where the two terms on the left are the volume and molar concentration of a concen-
trated solution that is being used to prepare a diluted solution having the volume and
concentration given by the corresponding terms on the right. This equation is based
on the fact that the number of moles of solute in the diluted solution must equal the
number of moles in the concentrated reagent. Note that the volumes can be in mil-
Equation 4-4 can be used with L
and mol/L or mL and mmol/mL.
Thus,
liliters or liters as long as the same units are used for both solutions.
molconcd moldil
Lconcd 3 5 Ldil 3
Lconcd Ldil
mmolconcd
4C CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY mLconcd 3 5 mLdil
mLconcd
Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship among the amounts of reacting chem-
ical species. This section provides a brief review of stoichiometry and its applications mmoldil
3
to chemical calculations. mLdil

4C-1#Empirical Formulas and Molecular Formulas

An empirical formula gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a chemi-
stoichiometry of a reaction
cal compound. In contrast, a molecular formula specifies the number of atoms in a
molecule. Two or more substances may have the same empirical formula but differ-
The
is the relationship among the
number of moles of reactants
ent molecular formulas. For example, CH2O is both the empirical and the molecular and products as represented by a
formula for formaldehyde; it is also the empirical formula for such diverse substances balanced chemical equation.
as acetic acid, C2H4O2; glyceraldehyde, C3H6O3; and glucose, C6H12O6, as well as
more than 50 other substances containing 6 or fewer carbon atoms. We may calcu-
late the empirical formula of a compound from its percent composition. To deter-
mine the molecular formula, we must know the molar mass of the compound.

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76!!CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

Figure 4-2"Flow diagram for (1) (2) (3)

making stoichiometric calculations. Mass Moles Moles Mass
(1) When the mass of a reactant or
product is given, the mass is first con-
verted to the number of moles, using
the molar mass. (2) The stoichiometric Divide by Multiply by Multiply by
molar mass stoichiometric molar mass
ratio given by the chemical equation ratio
for the reaction is then used to find the
number of moles of another reactant
that combines with the original sub-
stance or the number of moles of prod-
uct that forms. (3) Finally, the mass A structural formula provides additional information. For example, the chemi-
of the other reactant or the product is cally different ethanol and dimethyl ether share the same molecular formula C2H6O.
computed from its molar mass. Their structural formulas, C2H5OH and CH3OCH3, reveal structural differences
between these compounds that are not shown in their common molecular formula.

4C-2!Stoichiometric Calculations
A balanced chemical equation gives the combining ratios, or stoichiometryin units
of molesof reacting substances and their products. Therefore, the equation

2NaI(aq) 1 Pb(NO3)2(aq) S PbI2(s) 1 2NaNO3(aq)

Often the physical state of
substances appearing in indicates that 2 moles of aqueous sodium iodide combine with 1 mole of aqueous
lead nitrate to produce 1 mole of solid lead iodide and 2 moles of aqueous sodium
equations is indicated by the
letters (g), (l), (s), and (aq), which nitrate.2
refer to gaseous, liquid, solid, Example 4-12 demonstrates how the mass in grams of reactants and products
and aqueous solution states, in a chemical reaction are related. As shown in Figure 4-2, a calculation of this type
respectively. is a three-step process of (1) transforming the known mass of a substance in grams to
a corresponding number of moles, (2) multiplying the number of moles by a factor
that accounts for the stoichiometry, and (3) converting the number of moles back to
the metric units called for in the answer.

EXAMPLE 4-12

(a) What mass of AgNO3 (169.9 g/mol) is needed to convert 2.33 g of Na2CO3
(106.0 g/mol) to Ag2CO3? (b) What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7 g/mol) will be
formed?
Solution
(a) Na2CO3(aq) 1 2AgNO3(aq) S Ag2CO3(s) 1 2NaNO3(aq)
Step 1.
1 mol Na2CO3
amount Na2CO3 5 nNa2CO3 5 2.33 g Na2CO3 3
106.0 g Na2CO3
5 0.02198 mol Na2CO3

2
In this example, it is advantageous to depict the reaction in terms of chemical compounds. If we
wish to focus on reacting species, the net ionic equation is preferable:

2I2(aq) 1 Pb21(aq) S PbI2(s)

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 4CChemical Stoichiometry"!77

Step 2. The balanced equation reveals that

2 mol AgNO3
amount AgNO3 5 nAgNO3 5 0.02198 mol Na2CO3 3
1 mol Na2CO3
5 0.04396 mol AgNO3
In this instance, the stoichiometric factor is (2 mol AgNO3)/(1 mol Na2CO3).
Step 3.
169.9 g AgNO3
mass AgNO3 5 0.04396 mol AgNO3 3 5 7.47 g AgNO3
mol AgNO3
(b) amount Ag2CO3 5 amount Na2CO3 5 0.02198 mol
275.7 g Ag2CO3
mass Ag2CO3 5 0.02198 mol Ag2CO3 3 5 6.06 g Ag2CO3
mol Ag2CO3

EXAMPLE 4-13

What mass of Ag 2CO 3 (275.7 g/mol) is formed when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M

AgNO3 are mixed with 50.0 mL of 0.0800 M Na2CO3?
Solution
Mixing these two solutions will result in one (and only one) of three possible
outcomes:
(a) An excess of AgNO3 will remain after the reaction is complete.
(b) An excess of Na2CO3 will remain after the reaction is complete.
(c) There will be no excess of either reagent (that is, the number of moles of Na2CO3
is exactly equal to twice the number of moles of AgNO3).
As a first step, we must establish which of these situations applies by calculating the
amounts of reactants (in moles) available before the solutions are mixed.
The initial amounts are
1 L AgNO3
amount AgNO3 5 nAgNO3 5 25.0 mL AgNO3 3
1000 mL AgNO3
0.200 mol AgNO3
3 5 5.00 3 1023 mol AgNO3
L AgNO3
1 L Na2CO3
amount Na2CO3 5 nNa2CO3 5 50.0 mL Na2CO3 soln 3
1000 mL Na2CO3
0.0800 mol Na2CO3
3 5 4.00 3 1023 mol Na2CO3
L Na2CO3
Because each CO 322 ion reacts with two Ag 1 ions, 2 3 4.00 3 10 23 5 8.00
3 1023 mol AgNO3 is required to react with the Na2CO3. Since we have insufficient
AgNO3, situation (b) prevails, and the number of moles of Ag2CO3 produced will
be limited by the amount of AgNO3 available. Thus,
1 mol Ag2CO3 275.7 g Ag2CO3
mass Ag2CO3 5 5.00 3 1023 mol AgNO3 3 3
2 mol AgNO3 mol Ag2CO3
5 0.689 g Ag2CO3

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78!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

EXAMPLE 4-14

What will be the molar analytical concentration of Na2CO3 in the solution pro-
duced when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3 is mixed with 50.0 mL of 0.0800 M
Na2CO3?
Solution
We have seen in the previous example that formation of 5.00 3 1023 mol of AgNO3
requires 2.50 3 1023 mol of Na2CO3. The number of moles of unreacted Na2CO3 is
then given by
1 mol Na2CO3
nNa2CO3 5 4.00 3 1023 mol Na2CO3 2 5.00 3 10 23 mol AgNO3 3
2 mol AgNO3
5 1.50 3 1023 mol Na2CO3
By definition, the molar concentration is the number of moles of Na 2CO 3/L.
Therefore,
1.50 3 1023 mol Na2CO3 1000 mL
cNa2CO3 5 3 5 0.0200 M Na2CO3
(50.0 1 25.0) mL 1L

In this chapter, we have reviewed many of the basic chemical concepts and skills nec-
essary for effective study of analytical chemistry. In the remaining chapters of this book,
you will build on this firm foundation as you explore methods of chemical analysis.

WEB This chapter opened with a photo of a nearly perfect silicon sphere being used to deter-
WORKS mine Avogadros number. When this measurement is complete, the kilogram will be rede-
fined from the mass of a Pt-Ir cylinder housed in Paris to the mass of a known multiple of
Avogadros number of silicon atoms. This will be the so-called silicon kilogram. Use your
Web browser to connect to www.cengage.com/chemistry/skoog/fac9. From the Chapter
Resources Menu, choose Web Works. Locate the Chapter 4 section and click on the link
to the article on the Royal Society of Chemistry website by Peter Atkins that discusses the
significance of the silicon kilogram and read the article. Then click on the link to the article
on the consistency of Avogadros number on the same website. How are Plancks constant,
Avogadros number, and the silicon kilogram related? Why is the kilogram being redefined?
What is the uncertainty in Avogadros number at present? What is the rate of improvement
in the uncertainty of Avogadros number?

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

4-1. Define 4-4. Simplify the following quantities using a unit with an
*(a) millimole. appropriate prefix:
(b) molar mass. *(a) 3.2 3 108 Hz.
*(c) millimolar mass. (b) 4.56 3 1027 g.
(d) parts per million. *(c) 8.43 3 107 mol.
4-2. What is the difference between molar species concen- (d) 6.5 3 1010 s.
tration and molar analytical concentration? *(e) 8.96 3 106 nm.
*4-3. Give two examples of units derived from the funda- (f ) 48,000 g.
mental base SI units. *4-5. Show that one gram is one mole of unified atomic mass
units.

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 Questions and Problems!!79

4-6. In one of the figure captions, we suggest that the stan- (b) Ba21, Mn21, and Cl2 in a solution that is 4.65 3
dard kilogram may soon be defined as 1000/12 of 1023 M in BaCl2 and 2.54 M in MnCl2.
Avogadros number of carbon atoms. Prove that this *(c) H1, Cl2, and Zn21 in a solution that is 0.400 M
statement is correct mathematically, discuss the impli- in HCl and 0.100 M in ZnCl2.
cations of this new definition of the kilogram. (d) Cu21, Zn21, and NO32 in a solution that is 5.78 3
*4-7. Find the number of Na1 ions in 2.92 g of Na3PO4? 102 M in Cu(NO3)2 and 0.204 M in Zn(NO3)2.
4-8. Find the number of K1 ions in 3.41 mol of K2HPO4? *(e) K1, OH, and Fe(CN)642 in a solution that is 1.62 3
*4-9. Find the amount of the indicated element (in moles) in 107 M in K4Fe(CN)6 and 5.12 3 107 M in KOH.
(a) 8.75 g of B2O3. (f ) H1, Ba21, and ClO4 M in a solution that is 2.35 3
(b) 167.2 mg of Na2B4O7 # 10H2O. 10 4 M in Ba(ClO 4 ) 2 and 4.75 3 10 4 M in
(c) 4.96 g of Mn3O4. HClO4.
(d) 333 mg of CaC2O4. 4-18. Calculate the molar H3O1 ion concentration of a solu-
4-10. Find the amount in millimoles of the indicated tion that has a pH of
species in *(a) 4.31. *(c) 0.59. *(e) 7.62. *(g) 20.76.
(a) 850 mg of P2O5. (b) 4.48. (d) 13.89. (f ) 5.32. (h) 20.42.
(b) 40.0 g of CO2. 4-19. Calculate the p-functions for each ion in a solution
(c) 12.92 g of NaHCO3. that is
(d) 57 mg of MgNH4PO4. *(a) 0.0300 M in NaBr.
*4-11. Find the number of millimoles of solute in (b) 0.0200 M in BaBr2.
(a) 2.00 L of 0.0555 M KMnO4. *(c) 5.5 3 1023 M in Ba(OH)2.
(b) 750 mL of 3.25 3 1023 M KSCN. (d) 0.020 M in HCl and 0.010 M in NaCl.
(c) 3.50 L of a solution that contains 3.33 ppm of *(e) 8.7 3 1023 M in CaCl 2 and 6.6 3 10 23 M in
CuSO4. BaCl2.
(d) 250 mL of 0.414 M KCl. (f ) 2.8 3 108 M in Zn(NO3)2 and 6.6 3 1027 M
4-12. Find the number of millimoles of solute in Cd(NO3)2.
(a) 226 mL of 0.320 M HClO4. 4-20. Convert the following p-functions to molar
(b) 25.0 L of 8.05 3 1023 M K2CrO4. concentrations:
(c) 6.00 L of an aqueous solution that contains *(a) pH 5 1.020. *(e) pLi 5 12.35.
6.75 ppm of AgNO3. (b) pOH 5 0.0025. (f ) pNO3 5 0.034.
(d) 537 mL of 0.0200 M KOH. *(c) pBr 5 7.77. *(g) pMn 5 0.135.
*4-13. What is the mass in milligrams of (d) pCa 5 20.221. (h) pCl 5 9.67.
(a) 0.367 mol of HNO3? *4-21. Sea water contains an average of 1.08 3 103 ppm of
(b) 245 mmol of MgO? Na1 and 270 ppm of SO422. Calculate
(c) 12.5 mol of NH4NO3? (a) the molar concentrations of Na1 and SO422 given
(d) 4.95 mol of (NH4)2Ce(NO3)6 (548.23 g/mol)? that the average density of sea water is 1.02 g/mL.
4-14. What is the mass in grams of (b) the pNa and pSO4 for sea water.
(a) 3.20 mol of KBr? 4-22. Average human blood contains 300 nmoles of
(b) 18.9 mmol of PbO? hemoglobin(Hb) per liter of plasma and 2.2 mmol per
(c) 6.02 mol of MgSO4? liter of whole blood. Calculate
(d) 10.9 mmol of Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 # 6H2O? (a) the molar concentration in each of these media.
4-15. What is the mass in milligrams of solute in (b) pHb in plasma in human serum.
*(a) 16.0 mL of 0.350 M sucrose (342 g/mol)? *4-23. A solution was prepared by dissolving 5.76 g of KCl #
*(b) 1.92 L of 3.76 3 1023 M H2O2? MgCl2 # 6H2O (277.85 g/mol) in sufficient water to
(c) 356 mL of a solution that contains 2.96 ppm of give 2.000 L. Calculate
Pb(NO3)2? (a) the molar analytical concentration of KCl # MgCl2
(d) 5.75 mL of 0.0819 M KNO3? in this solution.
4-16. What is the mass in grams of solute in (b) the molar concentration of Mg21.
*(a) 250 mL of 0.264 M H2O2? (c) the molar concentration of Cl2.
*(b) 37.0 mL of 5.75 3 1024 M benzoic acid (122 g/mol)? (d) the weight/volume percentage of KCl # MgCl2 #
(c) 4.50 L of a solution that contains 31.7 ppm of SnCl2? 6H2O.
(d) 11.7 mL of 0.0225 M KBrO3? (e) the number of millimoles of Cl2 in 25.0 mL of
4-17. Calculate the p-value for each of the indicated ions in this solution.
the following: (f ) ppm K1.
*(a) Na1, Cl2, and OH2 in a solution that is 0.0635 M (g) pMg for the solution.
in NaCl and 0.0403 M in NaOH. (h) pCl for the solution.

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80!"CHAPTER 4 Calculations Used in Analytical Chemistry

4-24. A solution was prepared by dissolving 1210 mg of 4-32. Describe the preparation of
K3Fe(CN)6 (329.2 g/mol) in sufficient water to give (a) 5.00 L of 0.0500 M KMnO 4 from the solid
775 mL. Calculate reagent.
(a) the molar analytical concentration of K3Fe(CN)6. (b) 4.00 L of 0.250 M HClO4, starting with an 8.00 M
(b) the molar concentration of K1. solution of the reagent.
(c) the molar concentration of Fe(CN)632. (c) 400 mL of a solution that is 0.0250 M in I 2,
(d) the weight/volume percentage of K3Fe(CN)6. starting with MgI2.
(e) the number of millimoles of K1 in 50.0 mL of (d) 200 mL of 1.00% (w/v) aqueous CuSO4 from a
this solution. 0.365 M CuSO4 solution.
(f ) ppm Fe(CN)632. (e) 1.50 L of 0.215 M NaOH from the concentrated
(g) pK for the solution. commercial reagent [50% NaOH (w/w), sp gr
(h) pFe(CN)6 for the solution. 1.525].
*4-25. A 6.42% (w/w) Fe(NO3)3 (241.86 g/mol) solution (f ) 1.50 L of a solution that is 12.0 ppm in K1, start-
has a density of 1.059 g/mL. Calculate ing with solid K4Fe(CN)6.
(a) the molar analytical concentration of Fe(NO3)3 in *4-33. What mass of solid La(IO3)3 (663.6 g/mol) is formed
this solution. when 50.0 mL of 0.250 M La31 are mixed with 75.0 mL
(b) the molar NO32 concentration in the solution. of 0.302 M IO32?
(c) the mass in grams of Fe(NO3)3 contained in each 4-34. What mass of solid PbCl2 (278.10 g/mol) is formed
liter of this solution. when 200 mL of 0.125 M Pb 21 are mixed with
4-26. A 12.5% (w/w) NiCl2 (129.61 g/mol) solution has a 400 mL of 0.175 M Cl2?
density of 1.149 g/mL. Calculate *4-35. Exactly 0.2220 g of pure Na 2CO3 was dissolved in
(a) the molar concentration of NiCl2 in this solution. 100.0 mL of 0.0731 M HCl.
(b) the molar Cl2 concentration of the solution. (a) What mass in grams of CO2 were evolved?
(c) the mass in grams of NiCl2 contained in each liter (b) What was the molar concentration of the excess
of this solution. reactant (HCl or Na2CO3)?
*4-27. Describe the preparation of 4-36. Exactly 25.0 mL of a 0.3757 M solution of Na3PO4
(a) 500 mL of 4.75% (w/v) aqueous ethanol were mixed with 100.00 mL of 0.5151 M HgNO3.
(C2H5OH, 46.1 g/mol). (a) What mass of solid Hg3PO4 was formed?
(b) 500 g of 4.75% (w/w) aqueous ethanol. (b) What is the molar concentration of the unreacted
(c) 500 mL of 4.75% (v/v) aqueous ethanol. species (Na3PO4 or HgNO3) after the reaction
4-28. Describe the preparation of was complete?
(a) 2.50 L of 21.0% (w/v) aqueous glycerol (C3H8O3, *4-37. Exactly 75.00 mL of a 0.3132 M solution of Na2SO3
92.1 g/mol). were treated with 150.0 mL of 0.4025 M HClO4 and
(b) 2.50 kg of 21.0% (w/w) aqueous glycerol. boiled to remove the SO2 formed.
(c) 2.50 L of 21.0% (v/v) aqueous glycerol. (a) What was the mass in grams of SO 2 that was
*4-29. Describe the preparation of 750 mL of 6.00 M H3PO4 evolved?
from the commercial reagent that is 86% H 3PO 4 (b) What was the concentration of the unreacted
(w/w) and has a specific gravity of 1.71. reagent (Na2SO3 or HClO4) after the reaction was
4-30. Describe the preparation of 900 mL of 3.00 M HNO3 complete?
from the commercial reagent that is 70.5% HNO3 4-38. What mass of MgNH 4 PO 4 precipitated when
(w/w) and has a specific gravity of 1.42. 200.0 mL of a 1.000% (w/v) solution of MgCl 2
*4-31. Describe the preparation of were treated with 40.0 mL of 0.1753 M Na 3PO 4
(a) 500 mL of 0.0750 M AgNO 3 from the solid and an excess of NH 41? What was the molar con-
reagent. centration of the excess reagent (Na3PO4 or MgCl2)
(b) 1.00 L of 0.285 M HCl, starting with a 6.00 M after the precipitation was complete?
solution of the reagent. *4-39. What volume of 0.01000 M AgNO 3 would be re-
(c) 400 mL of a solution that is 0.0810 M in K 1, quired to precipitate all of the I 2 in 200.0 mL of a
starting with solid K4Fe(CN)6. solution that contained 24.32 ppt KI?
(d) 600 mL of 3.00% (w/v) aqueous BaCl2 from a 4-40. Exactly 750.0 mL of a solution that contained 480.4 ppm
0.400 M BaCl2 solution. of Ba(NO3)2 were mixed with 200.0 mL of a solution
(e) 2.00 L of 0.120 M HClO4 from the commercial that was 0.03090 M in Al2(SO4)3.
reagent [71.0% HClO4 (w/w), sp gr 1.67]. (a) What mass of solid BaSO4 was formed?
(f ) 9.00 L of a solution that is 60.0 ppm in Na1, (b) What was the molar concentration of the unre-
starting with solid Na2SO4. acted reagent [Al2(SO4)3 or Ba(NO3)2]?

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
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 Questions and Problems"!81

4-41. Challenge Problem: According to Kenny et al., 3 data for Sphere AVO28-S8 cited in note 3 and
Avogadros number NA may be calculated from the calculate a second value for NA. After you have
following equation using measurements on a sphere studied Chapter 7, compare your two values for
fabricated from an ultrapure single crystal of silicon: N A, and decide whether the difference in the
two numbers is statistically significant. If differ-
nMSiV
NA 5 ence between the two values is not statistically
ma3 significant, calculate a mean value for Avogadros
where number determined from the two spheres and the
NA 5 Avogadros number uncertainty of the mean.
n 5 the number of atoms per unit cell in the (e) Which of the variables in the table have the most
crystal lattice of silicon 5 8 significant influence on the value that you calcu-
MSi 5 the molar mass of silicon lated and why?
V 5 the volume of the silicon sphere (f ) What experimental methods were used to make
m 5 the mass of the sphere the measurements shown in the table?
a 5 the crystal lattice parameter 5 (g) Comment on experimental variables that
2 2 2 might contribute to the uncertainty in each
d(220) "2 1 2 1 0
measurement.
(a) Derive the equation for Avogadros number. (h) Suggest ways that the determination of Avogadros
(b) From the recent data assembled by Andreas et al.4 number might be improved.
on Sphere AVO28-S5 in the table below, calculate (i) Use a search engine to locate the NIST website
the density of silicon and its uncertainty. You may on fundamental physical constants. Look up the
wish to delay the uncertainty calculations until accepted value of Avogadros number and its un-
you have studied Chapter 6. certainty (2010 or later) and compare them with
your computed values. Discuss any differences
Variable Value Relative uncertainty and suggest possible causes for the discrepancies.
Sphere volume, cm3 431.059059 23 3 109 (j) What technological innovations of the past several
Sphere mass, g 1000.087560 3 3 109 decades have led to the easy availability of ultra-
Molar mass, g/mol 27.97697026 6 3 109 pure silicon? What steps have been taken in recent
Lattice spacing d(220), pm 543.099624 11 3 109 years to minimize errors associated with impuri-
ties in the silicon used to fabricate the near-perfect
(c) Calculate Avogadros number and its uncertainty. spheres?5
(d) We have presented data for only one of the two
silicon spheres used in these studies. Look up the

3
M. J. Kenny et al., IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 2001, 50, 587,
DOI: 10.1109/19.918198.
4 5
B. Andreas et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 2011, 106, 030801, DOI: P. Becker et al, Meas. Sci. Technol., 2009, 20, 092002,
10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.030801. DOI:10.1088/0957-0233/20/9/092002.

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