DEVELOPMENTS IN SOLID EARTH 6E0PHYSICS

18

I /4 ELSEVIER
 VOLUMES 1-5 AND 10-12 ARE OUT OF PRINT

6 L. CIVETTA, P. GASPARINI, G. LUONGO and A RAPOLLA (Editors)

PHYSICAL VOLCANOLOGY

7 . ATH
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS IN GEOPHYSICS
8 O.KULHANEK
INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL FILTERIN<. IN (iLOPHYSICS
9 T. RIKITAKE
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
13 V.C. DRAGOMIR, D.N. GHITAU, M.S. MlH.lll.ESCUand M.G.
ROTARU THEORY OF THE EARTHS SHAPE

14A A.J. BERKHOUT SEISMIC MIGRATION

Imaging of acoustic energy by wave field extrapolation
B. Practical aspects
15 E. BISZTRICSANY and GY. SZEIDOV11 / (Editors) PROCEEDINGS OF THE
SEVENTEENTH ASSEMBLY OF THE EUROPEAN
SEISMOLOGICAL COMMISK )N

16 P. MAL1SCHE WSKY
SURFACE WAVES AND DISCONTINUI I II S
17 A.M. JESSOP THERMAL GEOPHYSICS
Developments in Solid Earth Geophysics 18

ANATOMY
OF
SEISMOGRA
MS
OTAKULHANEK
Seismological Section, University of Uppsala, Uppsala,
Sweden

For the lASPEI/Unesco Working

Group on IA S P EIManual of Seismogram
Interpretation
ELSEVIER
Amsterdam Oxford New York Tokyo 1990
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
Sara Burgerhartstraat 25
P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Distributors for the United States and Canada:

0 039
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING
COMPANY INC. 655, Avenue of the

75
Americas New York, NY 10010,
U.S.A.

ISBN 0-444-88375-4 Elsevier

Science Publishers B.V., 1990

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be ............... .......in. "I stored in a
retrieval .
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electron ,mn IimmI,
photocopying, rec<n.i,..F ,
otherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepuhlmln 1 I h.
vierSciencePublishcn Physical Sciences & Engineering Division, P.O. Box
33o. mi Amsterdam, TheNethnU..

Special regulations for readers in the U.S.A. - This ...................................... Iins been
registered will* Iti
 Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Maivn lnim Information
can be ,... from the CCC about conditions under which photocopy .>1
i>it of this publication I
made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including i>ii.................... opying
outside of lh< 1
should be referred to the publisher.

No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any > ml or damage to

persons m i erty as a matter of products liability, negligence or othrtwu. .
from any use or ope run any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained
In herein.

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Printed in The Netherlands
CONTENTS Page
PREFACE VI

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Earthquakes, why and where do they occur? 3

Chapter 3 Structure of the Earths interior 9

3.1 CRUST 9
3.2 MANTLE 9
3.3 CORE 11
Chapter 4 Seismic waves 13
4.1 BASIC TYPES AND ESSENTIAL
PROPERTIES 13
4.2 PROPAGATION PATHS 4.2.1 Crustal waves; 19
rcconling
distances 0-10* 20
4.2.2 Body waves; recording
distances 10-103* 28
4.2.3 Body waves; recording
distances 103* and larger 4.2.4 Body waves from 32
intermcdiate-focus
and deep-focus earthquakes t 38
4.2.5 Surface waves 40
Chapter 5 Travel times 47

Chapter 6 Seismographs and seismolngical observatories 55

6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 55
 6.2 RECORDING SYSTEMS 57
6.3 INSTRUMENTAL FREQUENCY
CHARACTERISTICS 59
6.4 ANALOG AND DIGITAL RECORDS 65
Chapter 7 Seismograms and interpretations 69
LOCAL AND REGIONAL EVENTS Plates 1-14
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES Plates 15-19
UNUSUAL SEISMIC SOURCES Plates 20-21
TELESEISMIC EVENTS 1<103 Plates 22-52
TELESEISMIC EVENTS >103 Plates 53-55
REFERENCES 169
SUBJECT INDEX 171
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 177
1
I remember when our island was shaken by an earthquake
some years ago, there was an Impudent mountebank who
sold pills which as he told to the country people were very
good against an earthquake.
"The Tatlcr, Joseph Addison 1672-1719
PREFACE

Numerous manuals for seismogram interpretation and analysis have been

circulating among seismologists over the past several decades. Many of them, often
issued as in-house handbooks guiding analysts at a particular seismographic
observatory, have been of rather local or regional importance. Some have gained
world-wide recognition and a few are still employed in routine work at
observatories around the world as well as for training activities of various kinds.
For instance, the special publication Principles Underlying the Interpretation of
Seismograms has long been used as a standard reference book. It was written in 1951
by F. Neumann, a geophysicist affiliated with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
and necessarily describes routines commonly employed at that organisation. In
1968, R. B. Simon of the Colorado School of Mines wrote Earthquake Interpretations.
She collected an impressive suite of records made at seismographic stations Bergen
Park (Colorado) and Palisades (New York) and presented the corresponding phase
identifications and commentaries. In 1986, G. Payo published his excellent
Introduccion al Analysis de Sismogramas. His work, written in Spanish, comprises a short
introduction and 87 plates with seismograms from the Toledo seismographic station
in southern Spain. Extensive commentaries are included,
All the above publications make use of seismic records produced by standard
analog narrow-band seismographs and illustrate rather well the developments since
the early 1950s. It is obvious that any similar book can hardly be considered as a
perfect final product, simply because our highly fragmental knowledge of the
Earths interior, the available instrumentation, associated interpretation and analysis
techniques and theory are continuously improving. Hence, a frequent updating of
existing interpretation codes and routines is not only welcomed but is in fact a
prerequisite for modem seismogram interpretation, as well as for research.
The primary goal of this book is to present in a rather tutorial form all the necessary
information and techniques pertinent to essential seismogram interpretation. The
treatment is descriptive rather than mathematical. Emphasis is laid on practical
aspects especially for the benefit of students and junior seismogram interpreters
affiliated with seismographic stations and observatories. However, even workers
more knowledgeable in seismology and curious enough in the detailed deciphering
of seismogram pecularities may find the presentation useful.
In the course of this book, I shall strictly distinguish between terms seismogram
interpretation and seismogram analysisj-jjl)e former, being the content of the book, is
devoted to the art of identification of various seismic wave types appearing on
seismograms, including the recognition of the waves with respect to possible travel
paths through the F.arth. The latter includes, first of all, determination of basic
source parameters (origin time, hypocenter coordinates, size) but may also
incorporate rather advanced studies (e.g., wave-form modeling, estimation of
velocity disirihution and moment tensor determination). A large part of seismogrum
analysis is apparently a domain of research and beyond the scope of this book.
However, phase identification is a doorway and obviously without correct
seismogram interpretation hardly any analysis would be possible.
The book is divided into two parts: a verbal description (Chapters 1-6) and a
collection of 55 plates (Chapter 7) with actual seismograms. The verbal description
explains in a rather elementary form the most fundamental physical phenomena
relevant to seismogram appearance. The collection of plates exhibits a large variety
of seismogram examples and corresponding interpretations covering different
seismic sourccs, wave types, epicentral distances, focal depths and recording
instruments
The present book complements older manuals in that both analog and digital
records are considered. Seismograms from more traditional narrowband as well as
from modem broad-band instruments arc displayed. Tectonic and volcanic
earthquakes are represented and the exhibited seismograms form a world-wide
collection of records acquired from seismographic stations located in North and
Central America, Asia, Europe and New Zealand, i.e., in various geological and
tectonic environments. Terminology and usage of definition does vary among
agencies in different parts of the world; that used in this book is common in Europe.
The present publication arose as a joint IASPEI/Unesco venture. Both bodies have
shared an interest in editing a new comprehensive manual on seismogram
interpretation. Discussions concerning the manual had already started at the
London, Ontario, IASPEI Assembly in 1981. However, the first definite steps to
tackle the problems were only made at the Tokyo IASPEI Assembly in 1985.
During this meeting, a IASPEI/Unesco Working Group (WG) on Manual of Seismogram
Interpretation was established. Two business meetings were held and specified the
general requirements of the manual. Initially, the WG consisted of G.L. Choy, V.I.
Gorbunova, M. Hashizume (Unesco representative), O. Kulhanek (chairman), D.
Mayer-Rosa, L. Ruprechtovd, M.E. Reyners, D. Seidl,;R.A. Uhrhammer and M.
Yamamoto. The first selection of material to be included in the manual was made at
the subsequent EGS/ESC Assembly in Kiel, FRG, in 1986. G. Payo became a new
member of the WG while R.E. Reyners resigned. The final lay-out and definite
selection of seismograms were considered at several business meetings of the WG
during the IUGG General Assembly in Vancouver, 1987.
 This manual would not have been written without the support, continuous interest
and encouragement of Unesco. Invaluable indeed are the seismogramexamples with
commentaries received from the following WG members and others:
G.L. Choy Plates 40, 41, 55
D. Mayer-Rosa Plate 4
E. Molina Plates 15, 18
G.Payo Plates 23, 36, 43, 54
A. PleSinger Plates 2, 37
J.M. Protti Plates 16, 17, 19
M.E. Reyners Plates 8, 14
D. Seidl Plates 10, 12, 25, 47, 50, 51
R.A. Uhrhammer Plates 20, 21, 28-30, 34, 42, 46, 48, 49, 53
M. Yamamoto Plates 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15-17, 19
The remainder, Plates 5, 22, 24, 26, 27, 31-33, 35, 38, 39, 44, 45, 52, were
compiled by the author.
I would like to thank my collegues A.J. Anderson and J. Henderson who carefully
read and commented on various parts of the manuscript. I appreciate very much the
long hours of reading put in by R.D. Adams and G.L. Choy who provided me with
thorough reviews of the entire manuscript. They were my most useful critics and
made many good suggestions which have been incorporated in the text Illustrations
supplementing the text were prepared by H. Nilsson. Anne-Marie
Olsson and Siv Petterson patiently and carefully typed countless
revisions of the manuscript.
Ota Kulhdnek
Seismological Section Uppsala May, 1989
University Uppsala, Sweden
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Earthquakes are mighty manifestations of sudden releases of strain energy

accumulated during extensive time intervals in the upper part of the Earth. They
radiate seismic waves of
various types
which propagate
from the
earthquake in all directions through the Earths interior and are recorded at
large distances by sensitive instruments placed on or near the Earths surface. The
appearance of an actual seismogram reflects the combined effects of the source, the
propagation path, the
characteristics
of the recording
instrument
and the ambient noise due to
the specific conditions at the
particular
recording site. To understand the rather complicated nature of seismogram traces
requires knowledge of seismic source physics, internal structure of the Earth and
seismic wave propagation but mainly it requires long experience based upon daily
inspection of actual seismic records. A trained seismogram analyst frequently
reveals and in many cases correctly interprets record features and details invisible
to other workers, well in agreement with Emil Wiecherts "... jede Zacke, jede Zunge zu
erklaren..." (from German meaning "... every jerk, every wiggle should be
explained..."). It is well known that veteran seismogram interpreters who have been
associated for a long time with a given seismographic station often develop
miraculous abilities to recognize a characteristic appearance of seismograms from
earthquakes and other seismic phenomena occurring practically at any part of the
world.
In the following sections, a brief description of fundamental physical phenomena
affecting the seismogram appearance is presented. The second part of this book
contains a number of plates with actual seismogram examples and corresponding
interpretations. It should be emphasized that current seismogram interpretation
together with subsequent analysis is not limited to determination of basic
earthquake source parameters such as location, time of occurrence, focal depth and
magnitude. Reflected and refracted seismic waves are used to test hypotheses
concerning the Earths internal structure as well as to discover, locate and describe
new discontinuities and other features deep inside the Earth. Advanced techniques
are used to study in detail the physical processes and stress distribution in, and close
to, earthquake foci. Thousands of earthquakes are utilized in studies of geological
movements and in earthquake risk mapping. Seismic records also provide the first-
hand information when identifying various precursory phenomena associated with
large earthquakes and are, therefore, of great value for earthquake prediction. There
is no doubt that the overwhelming part of contemporary knowledge of the internal
structure of the Earth and its dynamics has been inferred from seismological studies
employing seismograms as primary data. We are aware of the disasters frequently
caused by earthquakes, but are powerless to interrupt geological processes taking
part inside our planet. However, by learning about these processes, and there is still
much to learn, we increase our chance of mitigating the earthquake threat.
In seismology (from the Greek word seismos meaning earthquake and logos
meaning science), irrespective of the final task, sooner or later the work becomes
dependent on seismogram interpretation, i.e. on discovery and identification of
recorded seismic waves. Guide-lines on seismic record interpretation have long
been requested especially by students and junior analysts. My main objective here
has been to serve these workers by presenting a comprehensive and tutorial manual
for deciphering available seismograms, a work that has fascinated seismologists at
all levels, from genuine novices to legendary specialists, since the first seismogram
appeared in the early days of observational seismology, about one hundred years
ago.
Chapter 2

EARTHQUAKES, WHY AND WHERE DO THEY OCCUR?

Each year, planet Earth is shaken by some ten or more major and destructive
earthquakes killing thousands of people and imposing disastrous economic
consequences on the affected areas. If we reject the idea that earthquakes are
manifestations of Gods displeasure, or caused by mysterious dark forces, then
what are the true causes of earthquakes and where do they preferentially occur?
Answers to these, and many other questions are suggested by the current plate
tectonics theory.
In plate tectonics, the uppermost part of the Earth is considered to be divided into
two layers with different deformation properties. The upper rigid layer, called the
lithosphere, is about 100 km thick below the continents, about 50 km under the
oceans, and consists of crust and rigid upper-mantle rocks. The lower layer, called
the asthenosphere, extends down to about 700 km depth and in it the mantle rocks
are less brittle, i.e. more deformable when compared with the lithosphere. The rigid
lithospheric shell is broken into, say, a dozen irregularly shaped major plates (not
coinciding with continents) and a large number of minor or secondary plates.
Figure 1 displays the division of the Earths surface into major rigid plates. The
lithospheric plates are not stationary; on the contrary, they "float" in a complex
pattern, with a velocity of some 2-10 cm/year on the soft rocks of the underlying
asthenosphere like rafts on a lake. The idea of wandering plates was originally
proposed in 1912 by a German scientist, A. Wegener.
Plate boundaries are classified into one of the three following categories.
Boundaries where two plates are converging are called trenches; boundaries where
two plates diverge are called ridges; and boundaries where two plates move
horizontally past each other are called transform faults. Trenches are also
destructive plate margins. As two plates converge, one plate usually bends beneath
the other and descends into the soft, hot asthenosphere, a process often referred to
as subduction. The descending slab, also called subduction zone or Wadati-Benioff
zone, assimilates with the surrounding mantle at a depth of about 700 km, i.e.
approximately at the lower limit of the asthenosphere, due to temperatures and
stresses existing at that depth. The locus of earthquakes in a subduction zone
defines the Wadati-Benioff zone. Ridges are also constructive plate margins. The
opening where two plates diverge is continuously filled by ascending mantle
material.
l-ig. 1. Present boundaries and relative motions of major tectonic plates. Arrows show the direction of horizontal motions.

Philippine

Pacific
Plate
Indian

Mid-oceanic ridges (heavy lines) are offset by transform faults (thin lines), hatchings indicate subduction and dashed lines
uncertain plate boundaries. (Based largely on the map of Press and Siever, 1982).

It becomes obvious, even from this highly simplified description of plate-tectonic

processes, that a continuous accumulation of stresses takes place in rocks along
plate margins at various depths in the Earth. Plate deformation (bending,
compression, tension), friction between colliding plates, high temperature gradients
within subducting slabs and so forth contribute significantly to the build-up of
stress. When the stress exceeds the elastic strength of the rock, the rock fractures
along a plane of weakness (fault plane) and an earthquake is bom. The rock is
displaced into its new position while the strain energy is totally or partially released.
Rock fracturing usually starts from a point (focus, hypocenter) close to one edge of
the fault plane and propagates along the plane with a typical velocity of some 3
km/s. The vertical projection of the hypocenter onto the Earths surface is called the
epicenter. After large shallow earthquakes, the observed surface dislocations can
amount to several meters and the fault length can exceed hundreds of kilometers.
 From the description above, we would expect that the large majority of the
worlds earthquakes are not generated randomly around the globe but in relatively
narrow belts along trenches, ridges and transform faults, i.e. along boundaries
between interacting mobile plates where deformation takes place. A casual glance at
a map of the Earths division into rigid plates (Fig. 1) and the global distribution of
earthquakes (Fig. 2) confirms that this, indeed, is the case. Some parts of the world
are far more prone to earthquakes thanothers. There is a high correlation between
this geographic distribution of epicenters (interplate earthquakes) and plate margins.
A large part (80%) of the seismic energy released by all earthquakes is released
along the margins of the Pacific plate, also called the Circum-Pacific belt. A high
energy concentration can also be seen along the Mid-Atlantic ridge and the Alpide
Asiatic-European) belt extending from the Azores to southeastern Asia.
Sporadically, earthquakes also occur at rather large distances from the respective
plate margins, such as the large earthquakes in central USA (New Madrid, 1812;
Charleston, 1886), southwestern Australia (Perth, 1968), ortheastem continental
China (Tangshan, 1976) etc. These, so called intraplate earthquakes, show a diffuse
geographical distribution and their rigin is still poorly understood. These
earthquakes can be large and because of their unexpectedness and infrequency can
cause major disasters.

Fig. 2. Global geographical distribution of epicenters (circles) for earthquakes of surface-wave magnitude equal to or
greater than 6.7, during the period 1963-1988. The size of circles is proportional to the magnitude of the events.
Altogether, 1372 earthquakes are plotted. (Based on the map computer plotted by W. Rinehart of NOAA).

Major earthquakes are often followed by a number of aftershocks, i.e. lesser

arthquakes that follow the main shock or principal earthquake and originate near
the focus of the main shock. Aftershock sequences may continue for several days,
weeks, months and even years. For instance, after ;he great Kamchatka earthquake
on March 4, 1952 (M=8.6), the activity in the area remained higher than normal for
3-4 years (B&th, 1979a). Generally, the frequency occurrence of aftershocks
(which in some cases may be of the order of a hundred or more per day) decreases
with increasing time.
Sometimes, the main shock is preceded by foreshocks, which are usually smaller
quakes occurring shortly, several days or weeks, before and near the main shock. It
should be emphasized that significant deviations from this pattern of energy release
i.e. foreshocks - main shock - aftershocks, are quite common. Weak earthquakes,
with magnitudes 3 or less, are often called microearthquakes. 1
Still another mode of energy release is manifested by earthquake swarms. In
these, a large number of earthquakes takes place within a limited area over time
periods from a week or so, to several monthsj An earthquake swarm shows no
pronounced main shock and the frequency of shocks gradually increases until a
maximum is reached and then the activity gradually dies out. As an example, we
can mention the swarm activity in Meloy, northern Norway, which began in
November 1978 and the high activity lasted until the end of January 1979. During
this time interval, more than 10,000 tremors (M < 3.2) were recorded by nearby
stations. At its maximum activity, the harvest for one single day was more than 800
microearthquakes (Bungum et. al, 1982). However, cases of swarms are
known where the maximum frequency was as high as several thousands of small
quakes per day. Swarms are also common in volcanic regions, as will be discussed
later.
It is worth mentioning that the strain energy accumulation is rather slow, taking
months, years and even decades (depending on the size of the
earthquake, i.e. on its magnitude) before the level of rock failure is reached. On the
other hand, the energy release takes only seconds or a fraction of a second for small
earthquakes and between one and a few minutes for the largest shocks. Modem
research reveals that a smooth continuous rupture over the entire active fault plane
is an exception rather than a rule. The usual case, especially for large shocks, is an
irregular rupture process through a series of partial dislocations. Such a multiple
rupturing, of course, heavily increases the complexity of corresponding
seismograms.
According to their focal depth, earthquakes are classified into one of the three
categories: shallow, intermediate or deep. Shallow-focus earthquakes (about 80%
of the total activity) have their foci at a depth between 0 and 70 km and take place
at oceanic ridges and transform faults as well as at subduction zones. Intermediate-
focus earthquakes (focal depth between 71 and 300 km) and deep focus-
earthquakes (focal depth greater than 300
km)
occur at subduction zones. Most earthquakes originate within the crust. At
depths beneath the Moho, the number falls abruptly and dies away to zero at a
depth of about 700 km. Earthquakes along ridges usually occur at a depth of about
10 km or less and are of moderate size. Transform faults generate larger shocks at
depths down to about 20 km. The largest earthquakes occur along subduction
zones.
Earthquakes described above, i.e. those caused by the sudden release of
accumulated strain energy, due to interaction of two or more lithospheric lates, are
distinguished as tectonic earthquakes (in Greek tecton means a uilder). Other
categories of earthquakes are volcanic earthquakes and mplosions or collapse
earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes, discovered by L. almieri at the Vesuvius
Observatory in 1855, are caused by sudden opening of channels in crustal rocks,
rapid changes of motion of magma, excessive accumulation of gas pressure in the
crust, roof collapses of subterranean channels emptied of magma, etc. According to
Minakami (1959a, b, 1960) or Tazieff and Sabroux (1983), volcanic earthquakes
are classified into three groups: -type earthquakes with foci between 1 and 10 km
deep; B-type arthquakes with foci at depths of 1 km or less; and explosion-type
earthquakes taking place at the very surface of the Earth. Another categorization of
volcanic earthquakes can be found e.g. in Tokarev (1983). Close to active
volcanoes, we also frequently detect so called volcanic remor which is due to long-
duration, more or less continuous, volcanic vibrations. Whereas volcanic
earthquakes are clearly individual events separated in time from each other,
volcanic tremor shows rather spasmodic or behaviour. It is associated with
flow of underground magma, oscillations in magma reservoirs, explosions of
volcanic gases, etc.
Many tectonic earthquakes and some volcanic earthquakes are monitored at large
distances. Collapse earthquakes, which are due to collapses of subsurface cavities,
are generally only of local significance and are practically always rather small.
Tectonic, volcanic and collapse earthquakes together with oceanic microseisms,
discussed in Section 4.1, belong to the category of natural seismic sources. There is
also a variety of man-made seismic sources such as industrial or military
explosions and various types of cultural noises (traffic, industry, construction
works), which are examples of controlled seismic sources where place, time of
occurrence and source intensity are determined in advance or are, at least, highly
predictable. Other types of man-made seismic sources are induced or triggered
events. Generally speaking, there are two plausible mechanisms available to
explain triggered events. Firstly, by changes in local elastic stresses (loading,
unloading) caused by removal of large volumes of rocks as in mining and quarrying
operations and by reservoir impounding. Secondly, by an increase of pore and
fracture pressure, e.g. due to fluid injection, which in its turn decreases the rock
strength (it acts as a lubricant) and may thus give rise to an increase of local
seismicity. The best documented cases of triggered seismicity are those associated
with the injection of fluids under high pressure into crustal rocks. Physical
explanations of reservoir induced seismicity are still imperfectly understood but the
impounding of large reservoirs can obviously affect both the local elastic stress as
well as the fluid pressure. It has to be emphasizedthat, irrespective of various
trigger mechanisms, reservoir induced events generally also relieve tectonic
stresses built up over very long time periods, and hence are about to occur anyhow.
To some degree, hypocentral locations of induced earthquakes are predictable.
However, their size and time of occurrence are not. Many man-made events such as
underground nuclear explosions and some of the reservoir-induced earthquakes, are
large enough to be received teleseismically at seismograph stations throughout the
world. A brief overview of major seismic source types is sketched in Fig. 3.

SEISMIC SOURCES

m
Natural Events Man-Made Events
Controlled Events induced, Triggered Events

jm Tectonic Reservoir Induced

Earthquakes Explosions Earthquakes
Volcanic Cultural
Earthquakes Noise Mining Tremors

Implosions, Collapse Earthquakes

Fluid-lnjection
Induced
Earthquakes
Oceanic
Microseisms

Fig. 3. Major categories of seismic sources

Usually only the large and destructive shocks gain public attention. In fact, the true
number of earthquakes is much higher than most people realize. Small events and
earthquakes in remote unpopulated areas (e.g., under oceans) usually occur without
being noticed. The so called magnitude-frequency distribution, studied in detail by
many seismologists, shows a rapid increase of the number of earthquakes with
decreasing magnitude. For the Earth as a whole, we have, on average, about 2
events per year within the magnitude interval 8.0-8.9, about 15-20 events within the
interval 7.0-7.9, about 100-150 events within the interval 6.0-6.9, etc. The
International Seismological Centre (ISC), in Berkshire, England, lists about 25,000
to 30,000 events a year in its recent publications. Some workers (B&th, 1979a)
claim that there are as many as 1 million earthquakes in the Earth every year, which
means about two shocks every minute. Disastrous earthquakes punctuate history.
Annually, several tens of earthquakes cause loss of life, property damage and
environmental degradation.
 Chapter 3

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTHS INTERIOR

Even the most elementary seismic waves recorded by a seismograph station cannot be
described and discussed without having First a working model of the Earths interior
through which the waves travel. For seismological purposes, it is convenient to
assume the Earth to be constituted of crust, mantle and core (Fig. 4). This major
division was established from the analysis of recorded seismic waves in the beginning
of this century and still provides a reasonable working model. The mantle-crust as
well as the core-mantle boundary are distinct discontinuities in seismic-wave
velocities and efficient reflectors/refractors of the incident seismic energy.

3.1 CRUST
The mantle-crust boundary, generally called the Mohorovi&c discontinuity (often
abbreviated as M or Moho), separates rocks at the base of the crust with
compressional-wave velocities of about 6.5 km/s, from the underlying mantle rocks
where compressional-wave velocities are about 8 km/s (Fig. 5). The average thickness
of the crust varies from about 25 to 40 km below the continents but may be as large as
60 to 70 km under high mountains. Under the deep ocean, the crust is much thinner,
only about 5 km. In studies of nearby earthquakes, epicentral distance less than 1000
km, we often assume a crust consisting of two horizontal layers of approximately the
same thickness, separated by the Conrad discontinuity. The upper layer represents
granitic rocks, whereas the lower layer consists of basaltic rocks. For a typical crustal
model under the deep ocean we usually omit the granitic layer.

3.2 MANTLE
The Earths mantle extends from Moho to the core-mantle boundary at "900 km
depth. The whole of the mantle is now considered to be essentially olid and to a large
extent radially homogeneous. The compressional wave velocity increases from about
8 km/s just beneath the Moho to 13.7 km/s at the core-mantle boundary (Fig. 5). The
mantle may be subdivided into the upper mantle, including the non-crustal lithosphere
and the asthenosphere, and the lower mantle. The upper mantle extends to a depth of
about 700 km, where the velocity gradient suddenly decreases, and contains several
 ptoy* > \ / 71

discontinuities. There is unquestionable seismological evidence of interfaces, e.g., at

depths of 400 and 650 km. They all arc less precisely determined than the Moho and,
hence, some
workers prefer to
work with
Continental Oceanic models

Lith
o-
spher
Low e
velocit
y
layer

Uppe >Asthert
r o-
' Jl-t
sphere

containing
transition zones
or layers of a
numtie Lower
mantle Outer core Inner core thickness of the
Fig. 4. A segment of the Earths interior, at two different scales, showing the location of major structural discontinuities and the right
proportions between crust, mantle and core. Numbers give the distance beneath the Earths surface in km. ,.i
order of, say, 50 km rather than with definite or sharp discontinuities. It is assumed
that within the transition zones the velocity increases with depth more rapidly than in
the surrounding layers. It is worth mentioning that recent research provides good
evidence that the 650 km discontinuity is sharp, e.g. short- period sharp reflections in
P'dP' (for nomenclature see Section 4.2.2 or Table 3). On the other hand, the 400 km
discontinuity is not sharp. One of the important features of the upper mantle is the
world-wide existence of a low-velocity layer (LVL) between about 100 and 250 km
below the surface. Within the LVL, the rocks are partially molten, the rigidity is low,
the attenuation is the largest of the whole mantle and seismic wave velocities fall by
about 6% when compared with the velocity just under the Moho. It is obvious that the
LVL plays an important role in the propagation of seismic waves. The lower mantle
extends from some 700 km depth to the core-mantle boundary at 2900 km depth, first
recognized by R.D. Oldham in 1906 and accurately located by B. Gutenberg in 1913.
Seismic velocities
in the lower mantle increase gradually with increasing depth although at a
significantly lower rate than in the upper mantle. There are no distinct re
flectors/refractors in the lower mantle.

3.3 CORE
Below the core-mantle boundary is the core of the Earth with an approximate
radius of 3500 km. The boundary represents a sharp thin discontinuity in physical
properties such as a precipitous fall of the ci mpressional-wave velocity from 13.7
to 8.1 km/s and cessation of shear waves (Fig. 5). In spite of great observational
efforts, no shear waves that have traveled through the core have yet been identified
on seismograms. It is generally accepted that shear waves cease to exist at this
depth due to the fluid character (no resistance to shear, i.e. no shear strength) of the
core.. Seismic wave studies led to a subdivision of the core into an outer core,
which in relation to seismic waves acts as a liquid and an inner core which acts as a
solid. Some early workers claimed originally that the inner and outer core were
separated by a transition layer about 150 km thick within which the compressional-
wave velocity declines sharply. Recent studies do not show this transition layer and
advocate the existence of a rather sharp discontinuity in the compressional-wave
velocity at the bottom of the outer core. The compressional-wave velocity in the
inner core is significantly higher than that in the surrounding outer core.
 13

g. 5. Distribution of compressional-wave (P) and shear-wave (S) velocities in the Earth's interior based pon the Earth model
CAL 6 computed at the University of California, Berkeley (Bolt, 1982). The low- velocity layer at 100-250 km depth is
clearly visible. S waves do not propagate through the liquid outer core and consequently, the S curve is interrupted in the
Earth's outer core. It is theoretically possible for S waves to reappear in the solid inner core (by multiple conversion from P
to 5 and from S to P at outer- inner core boundary when entering and leaving the inner core, respectively), although such
waves have not been definitely observed.

Chapter 4

S ISMIC WAVES

11 BASIC TYPES AND ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES

When the strain accumulated in the rock exceeds its elastic limit a fault ruptures,
rock masses are abruptly displaced and seismic waves begin to radiate from the
fault. As the rupture propagates, it successively releases the strain energy stored
along the activated part of the fault. Thus, each point of the fault contributes, with
a certain time delay (due to the finite velocity of the rupture propagation), to the
total picture of seismic waves, which at a certain distance from the causative fault
interfere with each other and give rise to quite a complicated wave train. At first
sight, it seems that there is a contradiction between the duration of the rupture at
the source, which takes between a fraction of a second and a few minutes, and the
length of the observed seismogram which for large and distant earthquakes can
extend over several hours. In fact, the length of the seismogram depends primarily
on various wave propagation effects such as reflection, refraction, conversion,
dispersion, etc and has very little to do with the duration of the quake.
Seismologists use the term coda to denote the part of the seismogram with
decreasing amplitudes which follows the principal phases.

Essentially, there are two types of seismic waves, body waves that propagate
through the Earths interior and surface waves that propagate along the Earths
free surface or along other discontinuities in the Earths interior. Surface waves
carry the greatest amount of energy from shallow shocks and are usually the
primary cause of destruction that can result from earthquakes affecting densely
populated areas. Body waves radiated by the source
14
propagate in all directions (free waves) while surface waves start to
propagate first after body waves (different types) have been interacting along
boundaries. Thus, surface waves are always concentrated near discontinuity
surfaces and are, therefore, sometimes called bounded waves or guided
waves. In other words, for homogeneous media, i.e. for media with no
boundaries, there are no surface waves,

Body waves, which travel faster than surface waves,are of two types:
compressional (longitudinal) and shear (transverse). That an elastic body should
be able to transmit two different types of body waves was first postulated by S.D.
Poisson in 1829. At any given point of the body, the
velocity of propagation is determined by the density and elastic moduli at
that point. Compressional waves travel about 1.7 times faster than transverse.
waves and are often called P waves or primary waves (from Latin undae primae).
Transverse waves are frequently called S waves or secondary waves (from Latin undae
secundae). P waves are always the first _ among seismic waves that reach the recording
station. Rock particles affected by a propagating P wave oscillate backward and
forward in the same direction as the wave propagates (see Fig. 6), analogous to, e.g.,
sound waves. In the case of S waves, particles are displaced in planes perpendicular to
the direction of travel (Fig. 6) analogous to, e.g., light or electromagnetic waves.
However, since earthquakes generate P and S waves, studies of recorded seismic
waves are, broadly speaking, more complicated than studies of sound or
electromagnetic waves. Fluids do not sustain shear strain, and therefore S waves do
not travel through liquid parts of the Earths interior. P waves, on the other hand,
propagate through both the solid and liquid divisions of the Earth. P and S waves had
already been revealed on actual seismic records at the end of the nineteenth century.

Fig. 6. Motion of rock particles (small arrows) that lie in the path of propagating P, S, LQ and LR waves. Note that the waves
propagate from the source to the receiver at the recording site, i.e. from left to right in the sketch. Due to different
propagation velocities, the waves will appear on the seismogram separated in time in the order: P, S, LQ and LR. The large
arrow indicates the direction of wave propagation.
 15
As far as surface waves are concerned, we shall here limit ourselves to a brief
description of two basic types, namely to Love waves and Rayleigh waves which are
often the dominant wave types seen on actual seismograms. It is usual to denote Love
waves by LQ and Rayleigh waves by LR where L stands for long (i.e. long waves), Q
for Querwellen, an alternative name from German for Love waves, and R for Rayleigh
waves. LR and LQ waves propagate along the Earths free surface or in layers bounded
by velocity discontinuities, through the crust and upper mantle. They can also travel
by different modes (overtones) which are often seen on records as higher-frequency
components superimposed on the surface-wave train. We talk then about fundamental-
mode and higher-mode surface waves. Higher modes are most frequently observed for
waves traversing purely continental paths. In some cases, higher modes have also
been associated with oceanic paths. However, surface-wave higher modes disappear
when the waves cross the transition between continental and oceanic structures.
Higher modes propagate faster than the fundamental mode and are, therefore,
recorded ahead of LQ and LR.
Amplitudes of LR and LQ waves are largest at or near the surface and decrease
rapidly (roughly exponentially) with depth. Consequently, shallow (crustal)
earthquakes generate large surface waves but with increasing focal depth, surface
waves become smaller and smaller. For crustal earthquakes, surface waves usually
dominate the seismogram while for deeper shocks (h > 100 km) they often become
insignificant. Obviously, this fact provides the analyst with a powerful tool for a quick
(at first glance) and reliable discrimination of shallow earthquakes against deep
shocks.
Both Love and Rayleigh waves exhibit an important property called velocity
dispersion or, for short, dispersion. The velocity of propagation of dispersed surface
waves is not period (or frequency) invariant, as is the case of P and S waves, but
increases with increasing wave period (normal dispersion). In practice, this means that
the long surface waves approach the station first and are recorded ahead of the
"slower" shorter waves. Hence, ideally the seismogram of surface waves LQ or LR will
start with rather long-period motion which gradually, as time increases, will turn into
shorter and shorter periods.
In Rayleigh waves, the motion of rock particles follows a retrograde elliptical orbit
in a vertical plane pointed in the direction of the generating earthquake (see Fig. 6). In
Love waves, there is no particle motion in the vertical direction. Particles move in a
horizontal plane at right angles to the direction of the wave propagation (see Fig. 6).
As in the case of body waves, different polarization of particle motions is an
important clue which often makes it possible to distinguish between different surface
waves LQ and LR. For example, as follows from the above description, vertical-
component seismographs cannot record Love waves. Another important clue is that
LQ waves travel somewhat faster and therefore precede LR waves on seismograms.

If the studied earthquake exceeds a certain magnitude, its seismic waves can be
recorded by sensitive seismographs placed all around the world on the surface of the
Earth, in boreholes, abandoned mines, on the ocean bottom, etc. Generally speaking,
as we depart from the focus, the wave amplitudes diminish due to the anelastic
attenuation (rocks are not perfectly elastic), by geometrical spreading (the area of the
16
wavefront increases with increasing propagated distance) and by losses at interfaces
(reflection, refraction, mode conversion, diffraction, scatter). The anelastic attenuation
is frequency dependent (high frequencies are subject to high attenuation) so that high-
frequency seismic signals die out rather rapidly and may be recorded only by proper
instruments placed at relatively short epicentral distances. The attenuation of
geometrical spreading is frequency invariant .J.
Due to the internal structure of the Earth, at certain distance, e.g. around 20 or
144, concentration (focusing) of energy of traveling seismic waves takes place.
Seismic signals recorded close to these distances often show an increase of amplitude
even with increasing distance, from the focus. This phenomenon, which is limited to a
few rather narrow distance intervals, should be considered as an exception from the
general behaviour of amplitudes decaying with increasing epicentral distance.
Other factors influencing the amplitude of arriving seismic waves are the source
mechanism and the associated source radiation characteristics. Tectonic earthquakes,
in contrast to underground explosions, cannot be treated as spherically symmetric
point sources because the radiated seismic energy transported by certain wave types
is beamed in certain directions. Therefore, two or more seismographs placed at the
same epicentral distance but at different azimuths with respect to an earthquake may,
and most likely will, show significantly different amplitudes of recorded seismic
waves. It is also likely that seismographs deployed at different azimuths will show
different amplitude ratios between arriving P and S waves.
The plot in Fig. 7 serves to illustrate some of the basic properties of body and
surface waves described above. There is a sharp P onset followed after approximately
three and a half minutes by a clear S onset (we neglect the minor trace wiggles). About
two minutes after the S arrival, we observe a gradual increase of the amplitude due to
the arriving LR wave (vertical-component seismogram). At the beginning of the LR
wave, the wave period is about 40 s but it decreases to about 25 s after three or four
swings, clearly demonstrating the normal dispersive character of the recorded LR
wave. In this particular case (Fig. 7), the LR wave dominates the seismogram
indicating a shallow-focus earthquake.
Since various types of seismic waves propagate with different velocities, they arrive
at the recording site well separated in time so there should theoretically be no
difficulties in their identification on seismograms. This behaviour has also been
demonstrated by making use of the Greek earthquake record shown in Fig. 7.
However, it has to be emphasized that in this
 17

Kg. 7. Seismogram of the earthquake in northern Greece on May 2J. 7. (magnitude M=5.7, focal depth i 9 km), made at
Uppsala. Sweden, at an epicentral distance of 21ft0 km The trace has been made on a
ng-period Press-Ewing seismograph (see Chapter 6) and sh<mi the vertical motion of the ground. Time .Uvances from left to
right and there is 1 minute between successive Ume marks (small upward offsets).

particular case, chosen for tutorial reasons, the noise level (cf the portion of the record
preceding the P onset) is very low when compared with amplitudes of recorded P or S
waves. Also, the decay of P wave amplitudes, so called P coda, is rather rapid so that
not only the P onset but also the S onset can easily be identified and the corresponding
arrival times accurately nreasured. Unfortunately, it is quite common that the analyst,
in his daily work, has to examine records with high background noise and to identify
various wave arrivals masked by noise, which often is a task in itself. This may be
especially true in cases of weaker and/or distant earthquakes.
The ground is practically always in motion. Various human activities such as traffic,
construction work, industries etc generate so called cultural noise with dominant
frequencies usually above 1 Hz. A similar type of noise is also generated by action of
wind, smaller water basins or rivers etc. Various interactions between atmospheric
effects, oceans and the solid Earth give rise IU microseismic noise sometimes also
called ocean microseisms. Dominant frequencies of microseisms occupy a broad low-
frequency range from less than 0.01 Hz to, say, 0.5 Hz, i.e. periods from 2 s to more
than 100 s. The most common microseisms have more or less regular periods of about
6 s.
Cultural noise is recorded with standard instruments at epicentral distances usually
not exceeding several tens of kilometers and is, therefore, only of local importance.
Microseisms, on the other hand, can travel many hundreds of kilometers and hence,
18
are a continental phenomenon. They are correlated with stormy weather conditions
in some adjacent oceanic regions and may persist from several hours to several days
or weeks. Oceanic microseisms often show strong seasonal variations in both the
amplitude level and the dominant period.
A variety of sources radiate a variety of noise types and to list commonly valid
characteristics is rather difficult. Generally speaking, cultural noise due to its
relatively high frequency content, affccts records of near events (epicentral distance
less than about 1000 km). Microseisms, on the other hand, interfere with records of
distant events and make the interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible.
Examples of "noisy" seismograms are shown in Fig. 8.

UPP

' 1 win ' VWWSWMM* WJ

Fig. 8. Examples of seismograms with oceanic microseisms. Upper part: strong microseisms recorded on November 27, 1978 at
Swedish seismographic stations Uppsala (left) and Umei (right). In both cases, the traces are produced by standard long-
period Press liwing seismographs and show the ground motion in the E-W direction. While the noise level in the Uppsala
record would still allow the seismic phases to be picked, to identify weak arrivals in the Umci rccord would certainly be a
difficult task even for an experienced interpreter. Lower part: seismic noise recorded on November 22-23, 1986 by a broad
band vertical-component instrument at Grafenbcrg, Bayern, KRG. The analog monitoring (left) and the enhanced analog
display of the digital recording (right) are exhibited. The enhanced trace reveals the typical dominant period of 6-8 s.
(Grafenberg records provided by D. Scidl).

To complicate matters further, seismic waves encountering a discontinuity are

reflected and/or refracted (at the Earths free surface, seismic waves are reflected
downward) and an incident P or S wave gives rise to both P and S
waves (mode conversion). Thus, a seismogram from a distant earthquake will often
show a number of more or less distinct waves, commonly called phases, distributed in
time, which have traveled along different propagation paths and which were subjected
to different mode conversions P to S or 5 to
P.

Wave energy is also scattered by velocity heterogeneities crossing the propagation

path. For the given wave period, the scatter affects S waves more than P waves.
Scattered waves reach the Earth's surface after the P wave and contribute to the
buildup of P coda which in its turn obscures the later phases. Hence, except for the
first P onset, all later arrivals are contaminated by codas of preceding phases so that
 19
on the record there is virtually no interval of quiescence between individual arriving
phases.

Before we proceed further, it is worthwhile to summarize the most important

characteristics of seismic waves which deserve our attention, and which are invaluable
in any seismogram interpretation. Firstly, different waves travel with different
velocities. At any epicentral distance, P is recorded first, followed by S, LQand
LR. Secondly, different waves are
polarized in a different way (P linearly, LR elhptically, etc). Thisprovides a
means of identifying phase types. Thirdly, various phases show certain characteristic
features (amplitude, period, dispersion, etc) which again are of primary importance for
correct interpretation.

4.2 PROPAGATION PATHS

The propagation of seismic waves through the Earth's interior is governed by exact
mathematical laws similar to the laws of light waves in optics. If the propagation
velocities and other elastic properties were uniform throughout the Earth, seismic
waves would radiate from the focus of the earthquake in all directions through the
Earth along rectilinear paths or rays. In general, however, the wave velocity increases
with depth and consequently, seismic rays are not straight
lines but lines curved with the
concave side upward providing the shortest time-path through the Earth. To
be able to simulate various discontinuities in the Earth and at the same time to
simplify the associated ray geometry, we shall, hereafter, assume the Earth to be a
sphere, made of a finite number of concentric spheroidal homogeneous shells. Elastic
properties vary from shell to shell but remain constant within each shell. For a
spherical Earth model, it is common practice to express the distance between the focus
and the recorded station as the angle (denoted ) subtended at the center of the Earth
by the arc between the source and receiver (1 = 111 km).

In the following discussion, we introduce, for the sake of clarity, three different
categories of seismic events. The classification is based upon the distance between the
event and the recording site (i.e. upon the epicentral distance) which in its turn
governs propagation paths along which seismic waves travel through the Earths
interior. The main reason for this classification, which does not provide any sharp line
of demarcation, is that seismic waves from different categories may be discriminated
from each other due to their different appearance on seismograms.
First, we shall consider waves from regional events, i.e. from events at epicentral
distances not larger than about 10*. For this range of distances, a dominant portion of
recorded seismic waves have propagated through the crust and/or along the Moho
discontinuity and arc commonly called crustal waves. The second category will
include scismic waves recorded at an epicentral distance between 10 and about 103*.
Within this distance range, seismograms are relatively simple and dominated by
waves that have traveled through the mantle. The travel paths through the crust in the
vicinity of the source (shallow focus) and the station are relatively short and often
considered of less significance for the total appearance of the seismogram. The last
 20
category will treat seismograms obtained from epicentral distances 103 and larger.
Records from these distances become complicated again and contain waves (phases)
that have traveled through the Earths core (core waves) or have been diffracted by the
Earth's core. Earthquakes recorded at distances less than 10 are called local events or
regional events, while shocks recorded from distances larger than 10* are called
teleseismic events or simply teleseisms. Some agencies refer to events between 10 and
20 as regional and those beyond 20 as teleseismic.

4.2.1 Crustal waves; recording distances 0-W

In order to explain the structure of seismic records made at epicentral distances
between 0 and 10 (some workers use the limit 1000 km), let us first assume a much
simplified structural model ofthe crust,depicted inFig.
9. Note that for the distances considered here, we can neglect theeffects of
curvature of the Earths surface.

Consider waves (rays) leaving the focus F and reaching the recording stations S, , S2
and S3. Since the source radiates both P and S waves, there will be direct longitudinal
and transverse waves recorded along the Earths surface. These waves have ray paths
such as FS2 (see Fig. 9) and are encoded as Pg and Sg or sometimes as P and S. The
subscript g indicates the travel path, which for seismic events in the upper crust (most
of the crustal earthquakes) is entirely confined to the granitic layer. A reflected ray
(e.g. ray path FRjS,) is also possible from the Moho, and the corresponding reflected P
and S waves are labeled as PmP and SmS, respectively. Note that

Ii 9. Principles of wave propagation from the focus of rith<|uakr I through a simplified one-layer ci tal model. Symbols and
M designate the Earth's free suilor ami Moho discontinuity, respectively. .V, is the *-th recording seismographic station, i is
angle f incident*, i, M angle of refraction, i, is critical angle and V is velocity of propagation for P or S. R, are the point* of
at the Moho discontinuity (i I rays that travel to the i-th station. Ray paths are defined by point* ol origin, reflection
and recording. I example, FS2 is the ray between the focus and station S,. l:or nouiion of crustal waves see the text.

in this case, it is only a part of the incident energy that is reflected from Moho back
into the crust and recorded at S,. The rest of the energy is rcfracted into the mantle
and will never show up on the record made at S,. It follows from Fig. 9 that as the
epicentral distance increases, the angle of incidence i and the angle of refraction /,
also increase. At a certain critical epicentral distance, i, = 90, which means that the
 21
energy of the refracted ray does not penetrate into the mantle but travels along the
Moho discontinuity (cf the ray path FR2RjS3). The associated angle of incidence, i,
c.illed the critical angle, is denoted it. Corresponding P and S waves called h id
waves, recorded at S3 are labeled Pn and Sn, respectively. Waves pmpagating along
discontinuities separating two layers with two different v-locities move with the
higher of the two velocities. Thus, Pn and Sn waves d' picted in Fig. 9 travel with
velocities of the uppermost mantle. As can be s :n in the figure, Pg and Sg exist for
all epicentral distances from = 0 and outwards whereas Pn and Sn phases cannot
be observed at distances shorter than that corresponding to the location of the
station 5, (Fig. 9), i.e. in distances shorter than the critical distance, which for the
continental crust is about 100 km.
Structural models, like the model depicted in Fig. 9, should be as simple ' ns possible
to make the seismogram interpretation manageable. On the other hand, the model
should also be accurate enough to reflect the actual

structure, j Evidently, these are two opposing constraints and a proper compromise
must, in each particular case, be made to make the interpretation possible. It should be
stressed that in the above presentation and in Fig. 9, a number of simplifications has
been made.
Firstly, a homogeneous, one layer, crust will in many cases be a rather poor
approximation of the true structure. I( is common to employ two crustal layers,
separated by the Conrad discontinuity, to interpret crustal phases. In special studies,
multilayered crustal models are used.
Secondly, the true Moho and Conrad discontinuities are not planar and strictly
horizontal boundaries. In reality, they will show a certain dip and some degree of
undulation. Therefore, a two-layer crustal model with somewhat irregular boundaries,
as shown, in Fig. 10, will be more realistic than that discussed above (Fig. 9)* Further
refinements of the model in terms of additional discontinuities and their geometry will
here be considered as a domain of research rather than of an analyst in his daily
seismogram interpretation.
Lastly, the assumption of Pg or Sg traveling as direct waves (P or 5) over large
distances, as shown in Fig. 9, is again a gross simplification. The true case is that
direct waves, denoted P and S, are recorded only from local events, i.e. at very short
epicentral distances usually not exceeding several tens of kilometers. Pg and Sg waves
are then understood as channel or refracted waves traveling along less pronounccd
boundaries within the granitic layer.
Accepting the model in Fig. 10, we realize that starting from a certain epicentral
distance, approximately 100 km, we record new phases, namely the refracted P and S
traveling along the Conrad discontinuity. An asterisk in the superscript position, P*
and S*, indicates this phase. An alternative code sometimes used is Pb and Sb. The
subscript b refers to basaltic layer.
At very short distances, less than 150 km or so, the first seismic wave arriving at
the recording station is P or Pg, traveling with a velocity of about
 22
6 km/s. For distances larger than critical but less than about 150 km, Pg is followed by
P* and Pn, in this order. P* and Pn travel with velocities of about 6.6 and 8.0 km/s,
respectively, i.e. significantly faster than Pg. Therefore, at distances larger than
approximately 150 to 200 km (depending upon the true propagation velocities and
thicknesses of the granitic and basaltic layers) crustal waves change their order of
arrival. For distances larger than about 200 km, the first arriving phase is Pn, next
arrives P* and then Pg. Obviously, this is true only for continental travel paths.
Seismograms from earthquakes beneath the sea bottom, made at island or coastal
stations, will not show Pg or Sg phases since there is no granitic
 23
i iK 10. Principles of the propagation through a continental crust consisting of two layers with
| ing and non-planar intrri Symbol designates the Conrad discontinuity and figures in the right nwirgin give
approximate v*l'nics of propagation in km/s for P (upper figures) and S waves Gower figures). Conventions as fot I 4

(jranitk U;(r

Basaltic layr

layer in the oceanu mist. Similarly, earthquakes originating in the lower crust, beneath
the Conrad discontinuity, do not produce Pg or Sg phases.
Ill nee, first arrivals on records from these earthquakes will be Pn or P*.
For ease of phase identification, rather than relying on the epicentral distance,
which of course may not be available, we can make use of time differences between
urrivals of various phases (see Chapter 5). For example, il the arrival-time differences
S-P is less than about 20 s, the first wave within the P and 5 <up to arrive at the
recording site is probably Pg (or / and Sg (or S), rrs|)cctively. If on the other hand, the
difference is more than 25 s, the first nmval is most likely Pn. Details obviously
depend upon tl true structure and upon the focal depth. It should be emphasized that
only seldom are all the above phases identified on one record. The usual case is that
one or several of these waves are too weak or hidden in the background noise to l>
discernible on the seismogram.
With a certain time delay following the P phases, proportional to the
cpicental distance, (Ik crustal 5 waves arrive in the same order as P waves. Thus, for
local events (earthquakes, mine explosions, quarry blasts, etc) the order of S onsets
will be Sg, S*, Sn while for events from distances larger
than about 300 km wc observe first Sn followed by S* and Sg.
24
As far as P or S waves reflected at Moho are concerned, corresponding insets on
seismograms are rather scarce and difficult to identify. The best chance to recordPmP
or SmS is at very short distances where thecontamination by Pg and Pn (or
Sg and Sn) is not severe. In rare instances, additional so called depth phases, arriving
between Pn and Pg, are present on seismograms. These leave the focus as P waves,
travel upward with a small angle of incidence, are reflected as P at the free surface and
continue further as Pn. Notation for this phase is pPn. Similarly, sPn denotes a depth
phase leaving the focus as S, converted through the reflection at the free surface and
continuing as Pn. Ray paths of pPn and sPn are depicted in Fig. 11. Both pPn and sPn
are of great importance in focal depth estimations but at the same time rather difficult
to identify on actual records.

Fig. 11. Principles of propagation of Pn, pPn and sPn waves. For the sake of graphical simplicity, an one-layer crustal model is
used. Conventions as for Fig. 9.

Short-period S waves multiply reflected between the free surface and Moho, or
between other crustal velocity discontinuities, interfere with each other and give rise
to a wave group labeled Lg which follows the Sg arrival. The subscript g again refers
to granitic layer. At distances of several hundred kilometers and larger (continental
paths), Lg waves, which propagate as guided waves, supercritically incident on the
Moho and multiply reflected within the crust, and with a typical velocity of about 3.5
km/s, may dominate the seismograms, especially the horizontal channels. Lg is
usually recorded at epicentral distances of about 5 and larger. Cases are known
where Lg propagated over distances of several thousand kilometers (e.g. from USSR-
China border region to Sweden, see Plate 33) and were recorded as prominent phases
on the seismograms.
Near-surface regional events (earthquakes, industrial explosions, rockbursts etc)
also generate short-period surface waves of Rayleigh type, labelled Rg. The presence
of short-period Rg in the seismogram is a reliable indicator of a very shallow event
with focal depth of the order of one or a few kilometers. On the other hand, if short-
period Rg waves are absent (near station, epicentral distance of several hundred
kilometers or less), we are concerned with a deeper natural event, i.e. with a crustal
earthquake at a depth most likely between about 5 to 25 km, since all types of man-
made events as well as triggered mine tremors can be excluded. Short-period Rg
waves, which travel as guided waves through the crust across continental paths with
velocity of 3 km/s or slightly higher, are exposed to more effective attenuation when
 25
compared with crustal body waves and their range of propagation is therefore limited
to distances less than about 600 km (B&th, 1983). However, at short epicentral
distances, of say, less than 100 or 200 km, the Rg phase from a near-surface event
often dominates the recorded wave train (see Plate 5).
Seismic waves from local and regional earthquakes of low or moderate magnitude
are of short period and therefore almost exclusively recorded by short-period
seismographs. The seismogram length depends upon the magnitude but generally
does not exceed 5 minutes or so. The number of clear pulses seen on the record,
indicating arrivals of various P and S waves, is often higher than one would expect
from models displayed in Figs. 9, 10, and 11, demonstrating the departure of models
used from the true structure. For continental travel paths, the most prominent phase is
ususally Sg, best rt orded by horizontal-component instruments. Generally speaking,
Sg arrivals M irt with large amplitudes which successively decrease as the time
increases ti nning the coda of the event. Coda duration is related to the magnitude. Rg
phases, best recorded on vertical-component seismograms, often display a i'I ear
dispersion. As an example, a record from a regional earthquake is ili splayed in Fig.
12. The first discernible phase is Pn, weakly recorded on ' I e vertical component. It is
followed by Pg, Sn and Sg which are recognizable on all three channels. Largest
amplitudes are exhibited by the / * wave trains on the two horizontal channels. The
focal depth of about 15 ii prevents the development of Rg waves. Note the high-
frequency character Hi all recorded phases.
Strong events (magnitudes about 6 and larger) recorded at local or regional
I stances ( < 10) will produce seismograms with duration of several hours.
Associated large amplitudes of ground vibrations often saturate the recording uitem
(clipped records) and the resulting seismogram is not of much use
< *ccpt for measuring the arrival time and polarity of the very first recorded I'lmse. In
this respect, digital systems with higher dynamic range are superior < analog
instruments (for more details see Section 6.4).
Similar to the LVL in the upper mantle, there is also a low-velocity imnnel in the
deep ocean. Depending upon the salinity and temperature of < iter, the sound
velocity decreases from the sea surface to a minimum of 'HHU 1.5 km/s at about 700
- 1300 m depth and increases again from that
26

Fig. 12. Vertical (Z) and horizontal (N, E) component scumograiiu from a moderate size regional earthquake. The event
occurred off coast of southwestern Sweden on June 15, 1985 at focal depth of 15 km (magnitude ML = 4.6). The traces are
analog displays of broadband digital recording (see Chapter 6) made at Uppsala at an epicentral distance of 490 km.
(Traces computer plotted by W.Y. Kim).

depth to the bottom. The depth region of low velocity in the ocean, called SOFAR
(sound fixing and ranging), provides extremely favourable conditions for long-
distance propagation of a special type of high-frequency seismic wave.
Island and coastal seismographic stations frequently record these waves termed T
waves (tertiary waves) arriving after P and S and characterized by propagation within the
oceans as ordinary sound waves. Seismic waves emitted by earthquakes near the sea
bottom or by submarine volcanic eruptions are refracted through the sea floor and
propagate as sound (longitudinal) waves through the ocean. The propagation of T
waves, generally by the SOFAR channel (Bullen and Bolt, 1985) or by multiple
reflections between the sea floor and the sea surface (Bdth and Shahidi, 1974), is very
efficient and observations at distances as large as about 80 have been reported (see
Plate 49). First observation of T waves was made by D. Linehan in 1940.
T waves are best recorded by ocean-bottom seismometers (OBS) and by coastal
and island stations (see Plate 14). However, instruments deployed further on land
sometimes also record clear T waves after a water-land conversion of sound waves
into P, S or surface waves propagating over the land portion of the total transmission
path. If this is the case, the labeling is TPg, TSg and TRg, reflecting the fact that the path
of propagation over the land is within the crust. An example of recorded TSg phase is
given in Fig. 13. T waves are short-period waves, with periods usually less than 1 s,
recorded exclusively by short-period seismographs. On records, they often exhibit
rather monochromatic oscillations with a gradual increase and decrease of amplitudes
of total duration up to several minutes (Fig. 13). Some workers (BSth and Shahidi,
1974) report inverse dispersion observed in T wave trains. When compared e.g. with
P waves, there is no sharp onset in the T wave group which obviously creates
 27
difficulties when reading the T arrival times or when identifying phases within the T
wave group. In general, there is great variety in the appearance of T phases due to the
dependence upon the bottom topography in the vicinity of generation, oceanic
stratification and watcr-land conversion and transmission (B5th and Shahidi, 1974).

Iig 13. Short-period vertical component record from a shallow (A = 33 km) earthquake in Norwegian Sea made at UmeA,
northern Sweden. This earthquake occurred on November 21, 1967 (m = 5.4) at a distance I 10" from Umei The
seismogram shows clear P and S onsets, separated by 107 s. Approximately 6 min (ter P. an onset labeled TSg is identified
on the record. It corresponds to a wave propagating through the tler as a sound wave and, subsequent to a water-land
conversion and refraction, as Sg over the land path. In this particular case, the land path is about 1/3 of the total travel
length. The TSg wave shows "illations with periods around 1 s and gradually increasing and decreasing amplitudes. The
whole TSg wave train lasts for about 2 min.

During the last 10 years, or so, observed T phases have proved very useful in
discriminating between underground nuclear explosions, detonated beneath oceanic
islands, and tectonic earthquakes (Adams, 1979). For this type of explosion, the
energy is injected directly into the SOFAR channel and recorded T phase amplitudes
often exceed those of associated P wave by a factor of up to 30.j

As follows from the above description, for epicentral distances less than about 10,
the wave propagation is rather complicated. The seismogram appearance varies from
place to place due to regional variations in crustal structure and consequently, for this
distance range, it is difficult to list generally valid clues for record interpretation.
Nevertheless, some of the following principles may guide the analyst to read correcdy
seismograms of local and regional earthquakes.

1) Predominant periods of recorded crustal phases such as Pg, P*, Pn, Sg, S*, Sn, etc are
normally less than one second and hence best recorded /by short-period instruments.
Rg periods are usually not longer than several seconds.
2) It has often been observed that Sg has the largest amplitude (for cases when large
short-period Rg is missing), best seen on horizontal-component records.
3) For epicentral distances less than about 200 km (depending upon the crustal structure
and focal depth), the first arriving phase is Pg. For larger distances, Pn arrives first.
4) Near-surface events from distances less than about 600 km often generate short-period
Rg with clear dispersion, best seen on vertical channels.
 28
5) Local and regional earthquakes of low or moderate magnitude are characterized by
short total record duration, usually not longer than several minutes.
6) Island and coastal seismographic stations frequently record various kinds of T phases.

It is not always possible for analysts to identify correctly crustal phases from the
records of a single station, although this may be easier if several
stations of a network are read together. If there is doubt about correct
interpretation, a phase should simply be identified as P or S.

4.2.2 Body waves; recording distances 10-103

Seismologically speaking, the mantle differs from the overlying crust also in the
fact that, in the first approximation, it may be considered as a laterally homogeneous,
i.e. as a spherically symmetric body. Seismic wave velocities indeed increase with
depth, however, the regional (lateral) irregularities, typical for the crust, are almost
absent (less distinct) in the mantle. Some workers consider the distance range between
10 and 103 as ideal to record not only the direct Pand S waves, but also
the whole family of reflected
and converted waves. Travel paths of these waves are dominated by the
mantle and corresponding seismograms are relatively simple.
To explain various features of waves traveling through the mantle, let us consider
the Earths cross section, a surface focus event and travel paths of the more important
body waves depicted in Fig. 14. Note that for the distance range of 10-103 studied
here, we have to introduce the spherical shape of the Earth. A flat Earth model, used in
the case of crustal waves, is no longer appropriate. As mentioned above, seismic rays
in the true Earth are not straight but bent upwards due to the velocity increase with
depth. This means that waves traveling to more distant stations penetrate the earth to
greater depth than those traveling to near stations. Because of greater depth, the
velocity of propagation is larger, i.e. P and S waves reach the more distant stations
more quickly then might be expected. In other words, there is a non-linear relation
between the distance and travel time for P as well as for 5 waves (see Chapter 5).

At distances around 10, Pn and Sn become difficult to identify in the records,

except in some shield areas and other regions with relatively uniform structures.
Instead, teleseismic P and S phases become visible on sci nograms. P is usually
stronger on the vertical component, while S is more clearly seen on horizontal
components. S often exhibits wave trains with longer periods when compared with
corresponding P. Large-amplitude S waves are often observed at distances of up to
about 100.

Body waves that lie entirely in the mantle and undergo no reflection between the
focus and the recording station are labeled with a simple symbol P or S. Rays
corresponding to travel paths of these direct waves (P or S), also called elementary waves or main
waves, are displayed in Fig. 14 They depict paths of least travel time from the focus of
the earthquake to the recording site. Direct waves, when reflected one or more times
from the underside of the free surface, give rise to single or multiply reflected P or S. h
r example, the direct P reflected from the free surface back into the nuntle once or
 29
twice, is called PP or PPP, respectively. In the same way, w have also SS, SSS etc. Each
free-surfacc reflected phases become very distinct. At distances around 100 and larger, PP
and 55 often belong to the largest recorded body waves.

letter, P or 5, in the symbol defines one leg of the propagation path. Considering also
the conversion from P to S, and vice versa, on reflection, we may observe the wave
denoted PS which travels as P from the focus to the reflection point at the free surface
and from that point to the recording station as S. PS and SP appear only at distances
larger than 40. For a wave leaving the focus as P and twice reflected/converted from

Fig. 14. Examples of propagation paths of direct and reflected waves in the Earth's mantle. Solid and dashed Tays are used to
distinguish between P and S waves, respectively. Waves are generated by the
surface focus, F, of the earthquake which radiates both P and S waves. Different shadings show the
mantle, outer core and inner core. For notation see the text.
the free surface, we have four possible cases, namely PPP, PPS, PSP uikl PSS. Some of
these waves are sketched in Fig. 14. Obviously, we could continue with three and
more reflections/conversions and form the corresponding wave symbols. However,
from experience we know that it is quite seldom that three and more reflections from
the Earths free surface are cli arly visible on actual seismograms. For distances larger
than about 40, the
A symbol c is used to indicate a single upward reflection, i.e. a reflection back into
the mantle from the outer core-mantle boundary. For instance, ScP (Fig. 14)
corresponds to an 5 wave which travels down from the focus,
strikes the boundary, is reflected and converted into the P type wave and finally is
recorded at the Earths surface as ScP. A straightforward extension provides PcP, ScS
and PcS. Because these phases emerge steeply, ScP is usually stronger on vertical
components than PcS. Large reflected core phases are usually recorded at shorter
epicentral distances, say at 40 or less. At distances around 39, ScP and PcS (surface
foci) are often contaminated with the arrival of direct 5 and the phase separation is
difficult. When the ray path of PcP grazes the outer core boundary, the combination
30
of direct P and PcP is called P diffracted. This case is discussed in more detail below.
Core reflected waves together with PmKP (see Section 4.2.3 for notation), recorded
from earthquakes at a wide range of distances and focal depths are used to study the
properties of the core-mantle boundary.
Waves ascending from the focus to the free surface, where they are
 31
reflected back into the mantle, are commonly called depth phases and are denoted by a
lower case prefix: p for longitudinal and s for transverse waves. We can easily list the
four possibilities of reflections near the epicenter,which are pP, sP, pS and sS (Fig. 15).
The first case, for example, denotes the wave that traveled upward from the focus as
P (short leg) and had been rcllected back off the free surface again as P (long leg).
Depth phases, piimarily pP, are the most important phases routinely used in focal-
depth estimations. It is quite obvious that the deeper the focus, the later is the pP
phase in relation to P. Hence, accurately measured arrival-time differences pf P are
reliable indicators of the depth of the focus. In the case of a deeper focus, it is
sometimes possible to recognize several different reflections from the free surface.
Such waves are then labeled pPP, pPS, pSP and pSS in the case of waves with their
short leg as P. Logically, sPP, sPS, sSP and sSS denote corresponding waves with short
leg as S (Fig. 15). Interpretation of depth phases must be done with utmost care since,
for example, pP from a deep earthquake can easily be erroneously interpreted as P
when the first arrival (P) is weak. Depending on focal orientation and other factors,
sP may be stronger than pP and may be mistaken for it. Depth phases are sometimes
stronger than the main P wave, and may be the first readable phase.

Fig 15. Examples of propagation paths of depth phases and their notation. Waves begin at the deep focus, F. ol the earthquake.
Conventions as for Fig. 14.

The lower case symbol d (or its value in kilometers) inserted between PP, SS, etc
has been introduced by B.A. Bolt to indicate seismic waves reflected from secondary
discontinuities in the upper mantle. For example, symbols P400P or P650P (Fig. 16)
specify P waves reflected at the underside of a discontinuity at a depth of 400 or 650
km, respectively. These phases arrive at the recording station ahead of the expected
(calculated) arrival time for the main PP phase and are frequently interpreted as
reflections from upper mantle discontinuities (i.e. as PdP). However, when the arrival
time cannot be explained in terms of known discontinuities as PdP, we call these
onsets early PP or precursors to PP.

4.2.3 Body waves; recording distances 103 and larger

32
It was noticed in the early days of observational seismology that amplitudes of direct
P waves decay dramatically at distances larger than 100. The short-period P waves
reappear consistently on records first at distances of about 140 and larger.
Correspondingly, the distance range 103<<140 is called the shadow zone. Within this
zone, there is no penetration of direct P waves due to the wave diffraction around the
Earths core (Fig. 16). The last direct P wave reaches the Earths surface at an
epicentral distance of about 103 where the shadow zone produced by the Earths
mantle commences. P waves traveling beyond this distance creep around (are
diffracted) the core-mantle boundary and lose a large part of their energy there, so that
only weak, diffracted P phases are observed in this distance range. Similar to
dispersion (see Section 4.1), diffraction also depends on the wave period (or
frequency). The longer waves are diffracted more into the shadow zone than shorter
waves. The diffracted P waves are labeled Pc (or Pdif Pdiff). Seismological centers like
the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) in Golden, Colorado, or ISC in
England use Pdif. On seismograms, Pc waves usually show small amplitudes,
emergent or gradual onsets and the energy shifts to longer periods. Long-period Pc are
sometimes observed out to distances of 160 or more. S waves are affected at the
core-mantle boundary in a similar way; the symbol Sc (or Sdif, Sdiff) is used for
diffracted S waves. The shadow zone for S waves on the side of the Earth opposite the
earthquake, extends over all epicentral distances from about 103 to -103 (257).

Direct P and S waves and corresponding reflections are easily distinguishable from
the recorded surface waves. The former usually occupy the period interval from, say,
1 to 5 s, while the latter show large amplitudes (surface or shallow shocks) and
periods in the interval from about 10 to 100 s. The period of S waves increases with
distance and, in cases of multiple reflection may reach even several tens of seconds.
As mentioned above, the limiting ray path which is tangential to the core in the real
Earth is that corresponding to an epicentral distance of about 103. P and S waves
recorded at distances greater than 103 graze or strike the surface of the core, the
wave pattern becomes rather complicated and amplitudes decay dramatically. Seismic
waves which leave the source with a steeper descent than the grazing waves, strike
the core-mantle boundary and are subsequently divided into reflected and refracted
waves. The former are
 33
Fig 16. Examples of propagation paths of direct P waves, P waves diffracted around the core-mantle > iry and P waves
reflected downwards at a discontinuity at 650 km depth. The discontinuity and the ih.l<>w zone (103-144*) are shaded.
Conventions as for Fig. 14.

kP650
P

retlected back into the mantle as PcP, PcS, ScP or ScS, while the latter, tailed core
phases, arc refracted downward and enter the core. The refraction is rather sharp
because of the sudden significant drop of P velocity beneath the core-mantle
boundary (see Fig. 5).

P wave penetrating the outer core is denoted by (from German KernweUen for core
waves). After traveling through the outer core and following another partitioning
(reflection or refraction) at the outer core boundary it emerges at the Earths surface.
Thus, we can form the four lytnbols for waves which have traveled through the outer
core: PKP, PKS, SKS and SKP. For example, the symbol PKS corresponds to a wave that
si.irts in the mande as a P wave, is refracted into the outer core as a P wave and is
finally, after mode conversion, refracted back in the mantle as S. The phase SKP is
stronger on vertical components than PKS. These phases have a caustic near 130 and
at this distance are often the only phase recorded on lnirt period instruments. Some
of the seismic rays traversing the core are illustrated in Fig. 17. It has to be
emphasized that the symbol always represents a P wave since S waves do not enter
the outer core. The notation PKP is sometimes abbreviated as P'. ^
34
lor initial ray paths which are only slightly steeper than the ray grazing the core
surface, corresponding PKP waves emerge at the Earths surface at distances beyond
180 (see Fig. 17). As the rays (surface-focus event) enterthe mantle more and more
steeply, the core refractions become less and less abrupt and the rays emerge at the
Earths surface at shorter and shorter epicentral distances. This decreasing of distance
stops at about 144. Further steepening of the initial ray paths results now in an
increase of the distance of emergence up to 165 or so. The phenomenon may be
viewed in terms of two PKP travel-time branches denoted PKP1 and PKP2 for the First
and the second arrival, respectively. Exactly at 144, the waves from the two branches
coincide, the waves reinforce one another which gives rise, to an energy concentration
near that distance. The point of largest 'energy concentration is called a caustic point or
simply caustic. It has to be stressed that neither PKP1 nor PKP2 enter the inner core, i.e.
both these wave types have their deepest point of penetration in {he outer core.

..

.PKP2
WIKP

 35
Fig. 17. Examples of propagation paths of P waves traveling through the Earths core. The shadow zone between 103* and
144 is shaded and 8 denotes the caustic point. Rays are numbered in the order of increasing steepness of the initial descent
For details see the text Conventions as for Fig. 14.

As we further steepen the initial ray path, we reach the family of rays that enter the
inner core (Fig. 17). These rays progress in a normal way, i.e. the steeper the initial
ray path, the greater the distance of emergence from about 110 until at last there is a
ray that passes through the Earths center and reaches the Earths surface at the
antipode of the focus. P waves that traverse the inner core are denoted by /, giving
rise to phases PKIPK, PKIKS, SKIKS and SKIKP, although these are often still simply
referred to as
36
I'KP, PKS etc. Phases with an S leg in the inner core would include the l(: ter J, such as
PKJKP, but these have never been unambiguously identified <> seismograms. For
obvious reasons, both the symbols, / and J, have to be ii> ompanied on both sides by
K. Rays corresponding to seismic waves r< ilected at the outside and inside of the
inner core are called PKiKP and fkllKP, respectively (Fig. 18).

t 18. Propagation paths of P waves traversing the Earth's interior from the focus F and reflecting at the rniuide (PKiKP) or
inside (PKIIKP) of the inner core. PKIKP is a P wave refracted into the outer core I through the inner core. Conventions as for
Fig. 14.

If the studied event is weak, then usually no Pc is observed in the entire ili.tance
interval > 103 and the first arrival seen on the record will be that ci PKP. At
epicentral distances 105-120, PKIKP usually provides the first >< set discernible on
the seismogram.

In the region of the caustic, i.e. around 144, the wave train of recorded tore phases
becomes particularly complicated. It is first at distances beyond ib caustic point where
observed onsets may be separated into individual PKP branches. The energy
distribution changes with the increasing distance. PKP1 is the dominant branch just
beyond the caustic, up to about 153. In re ords of weaker events (144-153), PKP I is
often the first visible onset smce PKIKP, theoretically preceding PKP1, is too weak to
be observed. As lit- distance increases, PKPI becomes weaker and vanishes from
records at tli tances of about 160 and larger. For distances beyond, say, 157, PKP2
usually dominates the seismogram. Some workers prefer the nomenclature adopted
from travel-time charts with branches denoted AB, BC and DF (Jeffreys and Bullen,
1967). Arrivals associated with these branches are then labeled PKPPKPK and PKPDF
and correspond to PKP2, PKP1 and PKIKP arrivals, respectively. The CD branch
(PKPCD) is related to PKiKP arrivals which are due to seismic waves reflected at the
outside of the inner core.
 37
PKIKP in the distance range from about 125 to the caustic is often preceded by early
arrivals or precursors which can arrive man^ seconds ahead of the main phase. These
are best explained by scattering phenomena at or near the core-mantle boundary.
In a similar way as above, we may form new symbols for the whole family of waves
propagating through the core. For example, PKKP is a P wave which has been
reflected from the inside of the core-mantle boundary. PKKP is often very pronounced
on records made at distances between 60 and 80. The striking onset may easily be
misinterpreted as a'first P arrival of another event. P waves trapped inside the Earths
liquid core and with multiple legs are called PmKP where m-1 provides the number
of reflections. Cases like P4KP and P7KP have been reported (Bolt, 1982).
PKPPKP, or for short P' P', are PKP waves once reflected from the free surface back to
a station in the same hemisphere as the focus. Since PKP has the caustic at 144, one
might also assume that the strongest reflection will take place at that distance, and
consequently the best chance to observe P' P' is around distances of 2x144 = 288, or
72 if we take the shortest distance from source to station. P'P' is often well recorded,
arriving about 30 minutes after the P phase when most of the coda amplitudes of
preceding phases have already become faint, and it may in some cases be wrongly
interpreted as a new P or PKP. 72 is also equivalent to 3 x 144 = 432 or (360 + 72)
so the phase P'P'P' is also strong at this distance, and may be observed for strong
earthquakes about another 20 minutes after P'P'.
In the late 1960s, first observations of forerunnesB to P'P' were made. These were
interpreted as P' dP'. Analogous to PdP, P'dP' waves are not reflected at the opposite
surface of the Earth (as is the case of P' P') but at some discontinuity in the upper
mantle. For example, P'650P' travels from the hypocentre to the other side of the
Earth, where it is reflected back to the station from a layer 650 km below the surface.
P'650P' passes through the core twice and on the seismogram precedes P'P' by about 2
minutes. Some close precursors within about 30 s of the main P'P' arrival can arise
from asymetrical reflections.
 38
Let us now shift our attention from P to S waves. Similarly to PKP, there are SKS
waves, i.e. S waves traveling from the earthquake source downtin >ugh the mantle.
Incident to the outer-core boundary they undergo a mode conversion and as P (the
leg) traverse the liquid outer core. Following I inverse mode conversion, they again
enter the mantle as S and emerge at ih Earths surface as SKS. Analogous phases to
PmKP are SmKS. First SKS w.ives are observed at distances between 60 and 70 and the
range of observations extends out to distances of 180 or so. Depending upon details
the structural model, SKS exhibits a caustic point at a distance of about Ho so that
the best region to study SKS waves is that between 70 and 90.
II wever, the phase identification has to be made with utmost care since SKS w ves
recorded in this distance region are often contaminated with direct S w ves. At about
82, SKS begins to arrive ahead of S. For distances shorter ili i about 95, SKS is
usually smaller than S, however at distances beyond
9. V SKS amplitudes arc often quite large. To mistake S for SKS and vice vc sa will
adversely affect the epicentral location. Since the epicentral distance estimate is
frequently governed by the observed arrival-time diilcrence S-P, (see Chapter 5) wrong
S identification on the record will pi wide a wrong epicentral distance which in its turn
will result in erroneous I<h ation. S and SKS are best recorded on long-period
horizontal-component stnograms. However, occasionally these body waves are also
observed on short-period records, although the onset time of the later of the two
phases is usii illy very emergent due to the contamination by the coda of the earlier
phase. An example of recorded S and SKS is shown in Fig. 19.

1 lie period of SKS phases may reach several tens of seconds and is, tin fore, best
recorded by long-period horizontal seismographs. On the other hand, the best sensing
of PKP, PKKP, PKIKP etc. is with short-period vc 1 1 ical instruments.

4 Time tmm)

20 40 60 SO Time (s) 0 1

I > Analog displays of digital short-period (left) and long-period (right) seismograms from a deep en ii .uthquake in the Fiji
Islands region recorded by the Chiang Mai station in Thailand, at an epicentral I ' of 90". Both horizontal components are
shown. The earthquake occurred on April 29, 1987, with ! n.hide m = 5.9, at a depth of 390 km. At this epicentral distance
the SKS precedes S. The short-period im i 1 reveal a clear SKS. however the 5 arrival, about 30 s apart, is hidden in the
SKS coda. The long- li traces show both SKS and S and also the depth phase sS. After G. Choy (personal communication).
 39
4.2.4 Body waves from intermediate-focus and dccp-focus earthquakes
In the early days of observational seismology, the focal depth of recorded earthquakes
was often a topic of speculation even though there were strong indications (such as
surface faulting or the limited area of destruction) that many of the earthquakes must
have been rather shallow events. On the other hand, early in this century several
investigators (Pilgrim, 1913; Turner, 1922) found a number of events with focal
depths greater than 100 km. Somewhat later, Japanese scientists (Wadati, 1927; Shida,
1937) presented evidence that Japanese earthquakes occur at practically all depths
down to 500 km. They based their conclusions upon observed S-P arrival time
differences, intensity distributions and different appearances of intermediate- or deep-
focus earthquakes and of those that take place at shallow depth. Wadati noted very
early that the seismograms of intermediate-focus and deep shocks display rather
impulsive and large S phases, shorter predominant periods and less well developed
codas. In this context, it is perhaps interesting to mention that during the 1920s the
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) already operated an excellent regional network
of seismographic stations (Frohlich, 1987).

Later studies confirmed conclusions from Wadatis pioneering work that intermediate
and deep-focus shocks produce simpler seismograms with exceptionally well
recorded impulsive body waves while surface wave amplitudes decrease as the
earthquake becomes deeper. Strong depth phases, such as e.g. pP and sS, are also
frequently very distinct on records from deep events. However, the duplication of
principal phases by surface reflections often complicates the seismogram
interpretation. Another important characteristic that accentuates the difference
between shallow and deep shocks is the pattern of aftershocks. While large shallow
earthquakes are usually followed by numerous aftershocks, deep events (which may
be multiple shocks) virtually never show well developed aftershock series.

As an example, Fig. 20 displays several records made at teleseismic distances from

the Sea of Okhotsk earthquake which occurred at a depth of 580 km. Note the rather
impulsive appearance of P, PcP, pP and especially S and ScS (E-W component, short-
period trace) which are all easily indentified on the seismogram. Practically no
surface waves were recorded from this event.

Strong intermediate-focus and deep earthquakes occur in several different seismically

active regions. Among these are: island arcs such as
Tonga-Kermadec Islands, the Marianas, New Hebrides Islands or the Aegean arc;
continental margins with deep ocean trenches like Central America and western South
America; mountain chains e.g. Himalayas (Hindu Kush) or Carpathians. About one
fifth of all reported earthquakes take place at a focal depth exceeding 70 km. Among
the deepest known earthquakes are three in
 40

l i| 20. Seismograms from a moderate size (magnitude m = 5.8), deep-focus earthquake recorded at %lnn stations Umed
(UME) and Uppsala (UPP) at epicentral distances of 60 and 64*. respectively. The ivmii . curred in the Sea of Okhotsk on
February 1, 1984 at a focal depth of 580 km. The uppermost two show the short-period Benioff (see Chapter 6) vertical-
component record made at UPP. The middle IH traces exhibit the short-period S-13 (see Chapter 6) E-W component
seismogram also made at UPP. fli- bottom trace presents the long-period vertical-component record made at UME. Note the
rather linpiUive character of recorded phases, in particular that of S and ScS, clearly visible in all three records. Vli'wlly no
surface waves have been recorded from this event.

the Flores Sea area, on August 25, 1933, June 29, 1934 and June 30, 1943. Ilicir
depths are given by Gutenberg and Richter (1938) as 720 km, although oilier
agencies have placed them rather shallower. ISC records contain four re*cnt events in
the Fiji-Tonga area with depths greater than 750 km: January 13. 1981 (765 17 km),
November 21, 1982 (769 31 km), October 25,
IV 72 (806 84 km) and May 7, 1971 (848 26 km). These events are all inall and not
widely recorded, and their depths, particularly those of the deepest two, cannot be
regarded as well established. Occasionally, deep-focus earthquakes occur in rather
unexpected geographical areas. For instance, up to 1954, it was generally accepted
that the geographical extent of deep quakes is limited to the Circum-Pacific belt.
However, on March 29, 1954, an isolated major earthquake occurred in southern
 41
Spain at a depth of 630 km. A smaller earthquake occurred at the same focus on
January 30, 1973.

Even though several alternative hypotheses to explain deep earthquakes have been
launched in the past (e.g. contraction of the Earth due to cooling), today, nearly all
seismologists agree that deep and intermediate-focus events arc associated with the
subducting lithosphere which fits nicely with the idea of plate tectonics. It is of
course, still possible that individual shocks, e.g. that of March 29, 1954, may not be
related to subduction. Notwithstanding the unifying frame of plate tectonics, it is
likelythat deep and shallow events are generated by fundamentally different modes
of rock failures. For example, it is possible that deep shocks are not associated with
dislocations along quasiplanar fault surfaces. Some researchers now ascribe deep
quakes to phase transitions taking place in the upper mantle or in other words to
sudden voluminous changes (densification) due to the collapse of olivine (a major
mineral in the Earths mantle) molecules from the low-pressure form into a more
dense form. However, the relation between phase transitions, generation of deep
earthquakes and the style of mechanical failure associated with these quakes is still
poorly understood and debated. Other plausible models explaining the mechanism of
earthquakes at great depth, such as dehydration of minerals or an abrupt build up of
the frictional heat, have also been proposed (see e.g. Frohlich, 1989).

On the whole, the most distinctive features of a large intermediate-focus and deep
earthquake recorded at teleseismic distances pertinent to seismogram interpretation
are the seismogram simplicity, small amplitudes or even absence of surface waves
and an impulsive shape of body waves. With some elementary experience, all these
characteristics may often be revealed as the eye scans the seismogram. In a more
retrospective-type interpretation, the absence of aftershocks will support the
classification of the shock as a deep or intermediate-focus event.

4.2.5 Surface waves

It can be shown that the amplitude decrease for body waves (P and S) is inversely
proportional to the propagated distance while for surface waves the decrease in
amplitude is inversely proportional only to the square root of the distance traveled.
Hence, with exception of very, short epicentral distances, surface waves carry by far
the largest amount of wave energy radiated by shallow and some intermediate-focus
earthquakes. In Section 4.1, we showed that interaction of body waves along velocity
dicontinuities generates various types of surface waves and presented some of their
essential properties. In the following lines we complement the previous discussion
with more details pertinent to interpretation of recorded surface waves.
In 1885, Lord Rayleigh proved theoretically that a special type of surface wave (now
called Rayleigh wave and labeled LR) can propagate along, i.e. beneath, the Earths
free surface. Contrary 1 0 other types of surface waves, propagation of LR waves is
not limited to layered media; they can also be transmitted through a homogeneous
half-space (semi-infinite medium). As discussed earlier (see Section 4.1), the particle
motion of Rayleigh waves follows a retrograde elliptical orbit in the vertical plane
42
containing the direction of propagation. At the Earths surface, the amplitudes in the
vertical and horizontal directions are related roughly as 3:2. Hence, Rayleigh waves
are usually best seen on vertical-component seismograms. Amplitudes of LR waves
decrease rapidly (exponentially) with increasing depth. For example, at a depth equal
to one wavelength, the vertical and horizontal amplitudes fall to 0.11 and 0.19 of their
free-surface values, respectively. The velocity of Rayleigh waves in a homogeneous
medium, c lies between 0.87 and 0.96 times the S-wave velocity, vs, of the half-
space. For many rock materials the Poisson ratio is approximately 0.25 which leads to
a relation c, = 0.92v5.
In 1911, A.E.H. Love solved the theoretical problem of wave propagation through a
thin superficial layer superimposed on a homogeneous half-space. Assuming that the
S-wave velocity in the layer is lower than that in the material below, another type of
surface wave (called Love wave and designated LQ) can be transmitted through the
layer without any significant penetration of energy into the lower medium. Love
waves may, therefore, also be considered as channel waves, in this particular case
transverse waves, trapped in the superficial layer. In contrast to Rayleigh waves, Love
waves show no vertical motion since particles excited by propagating LQ waves are
polarized in the horizontal plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Consequently, traces of LQ waves should be looked for on the horizontal-component
seismograms. Love waves propagate faster than Rayleigh waves with velocities
limited by 5-wave velocities in the layer and the half-space. The mean velocity of
propagation is 4.43 and 3.97 km/s for LQ and LR, respectively (Bullen and Bolt,
1985).
The analyst has essentially two clues to distinguish LQ waves from LR waves. Firstly,
the different particle motion. While Rayleigh waves usually show the largest
amplitudes on vertical-component records, Love waves are best displayed on
horizontal-component seismograms. Secondly, the different propagation velocities.
Both LQ and LR propagate slower than P or S, but since LQ propagates faster than LR,
they are recorded ahead of LR waves.
Surface waves traveling through layered media often show appreciable normal
dispersion which as time goes on, continually changes the shape of both LQ and LR.
Due to the dispersion, the original appearance of the wave train becomes disturbed on
the seismogram by long period waves advancing toward the beginning of the wave
train as it travels through the medium. This rather special behaviour, leads to the
concept of phase velocity, c, and group velocity, U. The former is the velocity with which a wave
of single frequency (monochromatic signal) propagates. The latter is the velocity of
travel of the wave train energy, i.e. the velocity of the wave train envelope. Plots of
wave velocity as a function of period (frequency) are called dispersion curves. Figure 21
displays empirical average group velocity dispersion curves for fundamental mode
Love and Rayleigh waves. Observe that the shape of curves in Fig. 21 depends
strongly upon the character of the propagation path. In the period range from about 20
to 60 s, continental travel paths exhibit dispersion curves for LR waves with group
velocity gradually increasing from 2 to almost 4 km/s. For LQ waves, the group
velocity starts at about 2.5 km/s and reaches values close to 4.5 km/s at periods of
several hundreds of seconds. As follows from the Figure, dispersion curves associated
with oceanic travel paths show a rather abrupt change in the short-period range. At
 43
periods around 15 s, the velocity of /J? increases sharply from about 1.5 to more than
3 km/s. For LQ wave, a sudden velocity rise from about 3 to 4 km/s is seen at periods
around 7 s.

5.0

Oceanic G I
Love wave
t 4.0 >
Jf Cc mtin ent il A ---------
II , u
Lov e

J 3,0
> T >

Q. Co tin< Witt il be cean c

1 20 R. aulei 3h Ra ylek

1.0
I I 111 I nil I J!I

234 5 10 20 30 40 50 0 200 500 Period (s)

Fig. 21. Dispersion curves for group velocity for fundamental Love and Rayleigh waves that have traveled along
oceanic and continental paths (based on the diagram of Bullen and Bolt, 1985).

An experienced analyst will distinguish between recorded surface waves that have
traveled along pure oceanic or continental paths. Dispersion characteristics of oceanic
routes give rise to long wave trains with rather low and sometimes hardly visible
period change over relatively long (5-10 minutes) record segments. Several typical
seismograms are displayed in Plates
14 and 50. In contrast, continental paths generate a characteristic fast period
decrease with time, which is often easily recognized by inspecting several
minutes of the records (see e.g. Fig. 7 and Plates 22 and 39). As indicated nltove,
the exact shape of dispersion curves depends upon the traversed structure. This
means that available empirical dispersion curves for LQ or LR waves provide the
researcher with remarkably effective probes for studying the structure of the
traversed medium (so called inverse problem).
As can be seen in Fig. 21, dispersion curves show a rather complicated pattern with
several local minima and maxima. Surface waves traveling with these minima or
maxima group velocities are called Airy phases. On seismograms, an Airy phase is
characterized by a constant-frequency compact wuve train, often with a remarkable
amplitude buildup of dispersed surface waves traveling by fundamental-mode
propagation.
At short epicentral distances, it is difficult to identify LQ and LR waves bccause they
are often contaminated by large-amplitude S waves. On the other hand, at large
 44
distances, the identification is rather simple since LQ and waves dominate the
record (shallow events) and are significantly delayed with respect to S waves. On
seismograms, surface waves may be spread over several hours.
Figure 21 displays another interesting feature which should be dicussed in more
detail. Observe that the dispersion curves for LR waves (both the oceanic and
continental paths) show a local minimum for periods around 200 s. In the period
range from approximately 50 to 200 s, the group velocity is decreasing
with increasing period. Physically this means that in ilu* period range, long-period
Rayleigh waves follow the laws of inverse dispersion. Observations of this interesting
phenomenon are rather scarce, however one example is displayed in Plate 30.
Periods of the largest (maximum amplitude) recorded surface waves show a clear
positive correlation with epicentral distance. For example, for distances
10, 50 and 100, the expected minimum periods, T^, of the largest Continental Rayleigh
waves are of the order of 7, 13 and 16 s, respectively (Willmore, 1979). For oceanic
passages, the periods can be somewhat longer. Alto the time occurrence of the
beginning of the maximum movement, TRmai (Huyleigh wave), with respect to the first
onset of P waves, TP , is obviously distance dependent. Table 1 gives the time
differences TRmm - TF for various cpiccntral distances (after M. BSth, 1947,
abbreviated). Hence, the position of the maximum amplitude in the LR wave train,
with respect to the P arrival, and its period offer the interpreter important information
on the epicentral distance of the earthquake.
TABLE 1
Travel-time differences, - T, , and minimum periods. 7_. for largest Rayleigh waves observed at various epicentral distances
(from B4th, 1947 and Willmore, 1979).
T^-Tr 7_ - T, - T, r_
7 "

10* 6.2 min 7s 60* 35.0 min 14 > 63.7 min

no

15 9.1 8 65 37.8 66.6

us
20 12.0 9 70 40.7 120 69.5
25 14.8 75 43.6 125 72.3
30 17.7 10 80 46.5 16 130 75.2
35 20.6 85 49.3 135 78.1
40 23.5 12 90 52.2 140 81.0 18 s
45 26.3 95 55.1 145 83.8
50 29.2 100 58.0 150 86.7
55 32.1 105 60.8 160 92.5

As mentioned earlier, surface-wave amplitudes are large only close to the Earths free
surface and decrease, broadly speaking, rather rapidly with increasing depth.
Consequently, a shallow-focus earthquake will usually generate large dominating
surface waves, often exceeding the amplitudes of recorded body waves, while a deep-
focus earthquake of the same magnitude will generate abnormally small
(insignificant) surface waves. This feature obviously provides the interpreter with a
viable tool to discriminate, at first glance, between shallow events and deep-focus
earthquakes.
 45
With the advent of long-period instruments, comparatively long-period surface
waves, so called mantle waves, fiave been observed from large distant shocks. These
waves can be of either Love- or Rayleigh-wave type with approximate periods of
somewhat less than one minute to several minutes. The speed of the LQ type mantle
waves is often nearly constant at
4.4 km/s (see Fig. 21) and the wave has an impulsive shape on the seismogram. The LR
type mantle waves travel with a velocity between 3.6 an
4.1 km/s. Since the wavelenghth of mantle waves varies from several hundreds to more
than thousand kilometers, a large part of the Earths mantle is affected by these
waves. An interesting feature of mantle waves is their repeated appearance on
records, which is due to their multiple travel around the Earth. The LQ type mantle
wave was given the label G (after B. Gutenberg) and the LR type mantle wave, the
label R. The older nomenclature sometimes uses W instead for R (from German
Wiederkehrwellen, meaning repeated waves). G waves that propagate the direct and
anticenter routes are labeled Gl and G2, respectively. Waves which have in addition
traveled once around the Earth are denoted G3 and G4, and so on. Accordingly, we
have Rl, R2, R3, R4 etc. On many occasions, observations of up to G8 and R8 have been
made. As an exceptional case we may mention records of the 1960 Chile earthquake,
M=8.3. Seismograms made at Uppsala, Sweden, reveal mantle waves G20 and R20
which have traveled a total distance equal to that from the Earth to ihc Moon (Bdth,
1979a).

A*
 47
( hapter 5

I KAVEL TIMES

< >m of the great seismological inventions during the first half of this inury was the
establishment of highly accurate, relatively simple charts and ihlc s for times of
travel of parent P and S waves and of affluent families of ib |H-ndent body-wave
types such as PP, PcP, PKP, SS, SKS etc. Travel-time i hirts, also called holographs, and travel-time
tables provide (i.e. predict) wiihm a few seconds the time required for a particular wave
type to travel I Mini the hypocenter to a certain point on the Earths surface, i.e. to a
certain ninographic station. Obviously, the travel time can also be viewed as the nine
which passed between the instant of the wave generation and the arrival I th wave at
the station. The primary importance of travel-time tables for >i>s-rvational
seismology lies in the fact that they enable the analyst to Icntify various arriving
phases and to determine quickly the distance
Iwren epicenter and station.
Hotly waves propagate through the Earths interior rather than around the urfn of the
Earth. Nevertheless, travel-time curves for teleseismic body
.vc are always plotted as a function of arc distances expressed in degrees hi ilus
context, it is worth mentioning the Eiby-Muir tables, in which i .i.m. s are found for
given time, rather than the other way round). As an
in ,>lc. Fig. 22 displays travel-time curves of P, S, Pc, PP and PcP waves.
I Hows from the figure, travel-time curves for P and S waves are pH nted by two
diverging curves. This means that the travel-time nee TS-TP (hereafter S-P),
increases with increasing epicentral distance, .. Inference, therefore, becomes
indicative of the epicentral distance. The lima that elapses between the arrivals of P
and S is not the only possibility in tlricrmine the epicentral distance; combinations
such as PP P, among I . ure sometimes used as well. The travel-time difference,
e.g. S-P, is
I muird from the seismogram and the corresponding epicentral distance is
determined from the travel-time chart (see Fig. 22) or from the
" (Minding tables. Assume that we interpret a recording from a llmlluw focus
earthquake made at a seismographic station A and that we littt ccdcd to identify on
the seismogram the arrival of P at 16 18 16.0 and iM nival of S at 16 24 45.3. The
travel-time difference, S-P, of 6 min 29.3 I ihcn be vertically fitted into just
the right interval between the P and S nitvr in Fig. 22. By reading down onto the
epicentral distance scale, one
ii micnain that the earthquake was 44 away from station A. Combining line. in
more stations, the epicentre is located by making use of the swinging arcs method. It is then a
matter of brief algebra to calculate also the origin time of the earthquake. Obviously, with
many stations and required high precision, the source location is usually determined
by computer, and in practice, locations are carried out by comparing absolute arrival
times of phases at different stations, rather than using S-P intervals.
48

Fig. 22. Travel-time curves for P, Pc, PcP, PP and S. The travel time, T, is given in minutes and the distance, , in degrees of arc
from epicenter.

Time of travel of a certain body-wave type and the curvature of the travel-time
curve depend on the velocity distribution along the propagation path through the
Earths interior. Note, for example, that the observed curvature can only be explained
by structural models where the density and in turn the velocity increase with
increasing depth. Hence, besides its value in locating earthquakes and in determining
their time of occurrence, travel-time tables also provide the seismologist with
important information concerning the structure of the Earths interior. In this context,
it is worth mentioning that in contrast to body waves, travel times for surface LQ and
LR waves are represented by straight lines indicating that these waves propagate
along some (surface) layers with constant velocity.
v
 Travel-time tables provide the key for successful phase identification. 49 In
interpretations made by professional analysts not only all clear and significantrecord
onsets (phases) are indicated but they are also successively identified, in agreement
with their respective times of arrival by making use of available travel-time tables. At
the same time, it has to be emphasized that identification of later phases based upon
observed travel times alone may lead to erroneous conclusions. For example, within
certain distance ranges, multiple rupturing generates later arrivals which may easily
be mistaken for [>P or PcP. At about 39 distance, ScP (or PcS) and S from a surface-
focus earthquake arrive simultaneously and the correct identification becomes rather
puzzling. At distances around 82, it is difficult to discriminate between S and SKS. A
similar situation occurs for the individual PKP branches at distances around 144, and
more examples can be found. In such cases, reliable interpretation requires access to
records from a number of stations (located at different epicentral distances) and
sometimes even a more thorough study of the source physics. The latter evidently
goes beyond the usual duties of a station analyst. In practice, it is quite common that
there remain unidentified phases on seismograms in spite of the fact that many of
them were recorded with rather clear onsets.
Generally speaking, travel times of body waves depend upon both the epicentral
distance and the focal depth. By using the travel-time tables, it is not difficult to
demonstrate that for example, the travel-time differences like S P or PP-P are strongly
distance dependent while the dependence on focal depth is less distinct. On the other
hand, for travel-time differences including depth phases, such as e.g. pP-P or sP-P, the
dependence is obviously the opposite. Consequently, the former type of time
differences will be used to estimate the epicentral distance, whereas the latter will give
the focal depth of the recorded event.
It has been observed already in the beginning of this century when first travel-time
tables were constructed, that the time of travel for body waves (lor a given teleseismic
distance and focal depth) are nearly the same respective of the geographical region.
Obviously, this would mean a Inirrally homogeneous (spherically symmetric)
structure of the Earth. Small deviations, of the order of about 2 s, of observed travel
times from those luted in the tables are to a great extent due to structural deviations
from 4 'lierical symmetry (after allowance is made for the Earths ellipticity). The
Kirntcst systematic divergences have been observed between propagation I'rtths under
the Pacific and under continental regions for distances of approximately 50 and in
continental regions between shield and mountainous i> i'ions (Bullen and Bolt, 1985).
Some workers advocate construction of
f ional or even azimuth-dependent travel times (Bith, 1979a) to improve the accuracy
of teleseismic source locations. However, these and similar l"H|>osals have as yet not
materialized. Broadly speaking, in seismological pumice, we use global teleseismic
travel-time tables considering a spherically lymmetric earth.

H I J.
50 The situation is quite different when analyzing seismograms from nearby earthquakes,
i.e. shocks at epicentral distance of 10 or less. In contrast to the mantle and core,
crust shows significant regional variations in structure which heavily influences travel
times of all crustal waves. For example, as mentioned in Chapter 3, in continental
areas, the crust is about 40 km thick and the P velocity varies from about 6 to 7.5
km/s. On the other hand, over some oceanic areas, the thickness is only 5 km, the
layering practically disappears and the P wave speed is found to be around 8 km/s.
Thus, to be able to identify the arriving waves on seismograms and to determine
correctly the source parameters (location, origin time), accurate regional tables, applicable
in the specific region must be on hand. Further allowance is sometimes made for local
geological structure beneath the station, the height of the station above sea level, etc.
Since the turn of the century, when R.D. Oldham made the first separation of
longitudinal, transverse and surface waves in seismograms, a number of travel-time
tables has been constructed. Oldham produced provisional travel-time tables for P, S
and surface waves. The first widely used tables were those of K. Ztippritz published in
1907. The subsequent evolution of reliable tables during the first decades of this
century has been a long and laborious process including the work of H.H. Turner, B.
Gutenberg, C. Richter and others. In 1940, H. Jeffreys and K.E. Bullen published their
famous Seismological Tables (Jeffreys and Bullen, 1967), commonly abbreviated as JB
tables, which still serve as a standard for global events. Jeffreys and Bullen started in
the early 1930s from the so-called Zdppritz-Turner tables. After a series of successive
approximations, the resulting tables of 1940 provide times of travel accurate within
the order of one or two seconds for P, PKP and PKIKP and only a little less accurate for
a number of other phases (Bullen, 1975). The JB tables list times of travel for P and S
as well as for all more common body waves. Curves corresponding to the onset of
Love and Rayleigh type surface waves are also plotted. Times are given to the nearest
tenth of a second, for epicentral increments of 1 (0.2 for near earthquakes) and
depth increments of 63 km within the range from 33 to around 800 km. Times of
travel for surface earthquakes are listed as well (see Fig. 23).
In 1968, a new set of "world-wide" or "world-average" tables was published by E.
Herrin and co-workers (Herrin et al., 1968). While JB tables are based merely on
earthquake data, Herrin and his colleagues employed both earthquake and large
underground explosion data, f Controlled locations and origin times of the explosions,
improved seismological instrumentation and access to large computers were the
factors which led to expectations of significantly increased precision over the standard
JB tables. However, the undertaking demonstrated that the JB tables are in need of
only minor corrections, to be more specific, of travel-time reductions by
approximately
 TIMES OF P Continued
Depth h
*
Surface 0-03 004 005

30 * 12 5
88 6 07- 6 01-6 6 55 7 5 49-9 5 44 4 5 39-2
30-
31 2 1 3
88 6
7 6 104 6 04 s 6 58-6 53-1 5 47-8
32
1
87 16 6 191 13-2 07 3 6 oi -7 6 56 4
33 6 3m % 6 6 25 4 6 *7-8 6 21-8 6 15-9 10-3 04-9 6

34 6 34-1 6 36 4 30-3 6 24 6 18 134

*7-5 86 6 42 7 8
4
35 56-1 6 si-3 6 44 9 6 38 6
6 21-8
302
27-

04 6 7 53-4 8 6 6
36 6 32-
37 130
59 8
01-8 7 47 2 9 6 2 6 6 3
's
08 2 7 35-6 8 ;4 6 8
38 7 214 IO-I 7 55-6 41-3
39 16-6 04 0 7 6 44- 8 2 6
7 29 184 6 49-
7 24 12-3 0 82
40 8 7
9 7 26 58-0 52 3
4* 7 03-
381 7 7 7 20 0 6 - oo-5
43 7 7 33 2 2
46 3 34 9 7 5 7 7 08-
44 7 7 41-5 7 >4 5 711-3
54-5 43-1 28 7 7 7
7 49-7 7 22- 7 19-
45 8 7 51- 7 36 9
02-7
57-9 7 7 i6-9 7 4 7 27
4 6 108 06 0 3 7 45- 0
30 8 25-0
47 53-0 4 7
8 18-9 8 59-4 7 38-9 77 933-
' 7
48 78 804-5
354
49 26 8 7 9 8 22
074 010 8 7 46-9 0
56 7
7
8 34 7 0 8 08-9 122410
Z 7 43-3
II I!
8 15-
8293 87 7
3 8 8 16- 54-8
8 19-8 7 6
7 5*1
842-6 7 9 8454 77
02-7 8
io- 75 58-8
7 8
8 50.3 77 23-2 24-5 4 8 06-5 8
8
Fig. 23. Sample section (30* S < 49*) of JB 18-2 14-1
travel-time tables for P waves. The left-hand
310 8 32-
8 25
8 38-
column indicates epicentral distance in degrees 2
8
and the columns to the right give travel7times
successively for a surface focus and for foci at
33, 96, 160, 223 and 350 km depth. Travel times
are listed for depths (6370- 33) a + 33 where a is
the fraction specified on the top of each column.
First travel-time differences in 0.1 s/deg are
given to the right in each depth column. (After
Jeffreys and Bullen, 1967).

2 s (Bith, 1979a). Despite the fact

that JB tables were constructed
long before the computer era,
their impact on geophysics in the
past 50 years or so, can hardly be
overemphasized. Large
seismological centers like NEIC
or ISC still use the JB tables.

Herrin tables give travel times

for Pg, Pn, P, PP, PcP, PKP and
travel-time differences pP-P and
PcP-P. Times of travel for P, Pg,
and Pn are given to the nearest
hundredth of a second, the
distance increment is 0.1 for Pg,
Pn\ 0.5 for P and 1 for PP, PcP
and PKP. Surface foci as well as
foci at a large number of various
depths are considered (see Fig.
24).

For near seismic events, the

construction of proper travel-
time tables creates a difficult
problem due to crustal structural
heterogeneities. Times of travel
 TIMES OF P - Continued

* Depth m Kilometers
0 15 40 50 75 1 125
0
M S M s M s M s M S M S M S

37.5 7 14.73 7 12.51 7 9.34 7 8.36 7 5.93 7 3.52 7 1.13

8.46 8.45 8.44 8.44 8.42 8.41 8.40
38.0 7 18.96 , 16.74 7 13.56 7 12.58 7 10.15 7 7.73 7 5.33
8.42 7 8.42 8.41 8.40 8.39 8.38 8.37
38.5 7 23.17 7 20.95 7 17.76 7 16.78 7 14.34 7 11.92 7 9.51
/ 8.3-9 8.38 8.37 8.37 8.36 8.34 8.33
39.0 7 27.37 7 25.14 7 21.95 7 20.97 7 18.52 7 16.09 7 13.68
8.35 8.35 8.34 8.33 8.32 8.31 8.30
39.5 7 31.54 7 29.'31 7 26.12 7 25.13 7 2 7 20.24 7 17.82
8.32 8.31 8.31 8.30 2
8.29 8.28 8.27
40.0 7 35.70 7 33.47 7 30.27 7 29.28 7 26.83 7 24.38 7 21.96
8.29 8.28 8.27 8.27 8.26 8 8.23
24
40.5 7 39.84 7 37.61 7 34.41 7 33.42 7 30.95 7 28.50 7 26.07
8.25 8.25 8.24 8.23 8 8 8
41.0 7 43.97 7 41.73 7 38.53 7 37.53 7- .35.06 7 .32.61 7 .30.17
8 8 8 8 8.19 8 8.17
41.5 .
7 48.08 7 .
45.84 7 .42.63 7 .*1.63 7 39.16 7 . 18
36.70 7 34.26
8.18 8.18 8.17 8.17 8.15 8 8.13
42.0 7 52.17 7 49.93 7 46.72 7 45.72 7 43.24 7 . 14
40.77 7 38.32
8 8.15 8.14 8.13 8 8 8
42.5 7 . 15
56.25 7 54.00 7 50.78 7 49.78 7 .47.30 7 .44.82 7 .42.37
8 8 8 8 8.09 8.07 8.06
. . . .
43.0 8 0.31 7 58.06 7 54.83 7 53.83 7 51.34 7 48.86 7 46.40
8.08 8.08 8.07 8.06 8.05 8.04 8.03
43.5 8 4.35 8 2.09 7 58.87 7 57.86 7 55.36 7 52.88 7 50.41
8.05 8.04 8.03 8.03 8 8 7.99
44. 0 a 8.37 8 6 8 2 8 1 7 .59.37 7 .56.88 7 54.41
8 8. .
8 .7.99 7.98 7.97 7.96
44.5 .
8 12.37 8 1. .
8 6 8 5.87 8 3.36 8 0.87 7 58.39
7.97 0
7.97 .7.96 7.96 7.94 7.93 7.92
45.0 8 16.36 8 14.10 8 1 8 9.85 8 7.33 8 4.83 8 2.35
7.94 7.93 0
7.92 7.92 7.91 7.90 7.88

Fig. 24. Sample section (37.5* S

45) of Herrin Havel-time tables for P
waves. Focal depth in kilometers is
given for each column, otherwise
conventions as for Fig. 23. First travel-
time differences in s/deg are given on
alternate lines in the P table. (After
Herrin et al., 1968).

for short distances ( < 10)

given in JB tables are based on
observations from Japanese
earthquakes and times listed in
Herrin tables are constructed to
 be consistent with observed times
in the central United States.
Active seismological
observatories all around the
world usually develop their own
travel-time tables which are
appropriate to their respective
regions. Two examples of sample
sections of travel-time tables for
near seismic events are depicted
in Figs. 25 and 26.
Travel times for h - 0
A P P* Pn Sg S* So S -Pg PmP Hg

ka a a a a m s

0 0 0 0 0
10 1.6 2.8 1.2 3.3
to 5.2 5.6 2.4 6.6
)0 4.8 8.4 3.6 9.9

0 6.4 11.2 4.8 13.7 13.2

)0 8.0 14.0 6.0 14 .2 16.6

60 9.6 16.8 7.2 15.1 19-9
70 11.3 19.6 8.) 16.1 23.2
12.9 22.3 9.4 17 .2 26.5
0 14.5 25.1 10 .6 18.3 2
9
100 16.1 27 .9 11.8 19.5 33.1
110 17 .7 18.7 20.8 30.7 36.8 13.0 20.8 36.4
110 19.3 20.2 22 .1 33.5 39.0 14 .2 22.1 39.7
HO 20.9 21.7 23.3 36.3 41.2 15.4 23.4 43.0
140 22.5 23.2 24.6 39.1 43.4 16.6 24.8 46.4
1)0 24 .1 24.7 25-9 41.9 45.6 17.8 26.1 49.7

1*0 25.7 26.2 27 .2 44.7 45.9 47 .7 19.0 27.5 53.0

170 27.3 27 .7 28.5 47 .5 48.6 49.9 20.2 23.9 56.3
1*0 28 .9 29 . 29.7 50.3 51.4 52 .1 21.4 30.3 59.6
2
1*0 30.6 30.8 31.0 53.1 54.1 54.3 22.5 31.8 1 02.9
100 32.2 32.3 32.3 55.9 56.8 56.5 23.7 33.2 1 06.2
110 33.8 33.8 33.6 58.7 59 .5 58.7 24.9 1 09.5
tto 35.4 35.3 34.8 1 01.4 1 02.2 1 00.9 26.0 1 12.8
1)0 37.0 36.8 36.1 1 04.2 1 04.9 1 03.1 27 .2 1 16.2
140 38.6 38.3 37.4 1 07.0 1 07.6 1 05.3 28.4 1 19.5
1)0 40.2 39-8 38.7 1 09.8 1 10.3 1 07 .5 29.6 1 22.8

Sample section (0 250 km) of travel-time

tables for near events with surface focus in
i * rii< Times of travel are listed for Pg, P*, Pn,
Sg, S*, Sn, PmP, Rg and for the difference Sg-
Pg. Ah* lUth. 1979b).
NEAR EARTHQUAKE
PHASES
Times of Transmission for a Sorface
Focus

Pg P* Pn Sg 5* Sn
00 0 00 0 (2 8) 0 (6 -8 ) 0 0-0 0 (3-9) 0 (10 7)
0-2 40 6-6
o-4 80 (9-6) 132
0-6 120 131 198 21-7
o- 8 160 165 183 264 27-7 31-0
I ^00 199 2 I-I 33-6 36-1
O
1-2 23-9 23-3 23-9 39-6 395 412
1-4 279 267 268 463 45-5 46-3
i- 6 319 302 29-6 52-9 51-4 51-3
i 35-9 33-6 32-5 59-5 574 564
-2 0 39-9 37-o 354 I i 3-3 I
2-2 43-9 404 38-3 1621- 7 92 1-6
6 5
2-4 479 43-8 41-2 9-3 152 ii- 7
2-6 519 47-3 44-0 259 21*1 167
2-8 559 50-7 469 32-5 27-1 21-8
30 59-8 54-i 49-7 39-1 33-0 269
3-2 i 3-8 57-5 52-5 45 7 389 320
3-4 7-8 i 09 55-4 52-3 4 4 37-1
4 . . 50-8 9
11-8 58-2 5 42-1
4
3-8 158 7-8 i 11 28
56 56-8 47-2
Fig. 26. Sample section (0 < A < 3.8") of JB travel-time tables for near events with surface focus. Times of travel are
listed for Pg, P*. Pn, Sg. S* and Sn. Figures in parentheses give travel times of /*, S* and Pn, Sn vertically reflected
from Conrad and Moho discontinuities, respectively. (From Jeffreys and Bullen, 1967).

Chapter 6

SEISMOGRAPHS AND
SEISMOLOGICAL
OBSERVATORIES
6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Seismographs play a similar role
for seismology to that which X-
ray machines play for medicine
or telescopes play for astronomy.
They make the otherwise
inaccessible parts of the Earth
"visible" and available for
detailed investigations. In spite
of the fact that earthquakes had
already been treated as natural
phenomena by ancient Greek
philosophers, e.g. by Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.), seismology
became an established branch of
natural sciences only after the
first reliable seismographs were
developed and deployed at the
end of the nineteenth century.

Today, the market is flooded by a

large variety of first class
products and key-ready
instruments may be ordered for
practically any type of
measurements the earth scientist
may be interested in. To present
an exhaustive list and description
of all past and existing types of
seismographs goes, therefore, far
beyond the scope of this book
and consequently we shall limit
ourselves only to a rather brief
review of main principles and in
particular to those which have an
impact on seismogram
interpretation.

Broadly speaking, a seismograph

is an instrument which monitors
and in a certain form records
ground vibrations (as a
continuous function of time)
caused by arriving seismic waves
together with a very precise
timing information. The record
of the motion is called the
seismogram. The core of modem
seismographs is the seismometer
which transforms the energy of
arriving seismic waves into
electrical voltage. It works as a
seismic-to-electric transducer
(sensor, detector) and senses the
displacement, velocity or
acceleration of the ground
motion. Seismometers are
usually oriented in such a way
that they measure one of the
three components (e.g. east-west,
north-south or vertical) of the
ground motion. Thus, to be able
to restore the complete picture of
the translational motion due to
seismic waves emerging at the
Earths surface, many
observatories operate
combinations of three
seismometers (sometimes called
the complete station) oriented in the
three directions.

Most, but not all, of the

seismometers employ the
pendulum principle (see Fig. 27).
The pendulums mass is
connected through a vertical or
horizontal elastic suspension to a
robust frame which in its turn is
anchored in the underlying
bedrock. In more classical
seismometers e.g. Benioff, Press-
Ewing or Grenet-Coulomb, the
mass is supported against gravity
by various helical springs, while
the recent Wielandt-Streckeisen
seismometer, developed in the
mid-1970s (Wielandt, 1983),
makes use of a leaf-spring
suspension. Seismic waves that
reach the recording site cause the
frame to move together with the
bedrock, whereas the mass, due
to its inertia and loose coupling
to the frame, tends to remain
stationary. The relative motion of
the mass with respect to the
frame is magnified, by
mechanical, mechanical-optical
or electromagnetic means or by
electronic amplifiers, and
recorded. Nowadays,
magnifications of the order of
106 and greater can easily be
achieved by electronic
amplifiers. The only practical
limitations are the seismic noise
at the recording site and the
instrumental noise of the device
employed.

/
Fig. 27. The principle of a vertical-pendulum
moving-coil seismometer. is bcdrock, P is
concrete pier. F is frame, M is pendulum's mass,
PM is permanent magnet, is coil, S is helical
spring, A is amplifier and FL is filter. Relative
motion of the coil and the permanent magnet
generates an electric signal that is electronically
amplified, filtered and recorded, together with
time information, by a proper plotting device.
The arrows indicate that the instrument senses
up-down, i.e. vertical, ground motion.

One of the significant

instruments employed by
seismologists, which is not based
on the pendulum principle, is the
strain seismometer or strainmeter, invented
by H. Benioff in 1935. This
instrument essentially measures a
relative displacement between
two piers on the Earths surface
(or at shallow depth) some 20 m
apart. It consists of a horizontal
steel or quartz tube anchored to
one pier and extending
sufficiently close to the other
pier. A proper transducer
transfers the varying gap between
the free end of the tube and the
second pier into a measurable
electric signal. In contrast to
pendulum seismometers, which
monitor the ground displacement,
velocity or acceleration, the
strain seismometers measure a
component of ground strain or
deformation and are sometimes
(Lee, 1987) called deformation
seismometers.

Yet another type of non-

pendulum sensor is the
piezoelectric seismometer also
called pressure detector. This
type of instrument is usually
deployed during special studies
carried out in submerged areas.
With respect to the rather specific
field of application, strainmeters
and piezoelectric seismometers
will not be discussed further.

The final, but not less important,

component of a seismograph, in
addition to the sensor and the
recording unit, is an accurate
clock. To determine arrival times
of various recorded phases, a
precisc time indication on the
seismogram is required. Many
modem seismographic stations
keep their clock accuracy at 1-10
ms by making daily comparison
with the radio time signals
transmitted by standard world
time services such as e.g. WWV
in the United States or DCF77 in
FRG. An exhaustive list of radio
transmitted time signals may be
found in Willmore (1979). To
provide for a common time basis,
seismologists all over the world
use Universal Co-ordinanted
Time (UTC) which is the
scientific equivalent of
 Greenwich Mean Time, used for
civil purposes in Great Britain.

6.2 RECORDING SYSTEMS

Recording of seismic waves can
be accomplished in many
different ways. Older
seismographs, e.g. Wiechert or
Mainka, employ a purely
mechanical direct recording by
which a trace or seismogram is
produced on paper by a delicate
ink-pen or on a smoked paper by
a solid stylus attached to the
pendulum. Mechanical direct-
recording instruments provide
low magnification. Some other
older instruments, such as e.g.
Milne-Shaw or Wood-Anderson,
make use of mechanical-optical
recordings. A mirror which is
fastened to the pendulum or other
moving part produce the trace by
reflecting a light beam on
photographic paper.

More modem instruments use

electromagnetic or, to some
lesser extent, electrostatic
recording. In the former a voltage
is generated either by the
displacement of a coil in a
constant magnetic field (moving-
coil seismometers like e.g.
Galitzin or Grenet-Coulomb) or
by variations of the magnetic
field enclosed by a coil (variable-
reluctance seismometers such as
e.g. Benioff). In both cases, the
induced electromagnetic force is
proportional to the time
derivative of ground
displacement. This means that
within a certain period range, the
recorded trace is proportional to
the ground velocity. In 1906,
B.B. Galitzin coupled the
seismometer generated electrical
voltage to a galvanometer and
recorded its deflection optically
on photographic paper by
means of galvanometer mirrors.
Galvanometric recording is still
in use at most of the worlds
observatories. The paper is
attached to a slowly rotating
drum which at the same time
advances along its rotational axis
(helical motion). This arrangement
allows for 24-hour, or even
longer, uninterrupted recording
intervals between successive
paper changes. The disadvantage
of recording on photographic
paper is that the recording part of
the system must be located in a
dark room which means that the
recorded trace cannot be
examined immediately. One
usually records one day of data
on one sheet of paper of the size
approximately 30 x 90 cm. The
resolution often is 1 hr/line and
24 lines/sheet or 15 min/line and
96 lines/sheet for long- and
short-period recordings,
respectively. Hence, once the
paper is developed and fixed it
can be quickly scanned for
evidence of seismic activity
during an interval of 24 hours. A
secondary advantage is the
alignment of time marks across
the record which enables easy
and rapid time estimates (hours
and minutes). I

The electrostatic seismometersor variable-

capacitance seismometers make use of two
systems of capacitor plates. One
system, is connected to the
pendulum arm while the other
system is attached to the frame.
Relative motion of the capacitor
plates, which are part of an
electronic circuit, modulates an
electrical signal which is then
applied to a sensitive
galvanometer for recording as in
the preceding arrangement.
When compared with the
electromagnetic recording, the
variable-capacitance instruments
are nowadays rather scarce.
However, it is worth mentioning
that electrostatic seismometers
were the instruments which were
installed and operated on the
Moon between 1969 and 1977
(five Apollo missions). Also
some of the operating strain
seismometers employ this type or
recording.
As the reader might have already
realized, the terminology used
above distinguishes between
instruments called seismographs
and seismometers. Older
instruments such as Wiechert,
Mainka, Milne-Shaw or Wood-
Anderson do not contain any
seismic-to-electric transducers.
Recording is made mechanically
or by mechanical-optical
arrangements which are, for
these instruments, an integrated
part of the whole apparatus.
These instruments are therefore
called seismographs. On the
other hand, more modem
instruments like Benioff, Grenet-
Coulomb, Press-Ewing, etc.
which work essentially as
seismic-to-electric sensors and
can be coupled to various
recording units, are called
seismometers. For the sake of
completeness, let us add that
devices, nowadays mostly of
historical importance, that
indicate the occurrence of ground
vibrations but do not record their
time dependence are called
seismoscopes. They may be
considered as ancestors of
seismographs with a limited use
for studying earthquakes.
6.3 INSTRUMENTAL
FREQUENCY
CHARACTERISTICS
Pendulums have a special
property, namely that after being
excited by an arbitrary motion of
the frame and subsequently left
alone, they swing at a
characteristic frequency, / (or
period 7",), called the natural
frequency, eigenfrequency (from German
eigen meaning own) or free frequency.
Within certain limits, / is
amplitude invariable. It is
obvious that this property has a
direct consequence for the
behaviour of pendulum
seismometers. When the ground
moves forth and back very
slowly at a frequency much
smaller than /, , the pendulum's
mass follows exactly the
movement of the ground. There
is no relative movement between
the mass and the frame. In other
words, when the frequency, /, of
the Earth vibrations decreases
towards very small values, the
amplitude, F, or the relative
movement (pendulum vs frame)
tends towards zero. If the
frequency / increases, the
amplitude F also increases and at
the resonant frequency, /, the
amplitude F reaches its
maximum value. If we further
increase the frequency / above f,
the pendulums mass lags behind
the ground vibrations and F
again decreases. At very high
frequencies of the ground
motion, the mass does not move
at all which means that the
relative movement (in absolute
value) between the mass and the
frame is equal to that of the
frame and F = 1. It is evident,
that in this case the recorded
trace gives the true picture of the
ground motion. A simple sketch
showing the dependence of F
upon the frequency of the ground
vibrations is displayed in Fig. 28.

The relative period of the ground

motion and of the pendulum is

S#S
i

decisive for the behaviour of the

seismometer. We can distinguish
three different
Fig. 28. Amplitude, F, of a freely coupled
pendulum as a function of ground-motion
frequency, /. The pendulum has an
eigenfrequency /,.
cases. First, if the pendulums
period is much longer than the
period of the ground motion
(right-hand side of the diagram
in Fig. 28), the recorded trace is
proportional to ground
displacement. Second, if the two
periods are about the same
(central part of the diagram in
Fig. 28), then resonance will
occur and the trace is
proportional to ground velocity.
Third, if the period of tfie
pendulum is much less than that
of the ground motion (left-hand
side of the diagram in Fig. 28),
the trace is proportional to the
acceleration of the ground
motion. Hence, by adjusting the
pendulums free period, we can
record various characteristics
(displacement, velocity,
acceleration) of the ground
motion.
For seismometer-galvanometer
systems, the relative movement
between the mass and the ground
becomes more complicated
because galvanometers have
oscillatory characteristics of their
own. A seismometer-
galvanometer circuit operates as
a feedback system so.4+Tat not
only the seismometer but also
the galvanometer influences the
entire appearance of the
seismogram. The frequency
dependent sensitivity of a
seismometer-galvanometer
system is called the
magnification characteristic,
frequency characteristic or
response characteristic of the
system. By a proper choice of
free periods and other
instrumental constants (damping,
coupling) for the seismometer
and galvanometer, nearly
optimum shapes of
magnification curves for many
particular purposes may be
achieved. For example, systems
may be designed with practically
constant characteristics in a wide
frequency range or very short
and very long periods may be
suppressed and specific portions
of the spectrum may be
enhanced on seismograms.
Several examples of different
frequency characteristics are
shown in Fig. 29. Seismometer
and galvanometer free periods as
well as maximum magnifications
for several of the instruments
which remain in fairly common
use are summarized in Table 2.
Seismic signals may be very
irregular and may occupy a
broad spectrum of frequencies
and a wide range of amplitudes.
Laboratory model measurements
use frequencies of 10 KHz and
higher; industrial explosions
recorded at short distances
produce signals with frequencies
around 100 Hz; body waves
from regional earthquakes show
frequencies in the range from
one to several tens of Hz; body
waves from distant earthquakes
usually have dominant periods
between 1 and 10 s and the same
period range is also occupied by
oceanic microseisms; crustal and
upper mantle surface waves have
periods between 10 and 100 s
whereas long period mantle
surface waves often have periods
up to 10 s. The free vibrations of
the Earth, generated by large
earthquakes, have periods of the
order of one hour. "In no other
branch of physics is there such a great
range in the frequency of the signals
that are studied" (Bolt, 1982, p.
58). By measuring the actual
seismograms, we may also
estimate the amplitudes of
ground vibrations. For example,
for regional earthquakes the
amplitudes may range from
barely perceptible (small events)
to several centimeters (disastrous
earthquakes). Amplitudes of
surface waves from teleseismic
events cover approximately the
same amplitude range.

It is quite clear that a single

instrument of the type already
discussed cannot cover the whole
spectrum of frequencies and the
wide dynamic range generated by
various seismic sources. In an
attempt to overcome this
drawback, two or more sets of
instruments with different
frequency characteristics and
magnification levels are often
installed side-by-side at multi-
purpose seismological
observatories. For example, as
follows from Fig. 29, by
combining the SP and LP
WWSSN systems, we can
enhance seismic signals with
periods around 1 and 20 s and at
the same time we can filter out
the undesired microseisms with
dominant periods around 6 s.
Hence, operating different
systems in parallel is clearly
superior, although more
expensive, to one-system
recording.

Period (s)
TABLE 2
Basic parameters of some more common instruments
Fig. 29. Period-dependent
Instrument type response characteristics
Free for several seismograph systems: 1) Magnification
period Benioff (SP- WWSSN); 2) Grenet-
Coulomb; 3) Wood-Anderson; 4) Kimos; 5) Wiechert; 6) Press-Ewing
Seismometer (LP-WWSSN); 7) Broad band. SP and LP stand for
Galvanometer
short and long period, respectively. T.(s) T,(s)

Benioff. SP (WWSSN)1 1.0 0.7

Grenet-Coulomb 1.4 0.7 -10*

SKM-3 1.6 0.4 2 \ 104
flat for T < 0.8 s
Willmore 1.0 0.3
S-13 0.75-1.1
Wiechert. 1000 kg 10 -200 at 10 s
Milne-Shaw 10 -300 at 10 s
SK 10-25 -1.0 constant 1-10 s
Benioff, LP 1.0 90
Press-Ewing (WWSSN)' 15 100 -101
Galitzin 10-15 10-15 -101
Kirnos 22 80 j -10

1
WWSSN stands for World Wide Standardized Seismograph Network
 Instruments currently in use
usually belong to one of the
three following categories (see
also Fig. 29):
- Short-period (SP) instruments
having the peak magnification
in the period range 0.1 - 1 s for
detection of all seismic waves
from local and regional events
and teleseismic body waves.
The maximum magnification, ,
which obviously is site
dependent, is usually of the
order of 10 or 10s.
- Long-period (LP) instruments
with peak magnification at
periods of 10 s or larger for
detection of mainly surface
waves. The maximum
magnification is usually around
5 x 10\
- Broad-band (BB) instruments,
which record, with nearly
constant magnification, a broad
band of periods from a fraction
of a second to several hundreds
of seconds.
It is worth emphasizing that the
appearance of an earthquake on
the seismogram is much
influenced by the shape of the
magnification characteristics of
the seismograph. Two or more
systems with different response
curves, recording one and the
same earthquake at a given
seismographic station, will
produce seismograms which
may be as different as night and
day. For this reason, the analyst
should not be surprised when
one of the systems clearly
recorded a sequence of seismic
waves whereas the other system
 sometimes may not show a sign
of arriving seismic energy. To
illustrate the instrument effect,
in Fig. 30 there are displayed
vertical-component
seismograms, of an earthquake
in the Sea of Japan (m=5.9,
=571 km), recorded at an
epicentral distance of 75 by
four different seismographs
(computer simulations). The
striking differences among

'2 '' to'

f(Hz) 1 2

Fig. 30. Computer simulations of seismograms from four different seismograph systems. The deep-focus earthquake (h = 570 km) in Sea of Japan on March 9. 1977 (magnitude m = 5.9) is here
used to demonstrate the influence of the pass-band width of a recording system upon the complexity of On
recorded waveforms. Displayed traces are vertical-component seismograms that would have been made at Erlangen. FRG, at an cpicentral distance of 75 by (from top to bottom): 1)
Short-period WWSSN seismograph; 2) Long-period WWSSN seismograph; 3) Kinios seismograph; 4) Broad band seismograph. Relevant response characteristics are given in the left-
hand margin of the figure. After D. Scidl (personal communication), modified.
 the four traces including various body-wave phases (deep-focus event), are evident
from the figure. The short-period narrow band seismogram enhances high-frequency
(1-3 Hz) wave trains, an advantage employed for accurate determination of onset
times of various arriving phases. On the long-period WWSSN, Kimos and broad-
band displacement seismograms, the high-frequencies have been filtered out and
low-frequency waveforms dominate the records which are suitable for 5-wave
studies, determination of dynamic source parameters, construction of synthetic
seismograms, etc. While the high-frequency signals reflect details of the earthquake
source process and the fine structure along the propagation path, the low-frequency
components reveal the large scale source and structural characteristics.
Another example, which makes use of the Romania earthquake of March 4, 1977, is
presented in Fig. 31. The bottom trace is an analog display of a digital vertical-
component, broad-band, velocity record made at Grafenberg,

Fig. 31. The Romania intermediate- focus (A = 112 km) earthquake of March 4, 1977 (magnitude m = 6.1) recorded at
Grafenberg. Bayem, FRG, at an epicentral distance of 11*. The exhibited traces are (from top to bottom): 1) computer
simulation of a short-period WWSSN record; 2) computer simulation of a long-period WWSSN record; 3) analog display
Stopping of an actual broad-band digital recording. All traces show the vertical- component of the wound motion velocity. For
Phase more details see the text. After D. Seidl (personal communication, 1988).

0 10 20 30s
 Bayern, FRG. The top two traces are computer simulations of corresponding short-
period and long-period seismograms that would have been produced by WWSSN
systems placed at Grafenberg. The earthquake occurred at a distance of 11 and at a
depth of 112 km. It follows from the figure that the standard short-period instrument
separates various recorded wave groups, whereas the long-period system accentuates
the general record features at the cost of smoothing (filtering) out the fine structure of
the record. The 1977 Romania quake was a double shock which is well demonstrated
in the short- period and broad-band traces where a double P phase, labeled PI and P2,
with a separation of about 5 s, is clearly visible. Observe that this feature is hardly
discernible in the long-period record. The strong pulse arriving approximately 10 s
after PI is the so called stopping phase attributed to the termination of the rupture
process. It is characterized by a polarity opposite to that of the initial PI pulse.

6.4 ANALOG AND DIGITAL RECORDS

Solutions to many seismological problems demand seismic records from a number of
stations. Therefore, further progress in earthquake seismology relies upon continuing
international cooperation including first of all a rapid exchange of primary
observational data (seismograms) among the existing stations/observatories. During
the last one hundred years or so, many different types of seismographs have been
successively installed at various sites around the world. Some of them have been in
operation since the turn of the century, but many have been deployed after 1950, e.g.
the approximately 120 seismographic stations distributed in 60 countries and
equipped with identical instrumentation constituting the World Wide Standardized
Seismograph Network (WWSSN). Already around 1920, the
world-wide system of
earthquake observatories comprised more than one hundred permanent stations.
Today, there are approximately 1500 seismographic stations
operating around the world and involved in recording, analysis and
international data exchange. The majority of these stations still produce seismograms
in a rather traditional analog form often on sheets of photographic paper. The
available collection of millions of photographic records stored at many observatory
archives as well as at several international data centers and the continuing flow of new
seismograms produced every day, obviously represent an invaluable source of
information frequently employed in routine seismogram analysis and in research.

The advent of fast digital computers and their massive application in

solving a broad spectrum of geophysical problems accelerated the development of
digital recording on magnetic tapes, floppy discs, etc. By digital recording we here
mean a system essentially consisting of a seismometer generating an analog electric
signal and an analog-to-digital convener which transforms the signal into a
corresponding digital format. The advantage of digital instrumentation and recording
media is the ease with which the stored data can be further processed by means of
digital computers. We also gain from significant enlargements of the recording
dynamic range, i.e. from the ability of digital equipments to record with one system
both very large- and very small-amplitude signals.
A direct access to digital recordings facilitates seismogram analysis enormously. The
possibility of expanding the interesting portions of the record, of filtering out the
undesired frequency components, of displaying the wave particle motion, of rotating
the seismograph axis to any orientation, of making changes in the response
characteristics, etc, represent invaluable tools to reveal trace details and information
otherwise undiscemible on the record. To illustrate the advantages in ^nore detail, let
us have a look at analog displays of digital records presented in Fig. 32. Records of
two large earthquakes in Michoacan, Mexico, made at Matsushiro, Japan, at an
epicentral distance of 101 are shown. The instrument used is a long-period vertical-
component seismograph. The upper trace exhibits a record of the main shock which
occurred on September 19, 1985 at a depth of 28 km (M=8.1). The lower trace shows
the largest aftershock (M=7.5) which took place on September 21, 1985 at a depth of
42 km. Both traces are accompanied by enlarged initial portions, 6 min or so, of the
original record. Note that the first two cycles of P from the two shocks have a similar
shape except for a new onset in the record of the main shock, following about 30 s
after P, which in its turn increases the width of the second cycle. The second onset
which is attributed to the complexity of the source, would certainly pass unnoticed if
the interpretation had been done on the original (i.e. not enlarged) record alone.
Traces (computer plots) displayed in Fig. 33 serve to illustrate another advantage of
digital records which make it possible to enhance certain frequencies during the
interpretation while other spectral bands are efficiently suppressed. The top trace
exhibits an analog display of the original digital record of a microearthquake recorded
at a distance of about 80 km. There is a distinct Pg onset, however it is difficult to
discern the Sg arrival. The identification of Sg has been done in two steps. First, all
frequencies above 12 Hz were filtered out (middle trace). The filtering makes the Sg
group much more distinct when compared with the original record (upper trace).
Second, within the time window covering the Sg wavetrain the time scale was
extended by a factor of about 4 (bottom trace). The Sg arrival becomes very distinct
and can be measured with a desired accuracy.
Still another advantage of digital recordings on magnetic media is the possibility of
efficient data decimation. Recorded seismic events take on average only a smkll
fraction, 5% or so, of the total recording time. Thus,
Fig. 32. The Mexico earthquake (magnitude M = 8.1) of September 19, 1985 (upper trace) and the largest aftershock
(magnitude M = 7.5) of September 21 (lower trace) recorded at Matsushiro, Japan, at an cpicentral distance of 101*. Long-
period, vertical-component analog displays of digital records are exhibited. Enlarged intitial segments, the first 6 minutes
or so, of the records from both events, are also shown. For more details see the text. After M. Yamamoto (personal
communication), modified.

the data volume may be significantly reduced by saving only selected seismic signals
and deleting the rest of the record. At present, many observatories equipped with
necessary computer facilities and magnetic-tape recording use this approach of
archiving data and produce so called event tapes.. In spite of continuous technical
improvement, to store complete digital records of short-period data is still
prohibitively costly. Also, the traditional photographic paper recording which does
not allow a similar data reduction becomes more and more expensive requiring at the
same time larger and larger archiving facilities.
Fig. 33. Seismogram traces from a microearthquake in northern Sweden on October 19, 1988, recorded at an epicentral
distance of 80 km. Recording was performed by a mobile temporary seismographic station equipped with a short-period
seismometer and a digital recording system. Exhibited traccs show E-W component analog displays of digital records. From
top to bottom there are: 1) original trace containing frequencies up to 80 Hz; 2) original trace filtered by means of a low-pass
filter (sixth-order Butterworth) with 12 Hz cut-off frequency; 3) segment of the filtered trace with extended time scale.
(Traces computer plotted by S.O. Linder).

Digital records stored on proper recording media are fed directly into the memory of
a digital computer. The computer is programed to perform much of the routine work
which earlier was the sole domain of the interpreter. Nevertheless, at well established
observatories it is quite common to operate analog, often visual, monitoring systems
in parallel with the digital recording. It seems that individual scrutiny of the analog
seismograms by an experienced interpreter is still essential for efficient use of digital
recordings.
Chapter 7
SEISMOGRAMS AND INTERPRETATIONS

This chapter comprises a collection of 55 plates with actual seismograms. Included

are also phase interpretation and commentaries of specific features reflected in the
displayed records. Whenever possible, three-component recordings are exhibited. The
channel orientation, E for east-west, N for north-south and Z for vertical, is given in
the upper right-hand comer of the shown records. If only one component is displayed,
then no specification is made in the seismogram, but the component is noted in the
corresponding plate caption. Collected seismograms were made at a number of
seismographic stations by a variety of instruments covering different frequency bands.
Categories of used instruments (short-, medium-, long- period, broad-band) again are
given in respective plate captions. In all plates, time advances from left to right and, if
not mentioned otherwise, there is one minute between successive time marks (small
upward displacements).
Exhibited seismograms cover the whole range of epicentral distances, a large range of
focal depths and various types of propagation paths. Different seismic sources like
tectonic and volcanic earthquakes, underground nuclear explosions and several more
exotic sources (sonic booms, collapses after underground nuclear explosions) are
presented. More classical analog records as well as analog displays of modem digital
records are displayed. The arrangement of plates is according to epicentral distance
except for records from volcanic earthquakes and exotic sources which follow the
suite of local and regional events. The phase nomenclature used in the plates is
naturally the same as that used in Chapters 4-6. For the ease of the reader, the
notations of seismic waves used in the following plates are listed in Table 3 in the
order as they appear in the text.
Source parameters like date, origin time, geographical region, epicentral coordinates,
focal depth and magnitude of events used are listed in Table 4. If not mentioned
otherwise the information is taken from ISC bulletins. For a number of events
recorded at local or regional distances, Table 4 was completed with data provided by
workers who interpreted the seismograms. Observe that in some cases there is a
certain disagreement between source parameters (source region determinations, focal
depth estimates) given by ISC (see Table 4) and by seismogram interpreters who
contributed to this book (see plate captions). Permanent seismographic stations
employed are listed in Table 5. The table lists station codes and names, geographic
regions and coordinates. The stations are listed alphabetically by station code.
 TABLE 3
Nomenclature of seismic phases

Symbol Meaning

Local and regional events

P. S Direct compressional or shear wave

traveling through the upper crust
Pg.Sg PmP, SmS Pn. (observed only at very short epicentral
Sn\ distances).
Compressional or shear wave in the
granitic layer of the crust.
P*. S* (or Pb. Sb) Compressional or shear wave reflected
at Moho.
Compressional or shear wave traveling
pPn along (just beneath) the Moho
discontinuity, so called head wave.
sPn Compressional or shear wave traveling
along (just beneath) the Conrad
discontinuity.
Kg Depth phase that leaves the focus
upward as P, is reflected as P at the
T free surface and continues further as
Pn.
TPg (TSg. TRg) Depth phase that leaves the focus
upward as S, is reflected and converted
into P at the free surface and continues
further as Pn.
Short-period crustal surface wave of
Rayleigh type.
Guided crustal wave traversing large
distances along continental'paths.
Compressional wave propagating
through the ocean (tertiary wave).
T phases are occasionally observed
even at large teleseismic distances.
Wave that travels the ocean and land
portion of the total transmission path
as T and Pg (Sg, Rg), respectively.

Teleseismic events

P. S
Direct compressional or shear wave, so
PP, PPP, SS. sss SP
called elementary or main wave.
PPS, PSP. PSS PcP, ScS PcS,
P or S wave reflected once or twice at
ScP
the Earth's surface.
S wave converted into P upon
pP, pS, pPP, pPS etc sP, sS, reflection at the Earths surface.
P wave twice reflected/conveitcd at the
sPP, sPS etc PdP Earth's surface.
P or S wave reflected at the core-
Pc, Sc (or Pdif, Sdif) PKP
mantle boundary.
(or P )
P or S wave converted respectively
PKS into S or P upon reflection at the core
mantle boundary.
SKS
Depth phase that leaves the
focus upward as
P (p
leg), is
reflected/converted at the free surface
and continues further as P, S, PP, PS
etc.
Depth phase that leaves the
focus upward as
S (s
leg), is
reflected/converted at the free surface
and continues further as P. S, PP, PS
etc.
P wave reflected at the underside of a
discontinuity at depth d in the upper
part of the Earth, d is given in
kilometers, e.g 00.
P or S wave that is diffracted around
the core-mantle boundary.
P wave traversing the outer core.
P wave converted into S on refraction
when leaving
core.
S wave traversing the outer
as P and converted back
into 5 when
again entering the mantle.
 Meaning

Symbol S wave convened into P on refraction

into the outer core.
Different branches of PKP.

SKP
P wave traversing the outer and inner
PKP I, PKP2 ( PKPK,
core.
PKP**)
P wave reflected at the boundary of
PKIKP. (or P". PKP)
the inner core.

P wave reflected from the inside of the

PK11KP
inner-core boundary.
PKKP
P wave reflected from the inside of the
PmKP fm=3,4,...)
core mantle boundary.
SmKS (m=3.4,...)
P wave reflected m l times from the
inside of the core-mantle boundary.
PKPPKP (or P P ) P'dP' S wave converted into P on refraction
at the outer core, reflected m-1 times
LR from the inside of the core-mantle
LQ boundray and Anally converted back
into S when again entering the
G mantle.
R PKP wave reflected from the free
surface, passing twice through the
core.
Gl, G2 Rl. R2 PKP reflected at the underside of the
discontinuity at depth d in the upper
part of the Earth, d is given in
kilomteri
Surface wave of Rayleigh type.
Surface wave of Love type.
Mantle wave of Love type.
Mantle wave of Rayleigh type.
LQ-type mantle wave that travels the
direct and anticenter routes. Waves
which have, in addition, traveled once
or several times around the Earth are
denoted G3, G4, GS. G6 etc.
LR-type mantle wave that travels the
direct and anticenter routes. Waves
that have, in addition, traveled once
or several times around the Earth are
denoted R3, R4, R5. R6 etc.
TABLE 4
Source parameters of events used

Date Origin Geographical Epicentral

time region coordinates
m d hm s

52 11 04 16 58 22 Kamchatka 52.6 "N 160.3 *E

59 06 27 19 11 29.3 China-USSR border 41.87'N 80.0
region
62 03 18 15 30 30 Albania 40.70-N 19.65-E
63 01 19 19 54 08 South-ccntral 59.8 "N 15.1 *E
Sweden

64 10 21 23 09 19.0 Indian-China border 24.04N 93.75*E

region
65 11 13 04 33 50.6 Northern Sinkiang 43.87-N 87.74'E
Province, China
67 11 21 17 02 25.8 Norwegian Sea 72.66N 8.14-E
68 08 10 02 07 00 Moluca Passage 1.38*N 126.24-E
68 08 14 22 14 20.1 Northern Celebes 0.06*N 119.73-E
69 03 31 19 25 27.0 Sea of Japan 38.49"N 134.52*E
69 05 05 05 34 24.4 North Atlantic Ocean 35.99-N 10.34'W

69 06 12 15 13 30.9 Crete 34.43"N 25.04"E

70 10 14 05 59 57.3 Novaya Zemlya 73.31*N 54.89E

71 07 26 01 23 21.2 New Ireland region 4.93S 153.18*E

72 06 11 16 41 02.7 Celebes Sea 3.86*N 124.26'E

73 09 15 01 45 57.9 Iccland region 63.86'N 22.23-W
74 08 08 01 25 13.9 Greenland Sea 73.19-N 6.3 *E
74 11 02 05 50 30.2 Novaya Zemlya 70.6 -N 54.1 "E
 -J

Foca
l
Mag
nitud
e'

Com
ment
s1
dept
h
km

M m - 6.2

27 =
m = 5.3
13 m - 5.0
m = 7.0 iW =
1-2
6.2

37 m = 5.9
U
29 m = 6.2 n
d

33 M = 5.4

1 m = 6.3
22 m = 6.1

397 m - 5.7
Rockburst. Uppsala solution.
37 m = 5.5

22 m = 5.8

0 m = 6.6
43 m = 6.6
 75 05 16 03 01 01 Sweden 60.1N 15.0 -E
75 08 13 16 29 19 South-central 59.8'N 15.1 -E
Sweden
76 07 27 00 56 43.4 Norwegian Sea 72.13'N 0.80E
76 09 15 09 21 18.6 Austria 46.34*N 13.12-E
77 03 04 19 21 54.1 Romania 45.83*N 26.72-E
77 03 09 14 27 56.2 Sea of Japan 41,66'N 131.05E
78 05 23 23 34 11.4 Greece 40.73*N 23.25*E

78 09 03 05 08 30.3 Germany 48.30*N 8.93^

79 09 19 21 35 36.8 Central Italy 42.80*N 13.04E

80 05 18 15 32 14.3 Washington State, 46.38-N 122.02*

W
USA
80 07 16 19 56 47.1 New Guinea 4.45*S 143.53'E

81 01 02 07 37 00.5 South of Panama 2.13*N 79.16*W

81 01 10 09 47 24 South of Honshu 33.7 *N 139 "E

r
81 05 02 16 04 54.6 Afghanistan-USSR 36.40 N 71.1ST

border region
82 04 26 Asama volcano, 36.4 *N 138.6
Japan
82 07 01 07 41 53.7 Andreanof Islands 51.39,N 179.94
W
83 02 05 Asama volcano. 36.4 "N 138.6 *E

Japan
83 03 21 Asama volcano, 36.4 *N 138.6 *E
Japan
ML = 2.6 Rockburst. Uppsala magnitude.
ML = 2.8 Rockburst. Uppsala solution.

m = 5.1

83 04 03 02 50 02.8 Cosla Rica 8.80-N 83.11"W

m 5.4

m = 6.1
m = 5.9

m - 5.6 M = 5.8

m e 4.9
M = 5.3

m = 5.8 M =
5.9
m = 4.6 Mount St. Helens eruption
M = 5.2

m = 6.3 M =
6.9
m = 5.7 M =
5.8
= 3.3 Magnitude according to M. Yamamoto
(px.)
* = 5.9 Volcanic earthquake. After M.Yamamoto
(p.c.)

m = 6.3 Volcanic earthquake. After M. Yamamoto

M = 5.5
(p.c)
Volcanic earthquake. After M. Yamamoto
(p.c.)

6
.
3

=
7
.
2
 Date Origin Geographical Epicentral
time region coordinates
m d hm s

83 09 12
28 28.4 Sea of Okhotsk 49.05*N 146.63'U
17 21.0 06 South of Honshu 29.35'N 138.92'E
84 02 01 84
31 10.3 Sea of Okhotsk 50.06'N 148.77E
03 06 84
Eastern
09 10.5 49.85*N 78.92-E
04 20 84 Kazakh, USSR
Honshu
07 14 23 48 51.2
35.78'N 137.49*E
Mindanao
84 09 13 South Island,

84 10 14-15 06 49 31.0
Near Izu Peninsula,
Japan
08 15 17.8 Northern Sumatera 0.22*N 98.05*E
84 11 17
24 11.5

84 11 20
00 26 New Zealand
85 03 19 5.13'N 125.17'E
36.52'N 71.1045

85 03 23
19 35 34 Off west coast of 45.07*S 166.5*E
South Island,
New Zealand
14 20 28
85 04 20 Near south coast of 34.94'N 133.46"E Southern
Afghanista
n-USSR Honshu
85 05 16 Mid-Indian Rise 29.04S 77.78'E
border
15 42 08.3 region
44.99S 167.3 l'E

85 06 06 Asama volcano, 36.4 N 138.6 *E Japan

 Focal Magnitude' Comments2
depth
km

205 m = 5.9

568 m = 5.8
454 m = 6.1
578 m = 5.9
m = 6.2 Underground explosion.
M = 4.8
18 m - 6.0
M = 6.4
shallow Earthquake swarm. After
M. Yamamoto (p.c.).
42 m - 6.2
M = 7.3
218 m = 6.4
133 = 4.0 Magnitude according to
M.E. Reyners (p.c.).
4 = 3.7 Magnitude according to
M.E. Reyners (p.c.).

8 ML = 4.9Matsushiro magnitude. Poorly

determined source parameters.
30 m = 5.9
M = 6.0
Vocanic earthquake. After M. Yamamoto (p.c.).
85 06 15 00 40 19.3 Sweden 56.5 l'N 12.204-
85 06 30 Asama volcano Japan 36.4 *N 138.6 *E

85 07 07 00 08 56.4 Switzerland 47.00-N 7.6

85 08 15 04 28 47.4 Northwestern 47.06"N 18.01-E

Hungary
85 09 19 13 17 50.1 Michoacan, Mexico 18.54N 102.32*W

85 09 21 01 37 15.1 Near coast of Guerrero, 17.81*N lOl-WW

Mexico

85 09 25 07 43 57.3 Michoacan, Mexico 18.19"N 102.81'W

85 10 09 09 33 32.6 South of Alaska 54.73*N 159.65-W

85 10 26 16 34 58.9 Tuamotu Archipelago 21.81*S 139.0 *W

region

85 11 16 11 30 45.0 Near west coast of 37.08-N 136.51*E

Honshu
86 01 21 19 04 05.3 Germany 50.22*N 12.48*E

86 04 30 07 07 19.6 Near coast of 18.37*N 130.01*W

Michoacan, Mexico

86 05 01 13 27 56.1 Peru-Brazil border 9.20'S 71.23*W

region
86 05 15 Volcano Rincon dc la Vieja, 10.8-N 85.4 'W
Costa Rica

86 06 08 04 25 06.8 Off east coast of Honshu 36.56N 142.61'E

86 07 12 05 09 Near Matsushiro, Japan 36.52N 138.15-E

86 08 20 10 09 32 Tonga 16.94"S 173.49"W

 Volcanic earthquake. After M.
Yamamoato (p.c.).
ML = 2.7 Magnitude according to D.
53 5:3 53 53 53

Mayer-Rosa (p.c.).
= 4.7 =
5.0
= 6.4
7.9
- 6.2
= 7.5
= 5.3 =
5.2
= 6.1
6.5

m = 5.3

m = 4.8 Underground explosion.

ML - 1.4
m -
6.1 M Magnitude according to A.
= 6.9 PWinger (.).
m - 6.0

After G.L. Choy (p.c.).

Volcanic tremors. After J.M.

Protti (p.c.).

m = 4.9
M = 5.5
ML = 1.8
After M. Yamamoto (p.c.).

m = 5.5
 Origin time h m s Geographical Epicentral Focal Magnitude1 Cdmments
Dale m d region coordinates
depth
km

86 10 09 10 08 53.2 Switzerland 46.38N 7.45E 6 ML = 3.4 Magnitude according to D. Mayer-Rosa

(p.c.).

86 10 20 06 46 09.9 Kermadcc Islands 28.13"S 176.40-W 29 m = 6.7 M = 7.9

region
86 11 14 16 00 00.0 Southern Nevada 37.1 "N 116.0 'W m = 5.8 M = 4.5 Underground explosion. After NEIC.

87 01 26 Pacaya volcano, 14.37-N 90.60-W Volcanic earthquakes. After E. Molina

Guatemala (p.c.).
87 03 27 Arena! volcano, Costa 10.47-N 84.68W Volcanic tremors. After J.M. Protti (p.c.).
Rica
87 04 29 14 27 36.6 Fiji Islands region 18.93-S 177.86-W 392 m = 5.9 After G.L. Choy (p.c.).

87 05 27 Pacaya volcano, 14.37"N 90.60-W Volcanic earthquakes. After E. Molina

Guatemala (p.c.).
87 06 05 05 00 00 Southern Xinjiang m - 6.8 Probably underground explosion. Uppsala
Province, China solution.
87 07 27 09 00 49 Central Japan 33.02-N 140.17'E 156 After M. Yamamoto (p.c.).
88 04 27 Po4s volcano, Costa 10.18-N 84.25-W Volcanic earthquake. After J.M. Protti
Rica (p.c.).
88 05 30 TacanS volcano, 15.13N 92.11-W Volcanic earthquake. After E. Molina (p.c.).
Guatemala
89 04 20 Eastern Siberia rn 6.4 M = 6.4 Uppsala preliminary solution.

TABLE 5 -J
Seismographic stations used ON

1m, M and ML stand for body-

wave, surface-wave and regional
magnitude, respectively
Code Station name Region Geographical
coordinates

ACR Cerro Adams Costa Rica 8.65'N 83.17*W

ANMO Albuquerque New Mexico, USA 34.95'N 106.46*W

AVOE Asama Volcanic Observatory Nagano, Honshu, Japan 36.40*N 138.57*E

BKS Berkeley California, USA 37.88'N 122.24'W

CHTO Chiang Mai Thailand 18.81'N 98.94-E
COL College Outpost Central Alaska, USA 64.90*N 147.79W
CYZ Clyde South Island, New Zealand 45.15*S 169.33"E

GOT Goteborg Sweden 57.70*N 11.98-E

GRF Grafenberg array Bayem, FRG 49.69*N 11.22E

GRFO Grafenberg Bayern. FRG 49.69*N 11,22E
JAS Jamestown California, USA 37.95N 120.44'W
KHC KaSperski Hory Czechoslovakia 49.13*N 13.58-E
KIR Kiruna Sweden 67.84*N 20.42-E
KTJ Kamata Shizuoka, Honshu, Japan 34.94'N 139.09'E

LLS Linthal-Limmem Switzerland 46.87'N 9.00E

LON Longmire Washington, USA 46.75-N 121.81*W

MAT Matsushiro Nagano, Honshu, Japan 36.S4-N 138.21*E

Mount Hamilton California, USA 37.34-N 121.64*W

MNA Mina Nevada, USA 38.43'N 118.16'W
MUO Muotatal Switzerland 46.98'N 8.67*E
NUE Niue Cook Islands 19.08*S 169.93^V
POA Poas Costa Rica 10.15'N 84.22W
PRI Priest California, USA 36.14*N 120.67*W
RAR Rarotonga Cook Islands 2U1*S 159.77*W
RIN Rincon de la Vieja Costa Rica 10.77*N 85.36*W
 RSCP Cumberland Plateau Tennessee, USA 35.60-N 85.59*W
RSNT Yellowknife Northwest Territories, Canada 62.48N 114.59"W

RSNY Adirondack New York, USA 44.55'N 74.53-W

RSON Red Lake Ontario, Canada 50.86N 93.70W
RSSD Black Hills South Dakota, USA 44.12N 104.04W
SAO San Andreas Geological California, USA 36.77-N 121.45"W
Observatory
SBG Sibinal Guatemala 15.13'N 92.05W
SCP State College Pennsylvania, USA 40.80N 77.87-W

SLE Schleitheim Switzerland 47.77N 8.49E

Code Station name Region Geographical

coordinates

/
TK02 Tokai O.B.S. Tokai, Honshu, Japan 33.95N 137.76-E

TMA Tamaro Switzerland 46.11*N 8.87-E

TLO Toledo Spain 39.88'N 4.05W

UDD Uddeholm Sweden 60.09-N 13j61*E

UME Ume4 Sweden 63.83'N 20^4*E

UPP Uppsala Sweden 59.86*N 17.63"E

^---------------------

----------------------
----------------------
Plate 1. Direct and S waves
from a local microearthquake,
ML= 1.8, recorded at Matsushiro,
Japan, on July 11, 1986. The
epicentral distance is 5.4 km and
the focal depth 6.9 km. All three
components recorded by a short-
period seismograph are displayed.
Due to the short epicentral
distance, the waves travel close to
vertical (see the inset) which in its
turn results in large P amplitudes
on the vertical component and
significantly smaller amplitudes
on both horizontal components.
Obviously, for S, the relation is
the reverse. The short epicentral
distance does not permit the other
crustal phases to develop. There
are 2 s between successive time
marks at the bottom of the plate.
Plate 2. Direct P and S waves from a
double microearthquake in western
Bohemia. Czechoslovakia, recorded
by a temporary short-period digital
seismographic system deployed at an
epicentral distance of 5 km. The two
events occurred on January 21, 1986
at a focal depth_of 8 km_and were
separated in time by less than 1 s.
The events have ML tragnimdes of
1.4 and 1.5. PI and P2, which are
best seen on the vertical channel,
denote P waves from the first and the
second shock, respectively. Similar
notation is used for 5 waves which
can easily be identified on both
horizontal channels. There is 1 s
between successive time marks at
the bottom of the plae. According to I ^ [^^/ ,-
the ISC solution (Table 4), the
epicenter was in Germany and the
focal depth was assuned to be 10 km.

///'/';'/
 -'..*

Plate 2. Direct P and 5 waves from a

double microearthquake in western
Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, recorded
by a temporary short-period digital
seismographic system deployed at
an epicentral distance of 5 km. The
two events occurred on January 21,
1986 at a focal depth_of 8 km_and
were separated in time by less than
1 s. The events have ML magnitudes
of 1.4 and 1.5. PI and P2, which are
best seen on the vertical channel,
denote P waves from the first and
the second shock, respectively.
Similar notation is used for S waves
which can easily be identified on
both horizontal channels. There is 1
s between successive time marks at
the bottom of the plate. According
to the ISC solution (Table 4), the
epicenter was in Germany and the
focal depth was assnned to be 10
km.
Plate 3. Example of an earthquake swarm recorded at Kamata (KTJ) by short-period seismographs at an epicentral distance of about 10 km. The swarm occurred at shallow depth
near Izu peninsula, Japan, on October 14-15, 1984. The attached map shows the location of KTJ with respect to the epicentral area (shaded). The displaced traces are, from top to
bottom, N, E and Z components. The two horizontal components exhibit displacement whereas the vertical component presents velocity of ground motion. During the 5-6 hours
of records displayed in the plate, several hundreds of events were recorded. Observe that due to the short epicentral distance, the S-P arrival-time difference is of the order of 1 s.
Thus, in many cases, it is not possible to separate on the record P arrivals from corresponding S arrivals.
 DEPTH IN KM
-60 I iLO
I I I
)


 l - n/ 6 .0 ( s)
I * * r\> to

DEPTH IN KM
-60 I t I I I REDUCED TIME IN SEC I
Ol .CO) l\) -
- - - -1

r\J

I
 I - * - ) r \) U)
ui ui
U1

OO
150
DIST
ANCE

8
3-
8
Plate 5. Near-surface events (rockbursts) in south-central Sweden recorded by vertical seismographs at epicentral distances between 76 and

300 km. From top to bottom: a) rockburst of May 16, 1975, ML=2.6, recorded at Uddebolm, =76 b) rockburst of August 13, 1975,
A/t=2.8, recorded at Uddeholm, =76 km; c) rockburst of January 19, 1963, magnitude unknown, recorded at Uppsala, =148 km; d)
rockburst of January 19, 1963, recorded at Goteborg, =300 km. All four records exhibit remarkably well developed short-period Rg waves
with normal dispersion within a period range from 1 to 0.5 s (top two traces) and from 3 to 1 s (bottom two traces). Rg dominates the records
emphasizing the shallow focus depth, of probably not more than 1-2 km. Traces a) and c) display also clear Pg and Sg.
 N
I
Sg1

ate 6. Short-period three-component records from a nearby large shallow earthquake. The recording site is atsushiro, Japan.
This earthquake (-6) occured in central Japan on September 13, 1984 at a depth of km and at a distance of 99 km from
Matsushiro. The recorded earthquake is interpreted as a double ent, small and large, about 2.4 s apart. The multiple Pg phases,
denoted Pgl and Pg2, are clearly visible all three channels. The corresponding multiplicity in Sg can be seen, though somewhat
less distinctly, in 5 horizontal channels. There are 20 s between successive time marks at the bottom of die plate.
Plate 7. In 1978, the Japan Meteorological Agency, JMA. established a permanent ocean bottom seismograph observation
system, TKOBS, off the sooth coast of the Tokai District in central Japan. Four stations were set up on the continental shelf at
water-depth range between 0.7 and 22 km. Each station is equipped with three-component short-period seismometers. The
orientation of the horizontal instruments depends upon the direction of the seismograph vessel at the time of installation. The
plate exhibits short- period three-component earthquake records made at the TK02 station, which belongs to TKOBS, at an
epicentral distance of 111 km. The earthquake took place off the south coast of the Tokai District, central Japan, on January 10,
1981 (ML=3.3) at a focal depth of 40 km. The vertical component (bottom trace) shows clear P and T wave trains, while the two
horizontal components (upper two traces) display clear S and T phases. The T wave is an acoustic water wave traveling through
the SOFAR channel in the sea with a velocity of about 1.49 km/s. Time separation betwen successive vertical lines is 4 s.
Plate 8. Short-period vertical-component seismograms of a shallow (A) and intermediate-focus (B) earthquake in the Fiordland
region of New Zealand made at Clyde, New Zealand. Source parameters of the two events are the following:

Event Date Ml Epicentral coordinates Focal Epicentral

depth distance

A Mar 23, 1985 3.7 45.16'S 166.46'E 12 km 225 km

Mar 19. 1985 4.0 45.09'S 167.50"E 106 km 144 km

In spite of comparable magnitude and hypocentral distances, the two records look differently. As is generally the case, P and S
phases are more pulse like and better defined for the deeper event B. The seismogram of this event also shows less complexity
between the P and S phases when compared with that from the shallow earthquake A.
Plate 9. Short-period seismograms from a deep-foe us earthquake on November 16, 1985, west
of Noto peninsula, Japan, made at ihe Matsushiro station at an epicentral distance of 157 km.
Since the focal depth of this event is 308 km. the direct waves are incoming almost vertically
(see the inset). For an event of this focal depth, one expects rather simple impulsive P and S
waves on the seismograms. The P arrival is quite distinct on all three components while the S
onset is best seen on the E-W component. There is 20 s between successive time marks at the
bottom of the plate.
 Pg Sg

sPn

Pn Pg
/W

I I I I
Plate 10. Velocity (left) and displacement seismograms (right) of the Swabian Jura, southern FRG, earthquake of September 3, 1978 (M t=5.9). A three- component broad-band
recording system at GRF, Bayern, FRG, at an epicentral distance of 220 km, has been used. All four essential crustal phases, i.e. Pn, Pg, Sn and Sg can be identified on the records,
even though the Sn onset is somewhat ambiguous. Sg is best seen on the horizontal channels. The enlarged segment of the initial portion of the vertical-component displacement
record (framed) shows a clear "one-sided" onset between Pn and Pg, arriving 2.6 s after Pn. By making use of synthetic (computed) seismograms, this phase has been interpreted
(Kind, 1979) as sPn (see Fig. 11). The successful revelation of the sPn phase made it possible to determine the focal depth of the event to be about 6 km. As follows from the
displayed records the velocity seismograms enhance the high frequencies and thus are useful in precise readings of the onset (arrival) times. The displacement seismograms, on the
other hand, emphasize the low frequencies and are suitable for determination of dynamic source paramters, for displaying the low- frequency surface waves, etc. There is 10 s
between successive time marks at the bottom of the plate.
 Horizontal 1

Horizontal 2

PR 1

If 0 10s
PR 2 I_________I

Plate 11. The displayed seismograms were made at TK02 which belongs to the TKOBS system (for details see Plate 7). The onset of P
is clearly seen on the vertical channel together with PR1 and PR2 which are waves reflected from the sea surface (see the sketch).
This earthquake occurred on July 27, 1987 at an epicentral distance of 247 km and at a focal depth of 156 km. The sharp, impulse like,
P on the vertical component is a typical record characteristic of a deep- or intermediate-focus shock. The S arrival is best seen on the
horizontal channels.
 Plate 12. The
disastrous Friuli, northern Italy, earthquake of September 15, 1976 (m= 5.4), recorded by a three-component broad-
band system at GRF, Bayern, FRG, at an epicentral distance of 400 km. Segments of velocity seismograms (left) and
complete displacement seismograms (right) are displayed. Three clear onsets corresponding to Pn, Pg, (vertical-
component, velocity record) and Sg (horizontal-components, displacement records) arc visible on the exhibited
records. Observe the dominant, fundamental mode, LR wave with a distinct dispersion, in the period interval from
about 15 to
5 s, best developed on the vertical-component channel. The short-period oscillations preceding LR belong to the higher mode Rayleigh waves. The dominant surface wave is a strong
indication of a shallow event. Researchers still disagree on the more precise focal depth of this shock. Reported estimates vary from 5 km to more deeper parts of the crust. There is
10 s between successive time marks at the bottom of the plate (note, there are different time scales for the velocity and displacement traces).
Plate 13. Short-period three-component records from two earthquakes (A and B) east of Honshu, Japan, demonstrating the
influence of the source mechanism. Source parameters of the two shocks which both took place in the subduction zone at a
depth of 35 km are the following:

Event Date ML Epicentral coordinates Focal Epicentral

depth distance

A June 8, 1986 5.4 36.53-N 142.96-E 35 km 426 km

April 20, 1985 4.9 37.41*N 142.77-E 35 km 417 km

The recording site is in both cases the Matsushiro station, Japan. The first onset, probably Pn, is clearly seen on records from
both earthquakes, but otherwise the two cases are quite different. Observe that the top three traces (event A) are dominated by
relatively low frequencies while the three bottom traces (event B) consist of waves with rather high frequencies. Due to the
proximity of the two hypocenters the effect of different travel paths can be disregarded and the striking variation in the frequency
content is then ascribed to different source mechanisms. Arrivals of Sn and Sg are expected 45-55 s behind Pn. There are 2
minutes between successive time marks.
Plate 14. The upper trace shows a record of clear P and S and well developed T phase from an earthquake in the
Tonga Islands region on August 20,
1986 (m=5.5, h=86 km). Exhibited seismograms were made at Niue, at an epicentral distance of 463 km, by
a short-period, vertical-component seismograph. Niue is an atoll some 20 km in diameter which rises
steeply from surrounding ocean floor some 5 km deep. The relatively long length of the T wave train is
due to the intermediate focus of the earthquake. In this particular case, the energy has entered SOFAR
over a considerable length of the path between the epicentre and Niue (compare with the short
duration of the T wave produced by a shallow underground explosion, displayed in the lower trace).
The lower trace shows a seismogram of a T phase from an underground nuclear explosion in the
Mururoa Atoll in French Polynesia recorded at the island station Rarotonga at an epicentral distance
of 19". The explosion was detonated on October 26, 1985 (m=5.4) and the instrument used was a short-
period vertical component Benioff (WWSSN). T waves are very useful in identifying the underground
nuclear explosions because their amplitudes are up to 30 times greater than those of the associated P
waves. Characteristics which distinguish T waves from nuclear explosions recorded at Rarotonga
include: 1) A very sharp onset of maximum energy, a characteristic of shallow sources. The shallow
depth of the explosions (presumably about 1 km) and the fact that they are denoted beneath oceanic
islands, would allow energy to be injected directly into the low-velocity sound channel (SOFAR) in the
ocean. 2) There are characteristic later arrivals in the 7 wave train (marked R on the seismogram)
which are interpreted as T-wave reflections from islands near the path from Mururoa to Rarotonga
(for more details see Adams, 1979).
^
* * munm (
fin m . mi * J f 41 .
ML*ii|T . ' 1 ijmicrn >r mi1

tim(' 1 Tk.f>tilir . II'j I Ulliril IP' lr U J111,

M'V.llj
1
j i ' i i r i m < " V) h n*l(l iwiini'fi./*

-gir
--

------------------------n-------,----------------1 ---------
Plate 15, Three examples of short-period recordings from -type volcanic earthquakes. The top and middle traces display
records of quakes from the Asama volcano, Japan, on June 6 and 30, 1985, respectively made at the Asama Volcanic Observatory
at a distance of 3.2 km from the crater. E-W components are exhibited. The bottom trace shows the vertical-component
seismogram of a volcanic earthquake from the Tacani volcano, Guatemala, on May 30, 1988. This event was recorded by the
permanent station Sibinal at a distance of about 6 km from the crater. The recorded traces show high-frequency oscillations,
sharp onsets and a gradual amplitude decrease forming a typical delta-shape envelope. P and 5 waves arrive within one second
which restricts the focal depth to several kilometers.
Plate 16. Short-period seismogram examples of -type earthquakes. Top traces (vertical component) show a number
of quakes from the Poas volcano, Costa Rica, recorded on April 27, 1988 at Poas station located 3.5 km from the
crater. The activity is due to the degasification of magma. Bottom traces are recordings (E-W component) of
earthquakes from the Asama volcano, Japan, obtained on March 21, 1983 at the Asama Volcanic Observatory at an
epicentral distance of 2 km. When compared with the -type volcanic earthquakes (see Plate 15), the above
seismograms are characterized by longer periods and by the absence of distinct first onsets. The duration of
oscillations is usually less than 30 s. It is assumed that these earthquakes originate at depths lesser than those of the
-type shocks.
 ** )wW(Wi WA*t
Plate 17. Examples of ihort-period vertical-component seismograms from explosion-type volcanic earthquakes. Top
and middle traces show two shocks from the Arenal volcano, Costa Rica, on March 27 and 28, 1987, respectively. Both
events were recorded at station ACR located 3 km from the crater. The bottom trace is an explosion-type earthquake
from the Asama volcano, Japan, recorded at the Asama Volcanic Observatory on April 26, 1982 at a distance of 3.2 km
from the crater. As follows from the displayed traces, seismic signals generated by explosive eruptions have longer

W"*
:-

periods and longer duration than signals from -type events.

Plate 18. Examples of short-period vertical-component seismograms from explosion-type volcanic earthquakes generated by the
Pacaya volcano, Guatemala. Displayed records were made on May 27, 1987 and on January 26, 1987 by portable seismograph
102
Plate 20. The top trace shows a classic example of a sonic boom recorded at Priest Mountain, California, on April 14, 1981 on a
short-period vertical-component seismograph. The sonic boom was caused by the re-entry of the space orbiter Columbia at Edwards
Air Force Base in southern California. The sonic boom was visible on nearly all of the central and northern California stations in the
Berkeley network. Sonic booms travel at the sound velocity in air which is 285 m/s at sea level. The typical signature of a sonic boom
recorded on short-period instruments is a gradual buildup of record amplitude culminating with a few swings at very large
amplitudes when the shockfront passes over the station followed by a gradual decay of motion. The duration of the signal is typically
30-150 s.

Bottom traces display a pair of similar unknown-source events which were recorded on the short-period vertical-component at Mina,
Nevada, on October 22, 1986. These are typical examples of similar events which are occasionally recorded at Mina. It is possible that
these records are generated by supersonic aircraft flying at low altitude although this has not been confirmed. The signature is
roughly similar to the signature of some sonic booms caused by supersonic flights observed on seismograms made in the central coast
of California (see e.g. the top traces).
LQ

104

:==:::
^VWV^

Plate 21. Two examples of ripple charge blasting at a local quarry recorded on a short-period vertical component seismograph at
Jamestown, California (top traces). The quarry is 16 km north from Jamestown as determined from the Rg Pg onset time difference
of 2 s. The equivalent local magnitude for the larger of the two blasts is ML 1.5. The short-period Rayleigh waves typically start at
about 2 Hz and exhibit dispersion. The dominating Rg phase indicates a near-surface event One distinguishing feature between small
quarry blasts and small natural earthquakes recorded at short distances in the Sierra Nevada in California on high-gain instruments
is the dominant period of the largest amplitude phase which is generally around 2 Hz for blasts and higher than 5 Hz for natural
earthquakes.
The bottom trace exhibits an example of a cavity collapse following an underground nuclear explosion at the Nevada Test Site,
recorded at Priest Mountain, California on November 14, 1986 at a distance of 480 km. The collapse event occurs when the chimney
above the cavity created by the explosion begins to fall in the cavity. The collapse typically takes several seconds to a few minutes and
it very efficiently excites omnidirectional Rayleigh waves because it is like a point downward force on the free surface. This example is
typical of a collapse signature in that no clear onset is evident and the duration is of the order of 5 minutes (not seen in the displayed
record) with the largest amplitudes near the middle of the record.

p$i
 . . 1 .
VVW--WL M WiWM
~

ihuit:
i.j
1-Ja > s
TT.PJ-

Plate 23. Long-penod records of the September 19, 1979 earthquake in Umbria, Italy [M=5.9, A=16 km), made at Toledo, Spain, at an epicentral distance of 13.2*. Vertical and E-W component records are displayed. Distinct P and S onsets are seen on the
seismograms. The large amplitudes ot the LR wave train exhibit very clear dispersion. Higher modes are not visible, most likely due to a mixed continental and oceanic travel path and to complicated crustal structure.
Plate 24. Interesting records from a near-surface earthquake in the Iceland region (m=5,3, A=1 km), made at Uppsala, Sweden, at an epicentral distance of 19*. The earthquake occurred on September 15, 1973. Long-period three-component
seismograms are displayed. The vertical component exhibits a weak P onset whereas the S arrival is very distinct in all three channels. There are well developed trains of Love and Rayleigh waves which can be seen in the horizontal and vertical
components, respectively. Observe that LQ starts right at the arrival of S. All three channels show a clear dispersion. In this particular case, the waves traveled along a mixed, oceanic and continental propagation path.

LQ

N
 25. en^-^dthree^^mponent, displacement seismogram from the Norwegian Sea earthquake on July 27, 1976 (m=5.1, h=9 km) The records epiCeva) drn?f 23'- M ch4""els show si"W and clear patterns of P and S wav' with Znct rT dispersed surface
waves. Note that while the vertical channel displays the Rayleigh wave train. Love waves which precede the recorded LR by one minute or so. are well recorded on the E-W component. The strong surface waves indicate a shallow focus event. There is 1
i at the bottom of the plate.

between successive I
 ~ v ^ / / \\
,>^/><^

~: :
^ns; N

:
*?
LR:

Plate 26. Seismograms made at Uppsala, Sweden, on

short-period vertical-component (top trace), medium-
period three-component (three middle traces) and long-
period vertical- component (bottom trace) seismographs.
This earthquake occurred on Crete, Greece, on June 12,
1969 (M=6.2, A=25 km) at a distance of 26* from
Uppsala. The onset of P is distinct on all the records. The
free-surface reflections, PP, and the core-mantle
reflection, PcP, are visible on the short-period record.
The S wave arrives about four and a half minutes after P
and is easily recognizable, especially on the N-S
component medium- period and vertical long-period
records. Medium and long-period traces also show a
clear dispersive Rayleigh wave train, starting 2-3 minutes
after S. The sudden increase of LR-wave amplitudes at
approximately 15:30 (medium and long-period records)
is due to the arriving Airy phase.
Plate 27. Earthquake in southern Albania (A/=6.0, h=25 km) on March 18, 1962 recorded at Kiruna, Sweden, at an epicentral
distance of 27. Short-period, vertical-component (uppermost trace) and medium- period three-component (lower four traces)
seismograms are displayed. This is an example of a record of strong short-period channel (guided) waves of Lg type which
traveled the continental path from southern Albania to northern Sweden with an average velocity of about 3.4 km/s. As can be
seen in the records, the period of Lg lies between 10 and 15 s, or so. The wave train is best seen on the E-W component. Note
that the epicenter is almost due south of Kiruna. Other features exhibited in the records are the clear onset of S and somewhat
ambiguous SS . P onsets are seen on vertical-components from both the short- and medium-period seismograms. P is
followed, with a 10 s delay, by another (unidentified) phase, possibly pP.
Plate 29. The Michoacan, Mexico, earthquake of April 30, 1986 (M=6.9, h= 32 km) recorded on ultralong- period three-
component seismographs at Berkeley, California, at an epicentral distance of 27*. Note that the horizontal components
are NE or NW rather than the conventional N and E. This is because majority of the larger earthquakes recorded at
Berkeley arrive from the NW, SW and SE directions. Up on the Z, NE and NW records corresponds to upward, northeast
and northwest ground motions, respectively. Observe the relatively simple seismogiams with clear body- and surface-
wave arrivals. The simplicity is largely due to the response of the seismographs which emphasizes the long-period
ground motions. As explained in the preceding plate for this particular source-receiver position, the surface waves arrive
along mixed oceanic and continental paths. Notice that when editing this plate, the largest surface-wave amplitudes have
been cut off.
Plate 30. Ultralong-period seismograms recorded at Berkeley, California, from the October 9, 1985 earthquake south of Alaska (Af=6.5, A=30 km) at a distance of
31* northwest of Berkeley. The onsets of P, PP, PPP and PcP are best seen on the vertical component while the S wave is clear on all three components. Note the
long-period G pulse (here GI, i.e. the wave propagating the direct route from the hypocenter to the receiver) with a period of about 50 s, and the prominent LR
waves on the Z and NW components. The LR wave train shows an interesting and rather rare phenomenon, namely the inverse dispersion at periods larger than
100 s. Note that the horizontal components are NE or NW rather than the conventional N and E (for more details see the preceding plate).
-E

"I -s-iv/vvww-

vvy T\A AjV

:---------------------------------------------------JU----------

PUte 31. Medium size (M=5.1),

shallow earthquake in the Atlantic Ocean,
off Portugal, on May 5, 1969 recorded at
Umei, Sweden, at an
epicentral distance of 33.5*. Short- period
(upper three traces) and medium-period

.1 _^-
(lower three traces) three-component
records are shown. The vertical-component
short-period record displays, besides the
dominant P and pP, also clear PcP and
especially pPcP. Arrival time
differences pP-P and pPcP-PcP
deduced from the 'record provide a focal

- It) ________ /7 depth greater than normal, most likely

between 50 and 70 km. The onset of 5 can
be seen on both horizontal-component
medium-period seismograms which also
show Love type surface waves with dear

1 . ______
dispersion. The Rayleigh wave train can be
recognized in the vertical- component
ft record. Note the significantly longer period
of 5 when compared with that of P.
 PUte 32
'.--..'. -- - Seismograms from the underground nuclear
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- r Semipaktmsk area, eastern Kazakh. USSR
e (m=7.0. M=5.0), on July 14, 1984 made at Uppsala,
" ' I -"
"' "
Sweden, at an epicentral distance of 35.5*. The upper
three traces show the short-period seismograms whereas the lower three
traces display long-period ^^,1^k| records. The traces exhibit in a remarkable way a
series of features important for successful . iii
discrimination of tectonic earthquakes against
1
* ft.. I '* . * ........................................... lU i , , u n d e r g r o u n d nuclear tests: 1) A strong P wave is
seen in the short-period seismograms. The first onset
I_________________'_________'_____ , ' 1
________________ '________1___________________ / * . ~ ,11 , ,1 ,'mi 1
1
_________has always a compressional character, i.e. the first
swing on the vertical trace corresponds to the upward ground motion. 2)
Surface waves are much weaker
. . . . . . . . . . t h a n one would expect from a shallow-focus event
' "LR with a body-wave magnitude m=7.0. Note also the
P ... large discrepancy between m and M. 3) S waves are
' * i* 'I *"'**1 practically absent on the records. The event is located
j to the east of Uppsala and hence P and LR waves
_______ * * * I* * * * * 1
are best seen on the vertical and E-W i
" p i
>

- 4 -

. -
> 9 -
1

------. . . . . . . .
------. . .
' / V l p f
t y -
1 9 - . V I ) . -
- . . . . -

* . . . . _
S i ~ ~ ;
-
. . . . - . . . .
. . *
* X.
- -
$

"
.
-
-

. . * / Z -
. p j * 1 *-
. . . . - . . . . -
 .
. .
. |
--- . . . - V -
. . . . . .
Plate 33. Earthquake records made at Uppsala, Sweden, on three-component, medium-period seismographs. This earthquake occurred on June 27, 1959 in the China-USSR border region at an epicentral distance of
-
41.5* (magnitude unknown, h=27 km). The N-S component shows a very distinct short-period Lg wave train arriving about 14 minutes after P. Note that the epicenter is almost due east of Uppsala and hence, Lg is best
seen on the N-S component. The group traveled along a purely continental path with an average velocity of slightly higher than 3.5 km/s. Among other features seen in the records are the clear P arrival (vertical and E-W
components) and surface waves of Rayleigh type (vertical and E-W components). There are several arrivals in these records which have not been identified.
12
5

12
6

127
125
Plate 35. Medium-period vertical-component records of the Sinkiang earthquake (m=6.4, A=29km) on November 13,
1965, made at Kirana, Sweden, at an epicentre] distance of 42V This earthquake has probably produced the strongest
higher-mode surface waves ever recorded by Swedish seismographic stations. The exhibited trace also shows a number
of body-wave arrivals and an LS wave with clear dispersion. In this particular case, the waves traveled along a purely
continental propagation path.
129130
 J___L I1 II
J___L 16:10 20 3
0

Plate 37. Broad-

band, three-
component,
displacement
seismograms
from a deep-
133
134 focus earthquake
in the 1 ghan is
tan - USSR
border region
(m=5.9, A=217
km) on May 2,
1981. The records
were made at
KaSpersk Hory,
Czechoslovakia,
at an epicentral
distance of 43*.
Displayed traces
show a number of
body-wave
onsets. Note the
unipolar P pulse
and the
amplitude
difference
between pP and
sP. The epicenter
is almost due east
of the recording
station and hence
the P arrival is
rather weak on
the N-S
component
Observe the
prominent long-
period mantle
waves of Love (N-
S component)
and Rayleigh type
(vertical and E-W
components).
There is 1 minute
between
successive time
marks at the top
of the plate.

13
1

13
 Plate 38. Seismograms from the underground nuclear
explosion on June 5, 1987 in southern Xinjiang, China
(m=6.8), made at Uppsala, Sweden, at an epicentral
distance of 45.5*. The arrangement of records is the same
as that used in Plate 32. All features typical for underground
explosion records (cf Plates 32 and 36) are well exhibited.
Note especially the absence of S waves on the records. The
arrow on the long-period E-W component seismogram
marks the calculated arrival time of S.

I
"I-----1---T--------------------------------------
T -----
1-----1----------1-------------------------------------
- [ p - v - -

N
LGT
i Z
I~T 1------------------
T------ T------r T LRi
---------'-------r~
- - - T~~r
Plate 39. Long-period records of an earthquake in
eastern Siberia (M=6.4) on April 20, 1989, made at
Uppsala, Sweden. These are typical seismograms
from a predominantly continental path. Direct and
surface-reflected body waves are clearly seen on
the records. The surface waves exhibit pronounced
continental-path dispersion characteristics. The LQ
wave train can be observed in the N-S component
(upper trace) while LR are best seen in the vertical
component (lower trace). The vertical channel
shows both the fundamental and the higher- mode
Rayleigh wave groups. Unipolar pulses seen at the
bottom of both traces are calibration pulses which
provide quick checks of the frequency
characteristic of the entire system. Calibration
pulse is a response of the
 4.0+03
N?SJoTl j
-4.0E+03
2.0E+03-I

1.4E+03

&
-1.4E+03
2.5E+03

8^6 j
*|
Plate 40. Seismograms form a deep-focus (A=588 km) earthquake
in the Sea of Okhotsk on April 20, 1984 (m=5.9), made at a suite of
stations located at epicentral distances between 50.1 and 82.2*.

^^^ 55 I
Short-period (left) and long-period (right) horizontal-component
record sections are exhibited. Station codes, epicentral distances,
component identifications (NS or EW) and amplitude scalings are
given to the left of displayed traces. Broadly speaking. 5 waves are
82.2 best recognized on long-period records. Note that in the long-
period records, the amplitude of various transverse phases are 2-10
times larger when compared with those on the short- period records.
Four distinct phases, namely S, ScS, sS and SS are identified in the
7.0E+03 long-period seismogram from RSNT. At distances larger than, say,
60* SKS will emerge. However, in the present example, SKS
1.2E+04 observed at RSSD ( = 66.9) is mixed with ScS. S, ScS and SKS
start to coalesce as distance increases toward 82*. S, SKS and ScS
EWS82?2 are occasionally observed also on short-period recordings, although
their onset times are usually very emergent
1.2E+04 20 40 60 80 100 120 1 Z 3
Tlme(s) Time (min)

1

I

7.0E+04

7.0+04
.+

-
.+

3.0+05

-3.0+05
7.0+03

-7.0+03
Tlme(s)
 139
140
I
I

8
0P
l
a

Plate 43. Short-period (uppermost trace) and long-
period (lower three traces) seismograms from an
15-51 earthquake in the Afghanistan-USSR border region
(m=5.9, A=209 km) on

N September 12, 1983 made at Toledo, Spain, at a

distance of 57.5*. This is an interesting example of a
deep-focus, medium-size event. First characteristics
to be noted are the absence of surface waves and
large amplitudes of P on the short-period record. It is
also interesting that pP is larger than P. most likely
due to the orientation of the source. A number of
body-wave arrivals are displayed on the records. The

z
arrival 24 s after P can be explained as a reflection
PdP in the upper mantle. The onset following sP has
not been identified. Note PP two traces below P
(about 30 min later). On long-period records, P
phases appear as sharp pulses with a rather short or
/, / ,//
' /* /^ ^^^^^ non existent coda. Very clear S and sS are exhibited
on all three
 --~-----------------------------Airy phase-
Plate 45. Deep-foe us earthquake records made at Kiruna, Sweden, on a short-period vertical-component (upper trace)
and medium-period three-component (lower three traces) seismographs. The earthquake took place in the Sea of Japan,
at a depth of 397 km, on March 31, 1969 (m=5.7) at a distance of 63* from Kiruna. The short-period record exhibits a
clear double P, small and large, about 4 s apart This feature can not be seen in any of the medium-period traces.
Numerous body phases are very distinct in the seismograms. Observe that all of them display a rather impulsive form, a
typical feature for deep shocks. Another characteristic, associated with the large focal depth, is the absence of surface
waves.
149150
P1 P2 -~~\\^
Iiiiiiiiiiiiiii
iii
iiiiii
iiiiiiiiiiiiii
i
iiii
1
iiiIiIi
Plate 47. Recording of the
eruption of Mount St. Helens,
Washington State, USA, on May
18, 1980, made
by
the GRF
system in Bayern, FRG, at an
epicentral distance of 77*. The
trace exhibits a computer
simulated vertical-component
SRO (Seismic Research
Observatory) long-period
seismogram calculated from a
broad-band velocity record.
Seismic
waves excited
by the eruption have been
studied
in
detail by
Kanamori and Given (1982).
According to their analysis and
interpretation, the focal
mechanism of
the event can be explained
"... by a northward
landslide followed by a lateral
blast observed at the time of the
eruption. Two distinct events
about 110 s apart can be
identified on body-wave and
short-period surface-wave
records. The first event may 1
correspond to the earthquake 5
which triggered the landslide 1
and the lateral blast. The
second event appears to

correspond to second large
earthquake and explosion
which took place about 2
minutes after the first
earthquake." The two events
can clearly be identified in both
the P and S wave trains.
Plate 48. A deep-focus earthquake record made at
Jamestown, California, on a short- period vertical-
component seismograph. The earthquake occurred
on March 6, 19S4
(m=6.1, *=454 km) south of Honshu, Japan, at a
distance of 78* from Jamestown. The long
separation of the pP and P phases (101.5 s) and the
absence of surface waves indicate a deep focus.
The wave train is relatively complex due to the size
of the source and the short-period response of the
seismograph. Note in particular the multiple
surface reflections PP and PPP and their
corresponding depth phases. Also present are the
PKKP and P'PP' core phases. The time difference
between the long path PKKP and the direct P
phases of 18 min 43 s is very robust method for
determining that the epicentral distance is 78V The
time difference PKKP-P is essentially independent
of the focal depth. Likewise, the time difference of
46 min 55 s between the P'PP' and P onsets can be
used to determine the epicentral distance. The
P'P'P' phase onset is quite clear because, in this
particular case, each P' leg travels 146 which is
near the 144 caustic for P' and thus the amplitudes
are large.
Plate 49. T phase recorded on the
high-frequency vertical-component
seismograph at San Andreas
Observatory (SAO), California, from an
A/=8.3 earthquake which occurred in
Kcrmadec Islands on October 20,
1986. The epicenter distance is 83*
from SAO. The high-frequency
seismograph has a passband from 5-
20 Hz with a magnification of 1.5
million at 5 Hz. The T phases
recorded at coastal stations in
California from large earthquakes
occurring in the western Pacific
typically exhibit nearly
monochromatic wave train at about 3
Hz which persists for 4-12 minutes.
The T phase is generally not visible on
stations located more than
approximately 50 km from the
coastline. The largest amplitude in the
T phase arrives about 88 min 50 s
after the P-wave onset and its
apparent velocity is 1.5 km/s (6090 s
travel time over a 9140 km path).
 I I I I
I I.I
I I I I
I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I
Plate 50. The Costa Rica
earthquake of April3, 1983
(M=12), recorded
component broad band system at
GRF,
distance is 86* and the focal depth
is 44 km. There is 1 minute
between successive time marks at
the bottom of the plate. The P and
four associated phases that have
been once or twice reflected from
the Earth's surface arc clearly
visible in the trace. Two additional
surface reflections belonging to the
5-wave group can also be
identified. The

complete record is, however,

dominated by a fundamental-mode
Rayleigh wave,

developed

along a
mainly oceanic propagation

path. The LR
wave has a long duration and a
regular dispersion, within the
period interval from

about 30 to
15 s,
manifested by a frequency
modulated quasi-sinusoidal
(sweeping period) trace form. The
displayed seismogram shows the
ground displacement.
Plate 51. A shallow earthquake in
northern Sumatera on November
17, 1984 (A#=7.3, A =42 km),
recorded at GRF, Bayern, FRG, at
an epicentral distance of 88".
Three-component, broad-band,
displacement records are
presented. There is 1 minute
between successive time marks at
the bottom of the plate. A clear P
onset is seen in the vertical trace,
while the two horizontal traces
reveal three later phases, namely
SKS, PS and SS. Note that for this
event, the waves approach GRF
almost from the cast and hence
SKS and SS exhibit large
amplitudes on the N-S component.
The distance range between 70 and
90* is the best region to record and
study SKS phases. However, the
 phase identification may be
difficult since SKS are at these
distances often contaminated with
direct S waves (see Section 4.2.3).
PUte 52. Records from a deep-focus earthquake in
Celebes Sea (m=6.2, *=336 km) of June 11, 1972,
made by medium-period seismographs at Kiruna,
Sweden, at an epicentral distance of 91.5*. A
double P onset, small and large, some 3 s apart, is
discernible on the vertical component The trace
also shows a sharp pP arrival about 75 s after P
providing a focal depth of about 320 km. pP is
followed by clear free- surface reflection PP.
Among other features can be seen the long-period
G wave train especially well developed on the N-S
component. The wave has traveled along a mixed
oceanic-continental path of about 10,160 km with
an average velocity of 4.52 fan/s and appears
nearly impulsive with a period of approximately 30
s. Note that in this record successive traces go from
bottom to top.
z
O
l

H
O
Z
'
:
S
K
S
=
=
=
=
^
g
P
l
a
t
e

5
3
.
T
h
e

P
h
i
l
i
p
p
i
n
e

I
n
l
a
n
d
s

d
e
e
p
-
f
o
c
u
s
e
a
r
t
h
q
u
a
k
e

o
f

N
o
v
e
m
b
e
r

2
0
,
1
9
8
4

(
m
=
6
.
4
,
A
=
2
1
5

k
m
)

r
e
c
o
r
d
e
d

a
t
M
L

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
,
C
a
l
i
f
o
r
n
i
a
.
o
n

s
h
o
r
t
-
p
e
r
i
o
d
,
v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
-
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
e
i
s
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
.
T
h
i
s

e
a
r
t
h
q
u
a
k
e

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
d
a
t
a

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

o
f

1
0
S
*

f
r
o
m
M
L

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
.
N
o
t
e

t
h
e

n
u
m
e
r
o
u
s

b
o
d
y

p
h
a
s
e
s

i
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
f
r
e
e
-
s
n
r
f
a
c
e

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
.
N
o
t
e

a
l
s
o

t
h
a
t
t
h
e

d
o
m
i
n
a
n
t
p
e
r
i
o
d

o
f

t
h
e

p
h
a
s
e
s

i
s

a
r
o
u
n
d

a
n
d

l
o
n
g
e
r
,
w
h
i
l
e
f
o
r

t
h
e

p
h
a
s
e
s

i
t
i
s

2
s

a
n
d

l
e
s
s
.
T
h
e

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

f
o
c
u
s

f
o
r

t
h
i
s

e
v
e
n
t
c
a
n

b
e

f
o
u
n
d

f
r
o
m

s
e
v
e
r
a
l
o
n
s
e
t
-
t
i
m
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
.
-
>

s
u
c
h

a
s

p
P
-

.

p
P
P
-
P
P
,

s
S
K
S
-
S
K
S

a
n
d

S
K
S

P
.

O
f

t
h
e
s
e
,
p
P
-
P

i
s

m
o
s
t
c
o
m
m
o
n
l
y

u
s
e
d

b
e
t
S
K
S
-
P

i
s
o
f

i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
b
e
c
a
u
s
e

i
t
d
o
e
s
n
o
t
h
a
v
e

s
t
r
o
n
g

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
e
.
T
h
e

P
4
0
0
P

p
h
a
s
e
,
w
h
i
c
h

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
s

o
f
f

t
h
e

u
n
d
e
r
s
i
d
e

o
f

t
h
e

4
0
0

k
m

d
i
s
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
i
t
y

i
s

s
o
m
e
t
i
m
e
s

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

a
t
M
L

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n

f
o
r

S
o
u
t
h
e
r
n

P
a
c
i
f
i
c

s
o
u
r
c
e
s
.
T
h
e

t
i
m
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

P
K
K
P
-
P

o
f

1
5

m
i
n
u
t
e
s

4
3

i
s

u
s
e
d
t
o

d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e

t
h
e

e
p
i
c
e
n
t
r
a
l
d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

o
f

1
0
5
*
.
163164
165168
4 E+02 PKIKP

r n5.0E+02^
T a
PKIKPA
COL
134.3
134.3 |^
-4.0E+02P 2.5E+04i PKIKP+PKP1 +
13
.+
PKP2
.+ 1+*2

m 1-4
-.+^
4.0E+03- pKp1
RSNY PKIKP PKP'.
153.1 _ \J
-8.0E + 03
-4.0E+03J .+
PKP1 PKIKP
l.UL + UJ]5.0E+02 I ,
PKP 2
3
SCP 3 PKIKP I J*' 156PKP1
9
SCP ^
|~-A-W1 156.9
-1.0E+034
+. p
Plate 55. Seismograms from a Mid-Indian-Rise earthquake
on May J S16. 1985 (Af=6.0, A=10 km) made at a suite of
1^ 5 ]
seismograph stations that sample the epicentral distance
between 134.3* and 173.2*. Short-period (left column) and
long-period (right column) vertical-component records are
displayed. Station codes, epicentral distances and amplitude
6.0E+02-
scalings are given to the left of each trace. This example
illustrates the effect of the caustic near 144*. Note the large
3.0E + 03:
concentration of energy on records from station RSNT at a
RSSD j PKIKP PKP2RSSD
distance of 145.6*. Besides large amplitudes in both the
164.9
164.9t
short- and long-period range, we also observe almost
simultaneous arrival of several waves which makes the
separation into individual PKP branches impossible. First at
the -3.0E+03-
distance of 156.9* (stations SCP), the three onsets,
1.4E+05 to PKIKP. PKP1
corresponding -8.0+03
and PKP2 9.0+03
arrivals, become
N 17 PKIKP
discernible. PKP1 dominates the records at distances just
ANMO ^ PKIKP
beyond the caustic but diminishes rather rapidly as the

j
173.2 173.2
distance increases and
1.4Eof+about
distance 05 160*.1 vanishes from the seismogram at a
Starting from the record made at
SCP at a distance of 156.9*. PKP2 arrivals dominate the
short-period seismograms.

-9.0+03
lime
800 120
40 200
200
160
120
40
Ttme(s)
c s)
 169

REFERENCES

Adams, R.D., 1979. T-phase recordings at Rarotonga from underground nuclear explosions. Geophys. J.R. astr. Soc., 58: 361-369.
Bolt, B.A., 1982. Inside the Earth. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 191 pp.
Bullen, K.E., 1975. The Earth's Density. Chapman and Hall, 420 pp.
Bullen, ICE. and Bolt, B.A., 1985. An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. CambridgeUniversity
Press, Fourth edition. 499 pp.
Bungum, H.t Vaage, S. and Husebye, E.S., 1982. The Meley earthquake sequence. Northern Norway; source parameters and their
scaling patterns. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 72: 197-206.
Bith, ., 1947. Travel times of the principle earthquake waves for Uppsala. Bull. Geol. InstiL, Uppsala,
32: 105-129.
Bith, ., 1967. Observations of teleseismic Pn phase. Pure Appl. Geophys., (PAGEOPH), 66: 30-36.
Bith, M. and Shahidi, ., 1974. T-phases from Atlantic earthquakes. Pure Appl. Geophys., (PAGEOPH), 92: 74-114.
Bith, M 1979a.Introduction to Seismology. BirkhUuser, 428 pp.
Bith, ., 1979b.Earthquakes in Sweden 1951-1976. Sveriges Geol. Und., C750, Arsbok 72, 79 pp.
Bith, ., 1983. Earthquake data analysis. An example from Sweden. Earth-Science Rev. 19: 181-303.
Frohlich, C, 1987. Kiyoo Wadad and early research on deep focus earthquakes: Introduction to special section on deep and
intermediate focu earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res., 92: 13,777-13,788.
Frohlich, C., 1989. Deep earthquakes. Scientific American, January 1989: 32-39.
Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C.F., 1938. Depth and geographical distribution of deep-focus earthquakes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 49:
249-288.
Herrin, E., Arnold, E.P., Bolt, BA., Clawson, G.E., Engdahl, E.R., Freedman, H.W., Gordon, D.W., Hales.
A. L., Lobdell, J.L., Nuttli, O., Romney. C., Taggart, J. and Tucker, W 1968.1968Seismological
Tables for P Phases. Bull. Seismol Soc. Am., 58: 1193-1352.
Jeffreys, H. and Bullen, K.E., 1967. Seismological Tables. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 50 pp.
Kanamori, H. and Given, J.W., 1982. Analysis of long period seismic waves excited by May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St.
Helens - a terrestrial monopole? J. Geophys. Res., 87: 5422-5432.
Kind, R 1979. Observations of sPn from Swabian Alp earthquakes at the GRF array. J. Geophys., 45: 337-340.
Lee, W.H.K., 1987. Observational Seismology. F-ncyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Vol 12: 491-518. Academic
Press.
Minakami, ., 1959a. The study of eruption and earthquakes originating from volcanoes: Part 1. Bull.
Volcanol. Soc. Jpn., 4: 104-114 (in Japanese).
Minakami, ., 1959b. The study of eruption and earthquakes originating from volcanoes: Part 2. Bull.
Volcanol. Soc. Jpn., 4: 115-130 (in Japanese).
Minakami, T, 1960. The study of eruptions and earthquakes originating from volcanoes: Part 3. Bull. Volcanol. Soc. Jpn., 4: 133-
151 (in Japanese).
Neumann, F., 1951. Principles Underlying the Interpretation of Seismograms. U.S. Department of Commerce, Coast and
Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No. 254, 41 pp.
Payo, G., 1986. Introduccion al Analisis de Sisinogramas. Institute Geogrifico Nacional, Madrid, 125 pp.
Pilgrim, L 1913. Die Berechnung der Lauf/fiten eincs Erdstosses mit Berucksichtigung derHerdtiefen,
gestiitzt auf neuere Beobachtungen. Gerlands Beitr. z. Geophys., 12: 363-483.
Press, F. and Siever, 1982. Earth. Freeman and Co., Third edition, 613 pp.
Seidl, 1986. Analysis of Grafenberg broadband seismograms. In: B. Buttkus (Ed.), Ten Years of the Grafenberg Array. Geol.
Jahrbuch, Reihe E, Geophysik, Heft 35, 135 pp.
Shida, ., 1937. Thank-you address at the dedication ceremony of Beppu Geophysical Laboratory (in Japanese). Chikyu Butsuri
Geophysics, 1: 1-5.
Simon, R.B., 1968. Earthquake Interpretations Colorado School of Mines, 99 pp.
Tazieff, H. and Sabroux, J.C., (Eds.), 1983. Forecasting Volcanic Events. Developments in Volcanology 1,
Elsevier, 635 pp.
Tokarev, P.I., 1983. Experience in predicting volcanic eruptions in the USSR. In: Tazieff, H. and Sabroux, J.C. (Eds), Forecasting
Volcanic Events. Developments in Volcanology 1, Elsevier, 635 pp.
Turner. H.H., 1922. On the arrival of earthquake waves at the antipodes, ind on the measurement of the focal depth of an
earthquake. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, Geophys. Suppl., 1: 1-13.
Wadati, K., 1927. Existence and study of deep earthquakes (in Japanese). J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., Ser. 2, 5: 119-145.
Wielandt, E., 1983. Design principles of electronic inertial seismometers. In: Kanamori, H. and Boschi, E.
 170

(Eds.), Earthquakes, Observations, Theory and Interpretation. North-Holland, 608 pp.

Willmore, P.L., 1979. Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice. Report SE-20, World Data Center A for Solid Earth
Geophysics, NOAA, Boulder.
SUBJECT INDEX

Numbers in boldface relate to Plate entries.

Aftershock, 5, 6, 38, 40, 66, 67 Airy phase, 43, 26, 44 -, -type volcanic, 7, 15-17 -, -type volcanic, 7, 16 -.
Anelastic attenuation, 16 Angle of incidence, 21, 24 Angle collapse, 7, 8
of refraction. 21 Antipode, 34 Appolo mission, 58 - see also Implosion -. crustal, 15, 20, 25
Asama Volcanic Observatory, 77, 15-17, 14 -, deep-focus, 6, 31, 38-40, 44, 64, 9, 11, 37,
Asthenosphere, 3 40, 41, 43, 45, 48, 52, 53 -, explosion-type volcanic, 7, 17, 18 -,
fluid-injection induced, 8 -, intermediate-focus, 6, 38, 40,
b, 22 64, 8, 11 -, interplate, 5 -, intraplate, 5 -, regional, 25, 60 -,
B, 34 reservoir induced, 8
- see also Caustic point Basaltic layer, 20 -, shallow-focus, 6, 13, 16, 27, 38, 40, 44, 47, 8, 25, 32, 42,
- rocks, 9 51
Body wave, 13, 38, 41. 47. 48, 50. 60 Butterworth low- source parameters, 1
pass filter, 68 swarm, 6, 3
-. tectonic, 7, 8, 69, 32 -. volcanic, 7, 8, 69, 73-76 Edwards
c, 30, 42 Air Force Base, 20 Energy release, 6 scatter, 19 Epicenter,
Calibration pulse, 39 Caustic point (Caustic), 33-37, 55 4 Event, 7, 8 -. controlled, 8 -, double, 65, 2, 6 -. induced, 7
Cavity collapse, 21 Channel (guided) waves, 27 -, local, 20, 22, 23, 69, 70 -, man-made, 8 natural, 8 -, ncar-
- - see also Lg waves Clipped record, 25 Coda, 13, 37, 38 surface, 24, 5, 21, 24
- duration, 25 Complete station, 55 regional, 20, 24, 69, 70
Compressional (Longitudinal) wave, II, 20
- tape, 67
- - see also P wave
teleseismic (Teleseism), 20, 70 -, triggered, 7
Conrad discontinuity, 9, 22, 23. 54
Constructive plate margin, 3 Fault plane, 4
Core, 9-11, 36 - - see also Plane of weakness Feedback, 60
-, inner, 11, 30, 34-36 Floppy disc, 65 Focal
-, liquid, 36, 37 depth, 38 Focus, 4, 20,
-, outer, 11, 30. 33. 34, 37
21
- phase, 30, 33, 35
- see also Hypocenter Foreshock, 6
Core-mantle boundary, 9-11, 30, 32. 13. Coupling. 60
Free period, 60, 62
Critical angle, 21
- vibration, 60
- epicentral distance, 21 Crust, 9, 10, 28
Frequency characteristic, 59-61
-, continental, 10 -, oceanic,
see also Magnification or Response characteristic natural
10, 23 Cultural noise. 8. 17.
(eigen, free), 59 resonant, 59 Frictional heat, 40
18

d, 31
g. 20. 24
G. 44. 71, 30, 37, 52 Gl. 45. 71, 30
Damping, 60 Data decimation, 66
G2, G3 etc., 45 Galvanometer, 57,
DCF77, 57
58, 60 Geometrical spreading, 16
Dehydration of minerals, 40 Delta-shape envelope, 15
Granitic layer, 20, 22, 24
Densification, 40 Destructive plate margin, 3 Diffraction,
- rock, 9
32
Greenwich Mean Time, 57
Dispersion. 15, 25. 32. 12, 23-26, 34, 36, 39
GRF, 64. 65, 77, 10, 12, 25, 47, 50, 51
- see also Velocity dispersion Ground motion, 59
- curve, 42, 43 - - acceleration, 55, 57, 60
-, inverse, 27, 43, 30, 50 -, normal, 15, 16, 42, 5 Dynamic - - characteristics, 60
range, 25, 61, 66 - - displacement, 55, 56, 60
- - period, 60
Earth contraction, 40
- - velocity, 55-57, 60, 64 GrSfenberg
- cooling, 40
array, see GRF
- model CAL6, 11 Earthquake, 1
 171

Helical motion, 58 pP. 31, 38, 49. 70, 27, 31, 34, 35, 37, 41-45, 48, 52, 53 pPc,
- spring, 56 Heirin tables, 51, 52 54
Hodograph, 47 Hypocenter, 4, 36, pPcP, 31, 37, 48 pPcS, 37 pPn, 24, 70 pPP, 31. 70, 48, 53
47 pPS, 31, 70 pPP', 48 pS, 31, 70 pSKS, 53 pSP, 31 pSS. 31
- see also Focus P, 11, 19, 21, 23. 25-38, 40. 41, 43. 44. 47, 49-52, 66. 70. 3, 7-
9, 11, 14, 15, 23-39, 41-52 -, double, 65, 45, 52 PI, 65. 47 P2.
I. 34, 35 Implosion, 7, 8 65. 47 , 36 400 31, 53 P4PK, 36. 46 P650/5, 31
-, see also Collapse earthquake Industrial explosion, 60 P7PK, 36. 46 20. 22, 23, 70. 1 PL 2 P2, 2
Instrumental constant, 60 Instrument effect, 62 P*. 22. 23, 28. 53. 54. 70 />', 33
International Seismological Centre (ISC), 8, 32, 39. 51. 69. see also PKP '', 46 P'650P, 36. 46 P~, 54
2 Inverse problem, 43 -, see also PK1KP Pacific plate, 5 Particle motion, 41 Pb.
J. 35 22, 70
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 38, 7 JB tables, Pc, 32, 35, 47. 70. 41, 53, 54
50-52, 54 see also P diffracted P coda, 17. 19
PcP, 30, 33, 38. 47. 49, 51, 70, 26, 30, 31, 36,
K, 33. 35-37 Kemwelle, 33 41, 42, 46 PcS, 30, 33. 49. 70, 34, 37, 43 P diffracted (Pc. Pdif.
Pdiff). 30. 32, 33, 70. 41 PdP, 32. 36. 70, 36, 43, 46 P dP\
Laboratory model measurements, 60 Leaf-spring
36, 71 Pendulum, 59
suspension, 56 Lg wave, 24, 25, 70, 27, 33
period, 60
- - see also Channel (Guided) wave Lithosphere, 3
principle, 55
Love wave, 14, 15, 41, 42. 44. 50, 71, 24, 25, 31
Pg, 20-25, 28, 51, 53, 54, 66, 70. 4, 5, 12, 21 -, multiple, 6
- - see also LQ
Pgl. 6 Pg2. 6
Low-velocity layer (LVL), 10, 25 LQ. 14, 15. 19. 41-44,
Phase, 19, 49 -, Airy, 43
48, 71, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, 31, 34, 38, 39, 45
-, depth, 24, 30, 31, 37, 38, 49
- see also Love wave - nomenclature, 69 -, stopping, 65
LR, 14-16, 19, 41-44, 48, 71, 12, 22, 23-26, 28-35, 38, 39, - transition. 40 PKIIKP. 35. 71
42, 47, 50 (PKPa,), 35, 36, 71. 36 PK1KP (PKP,,), 34.
- see also Rayleigh wave 36. 37. 50. 71. 55
- see also P"
Magnetic tape, 65, 67 Magnification, 62
PKIKS, 34 PKJKP, 35
- characteristic, 60, 62
PKKP, 36, 37, 71. 48, 53 PKP. 33-37, 47. 49-51. 70. 55
- - see also Frequency or Response characteristic -,
- see also P'
maximum, 60
PKPPKP (PPl. 36, 71 PKP I (PKPK), 34-36, 71, 55
Magnitude-frequency distribution, 8 Main shock, 5, 6,
PKP2 (PKPJ), 34-36, 71, 55 PKS, 33, 35, 70
66
Plane of weakness, 4
- - see also Principal earthquake Mantle, 9, 10, 28, 33, 37
----see also Fault plane
-, lower, 9
Plate deformation, 4 -, major, 3, 4 -, secondary, 3
-, upper, 9, 31, 34, 40
- tectonics, 3, 40 PmKP, 30, 36. 37. 71 PmP, 20. 23. 53. 70.
- wave, 60
4
- - of Love type. 37
- - of Rayleigh type, 37 Microearthquake, 6, 66, 68, 1, 2
Pn, 21. 23-25. 28. 29. 51. 53. 54, 70, 4, 10, 12, 13
Poisson ratio, 41 Polarization, 15, 41
Microseisms (Microseismic noise), 7, 17, 18, 61
- - see also Oceanic microseisms Mining tremor. 8, 25
PP. 29-31, 47, 49, 51. 70. 26, 29, 30, 33-37, 39,
42, 46, 48, 50, 52-54 -, early, 32
Mode (overtone), 15
- conversion, 19, 37 -, fundamental, 42, 43
see also
Precursors to PP
Mohorovi6i6 discontinuity (Moho, M), 6, 9, 20-24, 54
Monochromatic signal, 19 Moon, 45, 58 Multiple
PPP, 29, 70. 30, 42,
43, 46, 48, 50 PPS,
conversion, 11
29, 70, 50 PS, 29,
- rupturing, 6, 49
50, 51 PSP, 29. 70
National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC), PSS, 29. 70
32, 51, 76 Nevada Test Site, 21 Precursor (Forerunner), 36
- to PP, 32 Propagation path, 13
Oceanic microseisms, 8, 60 - continental, 15, 22, 25, 42, 43, 22, 27-29,
- - see also Microseisms Olivine, 40 One-sided onset, 10 33, 39
- - - see also Unipolar onset Origin time, 48 - -. mixed. 23, 24, 29, 42, 52
- -. oceanic, 15, 42, 43. 28, 29, 34, 50 PRl, 11
p. 30 PR2, 11
 172

Principle earthquake, 5 medium-period. 27, 31,35, 44, 45 -, short-period, 27, 37,

- -, see also Main shock 39, 64, 65, 6, 8, 9, 13, 15-18, 27, 31, 32, 36, 40, 41, 43, 45,
P (Primary) wave, 14, 16-20 46, 55 -, ultralong-pericxi, 30 velocity, 10, 12, 47
- - see also Compressional wave PP'. 36, 43, 46, 48 Seismograph, 55-58 -, broad-band, 18, 61, 62, 69, 12, 50 -,
P'P'P', 36. 48 high frequency, 49
-, long-period, 17, 18, 37, 61, 62, 66, 69, 26, 28,54 -,
Quarry blast, 21 Querwelle, 14 Mainka, 57. 58 -, medium-period. 69. 26,33 -, Milne-
Shaw, 57, 58. 62 -, ocean-bottom, 7 -, portable, 18 short-
R, 44, 71, 14, 37 Rl, 45, 71 R2. R3 etc., 45 Radio time
period, 27, 37, 61, 62, 69, 1, 3, 14, 19-21, 26, 48, 53 -,
signal, 57 Ray, 19-21. 29. 34, 35
ultralong-period. 29 -, Wiecheit, 57, 58. 61. 62 -, Wood-
- path graph. 4
Anderson, 57 . 58, 61 Seismological Observatory, 55, 61
Rayleigh wave, 14, 15, 41-44, 49, 71, 12, 24-26,
Seismometer, 55. 58-60, 65 -. Benioff, 55. 58, 61. 62 34 -,
31, 33, 36, 44, 50
deformation see Strain seismometer -, electrostatic, 58 -,
- - see also LR
Galitzin, 57, 62 -, Grenet-Coulomb, 56, 58, 61, 62 -.
- omnidirectional, 21
- short-period, 5, 21 Recording. 57 Kimos, 61, 62. 64 -, moving-coil, 56 -, ocean-botlom
-, broad band, 10, 12 , digital, 68 electromagnetic, 57, 58 (OBS), 26 -, pendulum, 56. 59 -, piezoelectric. 57
electrostatic, 57 galvanometric, 58 mechanical, 57, 58 -, Press-Ewing, 17, 18, 55, 58, 61, 62 -, S-13, 62 -, SK, 62 -,
mechanical-optical, 57, 58 SKM-3, 62 strain (strainmeter), 56-58 -, vamble-
- on photographic paper, 57, 58, 65, 67 Reservoir induced capaciiance see Electrostatic seismometer -, variable-
seismicity, 7, 8 Resonance, 60 reluctance, 57 -, Wielandt-Streckeisen, 56 -, Willmore, 62
Response characteristic, 60-62 see also Magnification or Seismoscope, 58
Response characteristic Rg. 24, 25. 28, 53, 70, 5, 21 Ridge, Sg, 20-25, 28, 53, 54. 66, 70, 5, 6, 10, II, 13
3. 4. 6 Ripple charge blasting, 21 Rockburst, 24. 72, 73, 5 Shadow zone, 32-34
Rupture duration, 13 Shear (Transverse) wave, 11, 13, 20
- propagation, 13 - see also S wave SKIKP, 34 SKIKS, 34
SKP, 33, 71
s. 30 SKS, 33, 36, 37, 47. 49, 70, 40, 48, 51, 53 SmKS, 37, 71
sP. 31. 49, 70, 37, 41, 43, 53 SmS, 20, 23, 70. 4
sPcP. 37 Sn, 21. 23-25. 28. 29. 53, 54, 70. 10, 13 SOFAR channel. 26,
sPn. 24. 70, 10 27, 7, 14 Sonic boom, 69, 20 Source mechanism, 16
sPP, 31, 70 parameters, 72
sPS, 31. 70, 53 radiation characteristics, 16 SP, 29. 70. 48, 53
sS, 31, 37, 38, 70, 40, 42, 43, 45 sSKS. 53 sSP, 31 sSS. 31 Space orbiter Columbia, 20 SPP, 53
S, 11, 19, 21, 23, 25-32, 36-41, 43, 47, 49, 50, 64. 70, 3, 7-9, SS, 29-31, 47, 70. 27, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 42,
43, 45, 50, 51 SSS, 29, 70. 34, 50
11, 14, 15, 22-31, 34, 35, 38-40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48
SSSS, 34
51, 47
Subduction zone, 3, 4, 6, 40, 13, 34
52. 47
-, see also Wadati-Benioff zone
5^20, 22, 23, 70, 1 SI, 4
Surface wave, 13, 14, 27, 32, 38, 40-44, 47, 50, 60, 12, 28, 32,
S2, 4
34, 39 -, continental-path, 22, 28
S*. 22, 23, 28. 53, 54. 70
- dispersion, 22
San Andreas Observatory (SAO), 77, 49
fundamental mode, 15, 12, 39, 44, 50
Sb, 22, 70 -, higher mode, 15, 12, 35, 36, 39
Sc (Sdif Sdiff), 32, 70
-, long-period, 44
- see also S diffracted Scattering, 16, 36 ScP, 30, 33, 49. 70 -, oceanic-path, 28, 34
ScS, 30, 33, 38, 39, 70, 4, 45 48 5 diffracted, 32 S (Secondary) wave, 14, 16-20
- see also Sc(Sdif, Sdiff) - see also Shear wave Sweeping period, 50 Swinging arcs
Secondary discontinuity, 31 method, 48
Seismic Research Observatory (SRO), 47 Seismic source.
7, 8 T, 26-28, 70, 7, 14, 49 TKOBS, 7, 11 TK02, 7, 11 TPg, 27,
- -, controlled, 7 70
- man-made. 7 Transducer (Sensor, Detector), 55, 56, 58 Transform fault,
- -, natural, 7 Seismogram (Record), 55 -, analog, 65, 68. 69 3, 4, 6 Transition zone (layer), 10, li
-, broad-band. 26, 64. 65, 25, 37, 47, 51 digital, 65. 66. 68, Translation motion, 55
69 -, displacement, 64, 10, 12, 25, 37, 50, 51 -, long-period, Travel times, 47, 49-51
37, 39. 64, 65, 67, 22-24, 32, 34, 36, 38-43, 47, 55 -, - azimuth-dependent, 49
 173

- -, regional, 49, 50 Travel-time curve (chart), 47, 48, 4 W, 44

Travel-time tables, 47-52 Wadati-Benioff zone, 3, 4
- - - for near events, 53, 54 ----see also Subduction zone
----, provisional, 50 Wave, 13
Trench, 3, 4 -, acoustic water, 7 bounded, 13
TRg, 27, 70 TSg. channel, 22, 24, 41 -, core, 20, 33 -,
27. 70 crustal, 20, 21, 50
-, direct (Elementary or Main), 29, 32, 33 -. free, 13
U, 42 -, guided, 13, 24, 25 head, 21 -,
Underground nuclear explosion, 27, 50, 69, 72, 74-76, 14, mantle, 44
21, 32, 36, 38, 46 Unipolar onset, 37 -, monochromatic, 27, 42, 19, 49 -, seismic, 13
- - see also One-sided onset Universal Co- -, sound, 26, 27 -, tertiary (7), 26
ordianted Time, 57 Velocity, 11 Wiederkehrwelle, 44
-, compressional-wave, 11 World Wide Standardized Seismograph Network
- depth function, 4 (WWSSN). 61, 62, 64, 65, 14, 28 WWV, 57
- dispersion, 15
see also Dispersion -, group, 42 phase, 42 -, 400 km discontinuity, 10 650 km
shear-wave, 11 Vesuvius Observatory, 7 discontinuity, 10
Volcanic tremor, 7. 75. 76, 19
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX Kamata, 77, 3 Kamchatka, 5, 72 KaSperske Hory. 77.
37 Kazakh, 74. 32 Kermadec Islands, 76, 49 Kiruna,
77, 27, 35, 45, 52

Numbers in boldface relate to Plate entries.

Langenthal, 4 Linthal-Limmem, 77 Longmire, 77
Marianas, 38
Adirondack, 77 Matsushiro, 66, 67, 75, 77, 1, 6, 9, 13 Meloy, 6
Aegean arc, 38 Mexico, 66, 75, 28, 29 Michoacan, 66, 75, 28, 29 Mid-
Afghanistan, 73, 74, 37, 43 Atlantic Ridge, 5 Mid-Indian Rise, 74, 55 Mina, 77, 20
Alaska, 75, 77, 30 Mindanao, 74 Molucca, 72, 54 Mount Hamilton, 77,
Albania, 72, 27 53 Mount St. Helens, 47
Albuquerque, 77
Alpide belt, 5
Andreanof Islands, 73, 34
Arenal volcano, 76, 17
Asama volcano, 73-75, 15-17, 19
Atlantic Ocean, 72, 31
Austria, 73
Azores, 5

Bayem, 18, 64, 65, 77, 10, 12, 25, 47, SO, 51
Berkeley, 77, 20, 28-30. 34, 42
Berkshire, 8
Black Hills, 77
Bohemia, 2
Brazil, 75, 41
California, 77, 20, 21, 28-30, 34, 42, 4, 48, 44, 53

Canada, 77 Carpathians, 38 Celebes, 72, 54 Celebes

Sea, 72, 52 Central America, 38 Adams, 77
Charleston, 5 Chiang Mai, 37. 77 Chile, 45
China, 72, 76, 33, 38, 44 Circum-Pacific belt, 5, 40
Clyde, 77, 8 College Outpost, 77 Colorado, 32 Cook
Islands, 77
Costa Rica, 74-77, 16, 17, 19, 50 Crete, 72, 26
Cumberland Plateau, 77 Czechoslovakia, 77, 2, 37

England, 8, 32
Fiji Islands, 37, 76
Fiji-Tonga area, 39
Fiordland region, 8
Flores Sea, 39
French Polynesia, 14
FRO, 18, 57. 64, 65, 77. 10, 12, 25, 47, 50, 51 Friuli. 12

Germany, 73, 75 Golden, 32 Great Britain, 57 Greece.

17, 73. 26 Greenland Sea, 72 Guatemala, 76, 77, 15, 18
Guerrero, 75 GOteborg, 77, 5

Himalayas, 38 Hindu Kush, 38 Honshu. 73-75, 77. 78,

13, 48 Hungary, 75, 22

Iceland, 72, 24 India, 72, 44 Italy, 73. 12, 23 Izu

peninsula, 74, 3

Jamestown, 77, 21, 46, 48 Japan. 66, 67, 73. 74, 6, 48

 175
Muotatal, 77 Mururoa Atoll, 14 Sibinal, 77. 15
Siberia, 76, 39
Nagano, 77 Sierra Nevada, 21
Nevada, 76, 77, 20 Sierre, 4
New Guinea, 73 Sinkiang, 72, 35
New Hebrides Islands, 38 South America, 38
New Ireland, 72, 54 South Dacota, 77
New Madrid, 5 South Island, 74, 77
New Mexico, 77 Spain. 40, 78, 23, 36, 43, 54
New York, 77 State College, 77
New Zealand, 74, 77, 8 Sumatera, 74, 51
Niue, 77, 14 Swabian Jura, 10
North America, 28 Sweden, 17, 26, 27, 45, 53, 68, 72, 73, 75. 77.
Northwest Territories, 77 78, 5, 22, 24, 26, 27, 31-33, 35, 38, 39, 44, 45, 52
Norwegian Sea, 27, 72, 73, 25 Switzerland, 75-78, 4
Noto Peninsula, 9
Novaya Zemlya, 72, 36, 46 Tacana volcano, 76, 15 Tamaro, 78 Tangshan, 5
Tenessee, 77 Thailand, 37, 77 Tokai District, 78, 7
Ontario, 77 Toledo, 78, 23, 36, 43, 54 Tonga Islands, 75, 14 Tonga-
Pacaya volcano, 76, 18 Pacific, 49, 28, 49, 53 Panama, Kermadec Islands, 38 Tuamotu Archipelago, 75
73, 42 Papua, 54 Pennsylvania, 77 Perth, 5 Peru, 75,
Uddeholm, 78, 5 Umbria, 23
41 Philippine Islands, 53 Poas volcano, 76, 16
Umei, 18, 27. 39, 78, 31 United
Portugal, 31 Priest Mountain, 20, 21
States, 57, 73, 77 Uppsala, 17,
Rarotonga, 77, 14 Red Lake, 77 18, 26, 39, 45, 78, 5, 22, 24, 26,
Rincon de la Vieja volcano, 75, 77, 19 Romania, 64, 32, 33, 38, 39, 44 USSR, 72-74, 32, 33, 37, 43, 46
65, 72
Washington State, 73, 77, 47
Schleitheim, 77
Sea of Japan, 62, 72, 73, 45 Xinjiang, 76, 38
Sea of Okchotsk, 38, 39, 74, 40
Semipaladsk, 32 Yellowknife, 77
Shizuoka, 77
2
p.c. = personal communication