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I. MOLECULAR COMPARISON OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES

A. Usually, a solid is more dense than the liquid, except for substances that
display atypical behavior
i. Example: water because it expands when it is in solid
B. In liquid, thermal energy may overcome the forces of attraction
between them
C. Temperature change = state change; in gases and liquids:
pressure change = state change

II. SOLIDS
A. Solids crystalline or amorphous

III. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

A. IMFA originate from the interactions between charges, partial
charges, and temporary charges on molecules (or atoms or ions)
B. Bonds are usually stronger because of the short distances.
C. Dispersion force instantaneous dipole on one atom induces
instantaneous dipoles in another atoms
i. Magnitude depends on how easily the electrons can move or
polarize, which depends on the size or volume
ii. Molecular shape: n-pentane covers larger area for interaction
D. Dipole-dipole forces
i. Polarity important in determining miscibility ability to mix without
separating into two states. (polar-polar; non-polar-non-polar)
E. Hydrogen bonding H +N, F, O; strongest that can occur in pure
substance
F. Ion-dipole: ionic+polar compound, especially in aqueous solutions
i. Strongest type of IMFA and are responsible for the ability of ionic
substances form solutions with water

IV. SURFACE TENSION

A. Tendency of liquids to minimize the surface area; energy needed
in order to increase the surface area by a unit amount .
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i. Molecules at the surface have higher PE liquid minimizes its surface

area, behaving like a skin
ii. To increase surface rea, molecules at the interior have to go to the
surface
iii. Since molecules at the surface has higher PE, this requires energy.
iv. Sphere: smallest surface area to volume ratio; minimizes the PE of the
system

V. VISCOSITY
A. Resistance of a liquid to flow
B. Dependent on IMA, molecular shape, temperature

VI. CAPILLARY ACTION

A. Ability of a liquid to flow against gravity
B. Results from the combination of cohesive and adhesive forces.
i. Adhesive attraction between molecules and surface of the tube
(cause liquid to spread out a t the tube surface)
ii. Cohesive forces between liquid molecules
C. Meniscus curving of liquid surface
i. Concave adhesive
ii. Convex cohesive

VII.VAPORIZATION & VAPOR PRESSURE

A. Process of vaporization
i. The higher temperature, the greater average energy of the molecules
ii. You have vaporization and condensation
B. Rate of vaporization increases with increase in temperature and
surface area and with decrease in the strength of the IMFA
C. Liquids that easily vaporize: volatile; not easily: nonvolatile

VIII. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A. Crystalline lattice: arrangement of atoms within a crystalline solid; way
to aggregate atoms and minimize their energy
B. Crystalline solids: molecular, atomic (metallic and network), ionic
C. Molecular composite units: molecules held together by different forces
D. Ionic coulumbic forces of attraction between the cations and anions;
higher MP than molecular solids; good conductors when in water
E. Atomic atomic solids are the basic units
i. Nonbonding weak dispersion forces; use closest-packed structures
ii. Metallic metallic bonds, low MP< soft OR high MP and hard, good
heat and electrical conductors, malleable and ductile, attractions
between nuclei and delocalized alenec electrons
iii. Network covalent held together by covalent bonds

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IX. BASICS
A. Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances or
components
i. Majority: Solvent
ii. Minority: Solute
B. Unless unfavorable energetically, substances combine into uniform
mixtures, not separate into pure substances.
C. Example: Seawater is more concentrated than the fluids in the body cells.
As a result, when seawater flows through the digestive tract, it draws
water out of the surrounding tissues.

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X. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

A. A solution may be composed of a solid and a liquid, a gas and a liquid, two
different liquids and other combinations (see Table 12.1).

B. In aqueous solution:
i. Solvent: water
ii. Solute: liquid, gas, solid
Solution Solu Solven Example
phase te t
Gaseous
Gas Gas Air (mainly oxygen and nitrogen)
solution
Liquid Club Soda (carbon dioxide and
Gas Liquid
solution water)
Liqui
Liquid Vodka (ethanol and water)
d
Solid Liquid Seawater (salt and water)

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Solid solution Brass (copper and zinc) and

Solid Solid
other alloys

C. Solubility of a substance is the amount of the substance that will

dissolve a given amount of solvent. Depends on the
i. Tendency towards mixing
ii. Types of IMFA
D. Formation of a solution is not dependent on the potential energy. It does
not necessarily lower the potential energy of its constituent particles.
i. Example: formation of homogeneous mixture of two ideal gases.
a. at low pressures and moderate temperatures, both neon and argon
behave as ideal gasesthey do not interact with each other in any
way (no significant IMFA between the constituent particles). When
the barrier is removed, the two gases mix but their PE remains
unchanged.
b. In other words: we cannot think of mixing two ideal gases as
lowering their PE
c. Their tendency to mix is related to a concept called entropy.
E. Entropy: measure of energy randomization or energy dispersal in a
system.
i. When Ne and Ar are confined in their individual compartments, their KE
are confined to those compartments. When the barrier between the
compartments is removed, each gas, along with its KE, becomes spread
out or dispersed over a larger volume.
ii. Mixture of two gases has greater energy dispersal or greater entropy
than the separated components
iii. Pervasive tendency for energy to spread out, or disperse, whenever it
is not restrained from doing so is the reason that the two ideal gases
mix.
a. Other example: Spreading of heat from hot to cold area.
b. The thermal energy in the rod, initially concentrated in relatively
fewer particles, becomes dispersed by being distributed over a
larger number of particles. The tendency for energy to disperse is
why thermal energy flows from the hot end of the rod to the cold
one, and not the other way around

XI. EFFECT OF IMFA

A. These forces may promote the formation of a solution or prevent it,
depending on the nature of the forces in the particular combination of
solute and solvent.

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i. A solution always forms if the solvent-solute interaction are

comparable, or stronger than, the Similarly, the intermolecular forces
present between heptane and pentane are also dispersion forces. All
three interactions are of similar magnitude so the two substances are
soluble in each other in all proportionsthey are said to be miscible.
ii. The formation of the solution is driven by the tendency toward
mixing, or toward greater entropy.
iii. If solventsolute interactions are weaker than solventsolvent
and solutesolute interactionsin other words, if solvent molecules
and solute molecules each interact more strongly with molecules of
their own kind than with molecules of the other kind then a solution
may still form, depending on the relative disparities between the
interactions.
iv. If the disparity is small, the tendency to mix results in the formation of
a solution even though the process is energetically uphill. If the
disparity is large, however, a solution does not form. For example,
consider mixing hexane and water. The water molecules have strong
hydrogen-bonding attractions to each other but cannot form hydrogen
bonds with hexane. The energy required to pull water molecules away
from one another is too great, and too little energy is returned when the
water molecules interact with hexane molecules.
a. As a result, a solution does not form when hexane and water are
mixed. Although the tendency to mix is strong, it cannot overcome
the large energy disparity between the powerful solventsolvent
interactions and the weak solvent solute interactions.
v. In general, we can use the rule of thumb that like dissolves like when
predicting the formation of solutions.
a. Polar solvents, such as water, tend to dissolve many polar or ionic
solutes, and nonpolar solvents, such as hexane, tend to dissolve
many nonpolar solutes. Similar kinds of solvents dissolve similar
kinds of solutes.

XII.ENERGETICS
A. Hydration: solute particle is surrounded by solve water molecules in a
solution (if solve not water, process is called solvation).
B. Process
i. Ionic bonds in solute break
ii. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules break
iii. Ion-dipole forces form between ions and water molecules
C. Energetics
i. Separate solute into constituent articles always endothermic
ii. Separate solvent to make room for solute also endothermic
iii. Mixing the solute with solvent - exothermic because energy is released
as the solute particles interact through IMFA with solvent
D. Heat of solution
i. If endothermic = exothermic increasing entropy upon mixing drives
the formation of the solution, leaving the energy of the system constant
ii. If exothermic> endo tendency to lower energy and greater entropy
drive solution
iii. Endo > endo greater entropy drives solution but enthalpy is too large
a solution does not form

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E. A solution in which the dissolved solute is in dynamic equilibrium with the

solid (undissolved) solute is a saturated solution . If you add additional
solute to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve. A solution containing less
than the equilibrium amount of solute is an unsaturated solution . If you
add additional solute to an unsaturated solution, it will dissolve. Under
certain circumstances, a supersaturated solution one containing more
than the equilibrium amount of solutemay form. Supersaturated
solutions are unstable and the excess solute normally precipitates out of
the solution

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XIII. FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

A. Structure: polar vs non-polar
B. Temperature solubility of gases in liquids decrease with increasing
temperature; solids to liquids have proportional relationship
C. Pressure solubility depends on pressure because higher pressure of gas
above liquid means greater solubility

XIV. ACID-BASE TITRATION

A. Titration is the process of determining the concentration f one substance in
a solution by reacting it with a solution whose concentration is known.
i. Equivalence point change in the color f an indicator

XV.MEASURING CONCENTRATION
A. Dilute solution small solute to solvent
B. Concentrated large solute to solvent
C. Measurement
i. Molarity amount of solute per solution, depends on volume which is
dependent on temperature
ii. Molality 0 needed to compare concentration over wide range of
temperature
iii. Ratio of masses: ppm, ppb
iv. Parts per volume

XVI. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES: Vapor pressure lowering, freezing point

depression, boiling point elevation, osmotic pressure
A. Colligative property: dependent on the number of particlse dissolved in
the solution (not the type)
B. Vapor Pressure Lowering: vapor pressure of solution is lower than the
vapor pressure of pure solvent. Adding solute reduces the rate of the
solutions vaporization
i. Rate of condensation is greater than rate of vaporization
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ii. Therefore, molecules constantly vaporize from the pure solvent, but
the solvents vapor pressure is never reached because molecules are
constantly condensing into the solution. The result is a continuous
transfer of solvent molecules from the pure solvent to the solution.
C. Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point elevation
i. More solution need more energy to evaporate and less energy to
freeze
ii. Higher concentration, lower freezing point
D. Osmotic Pressure
i. Osmosis: flow of solvent from a solution of lower solute concentration to
one of higher solute concentration
a. Concentrated solutions drw solvent from more dilute solutions
ii. Colligative Properties of strong electrolyte solutions
a. Include the vant Hoff factor (i); ratio of moles of particles in solution
to moles of formula units dissolved

XVII. SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT, Ksp

A. Ksp: equilibrium constant for a solid substance dissolving in an aqueous
solution
i. Represents the level at which a solute dissolves in a solution
ii. More soluble a substance is, higher constant it has
iii. Measure of the solubility of a compound
B. Common ion effect: solubility of reaction is reduced by common ion
i. In general, the solubility of an ionic compound is lower in a solution
containing a common ion than in pure water.
C. Salt effect: uncommon ions increase constants value
D. Ion pairs: With an ionic pair, the experimental constant is less than the
experimental value.
E. Molar solubility: solubility in units of moles per liter (mol/L)
F. pH: In general, the solubility of an ionic compound with a strongly basic or
weakly basic anion increases with increasing acidity (decreasing pH).

XVIII. NATURE OF ACIDS AND BASES

A. Acids: sour taste, ability to dissolve metals, litmus paper to red, neutralize
base
B. Bases: bitter taste, slippery feel, litmus paper to blue, neutralize acids

XIX. DEFINITION OF ACIDS AND BASES

A. Arrhenius
i. Acid: substance producing H ions
ii. Base: substance producing OH ions
iii. Example: HCl forms hydronium ions when bonding with water
iv. Hydrogen and hydroxide combine, neutralize, and form water
B. Bronsted-Lowry more accepted; transfer of H+ ions
i. Acid: proton donor
ii. Base: proton acceptor
iii. Example: HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
a. Associates with water molecule to form hydronium ion; applies to
bases that do not inherently contain OH but still produce OH ions
b. Example: NH3 +H2O NH4 + OH
iv. Substance that are acid and base are amphoteric
v. Base becomes acid, acid becomes base: conjugate acid-base pair
a. Base conjugate acid (any base to which a proton has been added)

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b. Acid conjugate base (any base to which a proton has been

removed)
vi. Lewis Acids and bases
a. Focuses on the electron pair
b. Acid: electron pair acceptor
c. Base: electron pair donor
d. According to the Lewis definition, H+ in the reaction just shown is
acting as an acid because it is accepting an electron pair from NH3.
NH3 is acting as a Lewis base because it is donating an electron pair
to H+.
e. Although the Lewis model does not significantly expand the
substances that can be
f. considered a basebecause all proton acceptors must have an
electron pair to bind the protonit does significantly expand the
substances that can be considered an acid. According to the Lewis
model, a substance need not even contain hydrogen to be an acid.
g. A Lewis acid has an empty orbital (or can rearrange electrons to
create an empty orbital) that can accept an electron pair

XX.ACID STRENGTH AND THE ACID IONIZATION CONSANT (Ka)

A. Strength of electrolyte is dependent on the dissociation into its component
ions in solution
i. Strong - completely
ii. Weak partially
B. Generic formula for acid: HA + H2O H 3O + A
i. Strong acid completely ionizes in solution
ii. Weak acid partially
iii. Equilibrium right acid is strong
iv. Equilibrium left small percentage is ionized
C. Strong acids HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3 (niric acid), HClO4 (perchloric acid),
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
D. Weak acids not complete ionization, dependent on the attraction
between the anion f the acid and the hydrogen ion
i. If H and A attraction is weak forward reaction and acid is strong
ii. If H and A attraction is strong reverse direction is favored
iii. In general, the stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base and
vice versa
E. Strength of a weak acid with the acid ionization constant (Ka): equilibrium
constant for the ionization reaction of the weak acid.
i. Smaller constant, the weaker the acid
F. Since water is amphoteric, it can either be an acid or a base. When pure,
water acts as an acid and a base with itself, a process called
autoionization

XXI. CONSTANTS AND SCALES

A. Ion product constant for water (Kw): dissociation constant for water.
i. Pure water: concentration are equal and solution is neutral
ii. Acidic solution may add more H3O but the constant is still the same.
iii. Basic solution adds OH ions.
B. pH: compact way to specify acidity of solution.
C. pOH: basicity of the solution
D. pKa: another way to quantify the strength of a weak acid

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i. smaller pKa, the stronger the acid

XXII. FINDING CONCENTRATION OF H3O+ and pH of strong and weak acid

solutions
A. Solution has two potential sources of H3O: the ionization of the acid itself
and the autoionization of water.
i. Except in dilute solutions: autoionization of water contributes a small
amount of hydronium ions.
ii. In most strong or weak acid solutions, the autoionization of water
produces even less hydronium ions than in pure water and can be
ignored.
B. Strong acids. Complete ionization. The concentration of H3O is equal to
the concentration of the strong acid.
C. Weak acids. Requires solving an equilibrium problem

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XXIII.

BASE SOLUTIONS
A. Strong base completely dissociates
i. Mostly metal hydroxides
a. 1A highly soluble
b. 2A slightly soluble
B. Weak base analogous to weak acid
C. Base ionization constant Kb
i. Smaller constant, weaker base
ii. -logKb = pkb

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