INSTITUTO POLITCNICO

NACIONAL
Escuela Superior de
Cmputo

PRACTICE 3
Resistive sensors
Content
Theoretical Introduction...................................................................................... 2
Resistive Sensors............................................................................................. 2
Resistivity and Resistance................................................................................ 2
Theory of Operation of Potentiometers............................................................3
Types and Designs........................................................................................... 3
Application....................................................................................................... 4
Resistive Sensor usage....................................................................................... 5
Objective.......................................................................................................... 5
Material and equipment used..........................................................................5
Practice Development...................................................................................... 1
Resistors Bridge............................................................................................ 1
Basic bridge amplifier................................................................................... 4
Questionnaire.................................................................................................. 5
Conclusions...................................................................................................... 5
Biography........................................................................................................ 6
Theoretical Introduction

Resistive Sensors
A resistive sensor is a transducer or electromechanical device that converts a
mechanical change such as displacement into an electrical signal that can be
monitored after conditioning.
Resistive sensors are among the most common in instrumentation.
The simplest resistive sensor is the potentiometer. Other resistive sensors
include strain gages and thermistors. Resistive sensors are often combined
with Wheatstone bridges. Older carbon microphones are also resistive sensors.
The theoretical background for all these sensors is the theory of resistivity.

Resistivity and Resistance

Resistivity is the electrical resistance measured for any material having uniform
cross-sectional area and is usually stated in terms of the materials length
and/or cross sectional area. Resistivity is resistance stated in terms of length
and cross-sectional area as shown in the equation
Resistance = (Resistivity * Length)/Area
The unit of resistivity is the ohm-ft or the circular mil-ohm-ft. The resistance of
a material depends on four factors:
Composition
Length
Temperature
Cross Sectional Area
To change the resistance of a material, you must change the value of one of
the above factors. When length is modified the change in resistance is direct. If
you double the material s length, its resistance doubles. When the cross
sectional area is modified the change in resistance has an inverse effect, IE R =
k/A. If you double the cross-sectional area of wire, its resistivity is cut in half.
Changes in composition and temperature do not change the resistivity of a
material in such a simple way.

Theory of Operation of Potentiometers

A potentiometer is an electromechanical device containing a movable wiper
arm that maintains electrical contact with a resistive surface. The wiper is
coupled mechanically to a movable member or linkage. The wiper and resistive
surface form a voltage divider circuit when voltage is applied across the entire
resistance within the potentiometer.
A variable voltage can then be produced at a wiper arm relative to one end of
the resistor as the wiper is moved. The wiper is usually made of a material such
as beryllium or phosphor bronze.
The rotating shaft is generally a bearing for industrial applications or bronze
sleeves for inexpensive operations. If the potentiometer is wire wound,
specially formulated platinum or nickel alloy is used. This yields a high
resistance that doesnt change with age and doesnt affect the voltage divider
with changing temperatures. A mandrel is used for support of the wire wound
wrap or resistance material. The mandrel can be composed of plastic, glass, or
insulated metal.
For a wire wrap potentiometer, wire is wrapped around a circular former. The
wiper is mounted on a shaft through the center of the former and slides along
one of the circular edges of the wire ring. The insulation is removed from the
wire in the area of contact.

Types and Designs

There are several types of potentiometers besides wire wound. There are also
carbon film, metal film, conductive plastic film, cermet (ceramic-metal
combination), and slide wire. These types can also be designed as multi-turn or
continuous turn potentiometers. The disadvantage for any rotary potentiometer
is that a dead zone is required so that the sensor doesn t short out the
beginning of the potentiometer surface to the end of the surface.
Potentiometers used for standard electronic work have about 270
of usable rotation. Instrumentation potentiometers typically have about 358
of usable rotation, leaving a dead zone of just a few degrees. Carbon film
potentiometers are subject to wear. Carbon granules form on the track and
accumulate under the wiper forming a variable resistance layer. This
phenomenon is very noticeable in radios that crackle when the volume knob is
turned
The simplest of all potentiometers is the slide wire. It consisted merely of a
straight piece of wire with a power source connected across it. A wiper moves
along the wire picking off the voltage.
The metal film potentiometer consists of a partially conductive metal sprayed
on the mandrel in its molten state to form the variable resistance surface over
which the wiper travels.
The continuous plastic film potentiometer consists of a conductive plastic
molded into a film that has been mounted on a stiffened, nonconductive
backbone or substrate. The carbon film potentiometer consists of a mixture of
carbon and a nonconductive clay-like substance bonded in the form of a thin
layer or film over a plastic or metal form. The cermet potentiometer consists of
a mixture of metal particles and a ceramic material fired onto a surface to form
a very hard and durable resistive surface. The composition of the material for
any of these films determines their resistive value. One advantage of film
potentiometers is that they can be designed to have a logarithmic or linear
output.

Application
Potentiometers can be applied in almost any application where a movement
needs to be measured.
The only theory involved in application is the voltage divider rule, which is
derived directly from Ohms law. The formula for linear voltage output is simply:
Output voltage = (wiper distance)*(input voltage)/(total length)
This formula can be easily rearranged to find any component.
Note that all potentiometers draw power through the resistor at all times. Using
a very high resistance potentiometer can reduce the power drawn. This has the
unfortunate side effect of creating a high-impedance output to the next stage
of the instrumentation chain. We usually desire a low-impedance source so that
the input impedance of the next stage does not affect the accuracy of the
measurement. Design with potentiometer sensors becomes a trade-off
between current consumption and impedance matching.
Potentiometers can also have logarithmic scales. Logarithmic pots can be very
useful as part of the signal conditioning of a sensor. If a measurement is
inherently exponential then a logarithmic pot can be used to compensate. This
is why logarithmic pots are used for volumen control in audio work. Perceived
sound is an exponential quantity (dB).
One interesting application for potentiometric sensors is known as the String
Pot design.
In this design a string is attached around a spring-loaded drum so that linear
motion is converted to rotary motion
Resistive Sensor usage

Objective

Student will learn to use resistive sensors, as well as calibrate different

measurement systems devices, in order to find the voltage value that
corresponds to the variable under measurement.

Material and equipment used

Equipment proportionated by
laboratorys personal:
Material that students must bring:
2 Digital mulimeters from
Breadboard
different brand
2 10K resistors
1 Variable VCD source
1 1K resistor
2 banana - banana clips
6 banana - alligator clips
1 10K thermistor
1 10K potentiometer
1 LM35 sensor
3 LM741 operational amplifier
1 lighter
Various cables
Practice Development

Resistors Bridge
Build the circuit from figure 1 taking in count that Weatstone bridge must be
balanced, which means E1 E2=0V , at atmospheric temperature (aprox
25C).

Figura 1
Start with resistive bridge calibration, following thermistors resistence and
using potentiometer R3. Once Resistors Bridge is calibrated, proceed to plug in
to the circuit from figure 2, in which LM741 operational amplifiers should be
used and energized with 12 V .

Figura 2

Set required temperature values, on table 1, taking as reference LM35 resistive

sensor and proceed to measure solicited values on table. LM35 resistive sensor
must be energized with 5% (as set on annex 1) then apply heat to measure at
the same time, in its exit terminal, the voltage value delivered, which is
proportional to the established temperature. Try to apply heat simultaneously
to LM35 resistive sensor as well as to thermistor, this by using lighter.

Thermistor Measured Measured Measured Measured Calculated

temperatur E1 (Volts) E2 (Volts) E1 - E2 Vsal (Volts) thermistor
e (C) (Volts) resistance
(k)
25 2.48 0.118 0.362 12.202
30 1.80 0.77 0.470 5.925
35 1.741 0.839 1.338 5.581
40 1.45 0.68 1.788 6.343
45 1.094 1.536 1.994 2.800
50 2.530 0.870 1.70 2.118 2.106
55 0.324 2.306 2.187 0.692
60 0.532 2.098 2.222 1.19
65 0.495 2.135 2.250 1.04
70 0.299 2.331 2.267 0.636
75 0.315 2.315 2.279 0.672
80 0.227 2.403 2.287 0.475

The circuit from figure 2 must fix in order to Vsal comes from 0 to 5V over
stablished measured range.

Basic bridge amplifier

Build figure 3 circuit using LM741 operational amplifier.
Calibrate potentiometer vale in order to set Vsal which corresponds to
atmospheric temperature equals to 0. Once the circuit is calibrated, proceed to
fill the solicited values on table 2 for temperature solicited values taking as
reference, again, LM35 resistive sensor.

Thermistors Measured Vsal (Volts) Calculated thermistors

temperature (C) resistance (k)
25 30mV 10
30 206mV 9.09
35 259mV 9.28
40 261mV 8.6
45 2.62mV 8.51
50 2.57V 8.75
55 2.62V 8.66
60 2.61V 8.54
65 2.62V 8.46
70 2.62V 8.36
75 2.62V 8.25
80 2.62V 8.21

Questionnaire

1. Tell the difference between the circuits built in this practice.

The first circuit couldnt be exactly balance thats why we built the
second one to ensure the exit to be an absolute zero and even with it we
couldnt make it but we only got a minimum difference in mV.

2. Which of the different circuits is better? Why?

We think the best taking in count how exact it is we consider the 2 nd one
(1st with opamps)
Because we get to calibrate it better to give us nearly a zero on the
Resistors bridge

3. How else could this measures could be done?

Just taking in count the Thermistors resistance and also calculating
induction on the circuit and manually using Ohms law.

4. Investigate. Which transducer is recommended to measure temperature

inside an oven?.
A piezo-Transducer, Buzzer.
Conclusions
In this Practice we could observe those limits or differences we get from
sensors and how to calibrate them to get the most precise value from the unit
we are sensing as from this case was the temperature and how to build a
circuit basic with no such a precise value but nearly the same from the other
that was kind of more complicated.

Biography

Resistive Sensors - UDAYTON