British thermal unit (Btu)

Btu is the approximate heat required to raise 1 lb.

of water 1 deg Fahrenheit, from 590F to 600F. Air
conditioners are rated by the number of British
Thermal Units (Btu) of heat they can remove per hour.
Another common rating term for air conditioning size
is the "ton," which is 12,000 Btu per hour and Watts.
Some countries utilize one unit, more than the others
and therefore it is good if you can remember the
relationship between BTU/hr, Ton, and Watts.
a- 1 ton is equivalent to 12,000 BTU/hr. and
b- 12,000 BTU/hr is equivalent to 3,516 Watts - or
3.516 kW (kilo-Watts).
Concepts and fundamentals of air conditioner sizing
are based on heat gain, and/or losses in a building. It
is obvious that you will need to remove the amount of
heat gain - if it is hot outside. Similarly, you'll need to
add in the heat loss from your space - if outside
temperature is cold. In short, heat gain and loss,
must be equally balanced by heat removal, and
addition, to get the desired room comfort that we
want.
Right-sizing the HVAC system begins with an
accurate understanding of the heating and cooling
loads on a space. The values determined by the
heating and cooling load calculation process dictate
the equipment selection and the duct design needed
to deliver conditioned air to the rooms of the house to
meet the occupants comfort expectations.

Load Reduction

The first priority is to reduce the amount of energy

buildings use.
By incorporating various techniques and technologies
energy demand can be cut.
 Electrical load reduction:
By specifying low energy appliances, non electric
water heating and utilizing passive ventilation and
high levels of natural day lighting, electrical usage
can be reduced by around 25%.

Thermal load reduction:

The following measures reduce space heating loads to
near zero (depending on occupants internal gains
and target temperatures)

1-Super Insulation:
300mm of mineral wool insulation reduces U value
to 0.1 W/m2`C

2-Thermal Mass:
Internally exposed thermally massive construction
reduces heating and cooling load by storing thermal
energy.

3-Airtight construction:
It drastically reduces winter heat loss through
infiltration.

4-Passive Heat Recovery Ventilation:

Wind cowl system achieves necessary air changes

per hour for fresh clean air without excessive heat
loss or any electrical demand.
5-Cavity walls
Methods of Heat Transfer
If you have been following along since the
beginning of this lesson, then you have been
developing a progressively sophisticated
understanding of temperature and heat. You should
be developing a model of matter as consisting of
particles which vibrate (wiggle about a fixed
position), translate (move from one location to
another) and even rotate (revolve about an imaginary
axis). These motions give the particles kinetic energy.
Temperature is a measure of the average amount of
kinetic energy possessed by the particles in a sample
of matter. The more the particles vibrate, translate
and rotate, the greater the temperature of the object.
You have hopefully adopted an understanding of heat
as a flow of energy from a higher temperature object
to a lower temperature object. It is the temperature
difference between the two neighboring objects that
causes this heat transfer. The heat transfer continues
until the two objects have reached thermal
equilibrium and are at the same temperature. The
discussion of heat transfer has been structured
around some everyday examples such as the cooling
of a hot mug of coffee and the warming of a cold can
of pop. Finally, we have explored a thought
experiment in which a metal can containing hot water
is placed within a Styrofoam cup containing cold
water. Heat is transferred from the hot water to the
cold water until both samples have the same
temperature.
Now we should probe some of the
following questions:
What is happening at the
particle level when energy is
being transferred between two
objects?
Why is thermal equilibrium always established
when two objects transfer heat?
How does heat transfer work within the bulk of
an object?
Is there more than one method of heat transfer?
If so, then how are they similar and different
than one another?
1-Heat transfer by Conduction
Let's begin our discussion by returning to our
thought experiment in which a metal can containing
hot water was placed within a Styrofoam cup
containing cold water. Heat is transferred from the
hot water to the cold water until both samples have
the same temperature. In this instance, the transfer
of heat from the hot water through the metal can to
the cold water is sometimes referred to as
conduction. Conductive heat flow involves the
transfer of heat from one location to another in the
absence of any material flow. There is nothing
physical or material moving from the hot water to the
cold water. Only energy is transferred from the hot
water to the cold water. Other than the loss of energy,
there is nothing else escaping from the hot water.
And other than the gain of energy, there is nothing
else entering the cold water. How does this happen?
What is the mechanism that makes conductive heat
flow possible?
A question like this is a particle-
level question. To understand the
answer, we have to think about
matter as consisting of tiny
particles atoms, molecules and
ions. These particles are in
constant motion; this gives them
kinetic energy. As mentioned
previously in this lesson, these
particles move throughout the
space of a container, colliding with each other and
with the walls of their container. This is known as
translational kinetic energy and is the main form of
kinetic energy for gases and liquids. But these
particles can also vibrate about a fixed position. This
gives the particles vibrational kinetic energy and is
the main form of kinetic energy for solids. To put it
more simply, matter consists of little wigglers and
little bangers. The wigglers are those particles
vibrating about a fixed position. They possess
vibrational kinetic energy. The bangers are those
particles that move through the container with
translational kinetic energy and collide with the
container walls.
The container walls represent the perimeters of a
sample of matter. Just as the perimeter of your
property (as in real estate property) is the furthest
extension of the property, so the perimeter of an
object is the furthest extension of the particles within
a sample of matter. At the perimeter, the little
bangers are colliding with particles of another
substance - the particles of the container or even the
surrounding air. Even the wigglers that are fixed in a
position along the perimeter are doing some banging.
Being at the perimeter, their wiggling results in
collisions with the particles that are next to them;
these are the particles of the container or of the
surrounding air.
At this perimeter or boundary, the
collisions of the little bangers and
wigglers are elastic collisions in which
the total amount of kinetic energy of
all colliding particles is conserved. The net effect of
these elastic collisions is that there is a transfer of
kinetic energy across the boundary to the particles on
the opposite side. The more energetic particles will
lose a little kinetic energy and the less energetic
particles will gain a little kinetic energy. Temperature
is a measure of the average amount of kinetic energy
possessed by the particles in a sample of matter. So
on average, there are more particles in the higher
temperature object with greater kinetic energy than
there are in the lower temperature object. So when
we average all the collisions together and apply the
principles associated with elastic collisions to the
particles within a sample of matter, it is logical to
conclude that the higher temperature object will lose
some kinetic energy and the lower temperature
object will gain some kinetic energy. The collisions of
our little bangers and wigglers will continue to
transfer energy until the temperatures of the two
objects are identical. When this state of thermal
equilibrium has been reached, the average kinetic
energy of both objects' particles is equal. At thermal
equilibrium, there are an equal number of collisions
resulting in an energy gain as there are collisions
resulting in an energy loss. On average, there is no
net energy transfer resulting from the collisions of
particles at the perimeter.
At the macroscopic level, heat
is the transfer of energy from
the high temperature object to
the low temperature object. At
the particulate level, heat flow
can be explained in terms of
the net effect of the collisions
of a whole bunch of little bangers. Warming and
cooling is the macroscopic result of this particle-level
phenomenon. Now let's apply this particle view to the
scenario of the metal can with the hot water
positioned inside of a Styrofoam cup containing cold
water. On average, the particles with the greatest
kinetic energy are the particles of the hot water.
Being a fluid, those particles move about with
translational kinetic energy and bang upon the
particles of the metal can. As the hot water particles
bang upon the particles of the metal can, they
transfer energy to the metal can. This warms the
metal can up. Most metals are good thermal
conductors so they warm up quite quickly throughout
the bulk of the can. The can assumes nearly the same
temperature as the hot water. Being a solid, the metal
can consists of little wigglers. The wigglers at the
outer perimeter of the metal can bang upon particles
in the cold water. The collisions between the particles
of the metal can and the particles of the cold water
result in the transfer of energy to the cold water. This
slowly warms the cold water up. The interaction
between the particles of the hot water, the metal can
and the cold water results in a transfer of energy
outward from the hot water to the cold water. The
average kinetic energy of the hot water particles
gradually decreases; the average kinetic energy of
the cold-water particles gradually increases; and
eventually, thermal equilibrium would be reached at
the point that the particles of the hot water and the
cold water have the same average kinetic energy. At
the macroscopic level, one would observe a decrease
in temperature of the hot water and an increase in
temperature of the cold water.

The mechanism in which heat is transferred from one

object to another object through particle collisions is
known as conduction. In conduction, there is no net
transfer of physical stuf between the objects.
Nothing material moves across the boundary. The
changes in temperature are wholly explained as the
result of the gains and losses of kinetic energy during
collisions.

Conduction through the Bulk of an

Object
We have discussed how heat transfers from one
object to another through conduction. But how does it
transfer through the bulk of an object? For instance,
suppose we pull a ceramic coffee mug out of the
cupboard and place it on the countertop. The mug is
at room temperature - maybe at 26C. Then suppose
we fill the ceramic coffee mug with hot coffee at a
temperature of 80C. The mug quickly warms up.
Energy first flows into the particles at the boundary
between the hot coffee and the ceramic mug. But
then it flows through the bulk of the ceramic to all
parts of the ceramic mug. How does heat conduction
occur in the ceramic itself?
The mechanism of heat transfer through the bulk of
the ceramic mug is described in a similar manner as it
before. The ceramic mug consists of a collection of
orderly arranged wigglers. These are particles that
wiggle about a fixed position. As the ceramic particles
at the boundary between the hot coffee and the mug
warm up, they attain a kinetic energy that is much
higher than their neighbors. As they wiggle more
vigorously, they bang into their neighbors and
increase their vibrational kinetic energy. These
particles in turn begin to wiggle more vigorously and
their collisions with their neighbors increase their
vibrational kinetic energy. The process of energy
transfer by means of the little bangers continues from
the particles at the inside of the mug (in contact with
the coffee particles) to the outside of the mug (in
contact with the surrounding air). Soon the entire
coffee mug is warm and your hand feels it.
 This mechanism of conduction by particle-to-
particle interaction is very common in ceramic
materials such as a coffee mug. Does it work the
same in metal objects? For instance, you likely have
noticed the high temperatures attained by the metal
handle of a skillet when placed upon a stovetop. The
burners on the stove transfer heat to the metal
skillet. If the handle of the skillet is metallic, it too
attains a high temperature, certainly high enough to
cause a bad burn. The transfer of heat from the skillet
to the skillet handle occurs by conduction. But in
metals, the conduction mechanism is slightly more
complicated. In a manner similar to electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity in metals occurs by
the movement of free electrons. Outer shell electrons
of metal atoms are shared among atoms and are free
to move throughout the bulk of the metal. These
electrons carry the energy from the skillet to the
skillet handle. The details of this mechanism of
thermal conduction in metals are considerably more
complex than the discussion given here. The main
point to grasp is that heat transfer through metals
occurs without any movement of atoms from the
skillet to the skillet handle. This qualifies the heat
transfer as being categorized as thermal conduction.

2-Heat Transfer by Convection

Is conduction the only means of
heat transfer? Can heat be
transferred across through the bulk
of an object in methods other than
conduction? The answer is yes. The
model of heat transfer through the
ceramic coffee mug and the metal skillet involved
conduction. The ceramic of the coffee mug and the
metal of the skillet are both solids. Heat transfer
through solids occurs by conduction. This is primarily
due to the fact that solids have orderly arrangements
of particles that are fixed in place. Liquids and gases
are not very good conductors of heat. In fact, they are
considered good thermal insulators. Heat typically
does not flow through liquids and gases by means of
conduction. Liquids and gases are fluids; their
particles are not fixed in place; they move about the
bulk of the sample of matter. The model used for
explaining heat transfer through the bulk of liquids
and gases involves convection. Convection is the
process of heat transfer from one location to the next
by the movement of fluids. The moving fluid carries
energy with it. The fluid flows from a high
temperature location to a low temperature location.
To understand convection in
fluids, let's consider the heat
transfer through the water that
is being heated in a pot on a
stove. Of course the source of
the heat is the stove burner.
The metal pot that holds the
water is heated by the stove burner. As the metal
becomes hot, it begins to conduct heat to the water.
The water at the boundary with the metal pan
becomes hot. Fluids expand when heated and become
less dense. So as the water at the bottom of the pot
becomes hot, its density decreases. Differences in
water density between the bottom of the pot and the
top of the pot results in the gradual formation of
circulation currents. Hot water begins to rise to the
top of the pot displacing the colder water that was
originally there. And the colder water that was
present at the top of the pot moves towards the
bottom of the pot where it is heated and begins to
rise. These circulation currents slowly develop over
time, providing the pathway for heated water to
transfer energy from the bottom of the pot to the
surface.
Convection also explains how
an electric heater placed on
the floor of a cold room warms
up the air in the room. Air
present near the coils of the
heater warm up. As the air
warms up, it expands,
becomes less dense and
begins to rise. As the hot air
rises, it pushes some of the
cold air near the top of the
room out of the way. The cold
air moves towards the bottom of the room to replace
the hot air that has risen. As the colder air
approaches the heater at the bottom of the room, it
becomes warmed by the heater and begins to rise.
Once more, convection currents are slowly formed.
Air travels along these pathways, carrying energy
with it from the heater throughout the room.
Convection is the main method of heat transfer in
fluids such as water and air. It is often said that heat
rises in these situations. The more appropriate
explanation is to say that heated fluid rises. For
instance, as the heated air rises from the heater on a
floor, it carries more energetic particles with it. As the
more energetic particles of the heated air mix with
the cooler air near the ceiling, the average kinetic
energy of the air near the top of the room increases.
This increase in the average kinetic energy
corresponds to an increase in temperature. The net
result of the rising hot fluid is the transfer of heat
from one location to another location. The convection
method of heat transfer always involves the transfer
of heat by the movement of matter. This is not to be
confused with the caloric theory discussed earlier in
this lesson. In caloric theory, heat was the fluid and
the fluid that moved was the heat. Our model of
convection considers heat to be energy transfer that
is simply the result of the movement of more
energetic particles.
The two examples of convection discussed here -
heating water in a pot and heating air in a room - are
examples of natural convection. The driving force of
the circulation of fluid is natural - differences in
density between two locations as the result of fluid
being heated at some source. (Some sources
introduce the concept of buoyant forces to explain
why the heated fluids rise. We will not pursue such
explanations here.) Natural convection is common in
nature. The earth's oceans and atmosphere are
heated by natural convection. In contrast to natural
convection, forced convection involves fluid being
forced from one location to another by fans, pumps
and other devices. Many home heating systems
involve force air heating. Air is heated at a furnace
and blown by fans through ductwork and released
into rooms at vent locations. This is an example of
forced convection. The movement of the fluid from
the hot location (near the furnace) to the cool
location (the rooms throughout the house) is driven
or forced by a fan. Some ovens are forced convection
ovens; they have fans that blow heated air from a
heat source into the oven. Some fireplaces enhance
the heating ability of the fire by blowing heated air
from the fireplace unit into the adjacent room. This is
another example of forced convection.

3-Heat Transfer by Radiation

A final method of heat transfer involves radiation.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by means of
electromagnetic waves. To radiate means to send out
or spread from a central location. Whether it is light,
sound, waves, rays, flower petals, wheel spokes or
pain, if something radiates then it protrudes or
spreads outward from an origin. The transfer of heat
by radiation involves the carrying of energy from an
origin to the space surrounding it. The energy is
carried by electromagnetic waves and does not
involve the movement or the interaction of matter.
Thermal radiation can occur through matter or
through a region of space that is void of matter (i.e.,
a vacuum). In fact, the heat received on Earth from
the sun is the result of electromagnetic waves
traveling through the void of space between the Earth
and the sun.
All objects radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The rate at which this energy
is released is proportional to the Kelvin temperature
(T) raised to the fourth power.

Radiation rate = kT4

The hotter the object, the more it radiates. The sun

obviously radiates off more energy than a hot mug of
coffee. The temperature also affects the wavelength
and frequency of the radiated waves. Objects at
typical room temperatures radiate energy as infrared
waves. Being invisible to the human eye, we do not
see this form of radiation. An infrared camera is
capable of detecting such radiation. Perhaps you have
seen thermal photographs or videos of the radiation
surrounding a person or animal or a hot mug of coffee
or the Earth. The energy radiated from an object is
usually a collection or range of wavelengths. This is
usually referred to as an emission spectrum. As the
temperature of an object increases, the
wavelengths within the spectra of the emitted
radiation also decrease. Hotter objects tend to
emit shorter wavelength, higher frequency
radiation. The coils of an electric toaster are
considerably hotter than room temperature
and emit electromagnetic radiation in the
visible spectrum. Fortunately, this provides a
convenient warning to its users that the coils
are hot. The tungsten filament of an
incandescent light bulb emits electromagnetic
radiation in the visible (and beyond) range.
This radiation not only allows us to see, it also
warms the glass bulb that contains the
filament. Put your hand near the bulb (without
touching it) and you will feel the radiation from
the bulb as well.
Thermal radiation is a form of heat transfer
because the electromagnetic radiation emitted
from the source carries energy away from the
source to surrounding (or distant) objects. This
energy is absorbed by those objects, causing
the average kinetic energy of their particles to
increase and causing the temperatures to rise.
In this sense, energy is transferred from one
location to another by means of
electromagnetic radiation. The image at the
right was taken by a thermal imaging camera.
The camera detects the radiation emitted by
objects and represents it by means of a color
photograph. The hotter colors represent areas
of objects that are emitting thermal radiation
at a more intense rate.