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Coping Resources, Coping

Processes, and Mental
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Health
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

Shelley E. Taylor and Annette L. Stanton

Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
90095-1563; email: taylors@psych.ucla.edu, astanton@ucla.edu

Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007. 3:377–401 Key Words

First published online as a Review in coping resources and processes, genetic bases of coping, neural
Advance on November 6, 2006
bases of coping, coping interventions, stress
The Annual Review of Clinical Psychology is
online at http://clinpsy.annualreviews.org Abstract
This article’s doi: Coping, defined as action-oriented and intrapsychic efforts to man-
10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091520
age the demands created by stressful events, is coming to be rec-
Copyright  c 2007 by Annual Reviews. ognized both for its significant impact on stress-related mental and
All rights reserved
physical health outcomes and for its intervention potential. We re-
1548-5943/07/0427-0377$20.00 view coping resources that aid in this process, including individual
differences in optimism, mastery, self-esteem, and social support, and
examine appraisal and coping processes, especially those marked by
approach or avoidance. We address the origins of coping resources
and processes in genes, early life experience, and gene-environment
interactions, and address neural underpinnings of coping that may
shed light on evaluating coping interventions. We conclude by
outlining possible intervention strategies for improving coping
processes.

377
ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

(Lazarus & Launier 1978). Coping resources

Contents can aid in this process; these resources include
relatively stable individual differences in op-
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
timism, a sense of mastery, and self-esteem,
COPING RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
and in social support. Coping resources, in
COPING PROCESSES AND
turn, affect coping processes, specifically ones
ADJUSTMENT UNDER
marked by approach, such as taking direct ac-
STRESSFUL CONDITIONS . . . 382
tion or confronting emotional responses to a
Coping as a Mediator of Relations
stressor, and ones marked by avoidance, such
Between Psychosocial
as withdrawal or denial. Coping efforts may
Parameters and Adjustment . . . . 384
be adaptive or maladaptive, and the form that
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ORIGINS OF COPING
coping processes assume affects how success-
RESOURCES AND
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

ful resolution of a stressor will be.

PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
In this essay, we focus on the origins and
Origins of Coping in the Early
effects of coping resources and processes, de-
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
scribing how they develop over the lifespan,
Genetic Origins of Coping . . . . . . . . 386
how they affect mental and physical health,
Gene-Environment Interactions . . 387
and whether they can be taught through in-
NEURAL LINKS FROM COPING
terventions. Although we focus primarily on
TO STRESS-RELATED
mental health, we address physical health out-
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL
comes in certain places. The rationale for
HEALTH OUTCOMES . . . . . . . . . 388
so doing stems from the strong comorbidi-
Neural Bases of Threat Detection
ties between mental and physical health out-
and Coping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
comes and the likelihood that mechanisms re-
PATHWAYS FOR
lating coping to mental (or physical) health
INTERVENTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
outcomes will have implications for physi-
Interventions Directed Toward
cal (or mental) health as well. In addition,
Coping Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
the major stress systems of the body impli-
Interventions Directed Toward
cate both mental and physical health risks.
Coping Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Stress-related changes in autonomic and neu-
Interventions Directed Toward
roendocrine functioning include (a) activa-
Changing Environments . . . . . . . 391
tion of the sympathetic nervous system, which
TOWARD THE FUTURE . . . . . . . . . 392
leads to increases in anxiety, heart rate, and
blood pressure, among other changes; and
(b) activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal (HPA) axis, which leads to the pro-
INTRODUCTION duction of corticosteroids, including cortisol,
Stress is a negative experience, accompanied which are necessary for energy mobilization,
by predictable emotional, biochemical, physi- but are implicated in both mental (e.g., de-
ological, cognitive, and behavioral accommo- pression) and physical (e.g., infectious dis-
dations (Baum 1999). Coping is the process orders) health risks. Stress inductions have
of attempting to manage the demands created also been associated with changes in proin-
by stressful events that are appraised as tax- flammatory cytokine activity (e.g., Dickerson
ing or exceeding a person’s resources (Lazarus et al. 2004), effects that may be driven, in
& Folkman 1984). These efforts can be both part, by autonomic and HPA axis activity.
action-oriented and intrapsychic; they seek Proinflammatory cytokine activity (including
to manage, master, tolerate, reduce, or mini- interleukin-6 [IL-6] and tumor necrosis factor
mize the demands of a stressful environment alpha [sTNFαRII]) is stimulated by stressful

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conditions and has been tied to negative emo- We begin with the characterization of coping
tional states, including depression (Maier & resources and processes.1 We next consider
Watkins 1998). Although these stress-related the origins of coping resources and processes
multisystem changes are protective in the in the early environment, genes, and gene-
short term, their chronic activation may neg- environment interactions. We then consider
atively affect mental health over time, poten- neural mechanisms, which may link coping
tially elevating risk for depression and anxiety resources and processes to downstream men-
disorders and also enhancing risks for physi- tal and physical health outcomes. The litera-
cal illnesses, including cardiovascular disease ture on the origins of coping in genes, gene-
and Type II diabetes (see, e.g., Kiecolt-Glaser environment interactions, and neural bases of
et al. 2002 for a review). Coping can intervene coping is still in its infancy. But, as we note
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between stress and mental and physical health in the conclusions, we believe these direc-
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

outcomes such as these, and thus merits con- tions represent important avenues for future
sideration both as an intrinsically significant research. Finally, we return to coping pro-
process in its own right and as a potential point cesses and resources as portals of interven-
of intervention for reducing adverse men- tion and close by posing directions for future
tal and physical health risks of stress. Note study.
that we do not focus on stress-related pro-
cesses and risk for specific psychological dis-
orders, as these topics have been recently re- COPING RESOURCES
viewed (e.g., Hammen 2005, Ozer et al. 2003), It has long been known that people with a
but rather on psychological outcomes more diverse array of mental disorders, including
generally. depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders,
The empirical literature on coping is vast. and autism lack coping resources for man-
A PsycINFO literature search of scientific aging the challenges of daily living. Like-
journal articles from 2000 through 2005 us- wise, chronic psychological distress, which is
ing “coping” as a keyword generated 5151 related to lack of coping resources (Repetti
documents. In a recent Annual Review of Psy- et al. 2002), is implicated in more than half
chology article, Folkman & Moskowitz (2004) of the DSM-IV axis I disorders and in al-
reviewed the history of coping research, iden- most all of the axis II psychiatric disorders
tified challenges for researchers (e.g., prob- (Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 1994). For example,
lems in measurement), and highlighted new depression is marked by pessimism, low self-
developments. Commenting on the rapid ex- esteem, a low sense of control, and adverse
pansion of research on coping over the past effects on social relationships (Beck 1967).
three decades, they noted, as we do, that the The inability to establish and maintain nor-
construct’s “allure is not only as an explana- mal social relations with others is central to
tory concept regarding variability in response autism (Med. Res. Counc. 2001). The onset
to stress, but also as a portal for interventions” of schizophrenia is associated with a disrup-
(p. 746). tion in an individual’s sense of agency and
The model that organizes and character- perceived abilities to act intentionally (e.g.,
izes our assessment of the origins and con-
sequences of coping appears in Figure 1.
Figure 1 may be read both as a lifespan 1
We here distinguish between coping processes and emo-
model that moves from the origins of cop- tion regulation. The term “coping processes” refers to
ing resources and processes in early life to thoughts and behaviors undertaken to manage the demands
health and mental health outcomes later in of stressful circumstances, which may include emotion reg-
ulation efforts. Emotion regulation involves the monitor-
life, and as a conceptual account of coping ing, evaluation, control, and expression of emotion, espe-
that occurs iteratively across episodes of stress. cially in challenging circumstances.

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Early environment Genetic predispositions

-Childhood SES -Serotonin system
-Early family -Dopamine system
environment

Chronic negative affect Coping resources

-Depressive symptoms -Social support
-Anxiety -Optimism
-Mastery
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-Neuroticism
-Self-esteem
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Neural responses to Appraisal and coping

threat (e.g., approach,
-Anterior cingulate avoidance) processes
cortex
-Amygdala
-Hypothalamus
-Prefrontal cortex

Psychological, autonomic,
neuroendocrine, and
immune responses to
threatening circumstances

Figure 1
Mental and physical
Origins and effects health risks
of coping
resources.

Frith et al. 2000). The lack of coping re- antecedents of specific coping strategies, cop-
sources associated with clinical disorders in ing resources can also have direct effects on
some cases may represent symptoms, in other psychological and physical health.
cases, developmental risk factors, and in other Optimism refers to outcome expectancies
instances, risk factors for poor prognosis or that good things rather than bad things will
recurrence. happen to the self. Dispositional optimism,
Researchers have identified stable individ- typically measured by the Life Orientation
ual differences in coping resources that both Test (LOT-R; Scheier et al. 1994), has been
improve the ability to manage stressful events tied to a broad array of mental and phys-
and are tied to lesser distress and better health ical health benefits, including greater psy-
outcomes. Among these are optimism, psy- chological well-being (e.g., Kubzansky et al.
chological control or mastery, self-esteem, 2002), faster recovery from illness (Scheier
and social support. In addition to their roles as et al. 1989), and a slower course of physical

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

disease (e.g., Matthews et al. 2004) (see Carver comes (Scheier et al. 1994; see also Neiss et al.
& Scheier 2002 for a review). In addition, 2005).
researchers have examined situation-specific Social support, another significant coping
optimistic expectations, which represent a po- resource, is defined as the perception or ex-
tential target for intervention; they appear to perience that one is loved and cared for by
have similar beneficial effects on stress-related others, esteemed and valued, and part of a so-
mental and physical health outcomes (e.g., cial network of mutual assistance and obli-
Reed et al. 1999). gations (Wills 1991). Research consistently
Personal control or mastery refers to demonstrates that social support reduces
whether a person feels able to control or in- psychological distress, such as depression or
fluence outcomes (Thompson 1981). Studies anxiety, during times of stress and promotes
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have shown a relationship between a sense psychological adjustment to a broad array of

Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

of control and better psychological health chronically stressful conditions (see Taylor
(Haidt & Rodin 1999), as well as better 2007 for a review). Social support also con-
physical health outcomes, including lower tributes to physical health and survival. For
incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD; example, Berkman & Syme (1979) found that
Karasek et al. 1982), better self-rated health, having a high number of social contacts pre-
better functional status, and lower mortality dicted an average 2.5 increased years of life.
(Seeman & Lewis 1995). As is true for opti- Recent research has tied coping resources
mism, situation-specific control expectations, to underlying mechanisms that may medi-
which are often conceptualized as self-efficacy ate their effects. For example, Taylor et al.
beliefs, are potential intervention targets and (2003a,b) related a cluster of coping resources
appear to have similar beneficial effects on including optimism, mastery, self-esteem, and
managing stressful events (see Bandura 2006 social support to clinical assessments of men-
for a review). tal health (Taylor et al. 2003a) and to lower
A positive sense of self or high self-esteem baseline cortisol levels and autonomic re-
is also protective against adverse mental and sponses to challenging tasks in the laboratory
physical health outcomes. For example, re- (Taylor et al. 2003b). Thus, at least some of
search consistently ties a positive sense of self the beneficial effects of coping resources may
to lower autonomic and cortisol stress re- be mediated by the lesser physiological toll
sponses (Seeman & Lewis 1995). Higher self- that stress exerts among those high in coping
esteem has also been consistently tied to better resources. Social isolation and loneliness have
psychological well-being (e.g., DuBois & Flay been related to high stress reactivity and inad-
2004), and interventions designed to enhance equate and inefficient physiological repair and
the self have beneficial effects on both psycho- maintenance processes (Hawkley & Cacioppo
logical and biological responses to stress (e.g., 2003). In an experimental laboratory investi-
Creswell et al. 2005). gation, Dickerson et al. (2004) found that a
The question has arisen as to whether manipulation designed to induce social threat
these positive coping resources may be the led to an increase in sTNFαRII activity, sug-
mirror image of negative affectivity, such gesting that social emotions (in this case,
that people who are low in chronic nega- shame and guilt) may be associated with ele-
tive affect have higher optimism, control- vations in proinflammatory cytokine activity.
related beliefs, or self-esteem essentially by These documented immunologic mecha-
default. An emerging consensus is that al- nisms may help to explain the relation of so-
though positive coping resources share over- cial support/isolation to both acute infectious
lapping variance with negative affectivity, they disorders (Cohen et al. 1997) and to chronic
also account for unique variance in the pre- emotional disorders implicating proinflam-
diction of mental and physical health out- matory cytokine activity, such as depression.

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

Although the existing research suggests & Weiner (2001) found that internal, unsta-
numerous qualifications to these generaliza- ble, or controllable attributions were associ-
tions as a function of type and duration of ated with positive adjustment through their
stressor, coping resources are generally re- relations with greater approach-oriented and
garded as helpful to managing stress and have emotion-focused coping processes. Stable and
both direct effects on mental health as well as uncontrollable illness attributions were asso-
indirect effects on mental health via their ef- ciated with maladjustment through avoidant
fects on coping processes and stress-reducing coping. In a meta-analysis of 15 studies on
abilities. In particular, evidence suggests that cognitive appraisals and coping in cancer pa-
these coping resources may foster more pos- tients, Franks & Roesch (2006) concluded
itive appraisals of potentially stressful situa- that individuals who appraise their disease
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tions and more approach-related coping (e.g., as highly threatening are likely to use more
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

Scheier et al. 1989). problem-focused coping strategies, those who

believe their disease has caused harm or loss
engage in more avoidance, and those who
COPING PROCESSES AND appraise their experience with cancer as po-
ADJUSTMENT UNDER tentially carrying benefits use more problem-
STRESSFUL CONDITIONS focused and approach-oriented coping. Re-
Coping resources in turn affect coping pro- search on coping resources also suggests that
cesses, that is, the specific intrapsychic or be- at least some of their benefits may operate via
havioral actions that people use for manag- appraisals of stressful events as less stressful
ing stress. In the following section, focusing or as more amenable to change (e.g., Bandura
on recent longitudinal and experimental re- 2006).
search, we highlight major findings regard- Numerous frameworks for delineating
ing coping as an explanatory construct in its coping processes have been advanced (for
links to mental and physical health outcomes a review, see Skinner et al. 2003). Cop-
in adults under stress (for a review of coping ing strategies often are organized according
in childhood/adolescence, see Compas et al. to their intended functions: as directed to-
2001). We also examine coping processes as ward resolving the stressful situation (i.e.,
proximal mediators of the relations of other problem-focused coping) or palliating event-
psychosocial parameters to stress-related related distress (i.e., emotion-focused coping;
adjustment. Lazarus & Folkman 1984), or as approaching
In stress and coping theory (e.g., Lazarus or avoiding the sources of stress (approach-
& Folkman 1984), cognitive reappraisal pro- versus avoidance-oriented coping; Suls &
cesses regarding a stressful situation are con- Fletcher 1985). Reflecting a core motivational
sidered important antecedents to coping pro- construct (e.g., Davidson et al. 2000), the
cesses. For example, in a longitudinal study of approach-avoidance continuum maps easily
women seeking treatment for sexual assault, onto broader theories of biobehavioral func-
Frazier et al. (2005, Study 1) found that be- tioning. Examples of active and approach-
havioral self-blame for the assault prompted oriented coping are problem solving, seek-
coping through social withdrawal, which in ing social support, and creating outlets for
turn predicted heightened distress. Women emotional expression. Coping through avoid-
who perceived high control over their re- ance includes both cognitive and behavioral
covery made little use of social withdrawal strategies. Some approaches, such as spiritual
coping and greater use of cognitive restruc- coping, potentially can serve either approach-
turing, which in turn predicted decreased dis- oriented or avoidance goals.
tress. In a meta-analysis of 27 studies on causal Coping processes are conceptualized as ef-
attributions and coping with illness, Roesch fective to the extent that they are responsive

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

to personal and situational contingencies Jordan et al. 1994), HIV infection (Leserman
(Lazarus & Folkman 1984). The empirical lit- et al. 2000), congestive heart failure (Murberg
erature reveals that coping through avoidance et al. 2004), and rheumatoid arthritis
can be useful in specific situations, particu- (Evers et al. 2003). Neuroendocrine param-
larly those that are short term and uncon- eters are associated with avoidant behav-
trollable (Suls & Fletcher 1985). For example, iors under stress (e.g., Roelofs et al. 2005,
Heckman et al. (2004) found that upon notifi- Rosenberger et al. 2004), and passive/avoidant
cation of a questionable mammography result, coping during experimentally imposed stress
women’s use of cognitive avoidance regard- also has been associated with tumor de-
ing the potential outcome predicted reduced velopment in animal models (Vegas et al.
anxiety after being informed that they did 2006). Avoidance-oriented coping may pre-
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not have breast cancer. Early avoidance can empt more effective coping efforts, involve
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

presage longer-term problems when the stres- damaging behaviors (e.g., substance use), or
sor persists, however. For example, Levine induce intrusion of stress-related thoughts
et al. (1987) found that cardiac patients who and emotions.
denied their disease spent fewer days in the Although findings are less consistent for
coronary care unit and had fewer indications approach coping, longitudinal research has
of cardiac dysfunction during hospitalization revealed a link between approach-oriented
than did nondeniers. However, deniers were coping strategies and positive psychological
less adherent to exercise training and had and physical health in stressful circumstances.
more days of rehospitalization in the year after For example, use of such strategies as posi-
discharge. tive reappraisal of stressors, social approach,
As demonstrated in longitudinal research, and problem-focused coping predicts an in-
attempting to avoid thoughts and feelings crease in positive affect (Billings et al. 2000).
surrounding persistent stressors predicts el- In a daily process study (Keefe et al. 1997),
evated distress across such samples as impov- use of coping through relaxation and active
erished women (Rayburn et al. 2005), can- efforts to reduce pain contributed to next-
cer patients (e.g., Stanton & Snider 1993), day enhanced positive mood and reduced
caregivers for individuals with chronic dis- pain in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Use of
ease (Billings et al. 2000), hospitalized burn approach-oriented strategies during military
patients (Fauerbach et al. 2002), and individ- deployment also predicted a reduction in de-
uals coping with terrorist attacks (Silver et al. pressive symptoms in Army personnel after
2002). Use of avoidance-oriented coping also the Gulf War (Sharkansky et al. 2000). In
predicts other important outcomes, including adults caring for a family member with de-
lower medical regimen adherence and subse- mentia, approach-oriented coping was asso-
quently greater viral load in HIV-positive in- ciated with a more vigorous cellular immune
dividuals (Weaver et al. 2005), more risky be- response to pathogens at high levels of stress
haviors in HIV-positive injection drug users (Stowell et al. 2001) and with lower proco-
(Avants et al. 2001), increased physical symp- agulant activity under experimentally induced
toms among AIDS caregivers (Billings et al. acute stress (Aschbacher et al. 2005).
2000), greater pain (Rosenberger et al. 2004) The fact that approach-oriented coping
and compromised recovery of function fol- strategies predict adjustment less consistently
lowing surgical procedures (Stephens et al. than avoidant strategies might be explained
2002), and lower likelihood of remission in by several factors. Some approach-oriented
depressed patients (Cronkite et al. 1998). Sug- processes, such as problem solving, are not
gestive evidence that avoidant coping predicts useful for immutable facets of a stressor, but
chronic disease progression and/or mortality rather are effective only for stressors that are
also exists for samples with cancer (Epping- amenable to change (e.g., Park et al. 2001).

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Further, avoidance- and approach-oriented 1992) use less avoidant and more approach
strategies may differentially predict negative coping, which are tied to better mental and
and positive indicators of stress-related ad- physical health. Approach-oriented strategies
justment, with approach-oriented strategies such as positive reappraisal and active accep-
more likely to contribute to positive affect tance have been found to mediate the relation
(e.g., Billings et al. 2000). Because maladjust- of optimism to better adjustment in stressful
ment receives more attention in the coping circumstances (Brissette et al. 2002, Carver
literature than positive functioning, effective et al. 1993).
approach-oriented coping processes might be In sum, mounting evidence suggests that
missed in such research. coping processes play an important mediating
role between contextual and individual vari-
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ables and adaptive outcomes. A number of

Coping as a Mediator of Relations
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

studies have suggested that coping strategies

Between Psychosocial Parameters are not simply proxies for coping resources,
and Adjustment but rather explain unique variance in adjust-
Ways of coping under stressful conditions do ment (e.g., Murberg et al. 2002). However,
not operate on adjustment in isolation, but some evidence suggests that coping strate-
rather mediate the relations of other psy- gies operate in tandem with other variables
chosocial parameters with adaptive outcomes. to affect outcomes. For example, Lancastle
Antecedent psychosocial parameters include & Boivin (2005) found that low optimism,
characteristics of the stressor, the social con- high trait anxiety, and use of avoidant cop-
text, dispositional attributes, and cognitive ing were significant indicators of a latent con-
appraisals. With regard to stressor charac- struct, which predicted women’s biological
teristics, the experience of both distal (e.g., response to infertility treatment (e.g., num-
a history of childhood abuse) and proximal ber of oocytes). Although coping strategies
(e.g., living in a homeless shelter) relatively share variance with dispositional and contex-
uncontrollable stressors predicts greater use tual variables, they are likely to provide a more
of avoidant coping in impoverished women, malleable target for intervention.
and avoidance partially mediates their rela- In addition to their role as mediators, cop-
tions with subsequent depressive symptoms ing processes also can interact with contex-
(Rayburn et al. 2005). An unsupportive so- tual and individual parameters in their con-
cial context also can prompt engagement tribution to adjustment. For example, cancer
in avoidance-oriented coping under stress, patients who experienced low social support
which in turn predicts an increase in distress in tandem with the greater use of avoidant
in women with breast cancer (Manne et al. coping subsequently evidenced more severe
2005a) and poorer adherence and higher vi- symptoms of posttraumatic stress ( Jacobsen
ral load in HIV-positive individuals (Weaver et al. 2002). Emotionally expressive coping
et al. 2005). Holahan et al. (1997) found that a predicted decreased distress and fewer medi-
positive social context at study entry predicted cal appointments for cancer-related morbidi-
greater relative use of approach-oriented cop- ties in breast cancer patients high in hope
ing by cardiac patients four years later, which (Stanton et al. 2000).
in turn predicted a reduction in depressive Newer models for conceptualizing the
symptoms. links among stressful life experiences, cop-
Intraindividual factors, including coping ing processes, and mental health outcomes
resources and cognitive appraisals, also affect also recognize their potentially reciprocal re-
coping processes. Some research suggests that lations. Hammen’s (1991) stress generation
people high in optimism (Carver et al. 1993) hypothesis points to the potential for the ex-
or with high self-esteem (Aspinwall & Taylor perience of depression to engender stressful

384 Taylor · Stanton

ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

events, which in turn can exacerbate depres- pathogens, and other chronic stressors (Adler
sive symptoms. Holahan et al. (2005) recently et al. 1999). Socioeconomic status in child-
integrated coping processes into the stress hood has been related to problems in the en-
generation model. In a decade-long investi- listment or use of coping resources, includ-
gation of 1211 adults aged 55 to 65 years ing social support, optimism, mastery, and
at study entry, avoidance-oriented coping at self-esteem (Adler et al. 1999, Repetti et al.
study entry predicted more chronic and acute 2002, Taylor & Seeman 1999). For exam-
life stressors four years later, which in turn ple, there is an SES gradient in pessimism
predicted an increase in depressive symptoms (Taylor & Seeman 1999), suggesting that
at ten years. Thus, coping through avoidance harsh early life experiences contribute to the
played a stress-generating role. development of enduring pessimistic expecta-
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tions. A sense of personal mastery appears to

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mitigate mental health risks conferred by low

ORIGINS OF COPING SES; among low-SES individuals with strong
RESOURCES AND PROCESSES beliefs in personal mastery, mental and phys-
The relation of coping resources and pro- ical health outcomes are equivalent to those
cesses to stress-related mental and physical seen in high-SES groups (Lachman & Weaver
health outcomes suggests that understanding 1998). To a lesser extent, self-esteem (Adler
their antecedents and consequences is pivotal et al. 1999) shows an SES gradient, and per-
for intervening to promote successful adjust- ceived social support has a strong SES gradi-
ment. Accordingly, we next turn to origins of ent (Kessler et al. 1992), such that those of
coping resources in the early environment, in higher SES in childhood and/or adulthood
genetic predispositions, and in their interac- report greater social support resources. Low
tion. childhood SES has, in turn, been related to
development of psychological distress (Gallo
& Matthews 2003) and to a broad array of risk
Origins of Coping in the Early factors for mental and physical health disor-
Environment ders, including depression, anxiety disorders,
Both animal (e.g., Francis et al. 1999) and coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease,
human (e.g., Repetti et al. 2002) investiga- and immune-related disorders (Adler et al.
tions reveal that a harsh early environment 1999, Hemingway et al. 2003, Owen et al.
affects mental and physical functioning across 2003), although, to date, research has not ex-
the lifespan, and research implicates coping in amined the mediational role of coping in these
these relations. We focus here on the human processes.
literature, but note the important parallels to Early family environments marked by
both rodent (e.g., Liu et al. 1997) and primate harsh or conflict-ridden parenting are reli-
(e.g., Suomi 1997) studies. Aspects of early life ably associated with deficits in offspring cop-
that have been consistently tied to poor coping ing resources and processes and with diffi-
include two markers of a stressful or threaten- culty in managing challenging circumstances
ing environment, specifically low childhood (see Repetti et al. 2002 for a review). Specif-
socioeconomic status (SES) and a harsh early ically, research suggests that offspring from
familial environment. harsh family environments may overreact to
Substantial research links economic adver- threatening circumstances, responding ag-
sity (low SES) to mental and physical health gressively to situations that are only mod-
disorders (Adler et al. 1999). Low child- estly stressful (e.g., Reid & Crisafulli 1990),
hood SES predicts exposure to a broad array but may also respond by tuning out or avoid-
of early stressful events, including neighbor- ing stressful circumstances, as through be-
hood conflict, violence exposure, exposure to havioral escape/avoidance or substance abuse

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

( Johnson & Pandina 1991, Valentiner et al. system appears to be involved in regulating
1994). Poor coping related to early family emotional responsivity to stressors (Giorgi
environment may appear in latent form in et al. 2003). For example, the 48 base pair re-
early childhood and may contribute to chronic peat within exon 3 of the DRD4 gene is re-
psychological distress and to a lack of cop- lated to novelty seeking (Ebstein et al. 1996)
ing resources, including optimism, mastery, and to lower anxiety to potentially stressful
self-esteem, and social support, in adulthood events (Lakatos et al. 2003) and, thus, is a
(Repetti et al. 2002). A harsh family upbring- potential candidate for understanding cop-
ing has been related to higher levels of depres- ing processes. Similarly, COMT is implicated
sion (Repetti et al. 2002); to preclinical risk in prefrontal dopamine neural transmission,
factors for mental and physical health disor- and the COMT val158met functional poly-
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ders, including elevated autonomic and cor- morphism has been related to positive emo-
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

tisol responses to threatening circumstances tionality and incentive motivation (Reuter &
(Seeman & McEwen 1996); to risk factors for Hennig 2005). The relation of genetic poly-
mental and physical health disorders, includ- morphisms in the dopamine system to ex-
ing C-reactive protein (Taylor et al. 2006a); ecutive functioning in the prefrontal cor-
and to major mental and physical health dis- tex (PFC) more generally suggests that
orders (Felitti et al. 1998). Thus, the exist- coping processes may reduce stress re-
ing literature provides a strong basis for a sponses via PFC downregulation of activ-
pathway linking a stressful early childhood ity in brain regions known to be activated
to the compromised development of coping in response to threat, including the amyg-
resources and processes and to risk for ad- dala, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and
verse stress-related mental and physical health hypothalamus.
outcomes. It is also possible that coping resources
and processes operate via the moderation
of genetic contributors to psychological dis-
Genetic Origins of Coping tress. For example, studies have shown that
Although genetic bases of risk for major men- the short variant of the serotonin trans-
tal disorders have been explored for more than porter gene-linked functional polymorphic
15 years, potential genetic contributions to region (5-HTTLPR) is related to trait anx-
coping have received less empirical attention. iety (Schinka et al. 2004); to depression in
Behavioral genetics studies have identified the conjunction with life stress (e.g., Caspi et al.
fact that there are genetic contributions to 2003); to neuroticism (Sen et al. 2004); and
coping, but not the specific genes that are im- to amygdala hyperactivity to threat in healthy
plicated. Twin studies estimate that approx- people (Hariri et al. 2005). The G allele of
imately 25% of the variance in optimism is the serotonin receptor 1A (5-HT1a ) gene has
genetically based (Plomin et al. 1992). There been tied to neuroticism and harm avoid-
is moderate genetic influence on self-esteem ance (Strobel et al. 2003). An SNP in the 5-
(e.g., Roy et al. 1995) and a larger genetic HTR2a receptor gene has been associated with
contribution to social support (e.g., Kessler anxiety-related traits and sociability, and the T
et al. 1992). To our knowledge, genetic bases allele of the 5-HTR2a is associated with higher
of mastery have not been examined. activity level and sociability and lower level of
At least some of the genetic contribution anxiety-related traits (Golimbet et al. 2004).
to effective coping may stem from genetic The G-1438A polymorphism of the 5-HTR2a
bases of approach-related behavior under- receptor gene has been related to introversion
pinned by dopaminergic pathways (Reuter & and sociality and may thus be related to social
Hennig 2005). Activity within the dopamine support processes. Finally, the monoamine

386 Taylor · Stanton

ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

oxidase gene has been tied to impulsivity and temperamental susceptibilities to poor coping
impulsive anger among other indicators of and its adverse mental health outcomes.
poor emotional control in response to stress Recent gene-environment interaction
(Huang et al. 2004). studies in humans have found that the rela-
Efforts to explore the genetic underpin- tion between the 5-HTTLPR and depression
nings of coping are in their infancy. The is also moderated by early family environ-
dopamine and serotonin systems by no means ment. Specifically, a recent empirical study
exhaust the bases for exploring genetic con- (Taylor et al. 2006b) reveals that individuals
tributions to the development of coping re- who grow up in a harsh early family envi-
sources or their deployment via coping pro- ronment or who are experiencing a current
cesses. At present, they represent promising stressful environment are significantly more
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points of departure with a basis in the exist- likely to experience depressive symptoma-
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

ing literature. Moreover, the existing litera- tology if they have the s/s genotype of the
ture has yet to examine the cumulative impact 5-HTTLPR; however, those with the s/s
of multiple risk-related genes or gene-gene genotype are significantly less likely to report
interactions as potential bases for the devel- depressive symptomatology if they are from a
opment or deployment of coping efforts. more supportive family environment and/or
are currently in a nonstressful environment.
Coping resources or processes are likely to
Gene-Environment Interactions mediate these effects, as they appear to do
The effects of genes related to coping re- in the animal studies, but this link has not
sources are likely to be moderated by envi- yet been made. Nonetheless, studies such as
ronmental factors, suggesting possibilities for these suggest that there is significant environ-
intervention. Researchers have long suspected mental regulation of genetic contributions to
that a harsh early family environment may susceptibility to adverse stress-related mental
contribute to poor coping and to lifespan risk and physical health outcomes, with the
for mental and physical health disorders, not potential for the quality of the environment
only directly, but also via gene-environment to reverse the relation between a genetic risk
interactions (Repetti et al. 2002). The fact and an outcome (in this specific instance,
that the same family characteristics (a harsh, depression).
conflict-ridden or chaotic early family envi- Using twin study methodology, behav-
ronment) appear to fuel such a diverse array of ioral genetics investigations have estimated
adverse physical and mental health outcomes the genetic contribution to coping strate-
suggests that a risky early family environment gies, including problem solving, emotion-
may exacerbate preexisting genetically-based focused coping, use of social support, and
risks (Repetti et al. 2002). Animal studies have avoidant coping. Moderate genetic influences
also suggested the likelihood that early en- have been found for all four (e.g., Kato &
vironment interacts with genetic predisposi- Pedersen 2005, Kendler et al. 1991). Both
tions to affect behavioral outcomes. For ex- shared and unshared environmental factors
ample, maternal behavior moderates genetic appear to contribute to these coping strate-
risk for serotonergic dysfunction related to gies as well (Mellins et al. 1996). However,
serotonin transport (Bennett et al. 2002) and research is mixed on whether genetic contri-
behavioral concomitants of the s allele of butions to coping strategies overlap with ge-
the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), netic contributions to more stable coping re-
specifically impulsivity and social competence sources, such as optimism, self-esteem, and
(Suomi 2003). Thus, family environment may other personality factors (Busjahn et al. 1999,
exert a moderating effect on genetically based Kato & Pedersen 2005).

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

NEURAL LINKS FROM COPING the origin of both sympathetic and HPA re-
TO STRESS-RELATED MENTAL sponses to threat. The amygdala has dense
AND PHYSICAL HEALTH projections to the hypothalamus (Ghashghaei
OUTCOMES & Barbas 2002), and the ACC projects to
Exactly how coping exerts protective effects the paraventricular nucleus of the hypotha-
on mental and physical health outcomes has lamus (PVN; Risold et al. 1997), the specific
been largely unknown. A particular lacuna region of the hypothalamus that triggers the
concerns the neural mechanisms that may un- cascade of events ultimately leading to corti-
derpin these relationships. Knowledge of the sol release. Stimulation of both the amygdala
neural underpinnings by which coping may and the ACC has also been associated with in-
creases in blood pressure and cortisol levels in
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exert protective effects on mental and physical

health outcomes may suggest not only strate- both animals and humans (Frankel et al. 1978,
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

gies for coping interventions, but also criteria Setekleiv et al. 1961).
by which interventions may be evaluated (e.g., A neural region that appears critical for
Etkin et al. 2005). regulating the magnitude of these threat re-
sponses is the ventrolateral prefrontal cor-
tex (VLPFC) (Hariri et al. 2000, Ochsner
et al. 2004). Specifically, activation of the right
Neural Bases of Threat Detection VLPFC can directly down regulate the activa-
and Coping tion of the amygdala and dACC (Eisenberger
Recent research on neural bases of threat de- et al. 2003, Hariri et al. 2002, Lieberman et al.
tection and emotion regulation help to clarify 2006). Thus, the VLPFC appears to be a self-
how stress affects brain functioning and how regulatory structure that modulates the reac-
coping moderates those neural pathways. As tivity of the amygdala and dACC to threat.
noted, the amygdala and the dorsal anterior The neural bases of threat detection and
cingulate cortex (dACC) are associated with reaction are important to the study of coping
threat detection, serving an “alarm” function because they provide clues as to how coping
that mobilizes other neural regions, such as resources and processes regulate psycholog-
the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) and hy- ical and biological threat responses. For ex-
pothalamus, to promote adaptive responses to ample, people with strong coping resources
stress. The amygdala is sensitive to environ- may show lower amygdala and/or dACC re-
mental cues signaling danger or novelty (e.g., activity to threatening stimuli. Alternatively,
Hariri et al. 2000) and predicts how unpleas- people with stronger coping resources may
ant negative stimuli are reported to be (Lane show stronger VLPFC responses to threat-
et al. 1997). The dACC also serves as a threat ening stimuli. A third possibility is that strong
detector, responding to conflict in incoming coping resources are manifested in the corre-
information (Carter et al. 2000). The dACC lation between VLPFC and threat-responsive
especially responds to social distress (Eisen- regions, such as the amygdala or the dACC; a
berger et al. 2003). strong negative correlation would be sugges-
Once activated, these neural threat de- tive of better regulation of threat responsivity
tectors set in motion a cascade of responses by the VLPFC.
via projections to the hypothalamus and lat- Although investigations have documented
eral prefrontal cortex (Davis 1989, LeDoux the role of the medial PFC (MPFC) and
1996) aimed at amplifying or attenuating the the left VLPFC in the modulation of path-
threat signal and preparing to respond to ways contributing to stress responses, the
the threat. Studies have shown connections mechanisms have remained elusive. A key
between neural structures critical to threat neurotransmitter in MPFC functioning is
detection and the hypothalamus, which is dopamine, and animal research suggests that

388 Taylor · Stanton

ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

the MPFC modulates responses to stress- gene have also been implicated in ACC func-
ful tasks (Spencer et al. 2004). Using func- tion (Canli et al. 2005). Direct links from
tional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) avoidant coping to ACC functioning via these
methodology, Smolka et al. (2005) reported pathways have not yet been made, however.
that the number of COMT met158 alleles Research relating coping resources and
in the limbic system (specifically left hip- processes directly to activity in brain regions
pocampus, amygdala, and right thalamus) and is in its infancy. However, one such study
connected prefrontal areas (bilateral ventro- (Eisenberger et al. 2007) found that peo-
lateral prefrontal cortex, right dorsolateral ple who interacted regularly with support-
prefrontal cortex) were significantly positively ive individuals showed diminished dACC and
correlated with reactivity to unpleasant stim- Brodmann’s Area (BA8) reactivity to social re-
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uli. They interpreted these findings to suggest jection in an fMRI laboratory task and di-
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

that increased limbic and prefrontal activation minished cortisol reactivity during the Trier
elicited by unpleasant stimuli in people with Social Stress Task; individual differences in
more met alleles may reflect poor emotion dACC and BA8 activity mediated the rela-
regulation. Note that these findings provide tionship between social support and corti-
suggestive evidence consistent with the hy- sol reactivity. Thus, social support may influ-
pothesis implicating dopaminergic function- ence downstream biological stress responses
ing in coping resources and implicating a neg- by modulating neurocognitive reactivity to
ative relation between VLPFC and limbic social stressors, which in turn attenuates neu-
functioning in the moderation of stress re- roendocrine stress response. Other coping
sponses via coping resources. resources may exert their effects via similar
Approach coping processes also link to pat- pathways, although this hypothesis has yet to
terns of brain activity suggesting involvement be explored empirically.
of dopaminergic pathways. The behavioral Research also suggests that early family en-
activation system (BAS), which is assumed vironment is related to the neural underpin-
to underlie approach-related coping, is orga- nings of stress management and coping pro-
nized largely by the dopaminergic neurotran- cesses. For example, in a task involving the
smitter system and is associated with striatal labeling of emotions pictured in faces, Taylor
dopamine projections to areas in the lat- et al. (2006a) found that young adults who had
eral and orbital frontal cortices (Rolls 1996). grown up in supportive families showed ex-
BAS is associated with goal-directed behav- pected and relatively modest amygdala reac-
ior, a promotion regulatory focus (Amodio tions to threat cues (fearful/angry faces) and
et al. 2004), and positive emotions (Davidson strong activation of the right VLPFC, which
et al. 1990), consistent with findings reviewed was negatively related to amygdala activity;
above on coping processes. By contrast, the this pattern suggests regulation of limbic re-
behavioral inhibition system (BIS) may un- sponse via cortical responses to threatening
derlie avoidant coping. BIS is associated with stimuli. By contrast, young adults from harsh
a neural circuit organized by monoamine neu- early family environments showed a strong
rotransmitter systems, including noradrener- positive correlation between right VLPFC
gic and serotonergic networks, and their as- and amygdala activation, suggesting that early
sociated neural structures. The heart of the family environment may be associated with
noradrenergic system is the locus coeruleus, dysregulation in the neural pathways involved
located in the brainstem. In humans and mon- in regulating responses to threat. Research
keys, the locus coeruleus has modulatory no- has also begun to integrate genetic and neu-
radrenergic effects on the anterior cingulate ral bases of threat, with concomitant impli-
cortex (ACC) (Berridge & Waterhouse 2003). cations for coping. For example, Hariri et al.
Polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter (2005) used fMRI to examine the relation of

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

the 5-HTTLPR to amygdala responses to Chesney et al. (2003) found that optimism
threat-relevant stimuli. As predicted, they increased following coping effectiveness
found that people carrying the s allele of the 5- training for HIV-positive men (but changes
HTTLPR had stronger amygdala responses in optimism in the control group were not
to fearful stimuli in comparison with those ho- assessed). Antoni et al. (2001) found an
mozygous for the l allele. increase in optimism over time in breast can-
Multilevel integrative efforts to relate ge- cer patients following cognitive-behavioral
netic and/or familial origins of coping re- stress management, but not in control group
sources and processes to neural mechanisms participants.
that link to both emotional and physiologi- Another approach to considering psy-
cal stress responses are in their infancy. But as chosocial interventions directed to coping
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these early studies suggest, such an approach resources is to investigate coping resources
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

can help to flesh out the pathways that relate or deficits as moderators of intervention ef-
the origins of coping and coping resources fects. For example, Antoni et al. (2001) found
and processes to psychological and biologi- that cognitive-behavioral stress management
cal stress responses. Moreover, mapping such was more effective for women low in op-
pathways may provide useful clues for inter- timism than those high in optimism. Psy-
vention, an issue to which we next turn. chosocial interventions may also be more ef-
fective for women who lack support than
for those in highly supportive environments
PATHWAYS FOR (Helgeson et al. 2000, Manne et al. 2005b).
INTERVENTION Among individuals undergoing stressful life
On the surface, the likely origins of cop- circumstances, interventions that address spe-
ing resources in genes and early family envi- cific skills and coping deficits might be more
ronment might suggest dismal prospects for promising than attempts to change personal
their modification. Recall, though, the evi- dispositions directly. The match between the
dence indicating substantial influence of the content of an intervention and the recipients’
current environment on genetically based risk characteristics also requires attention (e.g.,
for depression. In that case, a supportive en- Cameron & Nicholls 1998).
vironment entirely reversed the impact of a
genetic risk factor. Thus, modifying coping
resources, coping processes, and the current Interventions Directed Toward
environment would seem to have significant Coping Processes
potential for managing stress and avoiding The large body of research on coping pro-
stress-related compromises in mental health. cesses as contributors to adaptive outcomes
Of course, biological interventions to modify under stress has not seen adequate transla-
neural function also are relevant, but we do tion into strategies for psychosocial interven-
not address that literature here. tion (Coyne & Racioppo 2000, de Ridder &
Schreurs 2001). Some recent trials, however,
illustrate the incorporation of findings from
Interventions Directed Toward this body of work into psychosocial inter-
Coping Resources ventions, the impact of cognitive-behavioral
Although long assumed to be relatively interventions for managing stress on coping
immutable, some coping resources evidence processes, and the mediating role of cop-
change across the adult life course (Roberts ing strategies on intervention outcomes. For
et al. 2006), and there is suggestive evidence example, Folkman et al. (1991) used cop-
that coping resources can change with ing effectiveness training (CET) that involves
psychosocial intervention. For example, appraisal training to disaggregate global

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stressors into specific coping tasks and to in coping attempts. Moreover, daily diaries
distinguish between malleable and immutable of intervention participants revealed that
aspects of stressors, tailoring application of on days with significant pain during which
particular coping strategies to specific stres- participants practiced coping strategies, they
sors, and training to increase effectiveness in had fewer major health care contacts (e.g.,
selecting and maintaining support resources. emergency room visits) than on days during
In HIV-positive men, CET was successful in which they did not use the strategies.
improving perceived stress, burnout, and anx- Investigations such as these suggest that
iety (but not depressive symptoms) relative to psychosocial interventions can modify cop-
control conditions, and coping self-efficacy ing strategies and that increases in approach-
mediated intervention effects on the first oriented strategies and decreases in avoid-
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two outcomes (Chesney et al. 2003). In an- ance predict favorable intervention outcomes.
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

other trial with HIV-positive men, cognitive- A seemingly contradictory finding emerges
behavioral stress management produced sig- from a study of couples coping with cancer
nificant reductions in mood disturbance and (Scott et al. 2004), in which couples-based
depressive symptoms relative to a standard coping training and individual coping training
care control (Cruess et al. 2002). Improve- for the patient were compared with a medi-
ments were predicted by increases in cop- cal education control. The couples interven-
ing self-efficacy, active coping, and coping tion was most successful in improving several
through acceptance, and by decreases in dys- outcomes. Assessed by totaling the number of
functional attitudes and coping through be- coping strategies endorsed, coping efforts de-
havioral disengagement (see Carrico et al. creased in the couples intervention relative to
2006). the other conditions. This finding illuminates
Relevant interventions also have been an important nuance to be considered in in-
conducted with individuals coping with tervention research designed to change cop-
chronic pain. Incorporating intervention ing strategies. Active coping efforts are likely
elements based on empirically demonstrated no longer to be necessary once they are suc-
links between specific coping strategies and cessful in resolving the stressor. Chronic pain,
outcomes in populations with chronic pain, for example, is likely to require persistent cop-
Keefe et al. (2004) found, in a sample of adults ing efforts, and thus increases in active coping
with persistent arthritic pain, that spouse- strategies are likely to promote adaptive out-
assisted coping skills training combined with comes (Gil et al. 2000). But when resolution of
exercise training improved physical fitness aspects of a stressor is prompted through ac-
and strength, pain-related coping attempts, tive coping, as might occur once cancer treat-
and self-efficacy for controlling arthritis. ment is concluded, coping efforts are likely to
Rhee et al. (2000) compared stress manage- decrease after intervention.
ment training with control conditions in
patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Improve-
ments in depressive symptoms and pain were Interventions Directed Toward
mediated by changes in a composite of coping Changing Environments
through pain control and rational thinking, Macro-level environmental factors (e.g., so-
coping self-efficacy, and arthritis-related cioeconomic status) are not modified easily
helplessness. Gil et al. (2000) conducted a through traditional psychosocial interven-
pain coping skills intervention and a disease tions. However, in a randomized trial, a pro-
education control condition in African gram to increase parents’ employment and
American adults with sickle cell disease. The reduce poverty (e.g., employment-contingent
intervention produced a significant reduction earnings supplements, extensive child-care
in laboratory pain perception and an increase assistance) has been shown to improve

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ANRV307-CP03-16 ARI 2 March 2007 13:48

children’s academic achievement, motivation, lessons for the design of effective evidence-
and social behavior, particularly for boys, based prevention programs for families and
with effects on achievement particularly ro- children (Kumpfer & Alvarado 2003, Weisz
bust at five-year follow-up (Huston et al. et al. 2005).
2005).
More proximal contexts, such as risky fam-
ily environments, represent promising targets TOWARD THE FUTURE
for preventive efforts. Specifically, such inter- Until recently, research on coping was in
ventions as promoting parenting and family disarray. In recent years, its bases, structure,
management skills in inner-city parents with origins, and neural underpinnings have be-
young children (Tolan et al. 2004), conducting gun to come into view. Important directions
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parent-child interaction therapy with phys- for future research include an increased
Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2007.3:377-401. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

ically abusive parents (Chaffin et al. 2004), understanding of the environmental and
and enhancing communication skills in ado- genetic inputs to the development of coping
lescents with a history of maltreatment (Wolfe resources and processes over the lifespan
et al. 2003) have produced positive results in and continued delineation of the neural and
randomized trials, although contextual fac- downstream biological mechanisms whereby
tors can moderate effects (Eron et al. 2002). coping contributes to mental and physical
Most such preventive programs have not ex- health outcomes. With this knowledge may
amined their effectiveness on the recipients’ come additional successful efforts to modify
coping attempts in later stressful contexts; coping with concomitant mental and physical
however, such programs have yielded valuable health benefits.

SUMMARY POINTS
1. Coping resources and coping processes affect mental and physical health.
2. Stable individual differences in coping resources such as optimism, personal control
or mastery, and a positive sense of self or high self-esteem, as well as high levels of
social support, promote effective coping with stress and have direct effects on mental
and physical health.
3. Approach-oriented coping strategies have been tied to positive psychological and
physical health outcomes in stressful circumstances.
4. Although avoidance coping strategies can be successful for coping with short-term
uncontrollable stressors, avoidance coping has generally been tied to increased distress
and chronic disease progression and mortality.
5. The beneficial effects of coping resources may be heavily mediated by their relations
to approach-oriented coping and negative relations to avoidance coping.
6. Coping resources have their origins not only in genetics but also in the early environ-
ment; a nurturant early environment promotes the development of coping resources,
and a harsh early environment interferes with it; gene/environment interactions are
also implicated in successful coping with stress.
7. The neural pathways in the brain that are implicated in coping are increasingly coming
to be understood. In particular, the amygdala and dACC are implicated in threat
detection, and regions of the prefrontal cortex are associated with adaptive responses
to stress.

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8. Interventions implied by these perspectives include ones directed to coping resources,

to coping processes, and to the environments within which coping skills develop and
coping takes place.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Preparation of this manuscript was supported by NIMH MH56880, NIA AG30309, and NSF
444040-ST-21549 to the first author.
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by University of Texas - HOUSTON ACADEMY OF MEDICINE on 04/28/08. For personal use only.
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Annual Review of
Clinical Psychology

Contents Volume 3, 2007

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Mediators and Mechanisms of Change in Psychotherapy Research

Alan E. Kazdin p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Evidence-Based Assessment
John Hunsley and Eric J. Mash p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 29
Internet Methods for Delivering Behavioral and Health-Related
Interventions (eHealth)
Victor Strecher p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 53
Drug Abuse in African American and Hispanic Adolescents: Culture,
Development, and Behavior
José Szapocznik, Guillermo Prado, Ann Kathleen Burlew, Robert A. Williams,
and Daniel A. Santisteban p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 77
Depression in Mothers
Sherryl H. Goodman p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p107
Prevalence, Comorbidity, and Service Utilization for Mood Disorders
in the United States at the Beginning of the Twenty-first Century
Ronald C. Kessler, Kathleen R. Merikangas, and Philip S. Wang p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p137
Stimulating the Development of Drug Treatments to Improve
Cognition in Schizophrenia
Michael F. Green p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p159
Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder
Thomas R. Lynch, William T. Trost, Nicholas Salsman,
and Marsha M. Linehan p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p181
A Meta-Analytic Review of Eating Disorder Prevention Programs:
Encouraging Findings
Eric Stice, Heather Shaw, and C. Nathan Marti p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p207
Sexual Dysfunctions in Women
Cindy M. Meston and Andrea Bradford p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p233
Relapse and Relapse Prevention
Thomas H. Brandon, Jennifer Irvin Vidrine, and Erika B. Litvin p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p257

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Marital and Family Processes in the Context of Alcohol Use and

Alcohol Disorders
Kenneth E. Leonard and Rina D. Eiden p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p285
Unwarranted Assumptions about Children’s Testimonial Accuracy
Stephen J. Ceci, Sarah Kulkofsky, J. Zoe Klemfuss, Charlotte D. Sweeney,
and Maggie Bruck p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p311
Expressed Emotion and Relapse of Psychopathology
Jill M. Hooley p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p329
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Sexual Orientation and Mental Health

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Gregory M. Herek and Linda D. Garnets p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p353

Coping Resources, Coping Processes, and Mental Health
Shelley E. Taylor and Annette L. Stanton p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p377

Indexes

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 1–3 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p403

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 1–3 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p405

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Clinical Psychology chapters (if any)
may be found at http://clinpsy.AnnualReviews.org

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