INFLUENCE OF SPEED AND FLOW RATE ON ROAD ACCIDENTS: A CASE

STUDY ALONG FEDERAL ROUTE 50 (FT 050)

HOR PEAY SAN

A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

AUGUST 2013
 v

ABSTRACT

Federal Route 50 (FT 050) has an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of more than
68,000 vehicles daily at the Batu Pahat-Parit Raja stretch and above 22,000 vehicles
daily at the Ayer Hitam-Parit Raja stretch in 2010. During peak hours, the traffic
volume could even go beyond 9,000 veh/hr at certain sections. Works Ministry of
Malaysia (KKR) reported that Federal Route 50 (FT 050) had been identified as the
deadliest stretch of road in Malaysia. The road recorded more than an average of
1,000 accidents and 36 deaths annually since 2006. This research aims to study the
effects of speed and flow rate on road accidents at selected sections along Federal
Route 50 (FT 050), which each has different road characteristics. Spot speed study
was carried out at KM 5, KM 10, KM 15, KM 20, KM 25 and KM 30 to evaluate the
influence of speed upon road accidents, while traffic volume count was conducted at
KM 5, KM 20 and KM 30 to identify the effect of flow rate upon road accidents.
Besides that, site observation was also conducted at the selected sections, where road
facilities and countermeasures were studied generally. A model produced using
multiple regression analysis technique with backward method shows that road
accident frequency increases with the increase of flow rate. The model estimates that
every 200 pc/hr/lane increases accident frequency by about 9 acc/yr. On the other
hand, speed relates to accident as an effect of flow rate. By categorising the sections
of FT 050 into 3 different zones based on the frequency of road accidents, results
reveal that road accidents frequency increases with speed at different rates.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Jalan Persekutuan 50 (FT 050) mempunyai purata trafik harian tahunan yang
melebihi 68,000 kenderaan sehari di laluan Batu Pahat-Parit Raja dan melebihi
22,000 kenderaan sehari di laluan Ayer Hitam-Parit Raja pada tahun 2010. Pada
waktu puncak, isipadu trafik boleh mencecah 9,000 kenderaan/jam di sesetengah
seksyen. Kementerian Kerja Raya Malaysia telah melaporkan bahawa Jalan
Persekutuan 50 (FT 050) telah dikenal pasti sebagai jalan maut di Malaysia. Secara
puratanya, jalan ini mencatatkan lebih daripada 1,000 kemalangan dan 36 kematian
setiap tahun sejak 2006. Tujuan kajian ini ialah mengkaji kesan kelajuan dan kadar
aliran ke atas kemalanganjalan raya di seksyen yang terpilih sepanjang Jalan
Persekutuan 50 (FT 050), yang mana setiapnya mempunyai ciri-ciri jalan yang
berbeza. Kajian kelajuan kenderaan telah dijalankan di KM 5, KM 10, KM 15, KM
20, KM 25 dan KM 30 untuk menilai pengaruh kelajuan ke atas kemalangan jalan
raya, manakala kiraan isipadu trafik telah dijalankan di KM 5, KM 20 dan KM 30
untuk mengenal pasti kesan kadar aliran ke atas jalan raya. Selain itu, pemerhatian di
tapak juga dilakukan di seksyen yang terpilih, di mana kemudahan dan dikaji secara
umumnya. Satu model yang dihasilkan menggunakan multiple regression analysis
technique dengan kaedah backward menunjukkan bahawa kekerapan kemalangan
jalan raya bertambah dengan peningkatan aliran isipadu kenderaan. Model tersebut
menganggarkan bahawa setiap 200 pc/hr/lane akan meningkatkan kekerapan
kemalangan jalan raya sebanyak 9 kemalangan setahun. Kelajuan pula
mempengaruhi kekerapan kemalangan jalan raya akibat daripada kesan kadar aliran.
Dengan mengkategorikan seksyen-seksyen di FT 050 kepada 3 zon yang berbeza
berdasarkan kekerapan kemalangan jalan raya, keputusan menunjukkan bahawa
kekerapan kemalangan jalan raya meningkat dengan kelajuan pada kadar yang
berbeza.
 vii

CONTENTS

TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aim and objectives of research 4
1.3 Scope of study 4
1.4 Structure of thesis 5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Road accident factors 7
2.2.1 Human factors 8
2.2.2 Road and environment factors 9
2.2.3 Vehicle factors 10
2.3 Road design standards and road categories in 10
Malaysia
2.4 Geometric design of roads 14
2.4.1 Sight distance 14
2.4.2 Horizontal alignment 16
 viii

2.4.3 Vertical alignment 19

2.5 Overview of road accidents in Malaysia 22
2.6 Influence of speed on road accidents 24
2.6.1 Speed and accident severity 25
2.6.2 Speed and accident involvement 26
2.6.3 The role of speed variance 28
2.6.4 Speed and accidents involving killed and 28
serious injury (KSI) cases
2.6.5 Speed and accidents on different road types 29
2.7 Influence of traffic volume on road accidents 33
2.8 Accident prediction models 36
2.8.1 Establishing prediction models using 37
various methods
2.8.2 Accident prediction models for different 39
types of areas
2.9 Summary 42
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Data collection 45
3.2.1 Accident data 45
3.2.2 Maps 45
3.3 Analysis of accident data 46
3.4 Site investigation 46
3.4.1 Initial site visit 46
3.4.2 Site studies and analysis 47
3.5 Data analysis 52
3.5.1 Regression analysis 52
3.5.2 Chi-squared test 52
3.5.3 Coefficient of determination (R2 value) 53
3.5.4 Mapping 53
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Accident trend and statistics at Federal Route 50 55
 ix

4.3 Traffic volume studies 63

4.4 Speed investigation 67
4.5 Zoning FT 050 69
4.5.1 Zone A 70
4.5.2 Zone B 72
4.5.3 Zone C 75
4.6 Relationship among variables 76
4.6.1 Relationship between flow rate and accident 77
4.6.2 Relationship between 85th percentile speed 80
and flow rate
4.6.3 Relationship between 85th percentile speed 81
and accidents
4.7 Accident prediction model 84
4.8 Mapping 85
4.9 Road accident countermeasures 88
4.9.1 Countermeasures for pedestrians 88
4.9.2 Speed reduction countermeasures 89
4.9.3 Central median 91
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 92
5.1 Introduction 92
5.2 Conclusion of study 92
5.3 Recommendations for future studies 93
REFERENCES 94
APPENDIX 99
 x

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Characteristics of road categories 12

2.2 Design speed for roads for rural roads 13
2.3 Design speed for urban roads 13
2.4 Minimum stopping sight distance 15
2.5 Minimum passing sight distance 16
2.6 Minimum radius for simple curves design 17
2.7a Maximum grades for R1, R2, U1 and U2 standard 20
roads
2.7b Maximum grades for R3 and R4 standard roads 20
2.7c Maximum grades for U3 and U4 standard roads 20
2.7d Maximum grades for R5 standard roads 21
2.7e Maximum grades for U5 standard roads 21
2.7f Maximum grades for R1, R2, U1 and U2 standard 21
roads
2.8 Minimum k values for vertical curve design 22
2.9 Description of road categories by Greibe 41
3.1 Passenger-car equivalents on extended general
highway segments 51
4.1 Peak hour traffic volume at selected sections 63
4.2 Speed observation of selected sections at FT 050 68
4.3 Correlation amongst variables 77
 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Federal Route 50 being two-lane undivided roadway

before upgrade 2
1.2 Average annual daily traffic at FT 050 3
1.3 Killer stretches in Johor 4
1.4 Map of FT 050 from KM 1 to KM 30 5
2.1 Road accident factors 8
2.2 Layout of a simple horizontal curve 17
2.3 Layout of a compound curve 18
2.4 Layout of a reverse curve with parallel tangents 18
2.5 Layout of a spiral curve 19
2.6 Types of vertical curves 20
2.7 Total road accidents and motor vehicles involved 23
2.8 Total casualties and deaths caused by road accidents, 24
2001-2010
2.9 Probability of death for drivers in car-to-car accidents 26
2.10 Relationship between speed and relative accident 27
involvement, as found in different studies
2.11 Accident frequency against mean speed for urban road 30
groups
2.12 Accident frequency against proportion of speeders for 31
urban roads
2.13 Fatality units against percentage of vehicles above 90 32
km/h speed limit
2.14 Speed-accident relationship by road group 33
2.15 Accident number and traffic flow versus time of day 34
for 1997 and 1998
 xii

2.16 Number of accidents per kilometer for each motorway 35

section versus average hourly traffic flow over 1 year
2.17 Number of accidents per number of lanes versus 36
hourly traffic flow
2.18 Accidents per km per year as a function of the AADT 40
for six urban road types
3.1 Flow chart of research methodology 44
3.2 Radar gun used to measure speed of vehicles 48
3.3 Measuring speed of vehicles at site 48
3.4 Tally counter used for traffic volume counts 49
3.5 Layers of spatial data used for developing the database 54
3.6 Entering attribute data for developing the database 54
4.1 Accident frequency at FT 050, 2004-2011 56
4.2 Breakdown of road accidents at FT 050 by year 56
4.3 Road accidents according to seriousness at FT 050 57
4.4 Breakdown of road accidents according to seriousness
at FT 050 by year 58
4.5 Total of killed and severely injured accidents at FT 59
050
4.6 Breakdown of KSI accidents at FT 050 by section 60
4.7 Road accident frequency and AWP at FT 050 61
4.8 Accident frequency and accident costs at each section 62
of FT 050
4.9 Peak hour traffic volume at KM 5 64
4.10 Peak hour traffic volume at KM 20 65
4.11 Peak hour traffic volume at KM 30 65
4.12 Average peak hours traffic volume 66
4.13 Vehicle composition at selected sections 67
th
4.14 85 percentile speed at selected sections 69
4.15 Different zones at FT 050 70
4.16 Accident frequency at Zone A sections 71
4.17 Accident frequency at Zone B sections 72
4.18 The junction outside Sharp-Roxy at KM 10 73
 xiii

4.19 A dangerous turning manoeuvre by a car at KM 22 74

4.20 Accident frequency at Zone C sections 75
4.21 Accident frequency and flow rate at FT 050 78
4.22 Relationship between accident frequency and flow rate 79
4.23 AWP and flow rate at FT 050 79
4.24 Relationship between average AWP and flow rate 80
4.25 Relationship between 85th percentile speed and flow 81
rate
4.26 Relationship between average accident frequency and 82
85th percentile speed
4.27 Relationship between AWP and 85th percentile speed 82
4.28 Relationship between accident frequency and 85th 84
percentile speed
4.29 Thematic map 86
4.30 Tabular display 86

4.31 Data display with pictures 87

4.32 Conditional data display 87
4.33 Overhead bridge near a school and factory at KM 5 89

4.34 Overhead bridge outside a shopping mall at KM 5 89

4.35 Rumble strips before a pedestrian crossing 90
4.36 Various speed limits at different sections 90
4.37 Warning signs found along FT 050 91
4.38 Central median at KM 5 91
 xiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADT - Average Daily Traffic

AWP - Accident Weightage Point
cv - Coefficient of Variation
est. - Estimate
FHWA - Federal Highway Administration
FT 050 - Federal Route 50
HCM 2000 - Highway Capacity Manual 2000
IPTHO - Institut Perguruan Tun Hussein Onn
JKJR - Jabatan Keselamatan Jalan Raya
JKR - Jabatan Kerja Raya
km/h - kilometre per hour
KKR - Kementerian Kerja Raya
MIROS - Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research
MOT - Ministry of Transport Malaysia
PDRM - Polis Diraja Malaysia
pc/hr/ln - Passenger cars per hour per lane
PHF - Peak Hour Factor
PLUS - Projek Lebuhraya Utara-Selatan
2
R - Coefficient of Determination
REAM - Road Engineering Association of Malaysia
RTA - Roads and Transport Authority
RV - Recreational Vehicle
TRB - Transportation Research Board
TRL - Transport Research Laboratory
UPM - Universiti Putra Malaysia
UK - United Kingdom
 xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Accident Data 99
B Maps 114
C Spot Speed Data 117
D Traffic Volume Data 124
E Data Analysis 143
F Statistical Analysis and Model Development 151
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Federal Route 50 (FT 050) is the major road that connects two major towns in Johor,
namely Batu Pahat and Kluang, which is 52 km apart. Most part of the road was
mainly built under the JKR R5 road standard, allowing a maximum speed of up to
100 km/h, though the speed limit set for this route is 90 km/h. It functions as primary
road with partial access control.
Along the highway are housing areas, schools, industrial zones where local
and multinational companies operate, shopping complexes, institutions of higher
learning, business parks, sub-urban areas and oil palm plantations. It is also one of
the main roads that connect the town of Batu Pahat to the North-South Expressway
(PLUS) via Ayer Hitam exit. Interior areas in the district of Batu Pahat are likewise
connected to the main town via Federal Route 50 (FT 050) Jalan Kluang.
The district of Batu Pahat has a population of more than 400, 000 residents,
thus placing it as the 16th most populated urban area in Malaysia (Dept. of Statistics,
2011). Being the main road in the Batu Pahat district, Federal Route 50 (FT 050)
Jalan Kluang connects the residents in the sub-urban areas i.e. Parit Besar, Parit
Yaani, Seri Gading, Parit Raja, Ayer Hitam, etc. to the main town.
Growth in small and medium industries such as garments, textiles, electronics
and confectionary along the years helped to boost development. Batu Pahat was
upgraded to town status (Majlis Perbandaran) in 2001, alongside Muar, Kluang and
 2

Skudai. International companies like Sharp Roxy, Sony, Fujitsu and Hitachi are
operating in the industrial zones in Batu Pahat.
The district of Batu Pahat is also becoming well known as an education hub
with a few institutions of learning established here. Among them are institutions of
higher learning i.e. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Institut PerguruanTun
Hussein Onn (IPTHO) and Kolej Kemahiran Tinggi MARA; a nursing school and a
few primary and secondary schools.
The rapid development in Batu Pahat and its surrounding areas had drawn
more and more people to the district and this led to increased travelling from the sub-
urban areas to the city and vice-versa. Nowadays, Batu Pahat enjoys the name of
"Northern Johor Shopping Paradise" due to the rapid development of those shopping
malls and hypermarkets. All these made Federal Route 50 (FT 050) to be a very
important road which connects the sub-urban areas to the main town. To meet the
need of growing number of road users, the road was upgraded from a two-lane
undivided roadway (as shown in Figure 1.1) to a four-lane undivided roadway. The
upgrading project began in February 2002 and completed in August 2004. It is
currently completing another phase of upgrade, where a divider is being built along
the roadway from KM 3 to KM 20.

Figure 1.1: Federal Route 50 being two-lane undivided roadway before upgrade
(www.batupahat.org)

Federal Route 50 (FT 050) had an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of
more than 68,000 vehicles daily at the Batu Pahat-Parit Raja stretch and above
22,000 vehicles daily at the Ayer Hitam-Parit Raja stretch in 2010. During peak
 3

hours, the traffic volume could even go beyond 9,000 veh/hr at certain sections, as
shown in Figure 1.2.

ADT at FT 050, 2001-2010

80000
70000
60000
ADT (veh/day)

50000
40000 JR110
(KM
30000
29.5)
20000 JR111
10000 (KM 5)

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years

Figure 1.2: Annual average daily traffic at FT 050 (adapted from Highway Planning
Unit, 2011)

As shown in Figure 1.3, The Star newspaper reported on 5 May 2009, that
Federal Route 50 (FT 050) had been identified as the deadliest stretch of road in
Malaysia, as announced by the Works Ministry of Malaysia (KKR). The stretch
recorded more than an average of 1,000 accidents and 36 deaths annually since 2006.
Many researches had been conducted in the past to study the trend and factors
affecting road accidents along Federal Route 50 (FT 050) but the majority of the
studies were conducted in a few continuous sections only.
 4

Figure 1.3: Killer stretches in Johor (The Star, 2009)

1.2 Aim and objectives of the research

The aim of the research is to evaluate the effects of speed and flow rate on road
accidents along Federal Route 50 (FT 050).

The following are the objectives of the research:

a) To correlate speed and flow rate with road accidents along FT 050.
b) To produce an accident prediction model that can predict accident frequency
based on selected variables.
c) To produce road accident intensity map based on collected existing accident
data.

1.3 Scope of study

This research focuses on section KM 1 to KM 30 of Federal Route 50 (FT 050) from

Bandar Penggaram to Ayer Hitam only, as shown in Figure 1.4. Some of the
 5

institutions found along the stretch are schools, nursing college, university, post
office, police station, banks, housing areas, shops and factories.
Road accident statistics from 2006-2011 were used for analysis, which covers
a total span of 6 years. Statistics from years before 2006 were used for reference and
observation.
Variables used to produce the accident model were 85th percentile speed and
flow rate. These two variables were chosen due to their significant effect upon road
crashes at FT 050. Data collected for both variables was one-directional only, which
was Ayer Hitam to Batu Pahat. Traffic volume data used in this research is from
2010.

Figure 1.4Map of FT 050 from KM 1 to KM 30 (Google Map, 2011)

1.4 Structure of thesis

This thesis is structured and organised as follow:

a) Chapter 1 - Introduction
This chapter explains the background of the research, aim and objectives,
scope of study, structure of the thesis.

b) Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The literature review is a critically written and comprehensive account of the
related published works on the topic. It provides information on theories,
models, and techniques used in this research.
 6

c) Chapter 3 - Research Methodology

The research methodology explains clearly and in detail about how this
research was conducted, which includes gathering of information and data, as
well as processing and analysis of data.

d) Chapter 4 - Results and Analysis

This chapter presents the results obtained from the research. The writer also
discusses the findings by comparing them with previous studies as mentioned
in Chapter 2.

e) Chapter 5 - Conclusion and Recommendations

In this chapter, the writer draws conclusion for the whole research based on
the findings of the results and linking it with the aim and objectives of the
research.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Road accidents could happen anytime, anywhere on road to anyone. A complete

definition of a road traffic accident by Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) is a
rare, random, multi-factor event always preceded by a situation in which one or more
road users have failed to cope with their environment, resulting in a collision on the
public highway which should be recorded by the police.

2.2 Road accident factors

There is rarely an accident situation in which only one thing or person is truly the
sole cause of the accident; hence accidents are multi-factor events, basically grouped
into 3 categories of factors:

a) Human factors;
b) Road and environment factors; and
c) Vehicle factors

A study conducted by Lum & Reagen in 1995 confirmed one of the earliest
comprehensive study (Treat, et al., 1979) related to road accident factors that human
 8

error was the factor that contributed the most to road accidents. This is followed by
road environment factors and lastly vehicle factors. From Figure 2.1, it could be seen
that some road accidents are not caused by a single factor alone, but due to a
combination of multiple factors. This shows that one factor may interact with other
factors in causing road accidents.

Figure 2.1: Road accident factors (Lum, H., & Reagen, J. A., 1995).

2.2.1 Human factors

In the Highway Safety Improvement Program Manual by the Federal Highway

Administration (FHWA), a host of behavioural factors that contribute to road
accidents have been identified. Some are attributes of drivers themselves, whilst
others are related to the behaviour of drivers. Attributes such as advancing age and
gender are unavoidable, whilst driver intoxication is a behavioural choice.
Some of the human factors that contribute to road accidents include:
a) Age older and younger drivers typically fall into higher accident risk groups.
b) Gender men are more likely than women to be involved in fatal accidents,
are involved in a significant number of injury accidents.
c) Aggressive driving behaviours such as driving too fast for conditions,
following too closely, inappropriate weaving in and out of traffic, and passing
under unsafe conditions.
d) Impaired driving behaviours such as driving under the influence of drugs or
being intoxicated.
 9

e) Occupant protection drivers and passengers who choose not to put on safety
restraints such as seat belt, helmet are at higher risk of serious injuries and
death.
f) Driver Inattention distracted drivers who do not give sufficient attention
whilst driving such as talking or texting on the mobile phone, eating or
drinking and reading maps causes accidents.

2.2.2 Road and environment factors

Road and environment faults are causes beyond the control of the driver.
Geometrically faulty roads and if not mended in the shortest time may cause more
accidents on the road thus making the road not safe to be used.
Common road conditions that lead to road accidents are:
a) Road surface damages cracks, shoving, potholes, polishing, patching and
rutting.
b) Faulty sign boards, traffic lights and markings cause drivers to lose a sense
of direction and may cause accidents to happen.
c) Failure of hillside and road structure - hillside failure is always linked to
slope failure caused by the ground movement.
d) Road geometry design failure roads that are designed not according to
geometric standard.

Environment factors literally have nothing to do with the roads. They are
basically affected by the weather such as rain, wind and fog. The weather actually
affects the road surface during rain and the visibility if it is foggy. The wind affects
the vehicle directly especially where there is cross wind. The lighting condition on
the road affects the visibility of the road greatly. When it is dark and without lamps
on the road, it is very dangerous for the drivers as they may not be able to see very
clearly what they are approaching.
 10

2.2.3 Vehicle factors

Vehicle defects can be categorised as one of human errors because it is the

responsibility of the driver to make sure that the vehicle is in safe condition before
driving it. Some of the common defects which lead to road accidents are faulty
brakes, signal lights, third brake light, front lights, back lights, rear mirror and side
mirrors. Though most of these parts are not major parts of the vehicles, they are very
important to ensure safety for the driver, passengers and other road users. The driver
must ensure that all these parts are functioning well to prevent accidents.

2.3 Road design standards and road categories in Malaysia

Roads in Malaysia are categorised into two types of areas: rural and urban. Urban
areas are defined as areas that have a population of at least 1000 where buildings and
houses are gathered and business activity is prevalent. Rural areas can be considered
as areas other than urban areas.
Generally there is no difference in the principles for designing rural and
urban roads. Roads in urban areas, however, are characterized by high pedestrian
activities and frequent stopping of vehicles. Lower design speeds are adopted for
urban roads. It is for these reasons that variations in some aspects of geometric
design are incorporated for these two groups of roads.
The design standard is classified into seven groups (R6, R5, R4, R3, R2 and
R1) for rural areas and into seven groups (U6, U5, U4, U3, U2 and U1) for urban
areas. These are in descending order of hierarchy.
Each road has its function according to its role either in the national network,
regional network, state network or city/town network. The most basic function of a
road is transportation. This can be further divided into two sub-functions that are
mobility and accessibility.
In rural areas, roads are divided into five categories, namely, expressway,
highway, primary road, secondary road and minor road. In urban areas, roads are
divided into four categories, namely, expressway, arterial, collector and local street.
 11

a) Expressway
An expressway is a divided highway for through traffic with full control of
access and always with grade separations at all intersections. In rural, areas,
they apply to the interstate highways for through traffic and make the basic
framework of national road transportation for fast travelling. In urban areas,
they form the basic frame work of road transportation system in urbanised
area for through traffic.

b) Highways
They constitute the interstate national network and complement the
expressway network. They usually link up directly or indirectly the federal
capitals, state capitals and points of entry/exit to the country.

c) Primary Roads
They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a state. They usually link up the state capitals
and district capitals or other major towns.

d) Secondary Roads
They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a district or regional development areas. They
usually link up the major towns within the district or regional development
areas.

e) Minor Roads
They apply to all roads other than those described above in the rural areas.
They form the basic road network within a land scheme or other inhabited
areas in a rural area.

f) Arterials
Arterials convey traffic from residential areas to the vicinity of the central
business district or from one part of a city to another which does not intend to
penetrate the city centre. Arterials do not penetrate identifiable
 12

neighbourhoods. Smooth traffic flow is essential since it carries large traffic

volume.

g) Collectors
A collector road is a road with partial access control designed to serve on a
collector or distributor of traffic between the arterial and the local road
systems. Collectors are the major roads which penetrate and serve identifiable
neighbourhoods, commercial areas and industrial areas.

h) Local Streets
The local street system is the basic road network within a neighbourhood and
serves primarily to offer direct access to abutting land. They are links to the
collector road and thus serve short trip lengths. Through traffic should be
discouraged.

Roads which function to provide long distance travel, will require higher,
design speeds whilst road which serve local traffic, where the effect of speed is less
significant can have a lower design speed. The characteristics of each road types are
found in Table 2.1

Table 2.1: Characteristics of road categories (REAM, 2002)

Speed is a primary factor in all modes of transportation. The speed of

vehicles on a road depends upon general conditions such as the physical
 13

characteristics of the highway, the weather, the presence of other vehicles and the
legal speed limitations.
The speeds are selected to meet the class of the road and its hierarchy to fulfil
its function. Thus roads which are planned to provide long distance travel will be
designed with a higher speed whilst those which provide short distance travel can be
given a lower design speed.
Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specific section of the road when conditions are favourable that the design features of
the road governs. Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 indicate the selection of design speeds
according to rural and urban standards.

Table 2.2: Design speed for roads for rural roads (REAM, 2002)
Design Design Speed (km/h)
Standard Category of Road Terrain
Flat Rolling Mountainous
R6 Expressway 110 100 80
Highway 100 90 70
R5
Primary Roads 100 90 70
Primary Roads 90 80 60
R4
Secondary Roads 90 80 60
R3 Secondary Roads 80 60 50
R2 60 50 40
Minor Roads
R1 50 50 30

Table 2.3: Design speed for urban roads (REAM, 2002)

Design Design Speed (km/h)
Standard Category of Road Area Type
I II III
U6 Expressway 100 90 80
Arterials 90 70 60
U5
Collectors 80 70 60
 14

Table 2.3 (continued)

Arterials 80 60 50
U4 Collectors 70 60 50
Local Streets 70 60 50
Collectors 60 50 40
U3
Local Streets 60 50 40
U2 Local Streets 50 40 30
U1 Local Streets 40 30 30

Note:
Type I - relatively free in road location with very little problems as regards land
acquisition, affected buildings or other socially sensitive areas.
Type II - Intermediate between I and III.
Type III - Very restrictive in road location with problems as regards land acquisition,
affected buildings and other sensitive areas.

2.4 Geometric design of roads

The geometry of a road influences its safety performance. While studies of

contributing factors to road accidents show that human factors predominate, roadway
factors are the second most common category, with vehicle factors last.

2.4.1 Sight distance

Sight distance is the length of road ahead visible to drivers. The ability of a driver to
see ahead is of great importance to ensure a safe and efficient operation of a road.
Sight distance includes stopping sight distance and passing sight distance. Sight
distance applied to multilane divided roads is only the safe stopping sight distance.
 15

2.4.1.1 Stopping sight distance

The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable a vehicle traveling at or
near the design speed to stop before reaching an object in its path. Minimum
stopping distances are as shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Minimum stopping sight distance (REAM, 2002)

Design speed (km/h) Minimum stopping sight
distance (m)
110 250
100 205
90 170
80 140
70 110
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 30

The safe stopping sight distances on upgrades are shorter and those on
downgrades are longer. However the effect of grade to sight distance need not be
considered as the sight distance available on downgrades is larger than on upgrades
and this more or less provides for the necessary corrections for grade.

2.4.1.2 Passing sight distance

Most roads in rural areas are two-lane two way on which vehicles frequently
overtake slower moving vehicles on a lane regularly used by the opposing traffic.
Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of the
length needed to safely complete a normal passing manoeuvre. Table 2.5 gives the
minimum passing sight distance to be used for each speed design.
 16

Table 2.5: Minimum passing sight distance (REAM, 2002)

Design speed (km/h) Minimum passing sight
distance (m)
110 730
100 670
90 610
80 550
70 490
60 410
50 350
40 290
30 230

Specific adjustment for design use is not available. The effect of grade is not
considered in design as the effect is compensated either in upgrade or downgrade.

2.4.2 Horizontal alignment

In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to establish the proper,

relation between the design speed and curvature and also their joint relations with
superelevation and side friction.

2.4.2.1 Simple curves

Figure 2.2 is a layout of a simple horizontal curve. The curve is a segment of a circle
with radius, R. The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given speed
arid is determined from the maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum
allowable side friction factor. The minimum safe radius can be calculated from the
standard curve formula:

(2.1)
 17

R = minimum radius of circular curve (m)

v = design speed (km/h)
e = maximum superelevation rate
f = maximum allowable side friction

Figure 2.2: Layout of a simple horizontal curve (Garber & Hoel, 2009)

Table 2.6 lists the minimum radius to be used for the designated design speed and
maximum superelevation rates.

Table 2.6: Minimum radius for simple curves design (REAM, 2002)
Minimum radius (m)
Design speed (km/h)
e = 0.06 e = 0.10
110 560 500
100 465 375
90 335 305
80 280 230
70 195 175
60 150 125
50 100 85
40 60 50
30 35 30
 18

2.4.2.2 Compound curves

Compound curves consist of two or more simple curves in succession, turning in the
same direction, with any two successive curves having a common tangent point.
Figure 2.3 shows a typical layout of a compound curve, consisting of two simple
curves. To avoid abrupt changes in the alignment, the radii of any two consecutive
simple curves should not be widely different.

Figure 2.3: Layout of a compound curve (Garber & Hoel, 2009)

2.4.2.3 Reverse curves

Reverse curves usually consists of two simple curves with equal radii turning in
opposite directions with a common tangent. They are usually used to change the
alignment of a highway. Figure 2.4 illustrates a reverse curve with parallel tangents.

Figure 2.4: Layout of a reverse curve with parallel tangents (www.mathalino.com)

 19

2.4.2.4 Spiral curves

Spiral curves are placed between tangents and circular curves or between two
adjacent circular curves having substantially different radii. Spiral curves provide a
vehicle path that gradually increases or decreases the radial force as the vehicle
enters or leaves a circular curve. Figure 2.5 shows the layout of a spiral curve.

Figure 2.5: Layout of a spiral curve (www.expertsmind.com)

2.4.3 Vertical alignment

The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections known as grades

connected by vertical curves. The topography of the area through which the road
traverses has a significant impact on the design of the vertical alignment. Vertical
curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that
vehicles can run smoothly as they traverse the highway. These curves are usually in
parabolic shape. The curves are classified as crest of sag, as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
 20

Figure 2.6: Types of vertical curves (www.ec.europa.eu)

The vertical profile of road affects the performance of vehicles. The maximum grade
controls in terms of design speed is summarised in Table 2.7a-f.

Table 2.7a: Maximum grades for R1, R2, U1 and U2 standard roads (REAM, 2002)
Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
30 40 50 60 70 80
Flat & Type I 8 7 7 7 7 6
Rolling & Type II 11 11 10 10 9 8
Mountainous & Type III 16 15 14 13 12 10

Table 2.7b: Maximum grades for R3 and R4 standard roads (REAM, 2002)
Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
50 60 70 80 90 100
Flat 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 9 8 8 7 7 6
Mountainous 10 10 10 9 9 8

Table 2.7c: Maximum grades for U3 and U4 standard roads (REAM, 2002)
Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
40 50 60 70 80
Type I 9 9 9 8 7
Type II 12 11 10 9 8
Type III 13 12 12 11 10
 21

Table 2.7d: Maximum grades for R5 standard roads (REAM, 2002)

Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
60 70 80 90 100 110
Flat 5 5 4 4 3 3
Rolling 6 6 5 5 4 4
Mountainous 8 7 7 6 6 5

Table 2.7e: Maximum grades for U5 standard roads (REAM, 2002)

Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
50 60 70 80 90 110
Type I 8 7 6 6 5 5
Type II 9 8 7 7 6 6
Type III 11 10 9 9 8 8

Table 2.7f: Maximum grades for R1, R2, U1 and U2 standard roads (REAM, 2002)
Design speed (km/h)
Type of Terrain / Area
80 90 100 110
Flat & Type I 4 4 3 3
Rolling & Type II 5 5 4 4
Mountainous & Type III 6 6 6 5

According to REAM, the desirable maximum should be aimed at in most

cases. The total upgrade for any section of road should not exceed 3000m, unless the
grade is less than 4%.
Minimum lengths of vertical curves are determined by the sight distance
requirements. The stopping sight distance is the major control for the safe operation
at the design speed chosen. The basic formulas for length of a parabolic vertical
curve in terms of algebraic difference in grade and sight distance are as follows:

(2.2)

and

(2.3)

where:
 22

L = minimum length of vertical curve (m)

S = sight distance (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades (%)

Table 2.8 indicates the minimum k values that are to be used in design for the various
design speeds. k is the calculated value of L/A used in determining the horizontal
distance from the beginning of the vertical curve to the apex or low point of the
curve.

Table 2.8: Minimum k values for vertical curve design (adapted from Guidelines on
Geometric Design of Roads, REAM)
Design speed (km/h) Minimum k value Minimum k value
(for crest vertical curve) (for sag vertical curve)
110 151 62
100 105 51
90 71 40
80 49 32
70 31 25
60 15 18
50 10 12
40 10 8
30 5 4

2.5 Overview of road accidents in Malaysia

Over the last two decades, Malaysia has experienced a remarkable period of
economic expansion and growth in population, economy, industrialisation and
motorisation. The population increased to 29.2 million (Jul 2012 est.) at a growth
rate of about 1.54 % (2012 est.). The total registered vehicles in Malaysia increased
from 10,589,804 in 2000 to 20,188,565 vehicles in 2010.
 23

The increase in population and motorisation led to a consequent increase in

the number of road traffic accidents. Referring to Figure 2.7 obtained from the
Ministry of Transport Malaysia (MOT), the total number of accidents rose from
265,175 cases in 2001, and grew to 414,421 cases in 2010.

Figure 2.7: Total road accidents and motor vehicles involved, 2001-2010 (MOT,
2010)

The number of fatalities (death within 30 days after an accident) however,

increased at a much slower rate from 5,849 in 2001 to 6,872 in 2010. Based on the
report released by International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group (IRTAD) in
2012, the fatality index due to road accidents in Malaysia is 23.8 per 100 000
population in 2010, which is still a very high rate in comparison to Australia (6.1),
Japan (4.5) and South Korea (11.3).
Figure 2.8 shows that though the total of road accidents increases, the number
of casualties shows a dropping trend since 2005. Those who experienced serious
injuries dropped from 9,397 in 2005 to 7,781 in 2010 whilst minor injured casualties
dropped from 31,429 in 2005 to 13, 616 in 2010. In terms of percentage, seriously
injured casualties dropped 17% whilst minor injured casualties dropped 57%.
 24

Figure 2.8: Total casualties and deaths caused by road accidents, 2001-2010 (MOT,
2010)

2.6 Influence of speed on road accidents

The spot speed of a vehicle is the speed of an individual vehicle measured as that
vehicle passes a particular point on the road, measured usually in kilometre per hour
(km/h). It is most commonly used in research into road accidents. This speed
measurement yields a distribution of speed for vehicles using a particular section of
road.
Speed distribution can be captured by means of a number of statistical
parameters describing the characteristics of the distribution. Amongst the common
parameters are average or mean speed, 85th percentile speed, standard deviation and
coefficient of variation. 85th percentile is the speed at or below which 85 per cent
of drivers drive. Standard deviation characterise the spread or variability of speeds on
any road. Coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean; a
dimensionless number describing the shape of the distribution.
Over the last 50 years, extensive research on the effect of speed on accidents
had been conducted, one of the earliest being Accidents on main rural highways
related to speed, driver and vehicle by Solomon D in 1964. Major national reviews
 REFERENCES

Andersson G and Nilsson G (1997). Speed management in Sweden. Swedish

National Road and Transport Institute VTI, Linkping.
Aronsson, K., & Bang, K. L. (2006). Influence on Vehicle Speed Profiles of
Interactions with other Road Users. European Transport Conference.
Strasbourg: Association for European Transport.
Baruya A (1998). Speed-Accident Relationships on Different Kinds of European
Roads. Deliverable D7 MASTER-project. Transport Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne.
Bowie NN, and Waltz M (1994). Data Analysis of the Speed-Related Crash Issue. In:
Auto and Traffic Safety. Vol. 2, Winter 1994.
Fildes BN, Rumbold G and Leening A (1991). Speed Behaviour and Drivers
Attitude to Speeding. Report No. 16. Monash University Accident Research
Centre, Victoria Australia, June 1991.
Department of Statistics, Malaysia. (2010). Population Distribution and
Demographic Characteristics. Putrajaya: Department of Statistics, Malaysia.
Department for Transport (2001). Road safety engineering good practice guide.
London. First edition.
Elvik R (1999). Area-wide urban traffic calming schemes: a meta -analysis of safety
effects. In: Proceedings of the conference Traffic safety on two continents.
Malmo Sweden, September 20-22. VTI-Konferens No. 13A, Part 6. VTI.
Linkping.
European Transport Safety Council (1995). Reducing Traffic Injuries Resulting From
Excess and Inappropriate Speed. ETSC, Brussels, 1995.
European Transport Safety Council (ETSC) (1996). Low cost road and traffic
engineering measures for casualty reduction. European Transport Safety
 95

Council, Brussels.
Federal Highway Administration. (2003). Benefits of Access Management. New
Jersey: Federal Highway Administration.
Fildes, B. N., Rumbold, G., & Leening, A. (1991). Speed Behaviour and Drivers'
Attitude to Speeding. Victoria, Australia: Monash University Accident
Research Centre.
Fildes B N & Lee S J (1993). The speed review: Road environment, behaviour, speed
limits, enforcement and crashes. Monash University, Accident Research
Centre for Federal Office of Road Safety. CR 127 (FORS); CR 3/93 (RSB),
Clayton, Victoria,
Finch, D. J., Kompfner, P., Lockwood, C. R., & Maycock, G. (1994). Speed, speed
limits and accidents. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
Garber, N.J., Ehrhart, A.A., (2000). Effects of speed, flow, and geometric
characteristics on crash frequency for two-lane highways. Transport. Res. Rec.
1717, 7683.
Garber, N.J. & Hoel, L.A., (2009). Traffic & Highway Engineering. 4th ed. Toronto:
Cengage Learning.
Grder, P. E. (2004). The impact of speed and other variables on pedestrian safety in
Maine. Accident Analysis & Prevention , 36 (4), 533-542.
Golob, T. F., Recker, W. W., & Alvarez, V. M. (2004). Freeway safety as a function
of traffic flow. Accident Analysis & Prevention , 36 (6), 933-946.
Gorrill, D. (2007). Transverse Rumble Strips. Minnesota: Minnesota Department of
Transportation.
Greibe, P. (2003). Accident prediction models for urban roads. Accident Analysis and
Prevention , 35 (2), 273-285.

Herbel. S., Laing, L., McGovern, C. (2010). Highway Safety Improvement Program
(HSIP) Manual. FHWA-SA-09-029. Federal Highway Administration,
McLean, VA.
Highway Planning Unit. (2011, June). Road Traffic Volume Malaysia 2010.
Retrieved April 20, 2012, from JKR website
http://rakan1.jkr.gov.my/ckjg/index.php?r=download/getfile&id=150&file=%
2Fckjg%2Fvar%2Fdownload%2FRTVM2010.pdf
 96

Hiselius, L. W. (2004). Estimating the relationship between accident frequency and

homogeneous and inhomogeneous traffic flows. Accident Analysis &
Prevention , 36 (6), 985-992.
Hong, D., Kim, J., Kim, W., Lee, Y., & Yang, H. C. (2005). Development of traffic
accident prediction models by traffic and road characteristics in urban areas.
5th Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies Conference (pp. 2046-
2061). Fukuoka: Association for Planning Transportation Studies.
Hawkins, D. M. (1980), Identification of Outliers, Chapman and Hall.
Iglewicz, B. and Hoaglin, D. (1993), "Volume 16: How to Detect and Handle
Outliers", The ASQC Basic References in Quality Control: Statistical
Techniques, Edward F. Mykytka, Ph.D., Editor.
Institut Kerja Raya Malaysia & Transport Research Laboratory (1995). Interim
Guide on Identifying, Prioritising and Treating Hazardous Locations on
Roads in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia.
International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group (2012). Road Safety Annual
Report 2011. France: International Transport Forum
Jabatan Kerja Raya (1986). A Guide On Geometric Design of Roads. Kuala Lumpur:
Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86
Joksch, H. C. (1993). Velocity change and fatality risk in a crash a rule of thumb.
Accident Analysis and Prevention, 25 (1), 103-104.
Kloeden C N, McLean A J and Glonek G (2002). Reanalysis of travelling speed and
the risk of crash involvement in Adelaide South Australia . Australian
Transport Safety Bureau ATSB. Report No. CR207.
Kloeden, C. N., McLean, A. J., Moore, V. M., & Ponte, G. (1997). Travelling Speed
and the Risk of Crash Involvement. Canberra: Federal Office of Road Safety.
Kloeden C N, Ponte G and McLean A J (2001). Travelling speed and the risk of
crash involvement on rural roads. Australian Transport Safety Bureau ATSB.
Report No. CR 204.
Liu, P., Huang, J., Wang, W., & Xu, C. (2011). Effects of transverse rumble strips on
safety of pedestrian crosswalks on rural roads in China. Accident Analysis &
Prevention , 43 (6), 1947-1954.
Lum, H., & Reagen, J. A. (1995, Winter). Interactive Highway Safety Design Model:
Accident Predictive Module. Public Roads, 59(2).
 97

Lynam, D. & Hummel, T. (2002). The effect of speed on road deaths and injuries.
Crowthorne, Berkshire: Transport Research Laboratory Limited.
(Unpublished).
Martin, J.-L. (2002). Relationship between crash rate and hourly traffic flow on
interurban motorways. Accident Analysis & Prevention , 34 (5), 619-629.
Ministry of Transport Malaysia. (2010).Transport Statistics Malaysia 2010.
Retrieved April 20, 2012, from MoT wbsite
http://www.mot.gov.my/Publication/Official/Statistik%20Pengangkutan%20
Malaysia%202010-comp.pdf
Mustakim, F. (2005). Treating Hazardous Locations at Federal Route 50. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia: Masters Project Report.
Mustakim, F., & Fujita, M. (2011). Development of Accident Predictive Model for
Rural Roadway. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
(58), 126-131.
Mustakim, F., et al. (2008). Blackspot Study and Accident Prediction Model Using
Multiple Linear Regression. First International Conference on Construction
In Developing Countries (ICCIDCI). Karachi.
Pang, T. Y., Radin Umar, R. S., Azhar, A. A., Megat Ahmad, M. H., & Nasir, M. T.
(2000). Accident Characteristics of Injured Motorcyclists in Malaysia.
Medical Journal Malaysia , 55 (1), 45-50.
Persaud, B., Dzbik, L., 1992. Accident prediction models for freeways. Transport.
Res. Rec. 1401, 5560.
Quimby, A., Maycock, G., Palmer, C., & Buttress, S. (1999). The factors that
influence a driver's choice of speed a questionnaire study. Crowthorne,
Berkshire: Transport Research Laboratory Limited.
Ramli, Z. (2011). Development of Accident Prediction Model by Using Artificial
Neural Network (ANN). Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
The Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (2002). Guidelines on Geometric
Design of Roads. Shah Alam: GI 2/2002
Sarani, R., Roslan, A., & Saniran, N. (2011). Motorcycle. Malaysian Institute of
Road Safety Research (MIROS), Accident Database System and Analysis
(ASDA) Unit . Kuala Lumpur: MIROS.
Solomon, D. R. (1964). Accidents on Main Rural highways related to Speed, Driver
and Vehicle. US Department of Commerce, Federal Bureau of Highways,
 98

Washington DC.
Stuster J , Coffman Z and Warren D (1998). Synthesis of Safety Research Related to
Speed and Speed Management. Publication no. FHWA-RD-98-154. Federal
Highway Administration. McLean, VA..
Sullivan, E.C., 1990. Estimating accident benefits of reduced freeway congestion. J.
Transport. Eng. 116, 167180.
Taylor M C (2001). The speeds of vehicles which are involved in fatal accidents. In:
Traffic Engineering & Control, February 2001.
Taylor, M. C., A. Baruya and J. V. Kennedy (2002). The relationship between speed
and accidents on rural single-carriageway roads. TRL report
TRL511.Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire.
Taylor, M. C., D. Lynam and A. Baruya (2000). The effects of drivers' speed on the
frequency of road crashes. TRL Report 421. Transport Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, Berkshire.
Taylor, M. C., & Wheeler, A. (2000). Accident reductions resulting from village
traffic calming schemes. European Transport Conference. pp. 163-174.
Cambridge: Homerton College.
Transportation Research Board (2000). Highway Capacity Manual. Washington,
D.C.: HCM 2000
Treat, J. R., Tumbas, N. S., McDonald, S. T., Shinar, D., Hume, R. D., Mayer, R. E.,
et al. (1979). Tri-level Study of the Causes of Traffic Accidents. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation.
Wan Manan, W. N. (2011). A Prediction Model at Un-signalized Intersections Using
Multiple Regression Method. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia: Masters
Project Report.
Wheeler, A. and M. Taylor (2000). Changes in accident frequency following the
introduction of traffic calming in villages. TRL report 452. Transport
Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire
Zabli, Z. A. (2006). Analisis Pembangunan Pangkalan Data Kemalangan Jalanraya
Menggunakan GIS. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia: Bachelor Degrees
Project Report.
Zolkepli, F. (2009, May 05). Deadliest stretch in Johor claims 36 lives every year.
The Star. Retrieved June 17, 2009, from http://thestar.com.my