Hmef5063 T2

Topic Counselling
2 Theories I
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify how counselling theories may be classified;
2. Compare and contrast how psychoanalytic theory, Adlerian theory
and client-centred theory view human behaviour;
3. List the differences in the goals of counselling among the three
theoretical positions; and
4. Identify the different counselling techniques proposed by each of the
three counselling theories.
INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Topic 1, the origin of counselling can be traced back to the work
of Frank Parsons who was concerned about helping young people make
decisions about choices in their career. Parsons regarded career decision making
as a rational process with guided self-appraisal, analysis of work opportunities,
and matching self with opportunities. The early development of the counselling
profession focused on developing techniques and ways of helping people better
assess their aptitude, opportunities and interests in career and occupational
aspects. This approach to counselling became popularly known as directive
counselling since the role of the counsellor is to advise clients about their career
choices through matching personal traits and factors that contribute to successful
decision making. Feelings and emotions were not so much regarded as important
in making the evaluation.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

22 TOPIC 2 COUNSELLING THEORIES I
When Carl Rogers published his famous book Counseling and Psychotherapy in
1942, he introduced a totally new concept of counselling. The client is seen as a
good person who is capable of making the right choices when facilitated by the
counsellor. Thus, the role of the counsellor is not to advise, but to facilitate the
process of exploring himself or herself. Self-exploration and growth in the client
can be achieved within a nurturing relationship where the client is able to freely
express his or her concerns as the counsellor provides a positive and trusting
environment. Rogers approach came to be known as non-directive counselling
since the counsellor did not advise or direct the clients process of self-exploration.
2.1 CONTINUUM OF THEORIES

After Rogers introduction of his approach, counsellors began to debate which
approach was more appropriate. The Rogerian approach prompted counsellors
to view counselling as more than giving advice on career matters. Subsequently,
counsellors began to examine other theories from psychology and psychotherapy
which could be used in counselling because these two fields focused on various
human experiences. Over the last 60 years, numerous theories have been
introduced into the counselling profession. Reviewing these theories used in
counselling, Patterson and Watkins (1996) suggested that modern approaches
can be arranged on a continuum ranging from non-directive approaches to
directive approaches (see Figure 2.1). Generally, counsellors who are nondirective
focus on affections and view clients as able to direct themselves with the help of
counsellors. In contrast, counsellors who adopt the directive approaches tend to
be more prescriptive and view themselves as the experts giving directions to
their clients.
Figure 2.1: Continuum of counselling theories

Source: Patterson & Watkins. 1996, p. 261

TOPIC 2 COUNSELLING THEORIES I 23
For example, using the person-centred approach, the counsellor attempts to

realise the clients full potential in adopting a non-directive attitude. The
counsellor looks for meaning behind a clients words and tries hard to
understand the clients world and as far as possible avoids portraying himself or
herself as an expert. On the other hand, using the behavioural approach, the
counsellor and the client collaborate on a behavioural plan involving replacing
negative behaviours with more positive behaviours using reinforcement.
The counsellor guides the client through role-playing and self-monitoring toward
correcting negative behaviours. In between these two ends of the continuum is
the psychoanalytic approach in which the counsellor helps the client work
through issues to find the best solution for overcoming the clients inner conflicts.
The counsellor tries to help the client to achieve a compromise between
conflicting forces through understanding the nature of the conflicts and dealing
with them in a more mature and rational manner.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
What is the main difference between directive and non-directive
counselling approaches? Give specific examples.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COUNSELLING

THEORIES
There are many theories or approaches adopted by counsellors. Different
textbooks on counselling theories may emphasise certain theories and ignore
others. So, when you read a particular textbook, some theories may be left out.
However, most textbooks will discuss a few popular theories due to their wide
acceptance among the counselling practitioners. Also, different authors may
classify the various theories differently. Corey (2005) identified 11 therapeutic
approaches and grouped them into four groups as follows.
2.2.1 The Analytic Approaches

These are counselling approaches focusing on analysing unconscious motivation,
personality development and childhood experiences. Included under this
category are:
(a) Psychoanalytic therapy by Sigmund Freud; and
(b) Adlerian therapy by Alfred Adler.

2.2.2 The Experiential and Relationship-Oriented

Approaches
These approaches focus on creating a good relationship between counsellor and
client, as well as having good and positive views of human nature. Included in
this category are:
(a) The existential approach by Viktor Frankl, Rollo May and Irvin Yalom;
(b) Person-centred approach by Carl Rogers; and
(c) Gestalt therapy by Frederick and Laura Perls.
2.2.3 The Action Therapies

These approaches focus on clients current behaviour and developing a clear plan
for changing unproductive behaviour with a new one. Included here are:
(a) Reality Therapy by William Glaser;
(b) Behaviour Therapy by B. F. Skinner, Arnold Lazarus and Albert Bandura;
(c) Rational Emotive Therapy by Albert Ellis; and
(d) Cognitive Therapy by A. T. Beck.
2.2.4 The System Perspectives

These approaches stress on the importance of understanding clients in the context
of the surrounding, environment, or system. Included in this category are:
(a) The Feminist Therapy; and
(b) Family System Therapy
On the other hand, Palmer (2000) classified the various counselling approaches
according to the convention of psychoanalytic, cognitive-behavioural and
humanistic traditions, with a broad category of others for those not necessarily
belonging to these three traditions or whose affiliation is disputed. The
classification is as follows:
Psychoanalytic Approaches by:

(a) Sigmund Freud;
(b) Carl Jung;

(c) Alfred Adler; and

(d) Melanie Klien.
Cognitive-Behavioural Approaches:
(a) Behaviour therapy;
(b) Rational emotive behaviour therapy;
(c) Cognitive therapy; and
(d) Reality therapy.
Humanistic Approaches:
(a) Client-centred therapy by Carl Rogers; and
(b) Gestalt therapy by Frederick and Laura Perls.
The issue of which theory to use is a highly complex and controversial question.
It cannot be denied that the adoption of any one theory will depend on the
orientation of the counsellor or practitioner. All the theories mentioned are over
and above the scope of this introductory course. Only six theories will be
discussed briefly. For a deeper study, it is advisable to refer both to traditional
literature or original sources and to the latest editions of specialist texts by those
representing their theoretical orientation. Look up the founders of each theory,
because the main assumptions of their theories are strongly associated with their
personal life experiences.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Refer to different resources or textbooks on counselling theories and

identify other theories not mentioned here. Compare how the
authors have classified those theories.
2. Read the autobiography of each founder of a theory. Relate how
each persons life history contributed to his or her ideas.

2.3 PSYCHOANALYTIC COUNSELLNG

Sigmund Freud was a psychiatrist in Vienna. He was the
originator of psychoanalysis, introducing new, seemingly
outrageous ideas on human behaviour and development. His
ideas related mainly to his own self-exploration when he
experienced emotional problems during his early 40s. Freud
suffered from various illness originating from stress, had many
phobias, and dreams which he analysed and tried to find
meaning. He examined his own childhood experiences and
childhood sexual feelings, on which he based his theories. Sigmund Freud
Freud was highly creative and productive, writing profusely (18561939)
until his works filled 24 volumes. Many of Freuds early
concepts of psychoanalytic principles and techniques have been the foundation
of the helping profession and are still used by many professional helpers.
2.3.1 Basic Assumptions

Freud believed humans are basically driven by irrational forces, unconscious
motives, and biological drives that mainly evolved during childhood years. The goal
of life is mainly focused on gaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Three main ideas of
Freud are often discussed when describing the psychoanalytic approach; namely:
(a) the structure of personality,
(b) the iceberg theory of unconsciousness, and
(c) the psychosexual personality development.
According to Freud, human personality is made up of three integrating

components:
(a) Id
The id is born at birth. The id consists of all human psychic energy and
instincts. It operates according to the pleasure principle, meaning it focuses
on gaining pleasure at any cost in order to satisfy instinctual needs
regardless of moral or logic reasons. The gratification of needs is aimed at
reducing tension and avoiding pain.

(b) Ego
As one grows up and interact with parents and his
significant other, one learns to mediate or balance
between instincts calls and the demands from the
environment. This second component of personality
is ruled by reality principle, where it reasons
realistically and logically and formulate plans on
how to satisfy needs in socially acceptable ways.
(c) Superego
Superego, the third component of personality,
consists of learned principles of right and wrong in
Figure 2.2:
order to control instinctual gratification and
Structures of personality
behaviour. It includes a persons ideal moral code,
and strives not for pleasure but for perfection (see
Figure 2.2).
The collections of moral codes are gained from the standards imposed by parents
and society. When one follows the moral code, one gets rewards, otherwise one
experiences punishment and feelings of guilt. When the three components of
personality conflict with each other, a person will experience anxiety.
(a) Defence Mechanism

When a person experiences anxiety, he or she will seek for a solution that is
often in the form of ineffective behaviour or embarrassing action. In order
to reduce anxiety, the person may unconsciously react in a defensive way to
reduce stress. Such defensive ways of coping with anxiety is
called defence mechanism.
A defence mechanism if used appropriately will reduce the tension for a

temporary period. However, if it is used repeatedly, the person may
become inefficient in handling problems since he or she has gotten used to
finding excuses or explanation that give false solutions. Common defence
mechanisms include denial, rationalisation, intellectualisation, projection,
regression and displacement (See Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Psychological Defence Mechanisms as a Way of Coping with Stress
Defence
Cause of anxiety Means of coping Example
mechanism
Compensation Anxious about Emphasise desirable Failing to impress the
ones real or traits or try to excel in football coach, Amin
imagined area of weakness or in strives to excel in
weakness other areas badminton
Denial Faced with Refuse to perceive or A woman refused to
painful or accept reality accept her husbands
unpleasant untimely death
reality
Displacement Unable to express Shift or let off the Unable to express
emotions to a emotions to a anger at her husband,
person substitute person or Mei Ling shouts at her
object children
Intellectualisation Anxious about a Think or talk about the Doctors and nurses
stressful problem situation in impersonal avoid being
and technical or overwhelmed with
intellectual terms emotions by
explaining to patients
and family members
about illness and death
using intellectual
terms
Projection Anxious about Attribute the feelings, Joyce accuses Ali of
ones own shortcomings, or cheating in the exam
feelings, unacceptable impulses when in fact she was
shortcomings, or to others the one who
unacceptable committed the offence
impulses
Rationalisation Anxious about Justify the behaviour Kumar blamed the
committing a by giving a rational traffic jam as the
behaviour and reasonable, but reason for arriving late
often false reason for class
Reaction Having Prevent dangerous Sara lavishes praises
formation dangerous ideas, ideas and emotions on her younger sister
emotions or from being expressed when in reality she is
impulses by expressing opposite jealous of her sister
behaviour
Regression Feeling anxious Retreat to childlike Crying, throwing a
or threatened behaviour and tantrum, speaking in
defences childish manner,

yelling, bed-wetting
are some examples of
regression
Repression Having Prevent or exclude the We try to forget hostile
uncomfortable, thoughts from entering feelings toward a
painful or awareness or family member, past
dangerous consciousness failures and
thoughts embarrassments
Sublimation Having unmet Redirecting or working People channel their
desires or out the energy in more high level frustration,
unacceptable socially acceptable aggressive or sexual
impulses activities. energy into sports, arts
or politics.
Source: Corey, 2005
(b) Consciousness and Unconsciousness

Another contribution of Freud to the understanding of human behaviour is
the concept of consciousness and unconsciousness. According to Freud,
humans are unaware of most of their mental processes. The unconscious
mind consists of all the instincts, wishes and experiences that are mainly
unacceptable to be acknowledged, recognised or expressed. Though
consciously unaware of these repressed motives, they influence and
sometimes govern behaviours. Only about ten per cent of the mind is above
the surface of awareness. The main idea is that people often do not
understand why they behave as they do due to unconscious motives, which
need to be identified through counselling (see Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: The Iceberg Theory of Unconsciousness

(c) Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

A controversial idea proposed by Freud is known as the psychosexual
stages of personality development. Freud suggested that the desire for
sexual pleasure is a lifelong drive that begins in infancy. Humans go
through five stages of psychosexual development beginning with the oral
stage whereby a babys oral needs are met by sucking the mothers breast.
Anal stage is about meeting anal needs either by holding or eliminating
faeces. During the phallic stage, children become aware of the genital
differences and become attached to the opposite sex of parents. The latency
period is when sexual interest is relatively quiescent since children get
engrossed in school activities and peers. The last stage is genital which
begins at puberty and each gender takes more interest in the opposite sex.
Excessive gratification as well as excessive frustration at any point of
development in any of the stage will result in fixation, unresolved conflict
or emotional hang-up, manifested in the form of personality problems or
disorders (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Freuds Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
Adult
Behaviours
Focus of Focus of Personality
Stage Period Resulting from
Pleasure Development Resulting from
Fixation
Fixation
Oral Birth Mouth Satisfy needs Gum chewing, Oral-dependent
18 by sucking, nail biting, (gullible,
months swallowing smoking, passive,
and chewing/ kissing, attention-seeker)
biting overeating, oral-aggressive
alcoholism (argue, sarcasm,
biting)
Anal 13 years Anus Satisfy needs Throw temper- Anal-retentive
old of holding or tantrums, self- (obstinate,
eliminating destructive stingy, very
faeces toilet behaviours orderly,
training compulsively
clean.
Anal expulsive
(disorderly,
destructive,
cruel, messy)

Phallic After 3 Genitals Become aware Oedipus- Vanity, egoism,

of genitals and complex (boys shyness, low-
gender rival with self-esteem,
identity, father for worthlessness.
physically mothers Men treat
attracted or affection) women with
attached to Electra contempt.
parents of complex (girls Women become
opposite sex compete with flirtatious and
mother for promiscuous.
fathers
affection
Latency Early None Psychosexual development is dormant. Life focuses
school on school. Boys play with boys, girls play with girls.
years No sexual interest in the opposite sex
Genital Puberty Bodily Puberty results Attraction to Emotions and
sexual in sexual opposite sex, turmoil in
changes maturation capacity for relation to
and awareness love, gender identity
awareness of and social-sexual
adult sexuality relationships
Source: Corey, 2005
2.3.2 Goals of Counselling and Roles of the Counsellor

The goal of psychoanalytic counselling is to help clients become aware of their
unconscious thoughts and emotions that have affected their behaviour or action.
The counsellor may also help clients identify unresolved developmental issues,
either personality or psychosexual aspects, so that clients can continue with their
development in a healthy way. In addition, through counselling, clients will also
be able to recognise ineffective ways of coping with stress they had previously
adopted. The counsellor can teach clients how to cope positively with anxiety
and the demands of living.
The psychoanalytic counsellor acts as an expert who aims to find the underlying
roots of the clients current problems. The counsellor encourages clients to talk
about whatever comes to mind, especially their childhood experiences. In order
to make the client feel comfortable, the counsellor sits slightly out of the clients
view while the client lies down comfortably on a couch. Talking freely about any
issues often leads to the recall of related thoughts or emotions. This technique of
free association, together with dream analysis and gaining insights enables the
counsellor to understand the clients motive and interpret his or her unconscious
thoughts and wishes.
2.3.3 Counselling Techniques

Freud had introduced various techniques that the counsellor can use as a tool to
help clients work out their problems. In free association, the client feels free
enough to say or express whatever comes to his or her mind, however silly,
irrational or painful the thoughts are. Freud believed dreams are the royal roads
to the unconsciousness. Through dream analysis, the counsellor is able to
understand a clients unconscious thoughts and emotions by interpreting the
manifest content and latent content (the hidden, symbolic meaning) of the dream.
In the process of counselling, sometimes clients begin to imagine that the
counsellor is similar to the significant person in their real life, thus they transfer
their emotions to the counsellor. By analysing transference, Freud believed that
the counsellor would be able to interpret the positive or negative feelings
expressed by the clients.
Most often, clients will feel reluctant to freely discuss or think about an issue or
topic. This blockage in the flow of ideas is called resistance. Through an analysis
of resistance, the counsellor is able to make the client aware of his/her resistance,
so that the client will deal with them realistically. Last but not least,
interpretation is used throughout the counselling process whereby the
counsellors expertise and experiences are able to help clients understand better
their own past and present experiences.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Who is the founder of the psychoanalytic approach?
2. How do psychoanalytic counsellors view clients?
3. From the psychoanalytic perspective, what is the reason(s) for clients
having problems in life?
4. Identify the different ideas proposed by Freud.
5. What is the goal of counselling according to the psychoanalytic
approach?
6. What are the techniques used in psychoanalytic counselling?

2.4 ADLERIAN COUNSELING

Alfred Adler (18701937) is best known as founder of the
Adlerian approach which is also known as Individual
Psychology. He was a sickly child and had a difficult
relationship with his younger brother. Against his parents
and teachers expectations, he rose to the top of his class and
went to study medicine at the University of Vienna, later
specialising in neurology and psychiatry. Adlers book
Understanding Human Nature was a bestseller. He wrote,
spoke and demonstrated his work in Europe and the United
Alfred Adler
States until his death in 1937.
(18701937)
Alfred was a colleague of Sigmund Freud, and along with Carl
Jung developed the school of psychodynamic thoughts. He disagreed with
Freuds extreme emphasis on biological and deterministic views toward humans.
Adler proposed a more optimistic, hopeful and positive theory on human
development, stressing on mens subjective feelings and social interest. He
focused on the unity of personality, believing that humans can only be
understood when viewed as complete beings. Humans develop a unique lifestyle
that is created by them. They have created their own personality and therefore
can choose to change. Clients are encouraged to value their strengths and to
acknowledge that they are equal members of society who can make a worthwhile
contribution to it. After Adlers death, Rudolf Dreikurs was the most significant
figure bringing Adlerian psychology to America, applying its principles to
education, individual, group, and family therapy.

The following are some assumptions of human nature stated by Adler:
(a) Holistic
Adler argued that peoples actions, thoughts and feelings had to be seen as
a whole. He held that no life expression can be viewed in isolation, but
must always be regarded in relation to the total personality. Personality is
not made up of separate parts, but rather, the person as a whole orientates
him or herself to the surroundings.
The lifestyle of people and how they behave in the world are determined by
the ideas and beliefs they have chosen. For example, a person may choose
to believe that he should be better than others or that he should be liked by
others. Adler did not place importance on genetic factors but more
importantly on how the person used what he or she inherited in responding

to the environment.
(b) Social
Adler further suggested that people were social in nature. So, their
behaviour had to be interpreted in a social context. If this be the case, then it
is important to examine how people behave;
(i) With their family:
(ii) At their school:
(iii) As adults in their workplace,:
(iv) When they are with their friends; and
(v) In intimate relationships.
PARENTING
Wise parenting will enable children to grow to feel that they
are social equals. In other words, they are equal members in
their families who have equal rights, equal respect and share
equal responsibilities. Children expect to be treated equally
and expect their views to be taken into account.
Alfred Adler
The human baby is born in an inferior position. He is quite helpless and is

dependent on others for survival. The feeling of inferiority, whether real or
imagined, may last well into his teenage years. Some people become so
engrossed in their feelings of inferiority that they become emotionally and
socially paralysed and develop an inferiority complex. Humans are always trying
to overcome physical weakness by striving for perfection and significance as well
as developing a sense of superiority. Such effort is called compensation. This
does not necessarily mean being overly more powerful or more significant than
others, it simply means moving from a perceived lower position to a higher one,
from feeling neglected to feeling accepted, and from perceiving weaknesses to
achieving strength. The unique ways in which an individual achieves his or her
superiority is what is meant by individuality.
According to Adlerian counselling, humans are mainly motivated by social

interest, meaning people feel a sense of belonging as well as connected
to a society that treats them as equal. People who possess social interest are
responsible for themselves and those in their society. They have an opportunity

to change their beliefs and their behaviours. Adler considered each person has
chosen to be the person that he or she is; we are the authors of our own creation.
People can change if they wish. However, change is not easy for an adult; we are
all good at being our old selves and will have to struggle at being a different
version of ourselves.
Teleological
The word teleological comes from the Greek word teleo which means goal.
Adler felt that human behaviour is guided by a purpose. To understand human
nature, you have to know what is guiding a particular behaviour. For example, a
person who is always late, what is his purpose for being late? Perhaps the person
is often late to show others that he or she is busy.
Alternatively, the person wants to show to others he or she is in control and

nobody can tell him or her to be on time. Adler called the beliefs that underlie
peoples goals of behaviour as private logic; to the person it is logical to behave in
such a way.
Birth Order
Another major idea of Adler was his emphasis on birth order. Birth order is the
ordinal position an individual is born into his or her family. Adler proposed that
people who share the same ordinal birth positions share similar characteristics.
This is because the psychological situation of each child is different from each
other depending on his or her birth order. Adler focused on five positions with
each sharing similar unique characteristics: the oldest, the youngest, the second
born, the middle, and the only child. Birth order and the interpretation of this
position influence ones interactions within the family and with others outside
the family. Individuals tend to form their unique personality from the first
years within the family, reacting to their siblings and family dynamics. Thus,
the family environment is also seen as important to a persons development,
especially the first six years of life. A negative family environment may be
rejective, authoritarian, suppressive, materialistic, overprotective or pitying. A
positive family environment may be democratic, accepting, open, authoritative,
and social (see Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Birth Order and Its Influence in Personality Development
Birth Order General Influence on Personality Development

Oldest child First child often receives much attention and is lavished with love. She
is seen as unique and special. She tends to be dependable, hardworking
and trying to keep ahead. When the second child arrives, the first child
finds herself dethroned and slightly neglected. She is no longer the
centre of attention and must share the spotlight with the newcomer.

Second born This child finds that she is an addition to the family, and sharing the
spotlight with another person that comes before her. She strives to gain
attention and to be better than the older sibling. She competes with the
oldest, striving for achievement in different areas. The second born is
often the opposite of the first-born.
Middle child This child often feels left out since the first and second has already team-
up. This child may adopt the poor me attitude and creates problems
to gain attention. In a problematic family, however, the middle child
may become the peacemaker, the person who holds things together.
Youngest The youngest is often the baby of the family and becomes the centre of
child attention. He may be pampered and spoilt. He has to strive and become
at least as good as the others ahead of him. Youngest children tend to
develop in unique ways; different from the older siblings.
Only child The only child shares some characteristics with the oldest child since she
is also the centre of attention and strives to become the best. She is also
pampered and spoilt. She may crave being in the spotlight all the time,
even with those outside her family. She may have problems sharing or
cooperating with people of her age, yet gets along well with adults.

The goal of Adlerian counselling is to help clients develop a healthy, holistic
lifestyle. This is achieved through an equal relationship between the counsellor
and the client. Clients are assisted in identifying, exploring, and disclosing
mistaken goals and faulty assumptions associated with feelings of inferiority.
These feelings might result from any negative effects of birth order, negative
family environment or lack of social interaction and correction of the faulty
lifestyle, goals, and assumptions.
Ultimately, the counsellor will help the client foster social interest and start
contributing to society, overcome feelings of inferiority and acquire a sense of
equality with others, modify clients views and goals, and change clients faulty
motivation. The clients lifestyles encourage them to be brave enough so that
they are able to explore, identify or confront any fears, perceptions or issues that
have been burdening them. In a condition full of positive regard and empathy,
clients become increasingly willing to change and grow. As they become more
fully functioning, they will have greater self acceptance. In conclusion, clients are
ultimately responsible for their own lives.
The role of the counsellor is to diagnose, teach, and model the desired
behaviours. The main task of the counsellor is to assess his clients level of
functioning by gathering information on their family constellation, including

birth order, their parents, siblings and others living at home. Clients early life
experiences are also explored. The counsellor then interprets his clients
situations, putting assumptions on the problem areas that need to be worked out.

Adlerian counselling follows FOUR phases of therapy:
(a) Establishing a Relationship

The counsellor establishes an equal partnership with the client in terms of
equal respect, rights and responsibilities. The counsellor accepts the client
without any conditions and encourages the person to identify his or her
strengths and abilities. Focus is on the fact that the client can make a change
if he or she wishes to. The client must feel safe, especially if he or she is to
reveal his or her inner thoughts. The counsellor should be serious with the
client and not play games.
(b) Gathering Information

The counsellor gathers information about the client by observing the way
he or she enters the room, sits, speaks and behaves during the counselling
sessions. The counsellor will analyse the clients lifestyle by examining
his/her birth order and family environment, as well as early memories
especially during the first few years of life. Early recollections are used
as a diagnostic tool to evaluate the clients present attitudes and current
lifestyle. The counsellor asks directly why the client has come and much
can be learned by what he or she tells and does not tell. The counsellor will
ask about the clients place of work, family, friends and relationship with
siblings. For example, is the client the eldest who was often bullied by his
younger brother?
Or was the client a pampered child? The client will also be asked to recall
earlier experiences. According to Adler, people remember events that
reinforce the beliefs and ideas in their private logic.
(c) Giving Insight

The counsellor will help clients gain an insight into their present
behaviours. Adlerian counsellors use mainly verbal techniques to assess,
evaluate and interpret their clients lifestyles. The counsellor can use
confrontation where he challenges the clients private logic. Asking the
what if questions encourages clients to explore possibilities. By now, the
counsellor will have some idea about the clients view of themselves, their
view of the world and their unconscious decisions about how to move
through life. These guesses will have to be confirmed by the clients:
whether they agree or disagree with the counsellor. Agreement with the
counsellors assessment may be conveyed verbally or non-verbally (by
gestures and body language). For example, the client may recognise how
his private logic has restricted him and he may want to change his
behaviour. If the client is a person who likes to be better than everyone else,
then he has to accept the fact that he will be lonely and live without real
friends.
(d) Encouraging Reorientation

This is the most difficult phase where the counsellor guides and encourages
the client to find a way to change. The counsellor will point out the clients
strengths and encourage him to find a way to move on. Tasks which are
achievable are set for the client; especially those that challenge his private
logic and are hindering the person from changing. To acquire new
behaviour is an uphill task, and the counsellor should make an effort to
congratulate achievement. The counsellor may make reference to earlier
counselling sessions where certain issues that were discussed may be
helpful to the client at this phase of the counselling process. The counsellor
may end the sessions by assigning tasks if appropriate.
The Adlerian approach requires clients to verbalise their thoughts therefore

language is essential. Even if non-verbal situations such as drama or art are used,
clients need to talk about it and understand what they discover about
themselves. The Adlerian approach is based on the belief that people want to
belong as equals and are keen to develop their full potentials. The Adlerian
approach is appropriate for people who are able to accept responsibility for their
behaviour and who are willing to make changes.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Discuss:
1. What is your birth position? Do Adlers characteristics defined for
your birth position reflect your personality?
2. How has your personality developed as an effect of being born in
this particular position?

SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. Who is the founder of the Adlerian approach?
2. How did Adler view human behaviour?
3. From the Adlerian perspective, what is the reason(s) for clients
4. What is the goal of counselling according to Adlerian approach?
5. What are the techniques used in Adlerian counselling?
2.5 CLIENT-CENTRED COUNSELLING

Carl Rogers, introduced the idea of non-directive counselling in his book
Counseling and Psychotherapy published in 1942. Rogers theory later evolved
into client-centred counselling or client-centred psychotherapy as known today.
The approach is applicable to numerous types of counselling, be it individuals,
groups, or families. He was dubbed the father of client-centred therapy and his
approach appeals to many professionals today because it is simple and contains
acceptable ideas which can be easily applied by new counsellors. The job of a
counsellor is to reflect the counselees responses back to him and, thus, he needs
to set up a catalytic atmosphere of acceptance. Such an environment is supposed
to allow the client to get in touch with the innate resources within him or herself
for successfully dealing with life and developing self-esteem.

In the client-centred approach, humans are seen as having positive goodness,
realistic expectations, and trustworthiness. Humans have a desire to become fully
functioning; thus able to live as effectively as possible. According to Rogers, if
humans are positively regarded and allowed to develop freely, they will grow to
be fully functioning. Because of the positive views towards human nature,
Rogers approach came to be known as a humanistic approach. According to
him, fully functioning persons have the potential to achieve self-actualisation,
which refers to using the maximum or highest potential existing in oneself
through striving, maintaining and enhancing ones life experiences. Rogers
believed that in order for a healthy self to develop, a person needs unconditional
positive regard, which means unconditional love, warmth, respect and
acceptance. However, in real life, parents, teachers and peers often offer
conditional regard. The person will be accepted, loved or cared for only if he or

she is good, pretty or clever, to give some examples. Rogers also proposed that
each person has a self, which is central to the being. The self encompasses all
values, beliefs and perceptions one has about oneself, acquired through
interactions with significant others as one goes through his or her life.
As a person grows and develops, he or she becomes aware of the differences

between the self and others. A person will develop a real self (what the person is)
and an ideal self (what the person hopes to become). Humans always try to
maintain consistency between ideal self, true self, and self-image. Self-image is
the total subjective perception of ones body and personality. If a person receives
or perceives information from others that are inconsistent with his self-image,
incongruences occur. The incongruent person becomes confused, vulnerable,
dissatisfied or seriously maladaptive. A person tends to feel worthy only when
he fulfills or conforms to others wishes or expectations that might not be
congruent with the persons values, beliefs or perceptions. Incongruences
between the real self and the ideal self makes a person become maladjusted, thus
developing unhealthy self (see Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: The three selfs
Incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between any of these three

components of the self: the ideal self (what you would like to be), the self-image
(what you think you are), and the true self (what you actually are). Self-esteem is
negative when there is incongruence between ideal self and self-image. Anxiety
and defensiveness occur when there is incongruence between self-image and true
self. Consistency between ideal self, true self, and self-image results in a positive
self-image.

The goal of person-centred counselling is to encourage clients to be brave enough
so that they are able to explore, identify or confront any fears, perceptions or

issues that have been burdening them. In a condition full of positive regard and
empathy, clients become increasingly willing to change and grow. As clients
become more fully functioning, they will have greater acceptance of their self.
The role of the counsellor is to provide a safe and trusting climate or conditions
wherein the client will feel safe enough to explore his or her self. In contrast the
others in the real world that accept clients only with certain conditions, the
counsellor instead creates a nurturing condition that encourages the client to
discover his or herself.
The counsellor acts as a facilitator who knows how to guide the client through
the process of self-discovery by hearing, observing and reflecting clients verbal
and non-verbal language. The counsellor is not directive in the sense that he does
not suggest or interpret why clients feel as they do or what they should do. By
using verbal techniques such as reflection, asking questions and rephrasing, the
counsellor will assist clients in becoming more aware of their feelings and
thoughts, thus gain insights to their own experiences and find their own self.

Carl Rogers is best known for his contributions to therapy. His therapy has gone
through a couple of name changes along the way. He originally called it non-
directive, because he felt that the therapist should not lead the client, but rather
be there for the client while the client directs the progress of the therapy. As he
became more experienced, he realised that, even as non-directive as he was, he
still influenced his client by his very non-directiveness! In other words, clients
look to the therapist for guidance, and will find it even when the therapist is
trying not to guide. So he changed the name of the therapy to client-centred. He
felt that the client was the one who should say what was wrong, find ways of
improving and determining the conclusion of therapy. His therapy was still very
client-centred even while acknowledging the impact of the therapist.
One of the phrases that Rogers used to describe his therapy was supportive, not
reconstructive, and he used the analogy of learning to ride a bicycle to explain
it: When you help a child to learn to ride a bike, you cant just tell him how. He
has to try it for himself. And you cant hold him up the whole time either. There
comes a point when you have to let him go. If he falls, he falls, but if you hang
on, hell never learn. In client-centred counselling, the quality of the relationship
between the counsellor and the client is itself a technique. Rogers believed that
the counsellor should create a therapeutic condition for the client which
emphasises empathy, positive regard, and congruence.

(a) Empathy refers to the counsellors ability to feel with the client and
convey this understanding back to the client. When the client perceives
the counsellor as being understanding and appreciative of his or her
predicament, then only will the client proceed with his or her self-
exploration.
(b) Respect or Positive Regard where the client will feel safe when the
counsellor genuinely and positively accepts the client as a person
regardless of what the client is telling the counsellor. Such positive regard
will make the client feel valued regardless of how bad or negative his or her
self is.
(c) Congruency refers to the counsellors genuine behaviour and non-verbal
language that is free from pretension.
Some methods to promote the therapeutic relationship include extensive use of

silence, acceptance, immediacy, active and passive listening, reflection of feelings
and thoughts, clarification, summarisation, confrontation, and leads. Reflection is
the mirroring of emotional communication.
If the client says I feel like crap! the therapist may reflect this back to the client
by saying something like So, lifes getting you down, hey? By doing this, the
therapist is communicating to the client that he is indeed listening and cares
enough to understand.
Often, people in distress say things that they do not mean because it feels good to
say them. Carl Rogers relates the case of a woman who came to see him. She said.
I hate men! He made her reflect by saying You hate all men? Well, she said,
maybe not all. She did not hate her father or her brother. Even with those men
she hated, she discovered that the great majority of them she didnt feel as
strongly as the word hate implies. In fact, ultimately, she realised that she didnt
trust many men, and that she was afraid of being hurt by them the way she had
been by one particular man. Reflection must be used carefully, however. Many
beginning therapists use it without thinking (or feeling), and just repeat every
other phrase that comes out of the clients mouth. They sound like parrots with
psychology degrees! Reflection must come from the heart it must be genuine
and congruent.

SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. Who is the founder of the client-centred approach?

2. What are Carl Rogers assumptions of human nature?
3. From the client-centred perspective, what is the reason(s) for clients
4. What is the goal of counselling according to the client-centred
approach?
5. What are the techniques used in client-centred counselling?
ACTIVITY 2.3
Have you ever come across an instance when you felt any two of your
selves were not congruent with each other?
Describe the experience and identify how you overcame the
incongruency.
Theories and approaches in counselling can be arranged on a continuum

ranging from non-directive approaches to directive approaches.
Gerald Corey, a prominent practising counsellor and author, identified four

classes of therapeutic approaches: The Analytic Approach, The Experiential
and Relationship-Oriented Approach, The Action Therapies and The System
Perspectives.
The psychoanalytic approach emphasises the three components of

personality, the influence of unconsciousness and the psychosexual stages on
human development.
Freuds theory is deterministic since he believed personality is determined by

some forces that mainly happen during childhood.
His view of human nature is pessimistic, believing that humans are largely
influenced by sexual energies and uncontrollable forces.

Adler disagreed with Freuds emphasis on selfish id and unconsciousness.

Adler prefers to view humans in a more positive light, always striving to
overcome weaknesses by achieving superiority.
He believed the family constellation and birth order have strong influence on
ones personality and life style.
Rogers disagreed with Freud on psychoanalytic pessimistic views on

humans. Rogers believed it is more beneficial to explore conscious thoughts
and feelings.
He emphasised non-directive approach and unconditional positive regard

within a trusting relationship so that clients will become confident to explore
and gain insights to their own experiences, thus becoming more fully
functioning.
Adlerian Non-directive counselling

Birth order Psychoanalytic
Clarification Psychosexual stages
Client-centred Reflection
Compensation Respect
Congruence Structures of personality
Empathy Unconditional positive regard
Inferiority complex Unconsciousness
Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy.

(7th ed.). Belmont,CA: Cengage Brooks/Cole.
Palmer, S. (Ed.). (2000). Introduction to Counselling and psychotherapy: the
essential guide. London, UK: Sage.
Patterson, C.H. & Watkins, C.E. (1996). Theories of psychotherapy (5th ed.). New
York: HarperCollins.

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Topic Counselling

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2.1 CONTINUUM OF THEORIES

Figure 2.1: Continuum of counselling theories

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For example, using the person-centred approach, the counsellor attempts to

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COUNSELLING

2.2.1 The Analytic Approaches

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2.2.2 The Experiential and Relationship-Oriented

2.2.3 The Action Therapies

2.2.4 The System Perspectives

Psychoanalytic Approaches by:

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(c) Alfred Adler; and

1. Refer to different resources or textbooks on counselling theories and

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2.3 PSYCHOANALYTIC COUNSELLNG

2.3.1 Basic Assumptions

According to Freud, human personality is made up of three integrating

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(a) Defence Mechanism

A defence mechanism if used appropriately will reduce the tension for a

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Table 2.1: Psychological Defence Mechanisms as a Way of Coping with Stress

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Source: Corey, 2005

(b) Consciousness and Unconsciousness

Figure 2.3: The Iceberg Theory of Unconsciousness

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(c) Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Table 2.2: Freuds Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

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Phallic After 3 Genitals Become aware Oedipus- Vanity, egoism,

Source: Corey, 2005

2.3.2 Goals of Counselling and Roles of the Counsellor

2.3.3 Counselling Techniques

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2.4 ADLERIAN COUNSELING

2.4.1 Basic Assumptions

importantly on how the person used what he or she inherited in responding

The human baby is born in an inferior position. He is quite helpless and is

According to Adlerian counselling, humans are mainly motivated by social

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Alternatively, the person wants to show to others he or she is in control and

Table 2.3: Birth Order and Its Influence in Personality Development

Birth Order General Influence on Personality Development

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2.4.2 Goals of Counselling and Roles of the Counsellor

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2.4.3 Counselling Techniques

(a) Establishing a Relationship

(b) Gathering Information

(c) Giving Insight

(d) Encouraging Reorientation

The Adlerian approach requires clients to verbalise their thoughts therefore

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2.5 CLIENT-CENTRED COUNSELLING

2.5.1 Basic Assumptions