Chapter 1

Keynote
20 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Geomechanics: The critical
engineering discipline for mass mining
Edwin T. Brown, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre and Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Brisbane, Australia

Abstract
It is shown that the scale of the worlds largest surface and underground mass mining operations has grown at a
continuing rate over the last 100 years. Indications are that both the rates of production and the depths of open pit
and underground mines will continue to grow into the future. This can be expected to provide significant challenges to
the engineering discipline of geomechanics which is shown to have been a major contributor to the success and growth
of mass mining over the last 40 years. Important challenges for many operations remain in other engineering
disciplines to improve efficiency and achieve cost reduction. Nevertheless, the importance of geomechanics to the
investigation, design, construction and safe operation of profitable large-scale surface and underground mines requires
that it be recognised as the basic engineering discipline for mass mining. It is essential, therefore, that the industry
continues to support research into a range of geomechanics-related issues and the education and training of the future
generation of mining geomechanics specialists.

1 INTRODUCTION (sublevel, longhole) and variations of these mentioned." The

statement goes on to say that "MassMin 2004 will include not
There are apparent trends in the international mining only underground mining but also open pit mining." This
industry towards the globalisation of company structures and definition of mass mining follows that used in the Chairmans
operations, the mining of larger and often lower grade Foreword to the Proceedings of MassMin 2000 in which the
orebodies, mining at increasing depths, cost reduction through MassMin series of conferences were described as "the
the use of mass mining methods, the application of caving pinnacle international forum for discussing and sharing both
methods of mining to more massive orebodies, and improved technical and operational issues and experiences associated
safety and environmental performance. These trends bring with the application of methods such as caving (block, caving
with them a range of management and engineering and sublevel) and large-scale stoping (sublevel and longhole),
challenges, many of which have geomechanics bases. The including their derivatives (underground benching, front cave,
purpose of this paper is to offer a wide-ranging exploration of inclined footwall, etc)" (Chitombo 2000). Thus, the two recent
these issues, in the course of which, it will be argued that international conferences on mass mining define their subject
geomechanics is the critical engineering discipline for the safe only in terms of the mining methods being used and not
and economic use of modern mass mining methods. through other parameters such as production levels. Because
Following a discussion of the terminology to be used, the of the nature of the mining methods identified as constituting
commonly made assertion that there is an international trend mass mining (including open pit mining), there is an implication
towards mass mining will be tested through a compilation and that the mining will be on a large or massive scale in other than
assessment of historical production and mining depth data for narrow orebodies whose dimensions will be substantial in all
a number of selected open pit and underground mines. The three dimensions. Mass mining will also be taken to be highly
historical development of mining geomechanics and its mechanised and non-selective (other than in the broadest
relation to the increased scales of both open pit and sense).
underground mining will be reviewed. The key geomechanics In his keynote paper to MassMin 2000, Hustrulid (2000)
issues associated with the further evolution of large-scale arbitrarily took large scale undergound mines to have
open pit mining and of underground mining by caving and production rates of at least 5,000 tonnes per day (tpd) or 15
open stoping methods will then be explored and some of the million tonnes per year (tpy) and "involving the use of panel
requirements for research to support these developments caving, sublevel caving and sublevel stoping." For present
identified. This exploration will draw on part of the work of the purposes, Hustrulids limit may be too low and so
International Caving Study (ICS) being carried out through the underground mass mining will be taken to involve
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, Brisbane, production rates of more than 10,000 tpd. Although
Australia. Finally, the difficult but critically important issue of the underground coal mining by longwall methods has most of
provision of well-educated and trained geomechanics the characteristics of mass mining, production rates are
practitioners to support current and future mass mining rarely high enough for them to qualify under this criterion,
undertakings internationally will be addressed. even when multiple longwall panels are operated at a given
mine. Accordingly, underground coal mining and its needs
2. TERMINOLOGY will not be considered here. The writer has considered
elsewhere geomechanics practice in the Australian
At the outset it is necessary to define the term mass mining. underground coal mining industry and the industrys needs
Despite its widespread use, clear definitions of this term are not for geomechanics research, education and training (Golder
readily found. The web site for this conference Associates 2001).
(www.massmin2004.cl) indicates that the conference will Large open pits provide clear examples of mass mining.
address a range of mass mining problems and then says, "in For present purposes, examples will be assumed to be
this category are understood to be caving methods (block, provided by those pits that mine 30,000 or more tonnes of
panel and sublevel caving), large scale stoping methods ore per day (or 100 million tpy). For consistency with the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 21

definition adopted for underground mines, the removal of 3. HISTORICAL TRENDS TOWARD MASS MINING
waste rock will not be taken into account. The largest open
pits currently mine in excess of 200,000 tpd (see Figure 2). It is instructive to consider the ways in which mass mining
The other major term that requires definition in the present has evolved over time, in terms of mining methods, levels of
context is geomechanics and, more particularly, that part of the production and mining depths. In these considerations, it is
discipline known as mining geomechanics. The learned society necessary to consider open pit and underground mining
for geomechanics in Australia, the Australian Geomechanics separately.
Society, defines its subject in the following way: Figure 2 shows a compilation of historical and projected
"Geomechanics is the application of engineering and daily production rates from the early 20th century for several
geological principles to the behaviour of the ground and ground of the worlds largest open pits of the day. With the notable
water and the use of these principles in civil, mining, offshore exceptions of Bingham Canyon and Chuquicamata, none of
and environmental engineering in the widest sense." these pits have operated throughout the full period being
This definition includes the application of geomechanics considered. The data plotted in Figure 2 were derived from
to a range of engineering purposes. In this regard, it is a variety of published and unpublished sources. The
almost synonymous with the term geotechnical engineering available data, sometimes expressed as tonnes per month
which has been defined as "the application of the sciences and sometimes as tonnes per year, have been converted to
of soil mechanics and rock mechanics, engineering geology average tonnes per day for use in
and other related disciplines to civil engineering cons- Figure 2. Although some local inaccuracies may exist
truction, the extractive industries and the preservation and because of the variety of sources of the data plotted,
enhancement of the environment" (Anon 1999). the general trends indicated are considered to be
A more restrictive view of geomechanics is that it is that meaningful.
group of "sciences" referred to in this definition of Figure 2 shows clearly that production rates from the
geotechnical engineering, most notably soil mechanics and worlds largest open pits have grown progressively over
rock mechanics (e.g. Brown 1993). This view derives from the last 100 years and that they are projected to continue
the definition of rock mechanics developed by the US to grow over the next decade. This increased production
National Committee on Rock Mechanics in 1966: owes much to increased mechanisation and to increases
"Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the in the capacities of equipment such as blast hole drills,
mechanical behaviour of rock and rock masses; it is that shovels, loaders and trucks (Karzulovic 2004). A similar
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and and perhaps more significant trend from a geomechanics
rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment." perspective is the increase in open pit depths with time
The Australian Geomechanics Societys broader definition shown in Figure 3. The open pit for which most data are
of geomechanics which includes the applications as well as available, the Chuquicamata mine, Chile, was 280 m
the "theoretical and applied sciences" themselves will be deep in 1970, is about 850 m deep today and is projected
adopted here. As has been noted, this definition is almost to become 1100 m deep in the next decade (Karzulovic
synonymous with that of geotechnical engineering. 2004).
Accordingly, on occasion, the adjective "geotechnical" may Also shown on Figures 2 and 3 are certain milestones in
be used in accordance with customary usage. the development and application of geomechanics to open
It follows from these definitions that mining geomechanics is pit slope engineering. The increases in production and pit
that part of geomechanics that is concerned with the depths that took place from the 1970s coincide with the
application of knowledge of the physical and mechanical significant attention being paid to slope stability research at
behaviour of geological materials (soils, rocks and water) to the that time, most notably in the project undertaken by
investigation, design and performance of mining structures Professor Evert Hoek at Imperial College, London, in the
including excavations (Brown 1993). Blasting mechanics is late 1960s and reported in the seminal book, Rock Slope
usually considered to be part of mining geomechanics as so Engineering by Hoek and Bray (1974), and the Canadian Pit
defined. For present purposes, mining geomechanics will be Slope Project began in 1972 and reported in the Pit Slope
taken to include the application of geomechanics to mine fill, Manual published in 1976 and 1977.
waste and tailings disposal and the long-term stability and Figure 4 shows a compilation of daily production rates for
performance of mined and rehabilitated land forms on mine some of the worlds largest underground mines of their day.
sites. It also includes applications of geomechanics in the The data plotted in Figure 4 were collected in a similar way to
investigation, design, excavation, stability, support and those for open pits plotted in Figure 2 and are subject to similar
reinforcement and performance of all infrastructure, service qualifications. Figure 2 is dominated by El Teniente, the worlds
and productive surface and underground excavations largest underground mine now producing around 100,000 tpd
associated with the mining process. Figure 1 illustrates many of with significant increases in production being planned. It will be
the components of mining geomechanics so defined. noted that the production from this mine increased steadily over
the first 30 years of production to about 1940 when the rate of
increase declined, possibly as a result of World War II. The rate
of increase jumped sharply from the mid-1960s with the overall
trend being projected to continue into the future.
At several times in the past, El Tenientes production rates
have been matched and occasionally slightly exceeded by
those of other block and panel caving mines such as
Climax, El Salvador, Miami and San Manuel. The largest
production rates achieved by other mining methods have
been those of the Swedish sublevel caving iron ore mines.
The production rates of the largest open stoping mines have
always been below those of the caving mines. The highest
current production rate from an open stoping mine known to
the writer is Olympic Dams approximately 25,000 tpd which
is planned to increase to 34,000 tpd in the near future. As a
Figure 1: Components of mining geomechanics (from Little general rule, the mining costs of stoping mines may be two
and Szwedzicki 1992). or three times those of caving mines.

22 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2: Evolution of daily production rates of selected large open pits.

Figure 3: Evolution of the depths of selected large open pits.

Figure 5 shows the evolution of maximum mining depth Zone mine. Other block and panel caving mines in the
for selected underground mines that use mass mining feasibility and planning stages (e.g. Bingham Canyon and
methods. Once again, the most complete set of data Chuquicamata) may well be even deeper. Sublevel caving
available are for El Teniente. Figure 5 clearly establishes the at depths of more than 1000 m is being practiced or planned
fact that mining depths are increasing, if anything at an at Kiruna (Sweden), Perseverance (Western Australia) and
increasing rate with time. The depths of mines that use Ridgeway (New South Wales, Australia). The deepest mass
mass mining methods as defined here are not as great as mining open stoping mine known to the writer is the Kidd
those mining tabular orebodies of which the deep level gold Mine in Timmins, Ontario, which is at a depth of about 2000
mines of South Africa provide the most notable example. m and plans to reach 2990 m in about 10 years time.
However, the depths of some of these mines are now Another open stoping mine, the Enterprise Mine at Mount
considerable in historical terms. The undercut level of the Isa, Australia, is at a depth of 1900 m below surface.
Palabora block caving mine is at a depth of 1200 m below The precursor of the modern block caving method of
surface (Calder et al 2000) as is the Freeport Deep Ore mining was developed in the iron ore mines of the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 23

Menominee Ranges, Michigan, USA, in the late nineteenth Quebec, Canada, the Climax Mine mining molybdenum in
century (Peele 1941). Variations of the original Pewabic Colorado, USA, and the copper mines in Chile (Peele
method were soon developed at other iron ore mines in 1941). Early block caving methods used hand, grizzlies with
Michigan and, from the early part of the twentieth century, in transfer raises, and slusher methods of loading. Under
the copper mines in western USA. Before evolving to the suitable geotechnical and other conditions, the productivity
use of full block caving, many mines initially used combined of block caving mines was increased significantly by the
methods involving, for example, shrinkage stoping and progressive introduction of mechanised loading using LHD
caving methods for the subsequent mining of the pillars vehicles from the late 1960s. Mechanised panel caving was
between the primary stopes (Peele 1941). used when Henderson commenced production in 1976 and
By the 1920s and 30s, block caving methods were being was introduced at El Teniente in 1982.
used in a wide range of mines exploiting massive, weak Peele (1941) notes that sublevel caving (SLC) was
orebodies. During this period, the method was introduced, introduced as a logical development of top slicing in the
for example, at the King Mine which mined asbestos in Lake Superior Iron Ranges in the early part of the

Figure 4: Evolution of daily production rates at selected large underground mines.

Figure 5: Evolution of maximum mining depth for selected mines that use mass mining methods.

24 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

twentieth century. It was also used in a few other parts of the surface (caving and subsidence) and then with the
the USA in the same period. Perhaps the first large-scale stability of the excavations themselves (Obert and Duvall
use of SLC was that at the Kiruna iron ore mine in 1967, Turchaninov et al 1979). Reports dating from the mid-
Sweden from 1957 (Gustafsson 1981). This marked the 19th century were based mainly on qualitative visual
beginning of the development of modern SLC mining. The observations but quite good measurements of surface
method was introduced into Australia, Canada and China subsidence and of roof and floor convergence were made in
in the 1960s. the last quarter of that century. At the same time,
Forms of open stoping and sublevel open stoping have mechanisms of caving, arching and the development of
long been practiced, particularly in narrow and tabular ground pressure and deformations were postulated (e.g.
orebodies. Peele (1941) notes that sublevel stoping Fayol 1885). Young and Stoeks (1916) comprehensive
developed in the Michigan iron ore mines in about 1902. account of mining-related subsidence lists more than 100
Forms of the method were being used in disseminated papers published in the preceding 60 years dealing mainly
copper orebodies in Canada, the USA, what is now with subsidence in the European coalfields. These studies
Zambia, and at Mount Isa, Australia, in the 1930s. The of caving and subsidence may be considered to represent
introduction of LHD vehicles, advances in drilling and an initial stage in the development of modern mining
blasting technology and advances in mining geomechanics (Hood and Brown 1999).
geomechanics, helped bring about changes in mine
design and increases in productivity using sublevel open 4.2 The establishment of rock mechanics
stoping and blasthole stoping methods from the late as an engineering discipline
1960s and the 1970s (e.g. Goddard 1981). In many major Obert and Duvall (1967) note that in the first two decades
metalliferous mining districts, these developments of the 20th century, technical reports began to appear which
brought about a change to these methods from cut-and- treated rock as an engineering material. These papers
fill methods under suitable geotechnical conditions (e.g. addressed issues such as the mechanical properties of
Brown 1992, Pariseau et al 1984, Singh and Hedley rock, deep mining and rockbursts. Laboratory studies using
1981). both photoelastic and material models of rock were reported
A good example of the evolution of non-caving (e.g. Bucky 1934) as well as theoretical and empirical
underground mass mining methods is provided by the studies of the states of stress around surface and
Mount Isa Mine in northwest Queensland, Australia. underground excavations.
Underground mining of silver-lead-zinc ore began in 1932 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the theories
and of copper in 1943. Until 1963, open sublevel stoping developed were either empirical or applied the basic
accounted for 95% of the underground production. From concepts of structural mechanics and the strength of
1963, two new stoping methods were introduced, materials. Subsequently, the theory of linear elasticity was
mechanised cut-and-fill in the narrower silver-lead-zinc used to calculate the stresses around excavations of simple
Racecourse orebodies and sublevel caving of the southern shape (e.g. Terzaghi and Richart 1952, Savin 1961).
section of the 500 copper orebody (Davies 1967). Large- Greater insight was developed using elastic-plastic and
scale mechanized sublevel open stoping with delayed filling ground-support interaction concepts based on an analysis
was introduced into the wider parts of the silver-lead-zinc by Fenner (1938). Much of this work was carried out in
orebodies and the copper orebodies from the late 1960s Europe and then in the USA where the US Bureau of Mines
(Goddard 1981, Grant and De Kruijff 2000). Bench and fill was a leader in theoretical and experimental studies from
methods replaced what was left of cut-and-fill mining of the the 1930s.
silver-lead-zinc (now known more simply as lead) orebodies From the 1930s, the production of scientific and
from 1991 (Villaescusa 1996). It has been widely reported engineering information about rock properties and the
and acknowledged that geomechanics input has been design and stability of structures in rock accelerated
centrally important to the successful development and rapidly. The first issue of the first specialist journal
implementation of these various mining methods (Brown devoted to rock mechanics, Geologie und Bauwesen,
1992, Davies 1967, Mathews and Edwards 1969, was published in Vienna in 1929. (After several name
Villaescusa 1996). changes, the successor to this journal is now known as
Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering.) Annual
4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT colloquia on rock mechanics have been held in Austria
OF MINING GEOMECHANICS since 1950, and in 1951 the First International Strata
Control Congress was held in Liege, Belgium. In 1956,
4.1 Early mining geomechanics the first of what became the annual U S symposia on
In contradistinction to many fields of modern engineering rock mechanics was held at the Colorado School of
that have been preceded by, or developed in parallel with, Mines. For some years, these symposia were sponsored
their companion engineering sciences, mining was by the major U S mining schools. In Eastern Europe, an
practiced for centuries (or even millenia) without the benefit International Bureau of Rock Mechanics which had a
of any formal knowledge that we would now recognise as mining emphasis, was established at the Third
applied mechanics, rock mechanics or geomechanics International Strata Control Congress held in Leipzig,
(Obert and Duvall 1967). After all, Newtons laws were Germany, in 1958. Under the leadership of Leopold
discovered only in the second half of the 17th century, and Mller, the International Society for Rock Mechanics
the bases of modern applied mechanics were developed (ISRM) was established in 1962. The ISRM held its First
mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries. International Congress in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1964, the
Based on the practices reported by Agricola (1556), year in which the first volume of the International Journal
progressive improvement in the state-of-the-art of mining of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences was published.
was made, particularly in Europe and subsequently North It may be concluded then, that by the early 1960s, rock
America. However, it was not until the 19th century that mechanics had become an identifiable engineering
engineering societies were founded in those continents and discipline with its specialist journals, books, conferences,
engineers began to report their experiences in technical societies, and courses and research programs in
publications. In the area that we would now recognise as universities. It was from this time that modern rock
mining rock mechanics or geomechanics, the initial mechanics and mining geomechanics underwent
concerns were with the effects of underground mining on significant development. That development has been

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 25

explored in some detail by Hood and Brown (1999). Only New methods were developed for analysing single
selected aspects of that history will be outlined here. The plane sliding and wedge failures, using both analytical
many seminal contributions made in respect of solutions and the stereographic projection. Some of
underground coal mining and the deep level hard rock these methods had been developed initially for civil
mining of tabular orebodies, in particular, will not be engineering applications (e.g. John 1968, Londe 1965).
considered. The development of geomechanics studies The influence of blasting practice and drainage on slope
for the open pit and underground methods of mining stability was recognised, as was the importance of
being considered here will be dealt with separately, monitoring the performance of slopes. A comprehensive
although there are obvious overlaps in areas such as account of this work was published by Hoek and Bray
geotechnical characterisation, rock and rock mass (1974) in their classic text, Rock Slope Engineering.
properties and methods of analysis. Subsequently, revised editions were published in 1977
and 1981. Overviews of this early work were given at the
4.3 Modern mining geomechanics 3rd ISRM Congress in Denver by Hoek and Londe (1974)
By the mid-1960s, open pit mining was being carried out and by Goodman (1974).
on an increasing scale and at increasing depths. As a By the mid- to late 1970s it was recognised that the
consequence, the stability of open pit slopes became of solution of some types of slope stability problem required
major concern, not only from the obvious perspective of that approximations be made to the strength and
safety but also in terms of the overall economics of deformation characteristics of large masses of rock
operations. By 1970, specialist conferences on open pit containing several sets of discontinuities. The Hoek-
slope stability were being held (e.g. Van Rensberg 1970, Brown empirical rock mass strength criterion, developed
Brawner and Milligan 1971). An example of a major open pit originally as part of an industrially funded project on
slope failure occurring in that period was that at the underground excavations in rock (Hoek and Brown
Chuquicamata mine, Chile, in 1969 (Kennedy and 1980), was soon used to address this issue in slope
Niermeyer 1970). stability analyses (Hoek and Bray 1981). At about the
The application of the emerging discipline of rock same time, probabilistic and risk analysis approaches to
mechanics to open pit slope design was undeveloped at slope stability studies were being developed (e.g. Coates
the beginning of this period. Quite often, attempts were 1977, McMahon 1975).
made to apply soil mechanics principles or to treat the It had been recognised that, in some cases, the rock
problem as one in elastic stress analysis. In retrospect, mass should be regarded as a discontinuum or an assembly
Stacey (1993) noted that "in the early 1970s, a review of of interacting blocks each of which may be free to translate
hard rock slopes around the world by height and slope or rotate (e.g. Trollope 1968). It was in studies of the
angle put the majority of slopes less than 500 ft (150 m) dynamics of rock slopes in jointed rock that Cundall (1971)
in height, with slope angles for the higher slopes originally developed his distinct element approach to the
typically in the 45o range or less. At the time, slope numerical modelling of discontinua. It had also been
design technology was still developing and most of the recognised that, in many cases, intact bridges of rock are
pits had been designed on the "45 degrees seems present between discontinuities (Jennings 1970). Although
reasonable" philosophy." techniques for dealing with this problem were developed,
An important advance was made when the crucial role they involved a number of assumptions and uncertainties.
played by discontinuities in controlling the stability of most As will be discussed in Section 5 below, this remains a
open pit slopes became clear. Although it had long been largely unresolved problem today.
recognised that these structural features influenced slope So we see that by the early 1980s, most of the basic
behaviour (Terzaghi 1962, Mller 1964), many workers had geomechanics knowledge, methods of collecting rock mass
assumed that a jointed rock mass could be regarded as an characterisation and mechanical property data, and the
equivalent orthotropic medium. Soon, the need to describe techniques and framework for slope stability analyses were
and model the strength and deformation behaviour of key in place. The ability to carry out geomechanics studies of
discontinuities became clear (e.g. John 1962). Pioneering open pit rock slopes was enhanced by the numerical
work presented to the First ISRM Congress by Patton analysis methods that had been developed in the preceding
(1966) had shown that, at low normal stresses, the 15 years or so and by the ever increasing computing power
roughness of joint surfaces has an important effect on the that became available to engineers. The use of a
shear strength of joints. geomechanics based approach to rock slope design in
In the mid- to late 1960s, research programs on open pit place of the presumptive approach used previously has
slope stability were being carried out, or were begun, in allowed deeper and steeper open pit slopes to be
several parts of the world including Canada, South Africa, engineered, optimised and managed with positive results in
the UK, the USA and the USSR. One of the most significant terms of productivity and profitability (Karzulovic 2004,
of these programs was the industrially sponsored project led Stacey 1993). More recent developments and the current
by Professor Evert Hoek at the Royal School of Mines, geomechanics issues associated with large scale open pit
Imperial College, London. Hoek and other early workers mining will be discussed in Section 5 below.
recognised the value of the structural geologists approach From the early to mid-1960s, the emerging engineering
of using the stereographic projection for analysing structural discipline of rock mechanics was applied increasingly to
data. Hoeks team, and others, developed methods of large-scale underground metalliferous mining in several
collecting and analysing discontinuity data and of using the parts of the world. In Australia, a number of mining
stereographic projection to identify likely modes of rock companies used the expertise built up on the Snowy
slope failure. They also developed simple but effective Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme in the 1950s and 60s
instruments and procedures for the field and laboratory (May 1980). In 1963, Mount Isa Mines established what was
measurement of rock properties. From the late 1960s, for some time one of the strongest applied rock mechanics
significant contributions to these areas of rock mechanics programs on a particular mine site anywhere in the world
were also made by several groups of international experts (Mathews and Edwards 1969).
working as part of the ISRM Commission on Testing Although open stoping and caving methods of mining
Methods to develop and publish a range of suggested were well established, cut-and-fill mining of metalliferous
methods of rock characterisation, testing and monitoring orebodies became increasingly important from the mid-
(Brown 1981). 1960s and the subject of basic and applied research

26 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

programs in Australia, Canada and Sweden. Importantly, it was shown that most of the fundamental knowledge and
this work involved government research organisations, tools were in place by the early 1980s. Since that time,
industry groups which often sponsored and managed the geomechanics practice in large open pits has evolved, most
research, university research groups and individual mine notably in the area of slope management. This overview of
sites which often contributed field test sites as well as geomechanics and large-scale open pit mining draws
staff expertise. The results of these various studies are heavily on recent papers by Caldern et al (2003), Flores
reported in the specialist conference proceedings edited and Karzulovoic (2000), Hoek et al (2000a,b) and
by Stephansson and Jones (1981). Subsequently, Karzulovic (2004).
attention was focussed on the geomechanics problems Hoek et al (2000a,b) emphasise the fundamental
associated with open stoping methods of mining, building importance of a comprehensive and reliable geological
on the mining geomechanics knowledge and techniques model to any large open pit slope design. Geological models
developed in the "cut-and-fill era" (Brown 1992). Up to are now routinely developed, stored and manipulated using
the 1980s, advances were made in site characterisation powerful computer-based modelling tools. The ability to
and mine model formulation, in situ stress measurement, interface these models with geotechnical data and stability
design analysis, numerical modelling, support and analyses, including numerical analyses, adds to their utility
reinforcement systems including cable bolting, fill in open pit slope engineering. The geotechnical and
technology (hydraulic fill, rock fill and, more recently, hydrogeological characterisation of the rock masses forming
paste fill), mine scheduling and pillar recovery, and the current and future pit slopes is the next essential step in
performance monitoring and retrospective analysis the process. Although the techniques for doing this have
(Hood and Brown 1999). been established since the early 1980s, advances in the use
From 1972 to 1976, Professor Evert Hoek and his team at of digital technologies for collecting, storing, processing and
the Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London, manipulating data have been made in recent years (Brown
carried out an industrially sponsored research project on the 2003). The process of collecting and evaluating
design of large underground excavations in rock, modelled geotechnical data in large open pits is never-ending. As with
on the highly successful rock slope project. The results of underground mining where the problem is even more acute,
this project were reported by Hoek and Brown (1980). A later one of the major difficulties is the fact that it is possible to
project carried out in Canada with the support of the sample and characterise only a small proportion of the rock
Canadian mining industry built on this foundation, mass directly in advance of excavation.
developing a number of new computer-based analytical Although the emphasis in both geological and
tools and advancing the state-of-the-art of rock support and geotechnical data collection and model formulation for open
reinforcement for hard rock applications (Hoek et al 1995). pit mining is on structural features, the nature and properties
Significant mining geomechanics research programs, of the rock material should also be considered. The
associated largely with open stoping methods of mining possibility of failure through the rock material in high slopes,
continue in Canada to the present day. and the impact of variable rock strengths associated with
The importance of geomechanics to underground mass weathering and alteration, should not be overlooked. Hoek
mining was emphasised by the series of international mass et al (2000a,b) discuss the relative impacts of several types
mining conferences held in Denver (Stewart 1981), of alteration of the rocks at the Chuquicamata mine, Chile,
Johannesburg (Glen 1992), Brisbane (Chitombo 2000) and for example. It is common practice, and indeed necessary
now Santiago (Karzulovic and Alfaro 2004). In the context of for practical purposes, to divide the rock mass around the pit
the theme of this paper, an important development occurred into structural or geotechnical domains within each of which
in 1997 when the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research a constant geotechnical model may be used. As mining
Centre, Brisbane, Australia, and the Itasca Consulting proceeds and more data become available, it may be
Group, Inc, Minneapolis, USA, began work on the necessary to refine the original definition of these
International Caving Study (ICS) Stage 1 (ICS I). This study geotechnical domains.
was sponsored by an international consortium on mining The next step is to carry out a series of slope stability
companies engaged in, or planning, caving operations. The analyses for the stage in the life of the pit being considered.
issues addressed by this study and its successor, the Hoek et al (2000a) discuss the approach generally used in
International Caving Study Stage II (ICS II) will be outlined the following way:
in Sections 6.1 and 8 below. Suffice to say that, as shown "The current state of practice tends to separate slope
by Figure 4, the need for these studies arose from the designs into two distinct categories. The first of these
companies interest in mining larger, better quality and categories is for those designs that can be dealt with in terms
deeper orebodies by highly productive mass mining of kinematically possible structurally controlled failures. For
methods. example, failures that involve wedges sliding along the line of
Despite this apparently positive picture of the continued intersection of two intersecting faults can be analysed using
development and application of mining geomechanics in limit equilibrium models. This type of failure is commonly seen
both open pit and underground mass mining since the early in slopes of up to 20 or 30 m high in hard jointed rock masses.
1960s, there have been some disturbing developments (or The design of such slopes can sometimes be based upon an
absence of them) in the past 10-15 years. There has been analysis of simple wedge failure.
a decline in the numbers of government funded research The second category is that which includes non-
organisations working on mining geomechanics, the closure structurally controlled failures in which some or all of the
of a number of University mining programs, and an apparent failure surface passes through a rock mass which has
drying up in the supply of well educated and trained been weakened by the presence of joints or other
geomechanics practitioners available in some parts of the second order structural features. An assumption
world. These issues will be discussed in Sections 8 and 9 commonly made is that these second order structural
below. features are randomly or chaotically distributed and that
the rock mass strength can be defined by a simple
5. GEOMECHANICS AND failure criterion in which smeared or average non-
LARGE-SCALE OPEN PIT MINING directional strength properties are assigned to the rock
mass. This approach is frequently used for the analysis
The development of mining geomechanics for large-scale of the overall stability of large slopes where it is
open pit mining was outlined in the preceding section where believed that no obvious failure mode presents itself."

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 27

 Hoek et al (2000a,b) go on to point out that It is now widely recognised that it is impossible to prevent
experience shows that these two categories alone are some slope failures in large open pits, especially on the
inadequate for open pit slope design. Many or most scale of benches. Indeed, it is considered that any pit in
large scale slope failures do not appear to follow either which no failures occur is less than optimally designed for
of these relatively simple models. They are generally profitability. Modern practice is to use a risk management
more complex that these models assume, often approach in which the risks are identified and managed
involving failure on a major structure, rock mass failure (e.g. Cataln and Caldern 2004, Caldern et al 2003, Call
of the type discussed in the preceding paragraph and/or et al 2000, Karzulovic 2004). The monitoring of slope
a step-path failure controlled by joints and intervening movements and the establishment of acceptability criteria
rock bridges as illustrated in Figure 6. In addition, these are important elements of this approach.
complex failures such as that shown in Figure 7 may be As well as these geomechanics issues, the general issue
truly three dimensional so that they are not amenable to of materials handling and the costs involved is probably the
representation and analysis in simple two dimensional other major challenge faced by large-scale open pit mines
form. Clearly, these failure mechanisms are difficult, if as their depths approach and exceed 1000 m. These issues
not impossible, to foresee ahead of the event. Even are outside the scope of this paper and of the writer's
when examined after the failure, the exact mechanism knowledge and expertise, and so will not be discussed in
and the failure surfaces are not always easy to identify. any detail here. However, their significance should be
The writer has had recent experience of this difficulty in acknowledged. An overall future need will be to limit the
the cases of two open pit failures that were only in the amount of waste and ore hauled from depth to the surface
order of 40 m high. The development of predictive using conventional methods. A change away from trucks to
techniques for identifying and analysing these large, in-pit conveyors could enable overall pit slopes to be
complex failures is seen to be perhaps the most steepened as well as saving on the capital, operating and
outstanding geomechanics research need for large- maintenance costs of vehicles and haul roads. A further
scale open pit mining. Any successful approach is likely possibility into the future would be to carry out some parts of
to involve computer based geological and geotechnical the processing cycle in underground chambers excavated
modelling, advanced numerical analyses, probabilistic below the pit floor. This concept has a number of
methods and the use of risk analysis techniques. At a geomechanics implications in terms of stand-off distances
fundamental level, further research is also required to from the pit and the stability of the underground excavations
better define the strength and deformation properties of themselves.
discontinuous in situ rock masses.
6. GEOMECHANICS AND CAVING
METHODS OF MINING

6.1 Block caving geomechanics

Current practices and trends in block and panel cave
mining are discussed in the paper by Flores et al (2004a).
Many, if not most, of the major challenges faced in
engineering the modern generation of block and panel
caving mines, and those in the feasibility or planning stages,
involve geomechanics issues. Many of these challenges
arise because of the high rock mass qualities of the
orebodies being mined (in which the critical issues of
cavability and fragmentation are accentuated), the greater
depths at which caving is being initiated, the associated
problems with extraction level stability, and the increasing
heights of caving columns. In some cases, the interaction of
Figure 6: Candidate failure surface involving a number of the cave with a pre-existing open pit becomes an additional
different shear failure mechanisms (Hoek et al 2000a). consideration (e.g. Glazer and Hepworth 2004).
Table 1 lists the major geomechanics-related issues and
activities involved in the investigation, preliminary study,
planning, design, construction and operating stages of block
and panel caving mines. Even a cursory consideration of
these issues and activities will demonstrate the vitally
important role that geomechanics plays in modern cave
mining, even without considering tailings management,
environmental management and mine closure issues, all of
which can have significant geomechanics components.
Most of the issues and activities listed in Table 1 have been
discussed in detail by Brown (2003) and in a range of papers
presented to this and previous mass mining conferences. In
order to provide some further detail, some of the geomechanics
methods and processes involved in cavability assessment and
in cave inducement are set out in Figure 8 which comes from
the CaveRisk risk assessment methodology developed as part
of ICS I (Brown 2003). Although this and the other issues listed
in Table 1 have received a considerable amount of attention in
recent years by both in-house groups in mining companies and
in research projects such as the ICS, current levels of
understanding of caving mechanics and cave engineering do
Figure 7: A large-scale open pit slope failure (Hoek et al not always match industrial requirements, particularly when
2000a). major risks are involved in new mining ventures that "break

28 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: Major geomechanics-related issues and activities
associated with modern block and panel caving mines

PRELIMINARY STUDIES Geotechnical model formulation

Cavability assessment
Fragmentation assessment
Mining method selection
Identification of potential major hazards
Subsidence prediction
Risk analysis

MINE PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Undercut level selection and undercutting strategy
Excavation sequencing
Extraction level design and construction, including support
and reinforcement
Subsidence prediction
Infrastructure location, design and construction

MINING OPERATIONS Undercutting and caving initiation

Draw management
Monitoring (e.g by seismic monitoring) and managing cave
propagation (e.g. by draw control, rock mass conditioning and
cave inducement)
Monitoring excavation (including extraction level) performance
Management of major operational hazards including
uncontrolled collapses, rockbursts, mud rushes and air blasts
Monitoring the development of surface subsidence

new ground". The need for continuing fundamental

investigation of these issues will be outlined in Section 8 below.
The centrally important issues of caving mechanics
and cave propagation are addressed in the paper by
Flores et al (2004b). In the bench-marking exercise
carried out as part of ICS II (Flores et al 2004a), it was
concluded that there were no geotechnical tools available
with which to define the likelihood of vertical caving (a) Initial undercutting defining a flat, tabular cavity where
propagating through ore columns of varying heights the stress release caving mechanism predominates.
(sometimes outside the limits of precedent practice) in
rock masses of varying rock mass qualities and
strengths, and subjected to a range of possible in situ
stress fields. The model used for caving initiation and
propagation by stress caving
is illustrated in Figure 9. Flores et al (2004b) carried out a
series of parametric two dimensional stress analyses to assess
the effects of several aspects of geometry, stress field and rock
mass strength on vertical cave propagation. They defined a
Caving Propagation Factor for use in estimating the likelihood (b) The upward caving propagation makes the cave back
of vertical cave propagation in the initial engineering stages of curve, increasing the importance of the stress caving
cave mining projects, including those involving a transition from mechanism.
open pit to underground cave mining.

(c) Additional upward caving propagation increases the

curvature of the cave back, and makes predominant the
stress caving mechanism.

Figure 9: Evolution of the cave back and caving

mechanisms through time due to the upward propagation of
Figure 8: Cavability logic tree (Brown 2003) caving (Flores et al 2004b).

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 29

 Figure 10 shows a similar diagram to Figure 8 for a Salvador mine, Chile, with emphasis on the use of a flexible
second risk management focus issue, excavation stability. support and reinforcement system and pre-reinforcement.
In order to illustrate the application of geomechanics However, further research is required to develop reliable
knowledge and techniques, and because it is becoming of numerical methods and rock mass constitutive laws for use
increasing concern under the higher stress conditions being in predictive analyses (e.g. Wattimena 2003).
encountered in deeper mines, the general issue of The case involving brittle fracture or even rockbursts has
extraction level excavation stability will be discussed in been, perhaps, the more difficult of the two general cases to
more detail in the following sub-section. understand and manage. The writer suggests that advances
can be made by addressing this problem through the
6.2 Extraction level excavation stability application of concepts and techniques developed in studies
Brown (2003) lists and discusses the major factors of brittle rock behaviour in other engineering applications.
influencing extraction level layout and design as being The ideas considered to be worthy of further exploration in
fragmentation, undercut strategy and design, geotechnical this context are the influence of stress path on rock mass
conditions, operational factors (relating to the efficient behaviour and the adaptation of the Hoek-Brown empirical
removal of broken ore), major operational hazards and the failure criterion (Hoek and Brown 1980, 1997) for brittle,
stability, reinforcement, wear and repair of drawpoint brows. slabbing conditions developed by Martin (1997) and Martin
The paramount importance of geomechanics issues is et al (1999).
again apparent. The stability, support and reinforcement of In laboratory and field and field studies of the behaviour of
extraction level excavations has long been a source of Lac du Bonnet granite, Martin (1997) found that the start of
difficulty, production delays, cost increases and even the the fracture or failure process began with the initiation of
loss of productive sectors in caving operations. In addition damage caused by small cracks growing in the direction of
to geotechnical factors, poor mining practices such as poor the maximum applied load. For unconfined Lac du Bonnet
sequencing and poor draw control can cause excavation granite, this occurred at an applied stress of 0.3 to 0.4 sc
instabilities. where sc is the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact
rock material. As the load increased, these stable cracks
continued to accumulate. Eventually, when the sample
contained a sufficient density of these stable cracks, they
started to interact and an unstable cracking process
involving sliding was initiated. The stress level at which this
unstable cracking process is initiated is referred to as the
long term strength of the rock, scd.
As illustrated in Figure 11, Martin (1997) first determined
the laboratory peak, long term and crack initiation strengths
for the Lac du Bonnet granite. He was able to fit Hoek-Brown
failure envelopes to these curves, although the laboratory
crack initiation curve was found to be a straight line on s1
versus s3 axes. Subsequently, in a field experiment carried
out at the Underground Research Laboratory site in
Manitoba, Canada, the initiation of cracks around a tunnel

Figure 10: Excavation stability logic tree (Brown 2003)

Extraction level excavations can be subjected to high

stresses because of the high percentage excavation on this
level, the stress concentrations associated with the
advancing cave front, and the increasing depths at which
extraction levels are being developed. These excavations
are also subjected to complex stress paths and repeated
static and dynamic loading cycles during mine development
and operation. Depending on the relation of the rock mass
quality to the induced stresses, squeezing (or plastic
deformation) or brittle fracturing (including rockburst)
conditions may exist. (There is also an important third case
in which instabilities are associated with structural features
(e.g. Flores et al 2004a). This case will not be considered
here.) The first case can be understood and managed
through the use of ground-support interaction analysis and
the application of the support and reinforcement principles
that are well established in civil engineering tunnelling
(Brown 2003). Leach et al (2000) provide an instructive
example of the calculation of ground reaction curves and
their application in the design of extraction level excavations Figure 11: Hoek-Brown failure envelope for Lac du Bonnet
in the C-cut area of the Premier Mine, South Africa. Van Sint granite based on laboratory peak strength (Lab Peak), long-
Jan et al (1987) provide an excellent example of the term strength (Lab scd) and in situ crack initiation stress
successful application of modern support and reinforcement (sci) determined by microseismic monitoring (after Martin
principles and practices on the extraction level of the El 1997).

30 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

excavated in the Lac du Bonnet granite was recorded using and the frequency and orientations of the discontinuities in
microseismic emissions. As shown in Figure 11, these data the rock mass. Transverse layouts generally have
corresponded well with the laboratory crack initiation data. It advantages over longitudinal layouts for orebodies of
was found that crack initiation at approximately constant sufficient width (Bull and Page 2000) and are used for
deviatoric stress, (s1 - s3), could be well represented by the modern high production SLC operations such as the Kiruna
Hoek-Brown criterion with mb = 0 and s = 0.11 (Martin et al Mine, Sweden (Quinterio et al 2001) and the Ridgeway Gold
1999), in which case, s1 - s3 = 0.33 sc. Mine, New South Wales, Australia (Trout 2002).
This criterion was used in conjunction with elastic stress In the last decade or so, larger sublevel and production
analyses to give good predictions of the geometry of the drift spacings and drift sizes have been introduced in large-
spalled zone around the tunnel. It has since been used to scale, highly productive SLC operations. For example, the
predict brittle spalling or slabbing (as opposed to general layouts used at Kiruna have been progressively scaled up
shear failure) conditions in a number of underground since the mining method was introduced more than 40 years
excavations (e.g. Cai et al 2004). The suggestion is that this ago (Hustrulid 2000, Marklund and Hustrulid 1995). A major
criterion could also be used in analyses of the likelihood of effect of the scale-up, even with increased drift sizes to
brittle rock fracture around extraction level excavations in accommodate larger equipment, has been to reduce the
block and panel caving mines. In addition to the uniaxial proportion of ore extracted during development from 15% to
compressive strength of the rock material, the state of stress 5%. Subsequently, full-scale trials have been conducted
on the boundary and in the rock around particular with the sublevel interval increased from 27 m to 32 m, the
excavations would have to be estimated. This can be done drift width increased from 7 m to 11 m, and the burden
through a three dimensional elastic stress using the finite increased from 3.0 m to 3.5 m (Quintero et al 2001). The
difference code, FLAC3D. Wattemina (2003) used this transverse sublevel caving layout used at the Ridgeway
approach to show how elevated stresses may be produced Gold Mine, New South Wales, Australia, has a sublevel
in the extraction level excavations ahead of and near the interval of 25 m, a cross-cut drift spacing of 14 m and a drift
cave front, depending on the undercutting strategy used, size of 6 m wide by 4 m high (Trout 2002, Power 2004).
how the stresses at a given level in the extraction level Despite the attention that they have received,
change as the cave front approaches and passes over the fragmentation and the gravity flow of caved ore remain
point, and the effect of high horizontal in situ stresses on the major issues for SLC operations (e.g. Bull and Page 2000,
stresses induced in the major and minor apices. Depending Rustan 2000, Power 2004). It appears that some of the
on the geometry of the problem to be investigated, two classic concepts introduced by Janelid and Kvapil (1966)
dimensional plane strain analyses may be used in some and widely used for many years, may not be applicable to
cases. the coarser fragmentation and flow of stronger orebodies in
It has been found that the loading path taken to the which flow may be episodic, chaotic and not interactive
current state of stress in geological materials can influence (Power 2004). Modern SLC designs have departed from
the strength able to be developed by a soil or rock mass. those derived from considerations of Janelid and Kvapils
This is particularly the case when plastic deformation is theories. Further investigation is required to develop an
involved. However, when deformation is essentially elastic improved understanding of these issues. Advances made
until "failure" and brittle fracture as opposed to general recently suggest that realistic numerical simulations of SLC
plastic deformation occurs, it has been found that the flow may soon be achievable (Power 2004).
strength envelopes of "hard" rocks are essentially stress Draw control and dilution remain major concerns for some
path independent (Brady and Brown 2004). It is considered SLC operations. Well-designed and controlled drilling is
likely, therefore, that as in the cases described by Martin et required for successful sublevel caving. Blasting under
al (1999) and Cai et al (2004), elastic stress analyses and confined conditions remains an issue requiring further
Martins representation of the Hoek-Brown criterion for crack investigation. Finally, geomechanics problems have arisen
initiation will suffice for making a first-order estimate of the in production headings as a result of the concentration of
occurrence and extent of brittle fracture around extraction field stresses in the lower abutment of the mining zone.
level excavations in strong, massive rock. Clearly, this Modern support and reinforcement principles and
postulate will have to be tested by parametric numerical techniques derived from civil engineering and other forms of
analyses and by comparison, and possible calibration, with mining practice can help overcome these problems (e.g.
high quality field data. This is considered to be a fertile topic Struthers et al 2000). However, this and the other issues
for future research. In such studies, the influence of identified may become accentuated as SLC is practiced at
repeated loading would have to be considered. increasing depths.

6.3 Sublevel caving geomechanics 7. GEOMECHANICS AND LARGE-SCALE

Generally, sublevel caving (SLC) is suitable only for OPEN STOPING METHODS
steeply dipping orebodies with reasonably strong orebody
rock enclosed by weaker overlying and wall rocks. The ore As outlined in Section 3, large-scale open or sublevel
must be of sufficient grade to accept dilution, perhaps stoping of massive or steeply dipping stratiform orebodies
exceeding 20%, arising from the entrainment of barren has been practiced successfully for more than 30 years.
country rock in the ore stream. The method produces Since open stoping requires unsupported, free-standing
significant disturbance of the ground surface, imposing stope boundary surfaces, the strength of the orebody and
some possible limitations on its applicability. SLC may have country rock masses must be adequate to provide stable
higher production costs than the other underground mass walls, faces and crowns of excavations. The orebody
mining methods being considered here because of the boundary must be fairly regular since selective mining is
relatively high development requirement per tonne precluded by the requirement for regular stope outlines
produced and the intensity of the drilling and blasting associated with the use of long blast holes. Blast hole
required to generate mobile, granular ore within the caving penetration of stope walls due to drilling inaccuracy leads to
medium. Reduction of these development costs is one of dilution (Brady and Brown 2004). Greater control of drilling
the objectives of modern SLC operations. accuracy may be obtained with larger diameter blast holes.
The choice between longitudinal and transverse layouts Hamrin (2001) refers to 140-165 mm holes being drilled
involves consideration of a range of factors such as orebody accurately to depths of 100 m in bighole open stoping.
dip and plunge, orebody dimensions, the in situ stresses, Pillar recovery or secondary stoping is commonly

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 31

practiced in open stoping. Backfill with a range of properties did at their peaks. Furthermore, in a number of countries
may be placed in the primary stope voids and secondary (e.g. Germany, UK, USA), government funded mining
stoping or pillar mining performed by exploiting the local research organizations and mining research programs have
ground control potential of the adjacent fill. Alternatively, on either been closed completely or are supported at
the boundaries of ore blocks, pillars may be blasted into significantly reduced levels.
adjacent stope voids with the possibility of extensive Despite this, some mining geomechanics research is
collapse of the local country rock. Successful ore recovery still being carried out in some of the countries identified in
would then require draw of fragmented ore from beneath the opening paragraph of this section, and new programs
less mobile, barren country rock with the potential for have emerged in countries such as Chile and China.
dilution (Brady and Brown 2004). Dilution may also occur However, to the best of the writers knowledge, no major
from overbreak and the sloughing or failure of fill. On the research programs on open pit slope stability on the scale
other hand, there is also the potential for ore loss arising of those carried out in the late 1960s and 1970s, are
from insufficient ore breakage within the stope boundaries currently underway. As indicated in Section 5, there is a
(Villaescusa 2000). pressing need in this area. It is understood that plans for
The evidence shows that the development and an industrially sponsored research project on large-scale
successful implementation of these mining methods has open pit geomechanics are being developed in
relied heavily on advances in, and the application of, association with the mass mining technology initiative to
mining geomechanics knowledge and techniques in areas be outlined below.
such as rock mass characterisation, numerical stress Although many of the research programs that previously
analysis, mine sequencing analysis, support and supported the development of initially cut-and-fill and then
reinforcement including cable bolting and pre-placed open stope mining no longer exist, the geomechanics of
reinforcement, crown pillar stability, fill technology and caving methods of mining has been studied for the last eight
drilling and blasting technology (e.g. Alexander and years by the ICS. The main topics addressed have been:
Fabjanczyk 1981, Brady and Brown 2004, Goddard 1981, rock mass characterisation and the simulation of in situ
Grant and De Kruijff 2000, Potvin and Hudyma 2000, jointing;
Simser and Andrieux 2000). As the depth and scale of review, development and calibration of methods for
these operations increase, problems of excavation cavability and fragmentation assessment;
stability and dilution can be expected to be exacerbated undercut and extraction level design;
and the contributions made by geomechanics flow of broken rock using numerical models, a large-scale
accentuated. In some cases, depending on the mining physical model and mine scale marker tests;
methods and equipment used, it may become necessary development of a draw control and scheduling system
to reduce some excavation sizes. The role of fill, including using linear programming and mixed integer linear
the paste fill now being used increasingly, in ensuring the programming;
stability of local and overall mine structures will become pre-conditioning of strong rock masses using hydraulic
ever more critical. The timely supply and placement of fill fracturing methods;
in stopes, sometimes over long distances, can also be development of geotechnical guidelines for the transition
expected to become a critical factor in some cases. from open pit to underground mining by caving methods;
Increasing productivity by reducing development and development of a risk assessment methodology for block
stope cycle times is likely to become an overall objective. and panel caving; and
collation of caving practice and knowledge, and the
8. RESEARCH results of research, in a readily accessible form.

The summary of the development and application of Some of these topics are also being addressed on mine
mining geomechanics to mass mining given above shows sites and by other research groups outside the framework of
that, since the 1960s, the mining industry has been active in the ICS (e.g. pre-conditioning at Codelcos Andina Division).
working with university and government research groups on Although useful advances have been made (e.g. Brown
research programs that were identified as being relevant to 2003), much remains to be done to develop the
the industrys needs. Although, by the very nature of understanding and knowledge required for the engineering
research, not all sponsored research produced significant of the next generation of underground mass mining
results, there can be no doubt that the industry gained much operations. For some time, the sponsors of the ICS have
benefit from its involvement in mining geomechanics been working with the programs Technical Director, Dr
research (e.g. May 1980, Watson 1987). At the time, there Gideon Chitombo, to establish the successor to the ICS in
were strong government, industrial and university mining the area of mass mining technology. The proposed research
geomechanics research groups in many countries including, areas and the associated research tasks are listed in Table
to the writers personal knowledge, Australia, Canada, 2 (Chitombo 2004). Clearly, many of these research tasks
France, Germany, India, South Africa, Sweden, the UK, the have geomechanics orientations. Research on these topics
USA and the USSR. Not only were those programs is considered to be essential in developing the knowledge
important in terms of their contributions to knowledge, but and techniques required to successfully mine in the
they were also the sources of significant numbers of highly underground mass mining environment of the future.
trained geomechanics specialists for the industry.
A major feature Hood and Browns (1999) interpretation of 9. EDUCATION AND TRAINING
the history of mining geomechanics is the great influence
that a number of inspirational leaders had on the rapid The importance of the engineering discipline of
development of the discipline and of the most influential and geomechanics to mass mining being argued here implies a
highly acclaimed research groups from the 1960s. As would requirement for a continuing supply of well-educated and
be expected, several of these "founding fathers" are no trained (the writer distinguishes between the two) engineers
longer living and many of those that are have either retired to advance and apply the discipline. The requirement is not
from their university or research positions or now work as only for geomechanics specialists to work on mine sites, in
consulting engineers. As a result, with a few exceptions, the consultancies, in research organisations and as teachers,
strong research groups that they built up have either but also for practicing mining engineers who have a good
disappeared or now operate at much lower levels than they working knowledge of the discipline and its impact.

32 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The shortage of mining geomechanics engineers in many the overall problem. However, some specific comments
parts of the world, including those mainly English-speaking about mining geomechanics are warranted.
countries with which the writer is most familiar, is part of a A research training through post-graduate research
perceived wider shortage of mining engineers and other into an industry-related problem, followed (or preceded)
professionals for the minerals industry. In some countries, by mine site experience is considered to provide an
the closure of mining and minerals engineering courses, of especially strong preparation for mining geomechanics
specialist postgraduate courses, and of mining research specialists (Golder Associates 2001). The decline of
groups, has given cause for concern (Hood and Brown mining geomechanics research groups in some parts of
1999). As a result, in several mining countries, the the world, and the failure to establish them in others, has
professional institutions, industry leaders, those universities had deleterious effects on the supply of well-trained
still active in the field and the minerals industry press, have specialists for the industry. Nevertheless, it must be
discussed and sought solutions to what is seen as being a recognised that some strong university mining
critical future shortage of minerals industry professionals. In geomechanics research groups with interests in mass
Australia, for example, a study carried out by a taskforce of mining exist in Canada and Australia, for example. In
the peak industry body, the Minerals Council of Australia addition to contributing to advances in knowledge and
(Minerals Council of Australia 1998), resulted in the understanding, industry support for projects like the ICS
establishment of the Minerals Tertiary Education Council and the proposed mass mining technology project should
(MTEC). MTEC aims "to build a world-class tertiary learning serve the further important purpose of helping train some
environment for the education of professional staff for the of the industrys current and future engineering
Australian minerals industry." The development and delivery specialists to the advanced levels that will be necessary
of a flexible-format, web-based rock mechanics education to develop solutions to the problems likely to be
program for undergraduate mining engineers forms part of encountered in future mass mining operations.
MTECs program (Lilly et al 2003). Thankfully, as university The writer has the highest personal regard for many of the
mining and minerals education has declined in some experienced geomechanics specialists working on mine
countries, it has been maintained or developed in some sites and in consultancies in his home country, Australia,
others, including Chile. and in several other parts of the world, including Chile.
The problem is many-facetted and almost as old as the These specialists come from a wide range of initial
industry itself. Some aspects of the problem are associated educational and subsequent training backgrounds. In some
with young peoples interests and aspirations, some may be countries, many geomechanics specialists have civil
attributed to the secondary education systems in some engineering, geological engineering or engineering geology,
countries, some are the responsibility of universities and of rather than mining, backgrounds. However, the living and
university funding systems, while some must be visited on social conditions on many remote mine sites (including the
the mining companies themselves. This is not the place to fly in-fly out system), the lack of opportunities for career
explore the reasons for, and advance possible solutions to, advancement in specialist fields, and some company cost-

Table 2: Proposed mass mining technology research areas and tasks (Chitombo 2004)

Research Area Research Tasks

Geotechnical Characterisation Effective use of geophysical methods for assessing fundamental

geological, geomechanical and hydrological rock mass parameters.

Mechanics of Caving Better prediction of cave initiation and propagation for the "new mining
environments" including surface subsidence prediction.
The mechanics of in situ to primary to secondary fragmentation for
caving operations.
Influence of pre-conditioning on cave initiation and propagation.

Caving Engineering Mechanism of confined blasting and corresponding drill and blast design
principles and guidelines.
Gravity flow and engineering studies (large-scale physical models and
field studies) and development of mine scale flow rules and design
guidelines.
More effective cave monitoring systems (3D) and design of appropriate
instrumentation geometries including on-line analysis and interpretation.
Risk approaches for major hazard identification including air blast, rock
bursts, major collapses, mud rushes, and subsidence.
The impact of pre-conditioning on rock mass strength reduction and
change of in situ fracturing.

Systems Engineering Application of more effective cave/draw management strategies.

Process management and effective use of automation.

Enabling Technologies Rapid horizontal development (safe and quality).

Effective (and continuous) ore handling systems including mechanical
gatherers.
Mechanisation of secondary rock breakage.

Mine Profit Optimization Mining sequence, scheduling and mining rates.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 33

cutting policies, can make it difficult to attract and retain Stability in Open Pit Mining, Vancouver. AIME: New York.
geomechanics specialists on mine sites. Indeed, on some Brown, E T (ed), 1981. Rock Characterization, Testing
Australian operations, there appears to be an increasing and Monitoring: ISRM Suggested Methods, 211 p.
trend to use consultants rather than company staff for Pergamon Press: Oxford.
geomechanics functions (Anon 2004). Brown, E T, 1992. Australian mining geomechanics
As indicated above, this is not the place to explore development, achievements, challenges. Proceedings
possible solutions to this critical problem. The essential Western Australian Conference on Mining
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shortage of mining geomechanics specialists could provide School of Mines: Kalgoorlie.
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10. CONCLUSIONS Monograph Series on Mining and Mineral Processing 3,
515 p. Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Centre, University of
The scale of the worlds largest surface and underground Queensland: Brisbane.
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last 100 years. Indications are that both the rates of production on the behaviour of horizontally lying roof strata. Trans
and the depths of open pit and underground mines will continue Am Inst Min Metall Engrs, 109: 212-229.
to grow into the future. This can be expected to provide Bull, G and Page, C H, 2000. Sublevel caving todays
significant challenges to the engineering discipline of dependable low-cost "ore factory". Proceedings MassMin
geomechanics which has been shown to have been a major 2000, Brisbane, (Ed: G Chitombo), 537-556. Australasian
contributor to the success and growth of mass mining over the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne.
last 40 years. Important challenges for many operations remain Cai, M, Kaiser, P K, Uno, H, Tasaka, Y and Minami, M,
in other engineering disciplines such as project management, 2004. Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and
materials handling, environmental engineering, water supply strength of jointed hard rock masses using the GSI
and management, information and communications system. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci, 41(1): 3-19.
technologies, and management and systems engineering to Calder, K, Townsend, P and Russell, F, 2000. The
improve efficiency and achieve cost reduction. Nevertheless, Palabora Underground Mine Project. Proceedings
the importance of geomechanics to the investigation, design, MassMin 2000, Brisbane, (Ed: G Chitombo), 219-225.
construction and safe operation of profitable large-scale Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
surface and underground mines requires that it be recognised Melbourne.
as the basic engineering discipline for mass mining. It is Caldern, A, Cataln, A and Karzulovic, A, 2003.
essential, therefore, that the industry continues to support Management of a 15 x 106 tons slope failure at
research into a range of geomechanics-related issues and the Chuquicamata Mine, Chile. Proceedings 12th
education and training of the future generation of mining Panamerican Conference on Soil Mechanics and
geomechanics specialists. Geotechnical Engineering and 39th U S Symposium on
Rock Mechanics, Cambridge, (Ed: P Culligan, H Einstein
and A Whittle), 2:2419-2426. Verlag Gluckauf: Essen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Call, R D, Cicchini, P F, Ryan, T M and Barkley, R C,
2000. Managing and analyzing overall pit slopes. Slope
The writer is most grateful to the Organising Committee of Stability in Surface Mining, (Ed: W A Hustrulid, M K
MassMin 2004 for having invited him to prepare this paper McCarter and D J A Van Zyl), 39-46. SME: Littleton,
and present the associated keynote lecture. He wishes to CO.
thank the Director and staff of the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Cataln, A and Caldern, A, 2004. Geotechnical risk
Research Centre and the Manager and staff of the Brisbane model for the design of slopes and the analysis of mine
office of Golder Associates Pty Ltd for having provided him plans at Chuquicamata mine, Chile. Proceedings
with facilities and assistance in the preparation of this paper. MassMin 2004, Santiago, (Ed: A Karzulovic and M Alfaro).
He is particularly grateful to Dr Gideon Chitombo, German Chitombo, G (ed), 2000. Proceedings MassMin 2000,
Flores (who also prepared Figures 2-5), Dr Antonio Brisbane, 936 p. Australasian Institute of Mining and
Karzulovic, Neil Hepworth and Dr Gavin Power for having Metallurgy: Melbourne.
provided ideas and material used in the paper. Chitombo, G, 2004. Personal communication.
Coates, D F, 1977. Pit Slope Manual Chapter 5 Design,
126 p. CANMET Report 77-5. Canada Centre for Mineral
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36 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 2
Geotechnical
Characterization
for Mass Mining
38 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Mining geotechnical investigations:
The need for an integrated approach
Allan Haines, T. Campbell McCuaig and Esther Theron, SRK Consulting, Australia

Abstract
The need for an integrated approach in mining is a key element during all phases of the evaluation of a mineable deposit.
The integration of the geological, structural, hydrogeological and geotechnical disciplines, as feeds into the mine
planning and scheduling process, are essential elements in the conversion of a deposit into a mine. Having the
geotechnically related risks and benefits defined at an early stage may well differentiate the project from others queuing
up to obtain financing, whether from internal or external sources. From the initial greenfields site, from scoping to drill
out and the establishment of an advanced project, pre-feasibility, feasibility and ramp-up into operations it is beneficial
to establish the links between the geotechnical characteristics and mining risks.
This paper will examine the timing, functional silo mentality, the influencers and modifiers on mine design, the benefits
resulting from integration and some operational examples to illustrate the benefits of this approach.

1 INTRODUCTION Hydrogeologiststo provide input into the impact of

ground water on the excavation stability,
In the future environment of surface and underground Engineering geologiststo characterise the rock mass
mines, we face both a trend towards the development of from strength and performance requirements,
super pits and super caves, and a tendency for the Mining engineersto develop the mining methodology
underground development of ageing pits. These super (including blasting) from the geological and geotechnical
projects, or long-life ore factories, sprout from the calls for interpretations,
increased production and more cost effective solutions for Mine planning engineersto plan the mine geometry,
mass mining projects, and perhaps from the belief that bigger layout and scheduling in the most optimised fashion.
is better. The move to fewer, larger, longer life projects
exposes operations to an elevated level of risk from singular The authors have noted that the lack of cross-discipline
events. One of the most crippling and potentially fatal events integration is commonplace in the industry. The industry
in these mass mining operations is geotechnical failures. as a whole suffers from a 'functional silo mentality,
Safe and efficient operation of large scale open pit and whereby tasks are undertaken in an assembly line
underground excavations thus requires an even stronger fashion, often in isolation or with an incomplete
focus on geotechnical issues. As geotechnical understanding of how the results impact on the entire
investigations rely on information supplied by the entire mining project or operation. Cross-discipline
range of mining related disciplines, effective integration of communication is often the critical issue.
these services is becoming even more crucial. This is evident for example, when the exploration
Having the geotechnically related risks and benefits geologists often do not communicate well with mining and
defined at an early stage may well differentiate the project resource geologists, who do not communicate well with
from others, all queuing up to obtain financing, whether from geotechnical engineers, and so on. Often, neither task team
internal or external sources, in todays ever-competitive understands the others requirements, nor how they can
marketplace. help address the issues those teams face for the ultimate
In the authors experience, the introduction of an benefit of the study.
integrated geological structural hydrogeological - The way consultants are used in the Australian
geotechnical approach, as early as possible in the industry often exacerbates this problem, in that
development of a project, saves time and expense companies select people for specific tasks on a
throughout all phases of the project life. perceived value for money basis. Therefore, one
consulting firm may be used for geology, another for
2 FUNCTIONAL SILO MENTALITY resource estimation, another for geotechnical
engineering, and another for mining engineering. This
A geotechnical investigation requires the integration of presents additional challenges in ensuring the effective
data from a number of sources. The geotechnical engineer flow of information and knowledge across the task teams
will thus be required to interact with a number of individuals. and, therefore, the entire operation.
Depending on the status of the project these individuals will The functional silo mentality is a substantial challenge
range from: facing the industry and, therefore, focus is required on
Exploration/resource geologists...to define the geological cross-training consultants and clients so that they are
model and resource footprint, aware of issues facing each of the mining disciplines and
Structural geologiststo assist with the interpretation of can communicate across these disciplines. This helps to
the rock mass fabric and applying geological and spatial effectively break down the functional silos to allow the more
context around the geotechnical data, effective flow of information and understanding throughout
Mine geologiststo describe the performance of the the mining process, and thus should result in more informed
encountered geological conditions, decisions.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 39

3 TIMING 4 BENEFITS FROM INTEGRATION

Geotechnical investigations should be incorporated into The main benefits resulting from an integrated approach
an exploration or mining project at a very early stage. The can be categorised into savings in time and associated cost
specific investigation can take many forms depending on with a better scope for communication among the
the type, scale and location of the project. It should have professionals involved.
equal status alongside the geological, resource, Incorporating geotechnical investigations as early as
metallurgical, mine planning and financial modelling studies. possible in a project study can be beneficial in guiding future
It is equally important to know that: work, especially into feasibility. With this approach, it is
possible to reduce the dependence on long and costly
the resource exists in a certain form and location, feasibility studies in which the geotechnical risk profile had
that it can be mined safely and economically by open not been adequately defined earlier on.
pit or underground methods, The estimate of capital and operating cost expenditure
that the ore can be processed, can be better quantified early on, by following a more
that it has a market that can be reached, and rigorous and integrated approach. By getting the overall
that the project will produce a viable return on investment. slope angle for an open pit closer to its expected value at an
early stage, there can be substantial cost savings in
The main benefit of an integrated approach is that the estimates of waste stripping. For example, the difference
geotechnically related risks can be understood and between a 45 and a 50 overall pit slope, for a pit perimeter
quantified as early as possible, especially where a mine of approximately 3000m over a slope height of 150m, can
design is sensitive to these parameters. The main result in an additional US$ 15M of waste stripping. In this
geotechnical risks or issues that need to be addressed from example there is also a corresponding shift in the pit crest of
an early stage can be related to the following: approximately 25m.
rock mass characteristicswhich can be managed with These values are illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
empirical methodologies, but require geological context to
properly establish their spatial variability 5 PLANNING ON A RISK BASIS
structural fabrican evaluation of the controls on the 3D
distribution of rock damage (discontinuities), and the The follow extract from a 1997 paper by Oskar Steffen on
interaction between primary, secondary and tertiary the planning of open pit mines on a risk basis states the
structures and the excavation, case with regard to the value that should be attached to
ground waterwater pressure can significantly reduce geotechnical information during the development of a
the stability of the excavation, mining project.
in-situ stressesand their redistribution during mining "As in the case of mineral resource estimation, the
needs to quantified, determination of slope angles is dependant on the
seismicitycan have a detrimental impact on the stability understanding of geological and geotechnical information
of the rock mass, and the confidence of design is equally based on the degree
mine excavationand its interaction with the geotechnical of certainty which applies to the data available. Unlike the
environment can be modelled to determine the case of mineral resource estimation, where the exploration
development of adverse tensile and shear stresses that is specifically targeted to provide ore reserve information,
may lead to failure of the excavation profile. the requirement for slope design only becomes necessary
once a prospective mineral resource has been discovered.
All of the project scientists and engineers play a role Exploration core has usually limited value for slope design
during the development of a deposit from initial exploration purposes as the target areas for slope design are not
or discovery through project scoping, pre-feasibility, necessarily the same as for the orebody. Drilling
feasibility, detailed engineering design, start-up, production requirements for geotechnical purposes also differ
and closure. The project risk profile can be changed by considerably from that for mineral exploration. Hence a
informed decisions taken by engineers, financiers, limited campaign for geotechnical purposes is usually
stakeholders and government that are involved in the undertaken in addition to whatever value can be obtained
emergence of a new mining project. from the original exploration campaign.
From the initial greenfields site, from scoping to drill out It is therefore not uncommon to have a slope design
and the establishment of an advanced project, pre- which has a much lower degree of confidence than that
feasibility, feasibility and ramp-up into operations, it is pertaining to the mineral resource definition. By definition,
beneficial to establish the links between the geotechnical the mineable reserves within the resource are determined
characteristics and mining risks. by applying a mine design which could economically exploit
There is a real benefit in investing time and capital during the resource."
early exploration to provide initial estimates of geotechnical It is again emphasized that the evaluation and definition of
risk. In our experience there is the potential to reduce the geotechnical risks as early as possible in the
expenditure during feasibility if the integrated geotechnical- development of a project must be understood by all. The
geological model is understood right up front. geotechnical risks described earlier in this paper must be
The geotechnical engineer must identify what will be the investigated and quantified using the most appropriate
key influences on mine design and be aware of that which techniques. In the case of caving it is almost impossible to
may subsequently modify the design. fully define the nature of the cave without exposing the ore
These aspects are normally assessed in relation to the material in an exploration decline.
risk profile for the project and whether a competitive The geotechnical evaluation should advance at the same
advantage can be obtained by optimising the design rate as that for the resource model.
process. It is the application of the influencing and modifying
components that can result in significant cost saving during 6 OPERATIONAL EXAMPLES
the project life and which may ultimately extend the
operational life of a mine. This is illustrated in Table 1 for a Case 1
steep slope strategy as applied to open pit design. A SLOS operation in Australia has experienced difficulties
with oversize in the stope drawpoints. The causes of the

40 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

problem are varied and the overall study has had to review: Slope design work in these materials requires a fully
Production issues integrated approach to determine the relic structural fabric of
Stope design, sequencing and performance monitoring the saprolites, and to a lesser extent in the saprocks. This rock
Geological and structural interpretation mass fabric is normally identifiable in the unweathered rocks.
Geotechnical aspects A typical weathering profile is illustrated below.
Blasting practice Transported
Pallid Clay
As part of the study, SRK were contracted to focus mainly Saprolite
on improving the data collection, analysis and interpretation Saprock
from a structural geology and geotechnical point of view. Joint Oxidised Rock
This has involved cross discipline training of personnel with Unweathered Rock
varied backgrounds and establishing processes and
procedures that will outlive the current staff complement. Designs in this range of materials requires that all of the
The key components of this integrated study were related geological and geotechnical characteristics must be
to the geotechnical evaluation of the rock mass evaluated as early as possible as the open pit design
characteristics. From the results of the geotechnical parameters must be derived for both soil, soft rock and hard
database, it was shown that the Laubscher RMR/MRMR rock environments.
and Mathews / Potvin Q'/N' rating systems are applicable as The use of empirical rock mass classification systems can
predictive tools for the determination of rock mass stability provide very good indicative slope angles from the first
relative to the excavation. series of exploration cores. These can be supplemented
In addition, a structural evaluation assisted in the when exploration declines or shafts are excavated.
determination the controls on the development of oversize. SRK have previously provided training in geotechnical
The initial interpretation has established the broad core logging to exploration geologists and mine geologists
spectrum of rock mass and structural characteristics that at a similar site in Western Australia. In practice, only the
influence the occurrence and frequency of oversize. orezone and a limited amount of core into the hangingwall
The benefits from this process of integration convert to and footwall are logged. This data would otherwise be lost,
more effective data and information, with some additional as the core is subsequently cut and sampled.
effort, which may not have been possible without this Recent developments have seen both scoping and feasibility
concerted approach. level studies required for new prospects on the same mining
lease. In the first instance, no additional drilling or logging was
Case 2 required. The study could be completed in some detail, within
In Australia and West Africa there are numerous a short time and at minimal cost. Similarly, the feasibility study
examples of open pits that have been developed through required very little additional specific geotechnical drilling and
some of the most hazardous geological materials with logging. The savings here were both in direct cost and, most
regard to slope stability. critically in this instance, in time.
The saprolites and saprocks within the zone of oxidation
exhibit a range of geotechnical characteristics from the dry ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to partially saturated to the fully saturated condition that
classify them as extremely challenging to say the least. SRK would like to acknowledge the assistance provided
They represent the geotechnical engineers "worst by its staff and clients in the compilation of this paper.
nightmare".
Below these are commonly found the unoxidised mafic REFERENCES
and ultramafic rocks which commonly exhibit structural
complexity and weakness associated with joint coatings of Haines, A and Terbrugge, PJ, 1991. Preliminary
dickite, brucite and tochilonite. An understanding of the estimation of rock slope stability using rock mass
spatial relationship of these rock weakening mineral classification systems, 7th Int. Congr. on Rock Mech,
coatings with regard to the mining excavation is vital to ISRM, Aachen, Germany.
ensure that the most appropriate design parameters are Laubscher, DH, 1990. A geomechanics classification
selected. The value to be derived from a comprehensive system for the rating of rock mass in mine design, Jl S Afr
geological and structural geological assessment of a Inst Min and Metall, Vol 90, No 10, pp 257-273.
property in association with the geotechnical engineer can Steffen, OKH, 1997. Planning of Open Pit Mines on a
be significant in our experience. Risk Basis, J SAIMM March/April 1997.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 41

42
Table 1: Steep Slope Strategy Matrix: Modifiers and Influencers on Slope Geometry

Influencers Modifiers Assessed

Benefit

Typ Key Adjustments to Structure Backfilling Slope Displacement Piezometric

Component Slope Geometry andGDM during Mining Monitoring Profile Monitoring

Ground Water Can have significant Adjustments to slope Density and orientation Permits steeper Determines the nature Determines the May obtain an
Drainage benefits from slope geometry and of structures will hydraulic gradients of displacement nature of the improvement of
depressurisation, unloading mining sequence determine the to be developed (acceleration/ hydraulic gradient between 5 and 10
of potential failure surfaces, may be necessary permeability and behind back deceleration) and the in overall slope
dry working conditions to accommodate modify the shape filled faces resulting from effectiveness angle, depending
and improved blasting. drainage and gradient of the influence of drainage on type of material
requirements dewatering surface of drainage. and slope height.

Pit Limit Improves slope The optimisation of Modifies the selection Special pit limit Determines the Relative benefit of May obtain an
Blasting geometry, reduces bench height and of bench face angles, blasting techniques nature of dry versus wet improvement of
spill berm width, face angle on the local geometry, stack may be minimised displacement faces will influence between 3 and
and reduces secondary pit limits can be and overall angles. should early (acceleration/ blast design and 5 in bench stack
cleaning and accidents determined from Can be a predictive backfilling be deceleration) final face angle slope angle,
from rock falls during geotechnical tool for deeper an option. resulting from will determine depending on
bench cleaning considerations. pit sectors. the improved stack angles. achievable
following blasting. Can also modify the blasting practice. bench height.
influence of post-
or pre- split blasting

Anchoring of For local bench Modification of Effective for toppling Failure of anchors Effectiveness of Effective dewatering May obtain an
Bench Crests crest stabilisation, the slope geometry failures below are not crucial anchoring can will reduce the improvement of
ramp protection can benefit the ramps and crucial following backfilling. be monitored design load on between 3 and

Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004

and for steepening influence of surface infrastructure from dis anchor tendons. 5 in bench face
of desirable slope anchoring at placement records angle, depending
sectors. bench crests. on orientation of
most critical
structure.

Unloading of For cutting back Overall slope angle The relative competence Implication of Crucial to ensure To ensure that May obtain an
Upper Slope upper weaker of upper slope of the upper and failure of upper that unloading has the measured improvement of
material to allow will be reduced lower slope material slope is not crucial. been effective for groundwater profile between 3 and 5
steepening of to produce the will determine Can prevent the stability of does not exceed in the bench stack
lower slopes in required unloading the benefit deterioration of both the upper the design slope angle for
more competent rock. of unloading weak upper slope and lower slopes. conditions. the lower
and protects surface competent material.
infrastructure. The benefit will
depend on the
proportion between
upper and lower
slope heights.

Massmin 2004
Figure 1: Cost saving in waste stripping (per m of pit perimeter) with slope steepening

Figure 2: Shift in pit crest with slope steepening

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 43

 Estimation of geotechnical
variables for mass mining
Mark Howson, Principal Consultant Geologist, Rio Tinto Technical Services, Bristol, UK

Abstract
In a major underground mining project, once mining starts, change can be very expensive if rock mass behaviour is
found to differ from what was expected. However, issues such as ground support, caveability and fragmentation are
typically major uncertainties at the planning stage. All these issues depend to a large extent on rock mass properties
whose correct estimation is worth millions of dollars in either savings or avoidance of over-expenditure.
A significant rock volume is rarely homogenous. Its strength will be subject to zones of weakness in otherwise stronger
rock, and sampling through geotechnical logging of drill cores yields a wide scatter of values. Distributions must be
estimated and used to assess rock mass behaviour, as averaged values can be misleading.
A methodology is presented that is being used for several potential underground mining projects around the world. It is based on
non-parametric geostatistics applied to Geotechnical Variables (GVs) such as Fracture Frequency, RMR and Q. The influences
of mining, data sparseness, sources of bias, lithology, geological structure, and other spatial attributes are incorporated in the
estimation of a geotechnical model. This may then be compared with reality for validation, and used in mine planning.

1 INTRODUCTION

Geotechnical Variables (GVs) include Fracture

Frequency, Joint Condition Rating, RQD, IRMR and Q.
They may be based on drill hole logging and are used to
quantify rock mass strength in various ways, so that mining
attributes, including ground support, caveability and
fragmentation, can be predicted.
This paper is not concerned with the relative merits of
different GVs, or their derivation, but with methods for their
estimation as a block model. The objective is to use data
collected largely from drill holes to represent the disposition Figure 1: Drill holes and a planned excavation
of the GV in the whole mass of rock in a detailed and
unbiased manner.
The approach presented here is being used to investigate
the underground mining potential of some major deposits in Using linear interpolation, one might estimate an RMR of
the Rio Tinto group, including two Porphyry Coppers and 45 at the excavation, therefore, no additional ground
two diamond pipes. support is required but this would be incorrect!
Geostatistical estimation and modelling of in-situ grades The correct estimate is that 50% of the rock is 60, and
is a familiar process in mining. A related approach can be 50% is 30. Therefore additional support is expected to
applied to GVs but may only be successful if their special be required for 50% of the excavation. When estimating
characteristics are fully accommodated. This paper refers GVs, averages can be misleading. We must estimate
to methods used for grades, using geostatistical terms that the distributions of these non-additive variables.
are explained in standard texts such as the work by Isaaks GVs are also generally "non-parametric". A parametric
and Srivastava (1989). variable such as some grades can be assumed to have
a characteristic distribution such as a Gaussian curve. This
assumption can generally not be made for GV distributions,
2 NON-ADDITIVE AND NON-PARAMETRIC which may be multi-modal.

A significant rock volume is rarely homogenous. Its 3 THE MULTIPLE-INDICATOR APPROACH

strength will probably be subject to zones of weakness
in otherwise stronger rock. Sampling it by The non-additive and non-parametric character suggests
geotechnical logging of drill cores yields a scattered "Multiple Indicator Kriging" (MIK) as a geostatistical
distribution of GV values, with high and low values interpolation method. This is described by Barnes (1999)
occurring in close proximity. How can this be and is often used for estimating disseminated gold grades.
represented in a model? However, significant adaptations must be made for GVs.
GVs are best considered as non-additive, a quality that is In MIK, the distribution of a variable is estimated as a
illustrated by the hypothetical case of two drill holes near to series of discrete "Indicators". These are proportions
a planned excavation, as sketched in figure 1. (between 0.0 and 1.0) of each block that are above a series
The drill holes have RMR values as shown, and between them, of "threshold" values of the variable.
a planned excavation is equidistant from each hole. Assuming that For example, given some RMR thresholds selected as 30,
development in rock of RMR less than 40 will need additional 40, 50, 60 and 70, the indicators for a hypothetical model
ground support, the task is to estimate the RMR at the excavation, block were estimated as 0.95, 0.7, 0.6, 0.4 and 0.02,
and specify if additional support will be required. respectively. These describe a bi-modal distribution, whose

44 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

median is at about RMR 55, and where 30% of the block is A particular example of data bias arises where an
expected to be below RMR 40. underground mine is planned to extract the vertical
In practice, perhaps 7 to 17 indicators are selected continuation of an orebody below an open pit. Here, GV
through the range of GV values, at regular intervals, or values near the collars of holes that were drilled in the pit
sometimes bunched-up at parts of the range where more must be tested for systematic reduction due to blast
detail is required. They are estimated as separate variables damage or stress release. It is likely that a zone of rock
in their own right, and then used together to describe the adjacent to the final open pit topography must be modelled
distribution in each block and to determine median, other as a separate domain (see below) to accommodate this
quantiles and other information. effect.

4 INDICATORS THEN REGULARISATION 6 DOMAIN DEFINITION

Typically, geotechnical drillhole logging is in "domain The term "domains", used in a geostatistical sense
intervals" of similar geotechnical values, but often of describes sub-volumes of the rock mass where samples
unequal lengths. Geostatistical estimation assumes that (i.e. logging) of a domain may be used to estimate model
each of the input data has equal sampling support. For values elsewhere in the domain. It is not usual to use data
GVs, this means derived from equal lengths of core. from one domain to estimate values in another.
Therefore it is necessary to determine equal-length data An early stage in estimation is to define the domains, and
from the unequal intervals. with an understanding of their geological or other origin, to
It is normal in grade estimation to determine mean values characterise the behaviour of the GVs within them.
for equal drill hole lengths in a process known as Typically the basis for separation into domains includes
regularisation or compositing. However, because GVs are differing lithology, faulting, shearing, folding, alteration,
non-additive, a procedure involving mean values is weathering, and, as discussed above, mining blast damage
inappropriate. and stress release.
However, indicators are similar to grades and are additive Figure 3 shows an example of domain definition relating
variables. Therefore they are determined first for the logging to faults in a project that was conducted in feet.
intervals. They are assigned as values of 0.0 or 1.0 depending
on whether the GV value is below or above the threshold in
question. These are composited into regular lengths, which may
typically be a sub-multiple of a model block dimension. Each
composite has a series of values from 0.0 through 1.0, which
represents its distribution of the GV.
Figure 2 illustrates the calculation of composited
indicators from log intervals, using hypothetical Joint
Spacing Rating (JSR) values as an example.

Figure 3: Variation of GVs adjacent to faults.

In this case, the faults had been interpreted as hangingwall

and footwall surfaces to define "fault envelopes".
In the graph, values within the envelopes are shown at
Distance = 0. The other distances show that the influence of
Figure 2: From logs to composited indicators faults extends for about 3 m (10 ft) into adjacent rocks. In
this project, the domain of "faulted rock" was defined as
The JSR log on the left has variable intervals up to 5 m in including this extra 3 m on either side.
length. The indicator thresholds 15, 20 and 25 have been
selected by cumulative frequency analysis of the JSR 7 DOMAIN CHARACTERISATION
populations. The resulting indicator values, still in the
variable intervals are in the middle, and the composites that GVs often exhibit strong trends within a domain. For
were calculated in regular lengths of 5 m are on the right. example, rock strength in a kimberlite pipe often increases
gradually but steadily with depth, due to the decreasing
5 OPEN PIT MINING INFLUENCE effect of surface weathering.
It is particularly valuable to characterise the general
Confirmation of the quality of logging and data derived spatial behaviour of a GV in the context of the geology, as
from drill holes, and the assessment of any bias is important this information will be used where data is sparse during the
in an estimation project. Kriging process, as discussed below.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 45

 Indicators provide a useful tool for this purpose. Figure 4 The following strategy utilises the domain characterisation
shows an example where core-length-weighted mean discussed above, with a variation of the usual MIK
indicators for RQD (named d1 to d8) characterise the interpolation method.
change in RQD at a series of levels perpendicular to When estimating grades using MIK, the variant of Kriging
bedding through a sedimentary sequence. used (within MIK) is usually Ordinary Kriging (OK).
Typically, to estimate the value of a model block, the Kriging
process will include the influence of values from all data that
lie within a search radius of the block. If too few values are
found within the radius, then the block is not assigned a
Kriged value, but a pre-determined mean value for the
domain. For GVs using MIK, this would be a local mean
indicator value derived from the domain characterisation.
A problem with OK is that an unnatural "halo effect" is
often produced with GVs. This occurs where data are
sparse at the boundary where blocks estimated by Kriging
are adjacent to blocks that were assigned mean values. At
these locations, confidence in the Kriged block values is low.
The strategy proposed to deal with this issue is to use the
Simple Kriging (SK) variant within MIK for GV indicators.
Unlike OK, SK always includes the influence of a pre-
determined local mean in its result. Where there is a high
level of data in the vicinity, this influence is low, but it
increases as the data become sparse, until the point at
Figure 4: Characterisation of change in GV in a domain which too few values are found within the radius. Then, as
using indicators. in OK the block is assigned a pre-determined mean value
for the domain. However, with no abrupt change in the
influence from the local mean, the halo effect is avoided.
8 CROSS-VALIDATION Because GVs often exhibit strong trends within a domain,
local means derived by well-conducted domain
The application of geostatistical analysis to GV characterisation may themselves be close to reasonable
indicators is similar to the same process in grade block value estimates. Therefore, the level of confidence in
estimation. It characterises spatial continuity of the a SK result that is based largely on a local domain mean
indicators to provide variogram parameters that control may be justifiably high, even for an area with sparse data.
the Kriging process for the most accurate estimation. Considering SK as an alternative to the more usual OK is
Cross-validation is a technique that may used to assess suggested in the context of MIK with GVs. Graham (2003)
the effectiveness of the process. However, it is not a fully used cross-validation to compare OK and SK estimation of
accepted procedure. indicators using a set of RQD data from a Porphyry orebody.
Cross-validation is applied by omitting a datum (e.g. a The results support the methodology described in this
composite) from the input dataset, and then estimating its paper.
value from the other data by point Kriging. This is repeated
for all the data in the set, resulting in a list of point estimates 10 ESTIMATION OF COMPOUND GVs
that may be compared with the corresponding true values.
The closer the estimates, the better the parameters are Certain GVs such as the In-situ Rock Mass Rating (IRMR)
considered to be. The best parameters are then applied to described by Laubscher and Jakubec (2001) are
block model estimation. combinations of several component values. IRMR is the
A problem with cross-validation as typically applied is that sum of Ratings for Block Strength (BSR - derived from Intact
often the data that contribute most to each estimate are Rock Strength, IRS), Joint Spacing (JSR) and Joint
those from the same hole - typically vertically above and Condition (JCR).
below, following the hole orientation, which produces a Values of IRMR can be determined for each logging
biased test. interval, and then used to estimate model IRMR values by
The authors opinion is that the technique is useful if all the straightforward MIK approach described above.
data from the same hole are omitted from the dataset However, the component ratings may have distinct
when one of its data is estimated. The effect is similar to distribution patterns of their own, and in places, they may
comparing a previously estimated model with logging behave differently with respect to one another. Variation in
from new holes, as described below under Model each component may be more regular and predictable than
Validation. their sum of the three components.
In an estimation project it may be more appropriate to use An alternative approach may be to separately estimate a
limited time resources for better domain studies rather than model for each rating using MIK, as above, and then to
cross-validation. However, it provides a useful tool for combine the three models to produce an IRMR model. This
comparing estimation techniques as described below. may produce a more accurate result and has an additional
advantage of making the three ratings models also
9 DATA SPARSENESS AND KRIGING available.
The combination step involves combining the indicator
A problem often encountered is that the GV data from drill distributions for the three ratings in each block to produce a
holes may be relatively sparse compared with grade data in single IRMR distribution. How best to do this is still the
the same deposit. For example, many holes may have been subject of investigation, and a full explanation is beyond the
drilled during the exploration phase, when geotechnical scope of this paper. However, a provisional method is being
logging was not done, and it is impossible to re-log them. used, which works best if it is assumed that the three ratings
Furthermore, it may be possible to justify only limited further are not correlated.
drilling for geotechnical purposes. Therefore, it is necessary Offen (2003) tested this approach to IRMR estimation,
to make the most of what data are available. and the provisional method for combination of distributions.

46 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

The cross-validation technique was used with data from a
Porphyry Copper monzonite unit. Both the direct estimation
of IRMR indicators and the estimation of ratings and then
combination to produce IRMR indicators were compared
with true indicator values. The results confirmed that the
method described here might be better.
In a recent project, this method had major advantages in
dealing with sparse data. While most drillhole intervals had
information for JSR, and adequate numbers had BSR and
JCR, there were relatively few with all three. However,
modelling each rating separately, and then combining the
block models maximised the utilisation of what data were
available in each case.

11 MODEL FINALISATION

When the Kriging process is complete, it will yield one or

more series of block model data files, or columns of data in
a database. Each of these contains the values of one
indicator, for all the blocks in the model. Each value is the
estimate of the proportion of a block that is over the
respective threshold value. A series of indicators constitutes
the model of a GV, giving the distributions of that GV for
each block.
The block values may be utilised in their current form, with
no further processing. For example, if it is assumed that an
excavation in rock of RMR less than 40 will need additional
support, then one would use drawings showing the RMR 40
indicator for development planning. A planned mine access
may be routed through areas with high RMR 40 values i.e. Figure 5: Comparison of model with logged data.
with RMR mainly above 40 - to minimise the support costs
and/or the probability of ground failure. When the design is It can be seen that a model that could predict the new holes
complete, the blocks intersecting the access can be log exactly would require drilling data at an impossible level of
summarised to determine what overall proportion is below detail. However, with much sparser data, estimating
RMR 40, and so to estimate how much of it will require distributions using the indicators can represent the ground
additional support. conditions in an adequate manner for planning.
Another method of displaying or utilising the models is to Other methods of model validation may compare
determine the median GV for each block. A database query estimates with mining performance.
may be required to select, for each block, those indicator One example is where an underground mine is planned to
values that are just above and just below 0.5. The GV value extract the vertical continuation of an orebody below an
that represents exactly 0.5 can then be found through linear open pit. The pit slope angles as they were mined can be
interpolation between the two. Other quantiles can be found compared with estimated model values at the same
in a similar manner. locations, to assess the effectiveness of the model.
Another example is where some underground
12 MODEL VALIDATION development has already been mined. The model values
can be compared with the ground conditions that were
It is desirable to compare the model with reality, to encountered. It should be possible to derive some empirical
determine the accuracy of what has been estimated. relationships that will enable mining costs to be predicted
Figure 5 shows an example where an RMR log from a from the estimates.
newly drilled hole is compared with a previously
estimated model. 13 CONCLUSIONS
The figure shows a plot of RMR against down-hole
depth. The erratic ("noisy") thick grey line is the RMR log Estimation and modelling of geotechnical variables for
of the new hole. This is being compared with the predicting mining conditions is necessary in planning an
previously estimated RMR distribution values from those underground mass mining project.
blocks in the model through which the trajectory of the It is important to estimate distributions of GVs rather than
hole passes. The five black lines with a more vertical mean values, which can be misleading. In geostatistical
nature are quantiles representing the block distributions. terms, GVs are best treated as non-additive and non-
Left to right, these are for the 5, 25, 50, 75 and 95 parametric variables. These qualities suggest using a
percentiles respectively. "Multiple Indicator" approach to estimation.
In this example, the grey line should be outside the Indicators provide a means of expressing the spatial
band defined by the 5 and 95 percentiles for 10% of the distribution of a GV. They are applicable to logged data, and
plot. As the accuracy and detail of the estimation is then through estimation, to mine development, and major
improved, one would expect this band to become excavations.
narrower. It would follow the log more closely, but still Data quality and bias are important considerations in an
with 10% outside. estimation project. This includes bias introduced by mining
The hole in this example was drilled in a basement that may not be evident in holes that were drilled earlier.
complex of granites, gneisses and schists. It is in a barren The definition of geostatistical domains on the basis of
area of the deposit, and so drilling data are relatively sparse. lithology, faulting, shearing, folding, alteration, weathering
However, there are two earlier holes with geotechnical and mining effects is an essential part of the estimation
logging that pass by several 10s of metres away. process.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 47

 Domains may show weak or strong trends in GV variation, 15 REFERENCES
which must be characterised. Graphs showing indicator
behaviour are recommended. The information obtained will Barnes, T, 1999 "Practical Post-Processing of Indicator
be used to counter the problem of sparse data. Distributions" Apcom99, 28th International Symposium,
Calculation of indicators from logged data, followed by October 20-22, ISBN 0-918062-12-8, pp 227-237.
regularisation or compositing is recommended prior to Graham, J M, 2003. "The application of geostatistical
geostatistical processing. procedures on the geotechnical variable, RQD, on data
The geostatistical analysis stage (variograms etc) is much from Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah, USA." MSc
the same as in grade estimation and so is not described dissertation, Camborne School of Mines, University of
here. However, a variant of the MIK interpolation method Exeter.
using is proposed as a strategy for making the most of Isaaks, E H, & Srivastava, R M, 1989. "An Inroduction to
sparse data. This relies on the domain characterisation for Applied Geostatistics", Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-
effectiveness. 19-505012-6 or 0-19-505013-4 (pbk.)
Estimation of GVs such as IRMR that are combinations of Laubscher, D H, & Jakubec, J, 2001. "The IRMR/MRMR
several component ratings may be best achieved by rock mass classification system for jointed rock masses",
estimating and then combining their components. Underground Mining Methods: Engineering
Comparison of a GV model with reality enables its Fundamentals and International Case Studies, (Eds: W A
accuracy, and correlation with mining performance to be Hustrulid and R L Bullock), 475-481. Soc. for Mining,
investigated. Metallurgy and Exploration.: Littleton, Colorado.
On-going investigation of techniques for estimation and Offen, J. (2003). "Estimation of the geotechnical variables of
utilisation of GVs to predict rock mass behaviour are vital in RMR using geostatistics, at Bingham Mine, Utah." MSc
Rio Tintos strategy to develop safe and profitable world- dissertation, Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter.
class underground mines.

14 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to staff and management of Rio Tinto

Technical Services, and at business units in Rio Tinto for their
support in this work, and for permission to publish this paper.

48 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 DEESA - An approach to determine
if an orebody will cave
Richard Butcher, Associate, Dempers and Seymour Pty Ltd

Abstract
Block caving or sub level caving rely on the ability of the rock mass to cave for production. It therefore follows that
cavability assessments should be a key geotechnical aspect for all caving projects. In most cases, it is not only necessary
for the geotechnical engineer to determine if an ore body will cave but at what mined dimension will caving occur. At the
present time no single geotechnical approach exists that can totally simulate the complex interaction of the rock mass
and the mining stresses that occur during caving. It is therefore evident that cavability assessments should be broken
into a series of logical steps, using a number of tools to simulate cavability adequately. This paper critically discusses the
application of existing cavability determination methods and proposes a logical step based approach to cavability
determination using the most reliable tools available today.

1 INTRODUCTION methods and research before a cavability determination

approach can be formulated. Experience plays a major
In recent years, there has been renewed interest in factor in cavability assessment internationally. In this
the use of cave mining methods to extract massive low respect the following are considered as common
grade ore bodies. The main reason for this renewed experiential methods of denoting the cavable size of pre-
appeal is that only cave mining methods can compete break or undercut:
with open pit operations in terms of tonnages produced Length x width of undercut (Bartlet, 1997).
and mining costs. Since caving methods fundamentally Area undercut/ pre-broken or mined (Jofre et al, 2000).
rely on the ability of the ore body or country rock to cave Defined cavable hydraulic radii range (Owen & Guest
in a controlled manner for ore production, cavability 1994, and Butcher, 2003).
assessments are a prime geotechnical focus. However, Minimum span.
despite much work having been undertaken in this field
at the present time, no single accepted geotechnical The important point to note about experiential cavability
approach exists to determine if and when an ore body methods is that they are normally employed on mines with
will cave. This lack of a common approach may be a long history of caving under known geotechnical
attributed to the fact that a number of different conditions (Jofre et al, 2000).
approaches exist to determine if an ore body will cave The most widely used methods of predicting the area
(e.g. Laubscher 1994, Matab &Dixon 1976, Butcher that has to be mined to induce caving are empirical
2002 and Brown 2003). correlations between the rock quality and the undercut
Laubscher (1994) states that "All rock masses will area. The most commonly used method is Laubschers
cave. The manner of their caving and resultant stability graph (See Figure 1). Laubscher modified
fragmentation size distribution needs to be predicted if Bieniawskis RMR classification system to suit caving
cave mining is to be implemented successfully". operations for the chrysotile asbestos mines in
Therefore the emphasis of cavability determination Zimbabwe after the need to classify the ore and country
changes from "if to "when and how" caving will occur. It is rock for geotechnical purposes was identified (Heslop,
not only important for the geotechnical engineer to 1973). Laubscher also recognized that the shape of the
determine if an ore body will cave but at what mined mined area (i.e. hydraulic radius) was an important factor
dimension will caving occur. In the case of a block cave for cavability determination (Laubscher, 1975). The first
these questions are critical in determining the economic stability graph was published in 1987 (Diering &
viability of the project. A six month delay in achieving the Laubscher, 1987). Since that time a number of variations
undercut dimension for sustained caving production will of this graph have been published with the most recent in
have serious consequences in terms of a project being 1994. Over the years attempts have been made to use,
able to meet required financial returns. integrate or modify Mathews stoping graphs for
This paper critically discusses the application of existing cavability purposes (Stewart & Fosyth, 1995, Trueman &
cavability determination methods and proposes a logical Mawdesley, 2003). In general, these methods have not
step based approach to cavability determination using the been accepted by the mining industry. In summary,
most reliable tools available today. empirical methods using a correlation between the
quality of the rock mass and the shape of the mined area
2 EXISTING CAVABILITY DETERMINATION METHODS (or hydraulic radius) are frequently employed as a
method to determine cavability.
Much work has been conducted into the field of cavability
and it is important to review some of the most common

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 49

 The important point from this work is that a cavability
rationale was established by simulating the variability of
structural data in relation to the orientation of the stress
regime.
Guest and Cundell (1994) describe the use of a 3D
distinct element programm (3DEC) to simulate Vertical
crater retreat (VCR) caving behavior. The results of the
modelling were difficult to interpret and were only fully
understood after mining had been completed.
In recent years, work has been conducted on numerical
modelling caving behavior using the 3D Particle Flow Code
((PFC), Itasca, 1998). Using PFC, the ore body is modelled
as a large number of rigid spherical particles whose
behaviour is controlled by a constitutive relationship that
defines the tensile and shear behavior of the particle
contacts.
At the present time the use of the code is in the
experimental stages. Brown (2003) shows that codes like
FLAC 3D are used on a regular basis for cavability
determination. This is despite the normal disadvantages of
using such programmes for modelling (Butcher 2004,
Trueman & Mawdesley, 2003). It is the Authors experience
Figure 1: Laubschers stability graph (1994) that numerical approaches are not normally used in isolation
from other methods for caving assessment.
In summary, the discussion reveals that the following
methods are commonly used for cavability assessment:
Experience.
Bartlett (1992, 1997) shows that for an ore body to cave Empirical stability graphs.
continuously, a sufficiently large area must be undercut. The Structural analysis.
required dimensions of this area are a function of the rock Numerical analysis.
mass strength (jointing, and joint shear strength A combination of abovementioned techniques.
characteristics) and the regional stress field that prevails
before and as mining progresses. Taking this into The use of a combination of techniques is an important
consideration, a detailed finite difference numerical aspect to note since each individual method will have
modelling exercise was commissioned for Premier Mine to inherent shortcomings. From the Authors experience, the
predict the extent to which an undercut had to be advanced following techniques are normally used together:
(Bartlett 1997). This exercise clearly showed that caving in Experience.
all rock types was joint controlled. If accurate joint and rock Laubschers stability graph method.
mass parameters could be determined, numerical models FLAC 3D modelling.
could be used to predict the hydraulic radius to initiate
caving. Bartletts work demonstrates that the practical 3 DEESA CAVABILITY ASSESSMENT APPROACH
application of numerical modelling as a tool for cavability
determination relies on the quantum and At the present time, a number of techniques (either
representativeness of collected geotechnical data. This individually or a combination) are used to determine
work suggests that a detailed collection of rock mass data cavability. The main reason for this is that there is no single
and knowledge of the mining stress regime is fundamental geotechnical approach that can totally simulate the complex
for cavability determination, if numerical methods are used. interaction of the rock mass and the mining stresses that
occurs during caving. In addition, engineers may have
Taylor (1980) detailed important geotechnical and rock limited confidence or experience in some of the methods
mass structural aspects to be considered in the listed. The critical point is to recognise that the various
determination of cavability: caving assessment methods have their own applications,
The number of joints, attitude and spacing of joints. A advantages and disadvantages.
combination of flat and vertically spaced joints is DEESA is a method that divides cavability assessment
conducive to caving. into a series of logical steps. The results of each step should
The shear strength properties of the mentioned joints. correlate with the previous steps and confirm the final mined
The magnitude and orientation of principle stresses. dimension for caving after the process has been completed.
The importance of rock strength increases as the number The steps in the DEESA approach are:
of joints decreases.
D: Do you have a project?
The important conclusion from Taylors work is that the E: Experiential cavability assessment
rock mass structure and its orientation to the mining stress E: Empirical, cavability assessment
regime are important considerations in terms of cavability. S: Structural cavability assessment
A: Analytical/numerical cavability
The importance of the variability rock mass structure and assessment
mining stress orientation in terms of cavability assessment
was researched by Butcher (2002). Ehancing the concepts Step 1: Do you have a project?
forwarded by Taylor (1980) and Matab & Dixon (1976) the Since cavability assessment is a complex and time
ChasSM (Complex structural modelling) method was used consuming process, it is important that the project appears
to generate joint patterns from an ore body that caved. This robust in terms of economic viability before detailed cavability
method allowed the percentage of unstable cave back work commences. The costs to undertake a cavability
blocks to initiate and propagate caving to be determined. assessment are considerable. This situation is exacerbated

50 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

further in cases where very competent ore bodies are being must be determined on a corporate risk basis. In this regard
considered as potential targets for caving. In such cases, the following procedures are recommended:
where the Mining Rock Mass Rating (MRMR) exceeds 60, it Determine the difference between the geotechnical
may be necessary to sink an exploration shaft or decline early cavability characteristics of the project and the
in the project to gather rock mass structural data. Should this experiential range.
type of exploration programme be necessary, it could add Conduct an executive poll of experts to consider if the
significantly to the study costs. It is therefore prudent to ensure caving is possible.
that a project appears viable before detailed geotechnical work Conduct fault tree risk analysis to determine the
commences. This can be done at desktop study level by probability of caving not occurring. The risk analysis
assuming that the ore body will cave and by determining pre- should also include the effects of the risk mitigation
break and undercut dimensions on a production basis only. In features such as VCR blasting to assist caving.
situations where an exploration shaft or decline has to be sunk Use the results from the risk analysis to determine the
(early in the study) to gain geotechnical information, it is total financial risk to the project.
important that the following aspects have been determined The decision to proceed with the project should then be
before excavation commences: made at a corporate level based on the results of this risk
That the project concepts have been finalised. exercise.
That the project risks/ potential risks have been
determined. Step 3: Empirical assessment
The project appears viable with strong DCF (Discounted In this step stability graphs are used to determine
cash flow)indicators when related to corporate hurdles. cavability. The most commonly used method is Laubschers
That the resource has been geologically defined to an stability graph (See Figure 1). This graph is used to predict
indicated category. the areas to be undercut or pre-broken by determining the
That all existing geotechnical data has been analysed, correlation between the rock quality and the hydraulic
complied and the conceptual geotechnical model has radius.
been formulated. Rock quality is established using the MRMR classification
The potential impacts of mining stresses are understood. system. The Laubscher stability graph method has been
That the aims of the exploration programme are defined. successfully utilised for more than ten years. However, the
A geotechnical investigation and risk study have been method has the following disadvantages (Butcher, 2003):
undertaken for the exploration shaft / decline. Inexperienced engineers find the MRMR classification
system difficult to use.
From the Authors experience it is becoming common to The true kinematic nature of the rock mass can only be
consider geotechnical exploration programmes without the estimated.
above being achieved. The impact of major geological structures on caving can
only be estimated.
Step 2: Experiential assessment The impact of cave back stresses can only be estimated.
An industrial bench marking exercise should be The results from the method can be challenged when
conducted to determine cavability characteristics of the applied to the hard ore bodies.
type of deposits being caved. The experiential
information is used as a "reasonableness" check for the One of the major problems is that the MRMR adjustments
various cavability assessment techniques outputs. A are subjective. This tends to make the system unpopular
literature review of cavability should also be undertaken with inexperienced engineers but usable for highly
to determine what issues are of importance in terms of experienced caving practioners, who have a complete
the type of ore body being considered and accuracies of understanding of the geotechnical environment associated
previous studies. An example of this is the importance of with cave mining. A further problem causing uncertainty is
joint trace lengths in cavability assessment for ore bodies the practice of using the full ore body statistical range of
where MRMR > 60. MRMR values as the stability graphs Y axis value. This
can lead to:
Normal industrial bench marking exercises focus on the The violation of the undercutting from weak ground to
collection of the following types of information: strong ground rule (Butcher, 1999). This due to the fact
Geology/ rock mass characteristics. that the use of the statistical MRMR range means that
Mining experience during caving. cognizance of different ore body geotechnical domains is
Block height. not assumed in terms of cave initation.
Areas mined to induce caving, hydraulic radius and Uncertainties in assigning the representative MRMR
minimum span. value for caving assessment.
A large variation in predicted hydraulic radii or a range of
In experiential terms ore bodies can be divided into two predicted hydraulic radii.
groups (Butcher, 2003) for caving purposes:
Hard deposits: caving is achieved with mined hydraulic It is good practice for geotechnical investigations to focus
radii of between 35 to 40m. on defining the weaker areas of the ore deposit to be caved.
Soft deposits: caving is achieved with mined hydraulic The MRMR values in these areas should be statistically
radii of 17 to 25m. assessed to determine the most representative value of the
weaker area. This representative MRMR value should then
Hard deposits are considered to have MRMR be used as the stability graph Y axis. It is only when a
classification values greater than 45. deliberate decision is made to violate the weak to strong
mining rule, should the full statistical range of MRMR values
In situations where there is no previous caving experience be used as the "Y" axis values. In such situations a
relating to the ore body being investigated an experiential considerable amount of engineering judgement is required
asessment has obvious limitations. The author suggests to determine the most representative MRMR value.
that caving experience may be limited to situations where Recently, the use of Laubschers method has been
MRMR <70 and the hydraulic radius is <46m. In these challenged, especially when applied to more competent ore
situations the decision to progress to the next project stage bodies. This is due to the lack of data and experience to

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 51

confirm graph predictions for more competent deposits. It - The MRMR value of the ore to be caved is greater
has been further stated that the method should not be used than 45.
when the MRMR of the ore exceeds 50 (Trueman & - The ore body is deeper than 1000m for a k ratio of 1
Mawdesley, 2003). These observations tend to confirm the and an RMR> 50 (Truman & Mawdesley, 2003).
work carried out by Butcher (2000). Butcher studied the - Where constrained blocks are to be caved
caving history of seven block caves where Laubschers (Brown, 2003).
method had been successfully used. This work found that
the accuracy of the method was limited to a 45/45 zone on Step 4: Structural assessment
the stability graph (See Figure 2). The cavability of an ore body is primarily dependant upon
the relationship between ore body jointing and cave back
Understanding the disadvantages of Laubschers method, stresses. Therefore, an accurate prediction of caving is only
Trueman and Mawdesley (2003) proposed an empirical possible when the relationship between these aspects is
cavability assessment based on the Mathews stability understood. In addition, not only is it important to
graph approach (Mathews et al, 1980). To date this understand the impact of the stress/joint relationships but
approach has not gained wide industry acceptance. also to evaluate:
The impact of major structures on caving.
The impacts of stress / joint pattern variation on cavability
across the ore body.

Such issues are examined by undertaking a structural

cavability analysis which relies on being able to:
Define the ore body geological structure (on both the
macro and micro scale) and the mining stress regime.
Define the critical structural / stress conditions for cave
initiation and propagation. In essence Are there enough
unstable cave back blocks for caving to occur? and what is
the impact of large structures on triggering the onset of
caving.

Laubscher and Jakubec (2001) recognised the importance

of the abovementioned aspects and proposed a hydraulic
radius adjustment graph. It would appear that this graph mainly
takes account of the influence of major structures and stresses.
The Author has found that major structures may reduce the
required hydraulic radius for caving initiation by 20% In terms
of further modelling the influence of major structures on the
caving process. This can be achieved by some form of
deterministic and probabilistic analyses.
The impacts of stress / joint pattern variation on cavability
Figure 2: 45/45 zone across the ore body are revealed by the use of ChaSM
(Stacey 1999). In this method, cavability is determined from
statistically representative joint plots of the back of the
undercut or pre-break. From these plots the total number of
However, the following contributing factors of this work to back blocks required to initiate and propagate caving is
the science of cavability must be recognised: determined. Figure 3 shows a ChaSM joint plot.
Identifying and understanding the limitations of
Laubschers stability graph.
Introducing the concept of isoprobalistic contours to
cavability assessment.
Updating the transitional zone data based on the stability
graph.

In summary, despite the forementioned disadvantages,

Laubschers stability graph remains the only internationally
tested empirical method available to date. As with all empirical
methods it naturally has its applications, advantages and
disadvantages. It is the authors opinion that main danger lies
not in the method itself but not recognising the methods
limitations. In this respect, the following guidelines for the use
of this empirical method are proposed:
This method should only be used to assess cavability to
scoping study levels.
The project geotechnical model should be formulated and
the caving geotechnical environment should be
conceptually understood before the method is used. This
is required for the MRMR adjustment determination.
A certain amount of experience is required to obtain
MRMR adjustments and determine caving dimensions
accurately. Therefore, the method should be used by an
experienced engineer.
That further analyses are required, when : Figure 3: ChasM (Butcher 2001)

52 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The main functions of a structural cavability assessment fully describe the complexity of the geotechnical
are: environment where caving is being considered. At the
Defining the ore body structural regime. present time no single geotechnical approach exists that
Defining the critical structural aspects for caving (e.g joint can totally simulate the complex interaction of the rock
trace length in the case of hard ore bodies). mass and the mining stresses that occur during caving.
Understanding the potential impacts of structural The most important aspect to understand is that various
variability across the ore body. approaches have to be used to determine if and when an
Defining if major structures could trigger the onset of ore body will cave. DEESA is a method that breaks
caving. cavability assessment into the series of logical
Determining if the rock mass is deterministically approaches. The results of each approach step should
susceptible to caving. correlate with each other thus confirming the final mined
Confirming the joint orientation and stress adjustment dimension for caving.
assumptions for the MRMR values used in the stability
graph assessments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Determining the critical inputs and parameters for
advanced numerical caving assessment. This paper has been published with the kind permission of
Dempers and Seymour Pty Ltd. I gratefully acknowledge Dr
Taking cognisance of the above, the Author suggests the Clive Seymour for his assistance in the preparation of this
following structural cavability assessment approach: paper.
Determine ore body macro structural regime from
geological and geotechnical models. REFERENCES
Determine the relationship between the major ore body
structures and mining stresses. Then use Laubschers Bartlett, P J, 1992. The design and operation of a
graph (See Figure 4) to adjust empirically predicted mechanized cave at Premier Diamond Mine, MASSMIN
caving dimensions. 92, SAIMM Publication symposium series S12, 223-233.
Conduct deterministic analyses to identify if structural Bartlett, P J, 1997. Planning a mechanized block cave
failure is possible in relation to large-scale geological with coarse fragmentation in Kimberlitic, PHD Thesis,
structures. University of Pretoria.
Compile statistically representative joint plots of the
undercut or pre-break back. Assess if the rock mass is Bartlett, P J, 1992. The design and operation of a
structurally capable of caving and determine critical mechanized cave at Premier Diamond Mine, MASSMIN
dimensions for caving from statistically representative 92, SAIMM Publication symposium series S12, 223-233.
joint plots. Brown, E T, 2003. Block Caving Geomechanics, JKMRC
monograph series in mining and mineral processing 3,
Step 5: Analytical / Numerical assessment University of Queensland.
Brown (2003) gives a full description of the most common Butcher, R J, 1999. Design rules for avoiding draw horizon
numerical modelling packages used for cavability damage in deep level block caves, S. Afr. Inst. Min Metal
assessment. The main aim of this step is to study the Vol 00, No 2, 151-155.
relationship of the cave pre-break or undercut geometry, Butcher,R,J 2000. Private notes on cavability, MSc (Eng)
and the mining stress regime. Numerical modelling project work.
packages such as MAP3D, Phase2, FLAC 2D and FLAC 3D Butcher, R J, 2002. A modeling method for determining
are commonly used. In such models, cavability is usually the viability of Block caving a hard rock deposit, CIM
assessed by examining the height of the yielding zone Bulletin 95, (1095): 70-75.
above the cave back where different cave back geometries, Butcher, R J, 2003. Assessing if an ore body will cave,
orientations, muck pile support pressures and parameters Australian Centre for Geomechanics Newsletter Vol. No.
are modelled. This type of analysis can be extended by 20, September 2003.
using such codes as 3DEC and PFC. Numerical modelling Diering, J A C and Laubscher, D H, 1987. Practical
is an important step in: Approach to the Numerical Stress Analysis of Mass
Confirming undercut or pre-break dimensions. Mining Operations, Trans Instn Min Metall, 96 (Oct): A
Determining the best orientation and retreat direction of 179-A188.
undercut/pre-breaks for caving. Guest, A R and Cundall, P A, 1994. A three dimensional
Determining the influence of differing stress regimes and particle flow code for block cave modeling, Proc. Symp.
material parameters. The Application of Numerical Modelling in Geotechnical
Confirming the best geometrical shape of undercuts/pre- Engineering, S.Afr. National Group of the IRSM,
breaks in terms of caving. Centurian, 15-19.
Heslop, T G, 1973. Internal Report, African Associated
As with all numerical methods, input parameters such as, Mines, Zimbabwe.
material parameters, model mesh sizes and input boundary ITASCA, 1998. PFC3D (Particle Flow code in 3
conditions, can have a major impact on the results dimensions), Version 2.0, Itasca Consulting Group Inc.,
(Trueman & Mawdesley, 2003). It is the Authors opinion that Minneapolis.
such disadvantages do not preclude the use of such codes Jofre, J, Yanez, P and Ferguson, G, 2000. Evolution in
as long as the engineer is aware of their limitations and that panel caving undercutting and initiation methods, El
the modelling results are compared to the preceding steps Teniente Mine. Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbance,
for reasonableness. (Ed: G Chitombo), 246-260, Australian Insitute of Mining
and Metallurgy: Melbourne.
4 CONCLUSIONS Laubscher, D H, 1975. Class Distinction in Rock Masses in
Coal, Gold and Base Metals of South Africa, August 38-50.
A common mistake is to assume that empirical methods Laubscher, D H, and Taylor, H W, 1976. The importance of
can only be used to obtain the final caving dimension. In Geomechanics classification of jointed rock masses in
many cases this approach may lead to predictions being mining operations in Exploration for Rock Engineering (Ed:
challenged. This is because empirical systems may not Z T Bieniawski) Vol 1, 119-28 (AA Balkema: Cape Town).

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 53

 Laubscher, D H, 1977. Geomechanics classification of Mahtab, M, A and Dixon, J D, 1976. Influence of Rock
jointed rock masses mining applications, Trans Instn Fractures and block weakenings on cavability, SME of
Min Metall, (86): A1-8. AIME, February 1975.
Laubscher, D H, 1990. Geomechanics classification Owen, K C, and Guest, A R, 1994. Underground mining of
system for the rating the rock masses in Mine Design, J Kimberlite pipes. XVth Congress. Johannesburg, SAIMM,
Sth Afr Inst Min Met, 94 (8): 270-293. 1994, Vol. 207-218.
Laubscher, D H, (1994). Cave Mining State of the Art, J Stacey, T R, 1999. Complex Structural Modelling
Sth Afr Inst Min Met, 94 (8): 270-293. Systems, SA Construction World, May 1999.
Laubscher, D H and Jakubec, J, 2002. The IRMR/MRMR Stacey, T R and Hanines A, 1984. Design of large
rock mass classification system in jointed rock masses. underground openings in jointed rock- An Integrated
International Case Studies in Underground Mining (Ed : W Approach. SANCOT Seminar.
A Hustrulid), 474-481. Society of Mining Engineers, AIME: Stewart, S B V and Forsyth, W W, 1995. The Mathews Method
New York. for Open Stope design, CIM Bulletin, 88 (992): 45-53.
Mathews, K E, Hoek, E Wyllie, D C and Stewart, S B V, Taylor, H W, 1980. A Geomechanical classification applied
1981. Prediction of Stable Excavations for Mining ar to mining problems in Shabani and King Crysolile
Depths below 1000 meters in hard Rock. CANMET Asbestos Mining Research, University of Rohdesia.
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initiation and propagation, CIM Bulletin, Vol 96, No 1071.

54 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Assessment of primary fragmentation
from drill core data
David E. Nicholas President, A. Srikant, Rock Mechanics Engineer, Call & Nicholas, Inc., Tucson, Arizona, USA

Abstract
Estimating the in-situ fragmentation is of critical importance for the design of a block cave operation. The fragment size
distributions at the drawpoints during the life of the block cave are evaluated based on the estimated in-situ fragmentation
and control the downstream design of the block cave mine. Various authors have developed methods for estimating the
fragment size distributions using structural mapping data, but this information is normally available only at a few levels
at the base of the block cave.
This paper provides an approach for using drill core data for estimating the fragment size distributions within the block
cave. The method is rendered more useful because variations in fragmentation characteristics within the deposit, which
show up in the change in core piece lengths, can also be accounted for at the design stage, and operations can be
planned and scheduled based on the life-of-mine fragmentation estimates.

1 INTRODUCTION allows for characterization of different parts of the block cave

based on primary and secondary fragmentation.
The assessment of primary and secondary fragmentation
is an important aspect of the design and planning of any 2 IMPORTANCE OF FRAGMENTATION
block cave operations. In caving terminology, primary ESTIMATION IN BLOCK CAVE MINES
fragmentation occurs at the cave front and is dependent on
the nature of the rock fabric and associated stress induced Fragmentation is a major factor in an assessment of the
fracturing. Secondary fragmentation refers to the size feasibility of cave mining in large, competent orebodies
distribution that reports to the draw-bells as a result of (Calder et al, 2000, Carter and Russell, 2000, Chen, 1996,
comminution, breakage and attrition during drawing of the Nickson et al, 2000). Since the large mines depend heavily
caved material. The characterization and evaluation of a on large mechanized drilling and loading equipment, the
rock mass for caving scenarios relates to the evaluation of assessment of the economic viability of caving in competent
primary and secondary fragmentation. orebodies is determined by LHD productivity and the cost of
Data collected from drill holes in all exploration programs is breaking large fragments to a size that can be efficiently
used for the development of geological databases and models. handled by the available equipment.
In recent times, data on the length of core pieces has been The distribution of fragment sizes helps assess the
collected from the drilling program through several projects requirement and design of material handling systems in the
around the world, primarily for the assessment of rock quality for mine. This information can also be used for evaluating the
the design of excavations. Recognizing that the measurement of production capability of a deposit designed for extraction
the RQD (rock quality designation) is often not adequate for using the block caving method. Fragmentation has a
assessing rock quality for design, field engineers have also bearing on drawpoint spacing, dilution entry into the draw
measured additional core piece length information, as shown in column, draw control, drawpoint productivity, secondary
Table 1. This has made it easier to estimate the length of core blasting/breaking costs and secondary blasting damage
pieces in different size categories. (Laubscher, 1994). In addition, the estimation of hang-ups
helps in production planning and scheduling as well as
Length Drilled equipment selection for the mitigation of hang-ups.
Recovered Length
3 METHODS FOR ESTIMATING FRAGMENTATION
Whole Core Length
Number of Whole Core Pieces Various techniques have been developed for estimating the
Longest Piece in-situ fragmentation and several methods for estimating the
Length of pieces > 0.2 m breakdown of the material within the column have been
proposed. However, field-testing and calibration of these
Length of pieces > 0.4 m
techniques is important before they can be integrated into the
Length of pieces < 0.01 m planning process. The development of tools for the estimation
Length of Broken Zone of expected fragmentation will significantly improve the process
of planning and scheduling of block cave operations.
Table 1: Drill-hole piece length data collected at several Several authors have tried to address the problem of
projects. estimating block sizes in different stages of a block cave
The authors have developed an approach for the operation, and there are several schools of thought on the
assessment of fragmentation using the data collected from nature of degradation of material as it travels down a block
exploration and geotechnical drilling programs. This approach cave column. McCormick (1968) has suggested that
utilizes the drill core piece length information along with fragments break down within 100 meters of draw. Hustrulid
available or estimated joint set characteristics. The procedure (2000) has proposed that the breakdown of material should

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 55

be linked to Bonds third theory of comminution, with gravity is that a certain range of core piece lengths from the drill hole
providing the energy to break the rock to smaller sizes within is representative of the true 3-D distribution of fragments. In
the draw column. The primary mechanism of breakdown of general, this range is from 20 to 80 centimeters. The
material is the repeated slitting of the blocks within the draw distribution of the core piece lengths is plotted on a log-log plot
column based on the concept that blocks with high aspect and the slope of the curve in the 20 to 80 centimeter range is
ratios will split to blocks of more stable aspect ratios. calculated to be the fractal dimension. The derivative of the
Methods of estimating fragment size distributions in block power function is multiplied by the volume of a sphere and
cave mines have been based on joint set parameters integrated between zero and various fragment lengths up to the
estimated from structural mapping in available excavations longest fragment length to develop a 3-D distribution of the
or outcrops. While this is acceptable in the absence of any fragment sizes. A typical fragmentation curve based on the
other means of assessing the fragmentation, the results can fractal analysis is shown in Figure 2.
often be misleading since the structural mapping is often
carried out in limited areas and the results are applied
uniformly to the entire deposit.
The Block Cave Fragmentation (BCF) program
(Esterhuizen, 1999) is probably the most widely used
method for estimating the fragment size distributions in
block cave operations. The program uses the statistical joint
set information to create primary fragments. The generation
of fractures due to stresses at the cave back is also included
in the primary fragmentation estimates. Secondary
breakage is achieved through aspect ratio reduction,
attrition and compressive strength failure of the primary
blocks in the draw column. Figure 1 shows typical
fragmentation curves estimated using the BCF program.

Figure 2: Typical results from single parameter fractal

fragmentation model.

The use of single parameter fractal models for estimating

fragmentation is extremely sensitive to the longest piece
chosen and does not result in the standard "S" shaped
fragment size distribution. The two-parameter Weibull
functions give the "S" shaped curve, but is difficult to use for
the fragmentation without a subjective percentile cut-off
since the function is an infinite distribution.

Figure 1: Typical Results from the BCF program

Programs such as BCF rely on joint set characteristics

observed at the base of the deposit. This information can
be misleading since the jointing characteristics may be
different as the cave progresses upwards. The prediction of
fragment size distributions at different times during the life of
the mine helps in taking decisions regarding the size and Figure 3: Typical results from two-parameter Weibull
type of mining equipment planned for use in the ore fragmentation model.
handling systems in the mine.
Fractal concepts have been used for the development of 4 THE CORE2FRAG PROGRAM
fragmentation estimates from drill core data. Poulton et al
(1990), Hardy et al, (1997), and Mojtabai et al, (1988), have The lengths of core pieces recovered from drilling in a
reported that the cumulative number of pieces in a fractured joint rock mass represent some measure of the in-situ
rock mass plotted against the equivalent spherical dimension of block sizes. Estimation of the block volumes from these
the fragments exhibits a fractal relationship in the power form: core piece lengths using a cubic or spherical block
shape assumption can underestimate the block sizes. In
y = x-b the case of a regularly jointed rock mass, the shape of
the rock blocks is related to the distribution of joint set
where spacings.
y = number of fragments with a spherical diameter The Core2Frag program was developed for converting the
less than x, drill hole core lengths to block volumes given the length of
x = spherical diameter of the fragment, and the drill hole core pieces, the orientation of the drill holes
b = fractal dimension. with respect to major joint sets (the orientation of the joints
is estimated from cell mapping information) and some
The main assumption in the use of the fractal technique for simplifying assumptions regarding the shape of the blocks
the estimation of fragment size distributions from drill hole data and the location of the core piece within the block.

56 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The primary assumption in the development of primary are calculated from the core lengths based on the side of
fragment size distributions from drill core data is that each the block intersected by the core piece as shown in Figure
drill-hole core piece represents one in-situ rock block. The 5. The block volumes are calculated for the each piece in a
relationships between the joint spacing and lengths of the drill interval and a volumetric block distribution is generated
different joint sets, evaluated from the joint set for all the drill intervals (Pratt et al, 2002).
characteristics gathered from available excavations,
outcrops or oriented core drilling programs, can be utilized
for estimating the shape of the rock blocks.

The other assumptions used in the development of the

Core2Frag program are:
a) All blocks have the same aspect ratio and the block
shape is defined by the joint sets
b) The drill hole passes through one apex of the primary
block

The Core2Frag program requires the following inputs:

a) Drill-hole piece length data, either in raw form or else
sorted into bins of fixed sizes.
b) Average dip and dip direction for up to six joint sets
c) Aspect ratios calculated from the spacing of the joint
sets.
d) A length correction factor for drill-hole not passing
through an apex of the block (Figure 4).

Figure 5: Drill hole intersecting orthogonal block

The formulation given above is for orthogonal blocks and

is shown for simplicity. The Core2Frag program uses vector
formulations for defining the blocks and calculating the block
volumes. Typical fragmentation estimates using the
Core2Frag program are shown in Figure 6 for drill-hole core
piece length data from different areas within the same rock
type.
The Core2Frag program also incorporates a secondary
fragmentation module in which the primary blocks are
broken mostly by reduction of the block sizes to a stable
aspect ratio. The draw height is used to control the number
of times the blocks are split within the draw column. Each
time a block is split, a certain amount of fines is also
created. The secondary fragmentation distribution is thus
generated and the program stores the secondary blocks for
use in the subsequent analyses related to hang-ups.

Figure 4: Effect of drill-hole intercept not passing through

corner of block

Three joint sets are randomly selected and used to

develop the shape of the rock block. The volume of the
block is then calculated using the drill core piece length, as
described below.
Assuming that a drill hole passes through a corner of the
block, the angles between the drill core piece and the axes
making up the block defined by the three selected joint sets
are calculated as:

= angle between core and set 1 = 1h/L

= angle between core and set 2 = 2h/L
= angle between core and set 3 = 3h/L

where 1 = unit normal vector to set 1

2 = unit normal vector to set 2 Figure 6: Primary fragmentation estimates using Core2Frag
3 = unit normal vector to set 3 in different areas in same rock type.
h = vector of core piece
L = length of core piece
A hang-up module, incorporating the logic developed by
These angles determine which side of the block is Robin Kear (as reported by Esterhuizen, 1999), is also
intersected by the core piece. The volumes of the blocks included in the program. Five blocks are randomly selected

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 57

from the blocks created by the secondary fragmentation developed for use on several projects in PT Freeport
module. The blocks are rotated and passed through a Indonesia. The guidance and constructive criticism from the
drawbell. If the blocks do not pass through the drawbell, a engineers at Call & Nicholas, Inc. is also gratefully
hang-up is recorded. The type of hang-up depends on acknowledged.
where in the drawbell the blocks get stuck. The blocks
stored from the secondary fragmentation module are 7 REFERENCES
passed through the hang-up module till the actual tonnage
passing through the drawpoint is reached. Calder, K., Townsend, P. and Russell, F., "The Palabora
Underground Mine Project", Proc. MassMin 2000,
5 CONCLUSIONS AusIMM, Brisbane, 2000.
Carter, C.J., and Russell, F.M., "Modeling and Design of
While an attempt has been made by the authors for the Block Caving at Bingham Canyon", Proc. MassMin 2000,
estimation of primary and secondary fragmentation based AusIMM, Brisbane, 2000.
on the drill core data, the work is in no way complete. The Chen, D., "Geotechnical assessment of block cave mining
program needs to be tested against a standard set of data in Northparkes Mines, NSW, Australia", Rock Mechanics
to ensure robustness and consistency of the results. Data Tools and Techniques (ed. Aubertin, Hassani, Mitri),
collection procedures from exploration drill holes need to be Balkema, Rotterdam, 1996.
developed to provide inputs for the Core2Frag program. Esterhuizen, G.S., BCF Version 3.0 A Program to
As with other methods of estimating fragmentation, the Predict Block Cave Fragmentation - Technical Reference
Core2Frag programs will need extensive field-testing and and Users Guide, Littleton, Colorado, 1999.
calibration before it can provide reasonably accurate Hardy, A.J., Ryan, T.M. and Kemeny, J.M., "Block size
quantitative results. The authors are proposing to use distribution of in situ rock masses using digital image
drawpoint fragmentation assessment as a means of direct processing of drill core", International Journal of Rock
calibration of the procedure and program. The authors are Mechanics and Mining Sciences, v 34, n 2, Feb, 1997.
currently working to develop a standardized procedure for Laubscher, D.H., "Cave mining the state of the art",
data collection from the drawpoints and some work in this Jour. South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
regard has been initiated at the DOZ Block Cave operated October 1994.
by PT Freeport Indonesia (Srikant et al, 2004). At present, McCormick, "How wide does a drawpoint draw?", EM/J v
however, the Core2Frag program can be used to 169 n 6., 1968.
qualitatively compare fragmentation in different areas within Mojtabai, N., Cetintas, A., Farmer, I.W., and Savely, J.P.,
block cave mines as well as open pit mines. "In-place and excavated block size distributions", Proc.
Though the process of calibration of fragmentation 30th US Rock Mech. Symp., West Virginia University,
estimates has a suitable feedback loop in the case of open- Morgantown, 1988.
pit design and, in many cases, stope design, this calibration Nickson, S., Coulson, A., and Hussey, J., "Norandas
process is more difficult to use in the development of design Approach to Evaluating a Competent Deposit for Caving",
parameters in block cave design because (1) the Proc. MassMin 2000, AusIMM, Brisbane, 2000.
development and equipment are put in place much in Poulton, M.M, Mojtabai, N., and Farmer, I.W., "Scale
advance of actual production and (2) there is limited scope invariant behavior of massive and fragmented rock",
for adjustment or modification of major design parameters, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
especially those aspects of block cave design that are Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, v 27 n 3, June
based on fragmentation. 1990.
Pratt, R.W., Srikant, A., Nicholas, D.E. and Flint, D.C.,
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Analysis of DOZ Fragmentation, CNI Report, May 2002.
Srikant, A., Nicholas, D.E., and Rachmad, L., "Visual
The authors thank David Flint and George McDonald of Estimation of Fragment Size Distributions in the DOZ
Freeport McMoRan Copper and Gold for supporting the Block Cave", Proc. MassMin 2004, Santiago, August
development of the Core2Frag program, which was 2004.

58 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 A review of empirical methods used
to estimate rock mass compressive
strength and deformability in the
mining industry
E. Villaescusa, J. Li, Western Australian School of Mines,
Curtin University of Technology, Australia

Abstract
The most widely used empirical relations, based on rock mass classifications, to estimate the rock mass compressive
strength and deformation modulus are reviewed. The estimates from the relationships are compared for a wide range of
general rock mass conditions and the most appropriate relationships are chosen. In addition, the selected relationships
are used to quantify the scale effect by comparing the intact rock properties determined in the laboratory with the rock
mass properties estimated using data from 15 mine sites. The results from the rock mass classifications are then
compared with the actual estimates used at those 15 underground mines, where the geotechnical engineers simply
downgrade the intact rock parameters (based on underground observations and experience) as inputs to numerical
modelling. Finally, the paper compares the rock mass strength estimates using a recently developed method based on
rock mass critical strain with corresponding estimates using the conventional Hoek-Brown method.

1. INTRODUCTION discontinuities, as well as the physical properties of the

intact rock bridges.
The deformation modulus and compressive strength of a The modulus of deformation (or deformation modulus) is
rock mass can be determined by in situ testing. Such tests the ratio of stress to corresponding strain during loading of
are used in civil engineering and involve among others, a rock mass including elastic and inelastic behaviour. This is
plate bearing, hydraulic pressure chamber, flat jack, radial different to the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus,
jack, and direct shear tests (Lama and Vutukuri, 1978 and which is the ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the
ISRM, 1981). These tests are extremely expensive and time proportionality limit of a material, i. e. intact rock (ISRM,
consuming, and consequently, rarely carried out within the 1975).
mining industry. On the other hand, over the last two
decades, a number of empirical relations to estimate the 3. EMPIRICAL RELATIONS BASED ON
deformability and compressive strength of a rock mass ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS
based on rock mass classifications have been developed
(Bieniawski, 1978; Serafim and Pereira, 1983; Kalamaras et Given that large scale testing of a rock mass is cost prohibitive
al, 1995; Hoek and Brown, 1997; Sheorey, 1997; and Hoek, in mining operations, a practical alternative is to estimate the
1998). Furthermore, at some mines the rock mass rock mass properties from rock mass classifications and intact
properties are estimated by simply downgrading some of rock core sampling testing. Consequently, a number of empirical
the intact rock properties, which are then used as inputs to relationships to determine the deformability and strength of rock
numerical modelling. The results from the numerical masses using the rock mass classification indices have been
modelling are calibrated with observations of the rock mass proposed since the late 1970s.
behaviour at the mine sites and the input of the rock mass
parameters are "fine tuned". 3.1 Estimation of rock mass compressive strength
A number of empirical relations for determining the
2. ROCK MASS COMPRESSIVE compressive strength of a rock mass are available in the
STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY literature. The most widely used relationships are given in
Table 1. In all but two cases, the empirical equations
The rock mass compressive strength is a measure of the incorporate the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact
peak load carrying capacity of a rock mass (i.e stress driven rock coupled with a rock mass classification system. Table 1
failure) and is likely to be a fraction of the intact rock also includes a procedure proposed by Hoek and Brown
strength due to the presence of geological discontinuities (1997) to calculate the rock mass compressive strength by
(Hoek and Brown, 1980). The actual value depends upon fitting the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion envelope to the
the geometrical nature and strength of the geological Hoek-Brown criterion as shown in Figure 1.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 59

 Table 2 shows uniaxial compressive strength values for
typical intact rocks, as well as GSI and rock mass strength
values from Hoek and Brown (1997) and the resulting
estimated rock mass compressive strengths calculated
using Eqs.1 to 6 from Table 1. Analysis of the data suggests
that Equation 2 (Trueman, 1988) may not work well for
cases in which a rock mass has a low uniaxial compressive
strength of intact rock and high GSI or RMR values. For a
quartz mica schist having a uniaxial compressive strength of
30MPa and a GSI (or RMR) of 65, the calculated rock mass
compressive strength using equation 2 is 24.7MPa, which is
much higher than the value (8.2MPa) calculated using the
Mohr-Coulomb to fit the Hoek-Brown criterion (Hoek-Brown
method).
Similarly, it can be seen that, in most cases, the values
of a rock mass compressive strength calculated using
equation 3 (Singh, 1993) are higher than the values
estimated using the Hoek-Brown procedure. Again, for
the quartz mica schist the estimated rock mass
compressive strength is 39.6MPa, which is higher than
the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
(30MPa).
Figure 1. Hoek-Brown and Mohr-Coulomb criteria and rock In addition, equations 2 and 3 do not explicitly consider
mass compressive strength (Hoek and Brown, 1997). both the uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock and a

Table 1. Empirical relations for determining compressive strength of rock masses.

Empirical Relations & Procedure Reference Equation Number

cm = ce(RMR 76 - 100)/18.75 Ramamurthy, 1986 (1)

cm = 0.5e0.06RMR 76 Trueman, 1988 (2)

cm = 0.7 Q 1/3 Singh, 1993 (3)

RMR89 15
cm = 0.5 c Kalamaras et al, 1995 (4)
85
cm = ce(RMR 76 - 100)/20 Sheorey, 1997 (5)

cm = 0.022ce0.038GSI Hoek, 1998 (6)

Mohr-Coulomb to fit Hoek-Brown criterion

(Hoek-Brown method) Hoek and Brown, 1997

Note: is the bulk unit weight of intact rock (kN/m3); c is uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock; Q is the
classification index of Barton et al (1974); GSI is Geological Strength Index (Hoek et al, 1995) and RMR76 and RMR89
are Rock Mass Rating of Bieniawski in 1976 and 1989.

Table 2. Rock mass compressive strength determined by empirical relations.

Rock mass description c GSI or cm (MPa)

(MPa) RMR Hoek & Brown (1997)# Eq.1 Eq.2 Eq.3* Eq.4 Eq.5 Eq.6

V/g quality hard rock mass 150 75 64.8 39.5 45.0 57.4 57.4 43.0 57.0
Average quality rock mass 80 50 13.0 5.6 10.0 22.7 18.8 6.6 11.8
V/p quality rock mass 20 30 1.7 0.5 3.0 10.8 2.4 0.6 1.4
Massive gneiss 110 75 43.0 29.0 45.0 57.4 42.1 31.5 41.8
Quartz mica schist 30 65 8.2 4.6 24.7 39.6 9.7 5.2 7.8
Graphitic phyllite 15 24 1.0 0.3 2.1 8.7 1.2 0.3 0.8

* The bulk density of all rock types is assumed as 26kN/m3, and Q-index in Eq.5.12 is calculated by using RMR = 9 in
Q + 44 (Bieniawski, 1984).
# Compressive strength of rock mass was calculated using the Hoek-Brown method (Mohr-Coulomb to fit Hoek-Brown
criterion).
/ In Eqs.1, 2 and 5; RMR76 = GSI and in Eq.4; RMR89 = GSI + 5.
V/g is very good and V/p stands for very poor.

60 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

rock mass classification system, and consequently are not Equation 10 appears to overestimate the rock mass
considered further in this study. Eqs.1 and 5 are also deformation modulus. This can be explained by the
excluded since these estimated rock mass compressive extensive literature review of Heuze (1980), which showed
strength are very low compared with the results obtained that the deformation modulus of a rock mass is about 20 to
using the Hoek-Brown method. This leaves Eqs. 4 and 6 60% of the intact rock Youngs modulus. When RMR 57,
coupled with the Hoek-Brown method as the recommended the ratio of deformation modulus of rock masses to Youngs
choices for estimation of a rock mass compressive strength modulus of intact rocks using Equation 10 is greater than
using intact rock strength and rock mass classification 0.6.
systems. Furthermore, Hoek and Brown (1997) recommended to
use Eq.9 to estimate the rock mass deformation modulus,
3.2 Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and modified it into Eq. 11 in order to consider the intact rock
The most widely used empirical relations for strength. Hoek and Brown (1997) indicated that the
determining the deformation modulus of rock masses are deformation of better quality rock masses is controlled by
given in Table 3. Eqs. 7 and 8 are only valid when the geological discontinuities; while for poorer quality rock
RMR>50 and Q>1, respectively. It is noted that in cases masses the deformation of the intact rock pieces contributes
when the ranges from 50 to 55 or Q is less than 2, the to the overall deformation process. Consequently, only
deformation modulus values estimated using these Eqs.9 and 11 are recommended to estimate the rock mass
equations appear to be too low, (see Figure 2). In deformation modulus.
addition, both equations may not provide a reasonable fit Li (2004) has estimated the rock mass compressive
for the field measured data, since they are not applicable strength using the Hoek-Brown method (Mohr-Coulomb to
for a wide range of values. fit Hoek-Brown criterion) and the rock mass deformation
modulus using Eqs. 9 and 11. The results for a number of
mine sites are listed in Table 4 indicate the rock mass
parameters to be a proportion of the intact rock parameters.
Figure 3 shows the calculated ranges for c /cm, which
appear to be log normally distributed. The results show that
on average cm is approximately 1/4 of c. Figure 4 shows
the calculated ranges for E/Em, which appear to be negative
exponentially distributed. The results show that on average
Em is approximately 1/3 of E.

Figure 2. Deformation modulus of rock mass versus rock Figure 3. Histogram of - Rock mass classifications.
mass rating (Hoek and Brown, 1988).

Table 3 Empirical relations for determining rock mass deformation modulus.

Empirical relationships Reference Equation Number

Em = 2RMR76 100 (RMR > 50) (GPa) Bieniawski, 1978 7

Em = 25 logQ (Q > 1) (GPa) Barton et al, 1980 8

Em = 10 (RMR76 10) /40 (GPa) Serafim and Pereira, 1983 9

Em Mitri et al, 1994 10

= 0.5 [1 cos ( * RMR89/100)]
E
c
Em = 10 (GSI10)/40 (c < 100 MPa) Hoek and Brown, 1997 11
100

Note: Em is the deformation modulus of rock mass and is Youngs modulus of intact rock.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 61

 Table 4. Intact rock and rock mass classification data with estimated rock mass parameters.

Mine Site Rock Type RMR76 mb S a c E cm Em c/ E/E

(MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa) cm

Ora Banda Host rock 70 5.82 0.0357 0.5 185 100 60.3 31.6 3.07 3.16
Ore body 55 3.41 0.0067 0.5 145 55 30.8 13.3 4.71 4.14

Harlequin Quartz 56 5.19 0.0075 0.5 116 83 29.6 14.1 3.92 5.89
Porphyry 57 3.66 0.0084 0.5 76 ----- 17.1 13.0 4.52 -----
Gabbro (dolerite) 66 8.02 0.0229 0.5 165 66 56.2 25.1 3.17 2.63
Basalt 62 4.37 0.0147 0.5 86 61 22.1 18.5 3.94 3.30
Granodiorite 59 6.94 0.0105 0.5 228 ----- 67.5 16.8 3.79 -----

Bullen Quartz 59 5.32 0.0105 0.5 106 ----- 28.2 16.8 3.80 -----
Porphyry 61 4.22 0.0131 0.5 221 ----- 55.2 18.8 4.28 -----
Gabbro 67 8.31 0.0256 0.5 281 ----- 98.4 26.6 3.01 -----
Basalt 70 5.42 0.0286 0.5 246 ----- 75.4 28.2 3.19 -----

Kambalda Basalt (Tramways Dome) 78 7.75 0.0868 0.5 180 78 76.9 50.1 2.34 1.56
Nickel Basalt (Kambalda Dome) 78 7.75 0.0868 0.5 228 80 97.4 50.1 2.35 1.60
Mines Basalt (Widgiemooltha Dome) 78 7.75 0.0868 0.5 130 79 55.5 50.1 2.32 1.58
Intermediate Porphyry 68 5.42 0.0286 0.5 110 87 33.7 28.2 3.24 3.09
Felsic Porphyry 79 8.03 0.0970 0.5 219 62 97.0 53.1 2.26 1.17
Ultramafic (Talc chlorite) 66 6.53 0.0229 0.5 59 80 27.0 23.2 2.19 3.45
Ultramafic (Talc magnesite) 66 6.53 0.0229 0.5 30 33 10.0 13.8 3.00 2.39
Ultramafic (Antigorite) 73 8.39 0.0498 0.5 226 70 88.0 37.6 2.57 1.86
Ultramafic (Lizardite) 62 5.66 0.0147 0.5 109 37 31.0 20.0 3.52 1.85

Mt Charlotte Dolerite (Unit 8) 75 7.78 0.0622 0.5 177 70 70.3 42.2 2.52 1.66

Mt Isa Pb Mine Shales 75 9.01 0.0622 0.5 185 80 76.8 42.2 2.41 1.90

New Ultramafic 51 3.95 0.0043 0.5 40 25 7.7 7.0 8.42 3.57

Celebration Gabbro 72 9.94 0.0399 0.5 208 81 82.6 33.5 2.47 2.28

Mt Marion Ultramafic 60 7.91 0.0117 0.5 103 67 32.5 17.8 3.17 3.76

Outkumpu Volcanite 76 5.7 0.0695 0.5 222 70 83 46.7 2.67 1.50

Pyrite 84 9.2 0.1690 0.5 105 122 55.7 70.8 1.89 1.72

Centenary Felsic 69 6.94 0.0319 0.5 220 75 75 29.9 2.93 2.51

Granitoid 64 8.29 0.0183 0.5 210 81 71 22.4 2.96 3.62
Magnetic Dolerite 69 6.28 0.0319 0.5 231 91 76 29.9 3.04 3.05
Magnetic Quartz Dolerite 69 6.28 0.0319 0.5 242 89 79 29.9 3.06 2.97
Lamprophyre 58 4.24 0.0094 0.5 123 70 30 15.8 4.08 4.40

Darlot Basalt 55 3.41 0.0067 0.5 153 91 33 13.3 4.63 6.80

Felsic 69 6.94 0.0319 0.5 167 ----- 57 29.9 2.93 -----
Granitoid 64 8.29 0.0183 0.5 130 ----- 44 22.4 2.96 -----
Magnetic Dolerite 69 6.28 0.0319 0.5 235 99 77 29.9 3.05 3.30
Magnetic Quartz Dolerite 69 6.28 0.0319 0.5 240 87 79 29.9 3.03 2.91
Tuff 64 4.15 0.0183 0.5 126 ----- 33 22.4 3.80 -----
Lamprophyre 58 4.24 0.0094 0.5 131 81 32 15.8 4.08 5.14

Kanowna Belle Grit 82 11.57 0.1353 0.5 140 70 73.8 63.1 1.90 1.11
Porphyry 68 7.97 0.0286 0.5 110 65 38.5 28.2 2.86 2.31
Conglomerate 82 11.57 0.1353 0.5 140 70 73.8 63.1 1.90 1.11

Yilgarn Star Ultramafic 63 5.60 0.0164 0.5 150 61 43 21.1 3.49 2.89
Ore 47 3.77 0.0028 0.5 40 27 8 5.3 5.00 5.09

Junction Dolerite 75 11.06 0.0622 0.5 335 92.6 148 42.2 2.26 2.19
All ore 68 4.78 0.0286 0.5 141 74.7 42 28.2 3.36 2.65

Telfer Gold Malu Quartzite 78 10.94 0.0868 0.5 250 80 117.5 50.1 2.18 1.60
Outer siltstone 47 1.36 0.0028 0.5 30 20 4.0 4.6 7.32 4.35
Footwall sandstone 58 4.23 0.0094 0.5 150 60 36.3 15.8 4.13 3.80

62 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Mine Site Rock Type RMR76 mb S a c E cm Em c/ E/E
(MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa) cm
Hoek and Massive strong rock mass 75 7.25 0.062 0.5 110 ----- 43 42 2.56 -----
Brown Average quality rock mass 65 4.5 0.02 0.5 30 ----- 8.2 13 3.66 -----
(1997), Poor quality rock mass 24 0.66 0 0.53 15 ----- 0.34 0.87 44.12 -----
Hoek Massive weak rock 80 16.3 0.1084 0.5 51 ----- 28.3 40.2 1.80 -----
(1998) Massive strong rock mass 80 7.25 0.1084 0.5 110 ----- 48.9 56.2 2.25 -----
Average quality rock mass 70 4.5 0.0357 0.5 30 ----- 9.05 17.3 3.31 -----
Poor quality at shallow depth 20 0.55 0 0.55 7.5 ----- 0.52 0.5 14.42 -----

Figure 4. Histogram of - Rock mass classifications. Figure 6. Histogram of E / Em - Numerical modelling

experience.
4. NUMERICAL MODELLING PRACTICE
IN UNDERGROUND MINING
Comparisons of the estimated parameters using rock
In underground mining practice, geotechnical engineers mass classification and those used in numerical modelling
estimate the rock mass compressive strength and are shown in Figures 7 and 8. The two methods appear to
deformation modulus by either using the Hoek-Brown estimate different rock mass compressive strengths for the
criterion (1988) or by simply downgrading some of the intact same rock mass environments. However, the deformation
rock strength parameters, which are then used as input to moduli estimated using both methods are similar.
numerical modelling. The input parameters are usually
adjusted and finetuned with information from underground
observations, and geotechnical instrumentation. Table 5
shows a number of input data that were used by mine site
based practitioners during their numerical modelling of
mining sequences. In most cases, they concluded that the
stress outputs and the related excavation stability
assessments from numerical modelling were acceptable
and used during actual orebody sequencing. Figure 5
shows the calculated ranges for , which also appear to be
log normally distributed. The results show that on average
is approximately 1/5 of . Figure 6 shows the calculated
ranges for , which also appear to be negative exponentially
distributed. The results show that on average is
approximately 1/2 of .
Figure 7. Histogram of Oc / Ocm .

Figure 5. Histogram of - Numerical modelling experience. Figure 8. Histogram of E / Em.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 63

 Table 5. Estimated rock mass parameters from numerical modelling experience.

Mine Site Rock Type c (MPa) E (GPa) cm (MPa) Em (GPa) c / cm E / Em

Ora Banda Host rock 185 100 95 40 1.95 2.50

Ore body 145 55 70 16 2.07 3.44

Harlequin Quartz 116 83 18 15 6.44 5.53

Porphyry 76 ----- 10 12 7.60 -----
Gabbro (dolerite) 165 66 38 32 4.34 2.06
Basalt 86 61 14 19 6.14 3.21
Granodiorite 228 ----- 31 9 7.35 -----

Bullen Quartz 106 ----- 16 15 6.63 -----

Porphyry 221 ----- 28 12 7.89 -----
Gabbro 281 ----- 73 38 3.85 -----
Basalt 246 ----- 56 32 4.39 -----

Mt Charlotte Dolerite (Unit 8) 177 70 100 65 1.77 1.08

Mt Isa Pb Mine Shales 185 80 94 60 1.96 1.33

New Ultramafic 40 25 ----- 11 ----- 2.27

Celebration Gabbro 208 81 ----- 32 ----- 2.53

Kambalda Basalt (Tramways Dome) 180 78 90 50 2.00 1.56

Nickel Basalt (Kambalda Dome) 228 80 114 50 2.00 1.60
Mines Basalt (Widgiemooltha Dome) 130 79 65 50 2.00 1.58
Intermediate Porphyry 110 87 55 30 2.00 2.90
Felsic Porphyry 219 62 109 50 2.01 1.24
Ultramafic (Talc chlorite) 59 80 30 20 1.97 4.00
Ultramafic (Talc magnesite) 30 33 15 10 2.00 3.30
Ultramafic (Antigorite) 226 70 113 55 2.00 1.27
Ultramafic (Lizardite) 109 37 55 30 1.98 1.23

Mt Marion Ultramafic 103 67 33 18 3.17 3.76

Outkumpu Volcanite 222 70 45 59 4.93 1.19

Pyrite 105 122 71 43 1.48 2.84

Kanowna Belle Grit 140 70 73.8 63 1.90 1.11

Porphyry 110 65 38.5 28 2.86 2.31
Conglomerate 140 70 73.8 63 1.90 1.11

Yilgarn Star Ultramafic 150 61 13.1 12 11.45 5.08

Ore 40 27 13.1 12 3.05 2.25

Junction Dolerite 335 93 200 90 1.68 1.03

All ore 141 75 108 78 1.31 1.00

Telfer Malu Quartzite 250 80 75 58 3.33 1.38

Outer siltstone 30 20 2 8 15.00 2.50
Footwall sandstone 150 60 15 17 10.00 3.53

Hoek Massive strong rock mass 110 ----- 43 42 2.56 -----

and Brown Average quality rock mass 30 ----- 8.2 13 3.66 -----
(1997), Poor quality rock mass 15 ----- 0.34 0.87 44.12 -----
Hoek Massive weak rock 51 ----- 28.3 40.2 1.80 -----
(1998) Massive strong rock mass 110 ----- 48.9 56.2 2.25 -----
Average quality rock mass 30 ----- 9.05 17.3 3.31 -----
Poor quality at shallow depth 7.5 ----- 0.52 0.5 14.42 -----

64 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

5. ROCK MASS STRENGTH FROM CRITICAL STRAIN cases, similar rock mass strength is estimated using both
methods.
Recent work at the Western Australian School of Mines The comparisons of the rock mass compressive strengths
(Li, 2004) established a correlation between critical strain for calculated using the Hoek-Brown method and Eq.15 are
intact rock and rock masses using 81 data points collected also shown in Figure 10.
from Western Australian underground mining operations.
From this study a linear relationship between the critical
strain for rock masses and intact rock can be approximately
expressed as follows

(12)

where and are the critical strain of intact rock and rock
masses expressed in % units respectively. The critical strain
for intact rock is defined as follows (Sakurai, 1982, Li, 2004),

(13)

The critical strain for rock masses is defined as follows (Li,

2004),

(14) Figure 10. Comparison of rock mass compressive strength

estimated using Hoek-Brown method and Eq.15.

The conceptual average axial stress versus axial strain

plot for the intact rock and rock mass are shown in Figure 9. 6. CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive review of rock mass classification

and numerical modelling input data was carried out for
a large number of Australian mining operations. The
data were reviewed with respect to rock mass
compressive strength and deformation modulus. The
methodologies proposed by Kalamaras and Hoek and
Brown are recommended for rock mass compressive
strength, while the methods of Serafim and Pereira, as
well as Hoek and Brown are recommended to estimate
the rock mass deformation modulus. A comparison of
data from the same mining sites showed that mine-
based geotechnical engineers actually use slightly
lower rock mass strength values than those estimated
using rock mass classifications. Finally, a recently
developed methodology based on rock mass critical
strain was compared to the Hoek and Brown method
and the results suggest that both methods predict
similar rock mass strength estimates.

7. REFERENCES

Barton N. R., Lien R. and Lunde J. 1974, Engineering

Figure 9. Comparison of intact rock and rock mass classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel
behaviour support, Rock Mechanics, vol.6, pp189 236.
Barton N. R., Lset F., Lien R. and Lunde J. 1980,
Application of the Q-system in design decision,
Eq.12 can be used to estimate the rock mass Subsurface Space, (ed. M. Bergman) 2, pp553 - 561.
compressive strength as follows (Li, 2004) New York: Pergamon.
Bieniawski Z. T. 1978, Determining rock mass
deformability Experience from case histories,
(15) International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, vol.15, no.5, pp.237
247.
Table 6 shows a comparison of rock mass compressive Bieniawski Z. T. 1984, Rock Mechanics Design in Mining
strength values using Eq.15 and those calculated using and Tunnelling, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
the Hoek-Brown method (Mohr-Coulomb to fit Hoek- Heuze F. E 1980, Scale effects in the determination of
Brown criterion) and the rock mass deformation modulus rock mass strength and deformability, Rock Mechanics,
using Eqs.9 and 11. The results suggest that, in most vol.12, pp167 192.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 65

 Table 6. Rock mass compressive strength calculated using Hoek-Brown method and Eq.15.

Mine Site Rock Type RMR76 c E cm Em cm (MPa)

(MPa) (GPa) (%) (GPa) H-B method Eq. 15

Ora Banda Host rock 70 185 100 0.185 31.6 60.3 46.2
Ore body 55 145 55 0.264 13.3 30.8 27.7

Harlequin Quartz 56 116 83 0.140 14.1 29.6 15.6

Porphyry 57 76 ----- ----- 13 17.1 -----
Gabbro (dolerite) 66 165 66 0.250 25.1 56.2 49.9
Basalt 62 86 61 0.141 18.5 22.1 20.6
Granodiorite 59 228 ----- ----- 16.8 67.5 -----

Kambalda Basalt (Tramways Dome) 78 180 78 0.231 50.1 76.9 91.3

Nickel Basalt (Kambalda Dome) 78 228 80 0.285 50.1 97.4 112.8
Mines Basalt (Widgiemooltha Dome) 78 130 79 0.165 50.1 55.5 65.1
Intermed. Porphyry 68 110 87 0.126 28.2 33.7 28.2
Felsic Porphyry 79 219 62 0.353 53.1 97 148.2
Ultramafic (Talc chlorite) 66 59 80 0.074 23.2 27 13.5
Ultramafic (Talc magnesite) 66 30 33 0.091 13.8 10 9.9
Ultramafic (Antigorite) 73 226 70 0.323 37.6 88 95.9
Ultramafic (Lizardite) 62 109 37 0.295 20 31 46.5

Mt Charlotte Dolerite (Unit 8) 75 177 70 0.253 42.2 70.3 84.3

Mt Isa Pb Mine Shales 75 185 80 0.231 42.2 76.8 77.1

New Celebration Ultramafic 51 40 25 0.160 7 7.7 8.8

Gabbro 72 208 81 0.257 33.5 82.6 68.0

Mt Marion Ultramafic 65 114 78 0.146 17.8 46.0 36.3

Outkumpu Volcanite 76 222 70 0.317 46.7 83.0 117.0

Pyrite 84 105 122 0.086 70.8 55.7 48.1

Centenary FELSIC 69 220 75 0.293 29.9 75 69.3

Granitoid 64 210 81 0.259 22.4 71 45.9
Magnetic Dolerite 69 231 91 0.254 29.9 76 60.0
Magnetic Quartz Dolerite 69 242 89 0.272 29.9 79 64.2
Lamprophyre 58 123 70 0.176 15.8 30 21.9

Darlot Basalt 55 153 91 0.168 13.3 33 17.7

FELSIC 69 167 ----- ----- 29.9 57 -----
Granitoid 64 130 ----- ----- 22.4 44 -----
Magnetic Dolerite 69 235 99 0.237 29.9 77 56.1
Magnetic Quartz Dolerite 69 240 87 0.276 29.9 79 65.2
Tuff 64 126 ----- ----- 22.4 33 -----
Lamprophyre 58 131 81 0.162 15.8 32 20.2

Kanowna Grit 82 140 70 0.200 63.1 73.8 99.7

Belle Porphyry 68 110 65 0.169 28.2 38.5 37.7
Conglomerate 82 140 70 0.200 63.1 73.8 99.7

Yilgarn
Star Ultramafic 63 150 61 0.246 21.1 43 41.0
Ore 47 40 27 0.148 5.3 8 6.2

Junction Dolerite 75 335 92.6 0.362 42.2 148 120.6

All ore 68 141 74.7 0.189 28.2 42 42.1

Telfer Malu Quartzite 78 250 80 0.313 50.1 117.5 123.7

Outer siltstone 47 30 20 0.150 4.6 4 5.5
Footwall sandstone 58 150 60 0.250 15.8 36.3 31.2

66 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Hoek E. 1998, Practical Rock Engineering, [Online], Li, J. 2004, Critical Strain of Intact Rock and Rock
Available: http://www.rocscience.com/roc/Hoek/Hoek.htm Masses. PhD Thesis, Western Australian School of
[2000, October 2]. Mines, Curtin University of Technology, 186p.
Hoek E. and Brown E. T. 1980, Underground Excavations Ramamurthy T. 1986, Stability of rock mass, Indian
in Rock, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, London. Geomechanics Journal, vol.16, no.1, pp1 74.
Hoek E. and Brown E. T. 1997, Practical estimates of rock Sakurai S. 1982, An evaluation technique of displacements
mass strength, International Journal of Rock Mechanics in tunnels, Proceedings of Japanese Society of Civil
& Mining Sciences, vol.34, no.8, pp.1165 1186. Engineering, No. 317, pp.93 100 (in Japanese).
Hoek E., Kaiser P. K and Bawden W. F. 1995, Support of Serafim L. J. and Pereira P. J. 1983, Consideration on the
Underground Excavations in Hard Rock, Balkema, geomechanical classification of Bieniawski, in
Rotterdam. Proceedings of International Symposium On Engineering
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) 1975, Geology and Underground Construction, vol.1, pp.II.33
Report of the commission on Terminology, International II.42, LNEC, Lisbon.
Society for Rock Mechanics, Lisbon. Sheorey P. R. 1997, Empirical Rock Failure Criteria, A A
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) 1981, Balkema, Rotterdam.
Rock characterization, Testing and Monitoring: ISRM Singh B. 1993, Indian case studies of squeezing grounds
Suggested Methods, ed. Brown, E. T., Pergoman Press, and experiences of application of Bartons Q-system, in
Oxford. Workshop on Norwegian Method of Tunnelling, CSMRS,
Kalamaras G. S. and Bieniawski Z. T. 1995, A rock mass New Delhi.
strength concept for coal seams incorporating the effect of Trueman R. 1988, An evaluation of strata support
time, in Proceedings 8th International Congress on Rock technique in dual life gateroads. Ph.D. Thesis, University
Mechanics, ISRM, ed. Fujii T., A A Balkema, Rotterdam, of Wales, Cardiff.
vol.1, pp.295 302.
Lama R. D. and Vutukuri V. S. 1978b, Handbook on
Mechanical Properties of Rocks, vol. III, Trans Tech
Publications, Clausthal.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 67

68 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 3
Mass Mining
Methods I: Fundamentals
70 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Feasibility studies for caving
operations The "State of the Art"
Mike A. Struthers, Principal, AMC Consultants (UK)

Abstract
Technical reviews of a number of feasibility studies for potential caving operations, and involvement in operating mines,
have illustrated a number of opportunities for improvement in these investigations. This paper presents a view on the
"State of the Art" of feasibility studies as applied to caving projects, and highlights some of the remaining challenges. In
particular, the need for in-situ stress determinations as input to such studies is discussed, and research into a number
of alternative methods should continue to be trialed in the hard rock mining industry.
The value of effective risk assessment is emphasised, the process beginning during the pre-feasibility, and carried
through into the feasibility study and on to operations, undergoing numerous updates and revisions. Independent review
during the Study process is also invaluable.

1 INTRODUCTION Rockmass characterisation, and presentation of the

results (though there remains much scope for improving
Design for caving methods of mining remains one of the modelling of geotechnical data).
most significant challenges in mining geomechanics and Fragmentation analysis (though estimation of secondary
engineering, particularly in green-field sites. During the past fragmentation and size and frequency of hang-ups
2-3 decades design has been based predominantly on requires improvement).
methods developed by Laubscher (eg. 2001), but in recent Options analysis for materials handling systems, and
years alternative empirical schemes and numerical methods simulation studies.
have been applied in parallel with the conventional MRMR Ventilation modelling and design.
assessments. Cost modelling and economic analysis.
This has occurred in parallel with a desire by industry to
exploit much more competent orebodies than were Specific design tasks which remain challenging, and on
historically considered suited to caving, a trend which itself which further research is required, include:
has challenged the applicability of the established design Cavability predictions in strong rockmasses, particularly
methods. This has been complemented by, and to some where stress-induced caving is expected to play a major role.
degree driven by, the International Caving Study (ICS). Specifically, the state of pre-mining stress.
This trend has applied to both sub-level, block, and panel Assessing the likely role or impact of major structures on
cave projects. At a more detailed level, knowledge of a number cavability, and excavation stability close to the cave zone.
of specific aspects (eg. cave draw) has advanced considerably. Estimation of the rate of cave initiation and propagation.
Involvement in, and review of, a number of Feasibility As a consequence, estimation of surface subsidence
Studies for caving projects has highlighted some common (timing, extent, magnitude).
observations regarding the "state of the art" as it is applied Estimation of draw and recovery characteristics, and
to such studies. factors such as dilution entry. Specifically, monitoring of
draw behaviour, and draw modelling.
2 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES Assessing the degree of seismic risk
Under some circumstances, assessment of the likely
Although the degree of sophistication used to address water inflows into the cave, and hence assessment of
particular geotechnical issues in feasibility studies into inrush risks.
caving projects does vary, in most cases the level of
confidence one can have in the range of fundamental input All these aspects are of course more challenging in
parameters is summarised below: greenfield sites, with no prior mining experience, and little in
Rockmass characterisation usually good. the surrounding region.
Major structures moderately well-defined spatially, and In-situ stress determination is one the most challenging
associated ground conditions similarly defined, but their problems facing studies into deep caving operations. It is
influence on (and reaction to) the caving process is poorly beyond the scope of this paper to discuss in detail the
understood. various methods of stress measurement in use today.
Stress regime poorly understood. Overcoring techniques remain the preferred methods where
Deposit hydrogeology poor to fair. access is available, but often for feasibility studies it is not.
Hydraulic fracturing can obtain stress determinations from
We are as an industry generally competent at the deep boreholes, but the method has its limitations.
following tasks during the Study process (though there of A range of core-based measurement methods are under
course is always room for improvement): development, such as DSCA (Differential Strain Curve
Ore resource modelling and estimation. Analysis), the ASR (Anelastic Strain Recovery) method, the
Mining method selection. AE (Acoustic Emission) method, DRA (Deformation Rate

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 71

Analysis), and PSHA (Principal Strain Hysteresis Analysis) performed better than expectations, some not. Examples of
(Oikawa and Yamaguchi, 2000). Oikawa and Yamaguchi unexpected performances include:
tested rock cores from 2200m below surface, with some Unexpected seismicity in capital access development at
success when compared to a range of other assessments. depth, when earlier mining on higher levels gave no
However, these are not in-situ tests, and the methods are indication such problems may exist. The impacts were on
not without their detractors. Sjberg and Klasson (2003) cost and development rates.
presented encouraging stress results from use of a SSPB Significantly delayed cave initiation, compared to
Borre probe in deep boreholes in Sweden, and significant Feasibility predictions. The impacts were on costs, and
research into a variety of methods has been undertaken in production rate (ramp up).
Korea, supporting a number of large civil construction In another case, significantly faster cave propagation than
projects. This has included the Compact Conical-ended expected, and rapid cave breakthrough. Though good for
Borehole Overcoring (CCBO) method (Seong-Seung Kang the cave and production rates, there were impacts on
et al, 2003). plans for surface preparation and security in advance of
Further research is required (and warranted) into a the breakthrough.
number of these methods. Of the above alternative The tragedy at Northparkes, investigations of which have
methods, only the AE technique is generally applied and been well published (eg. Hebblewhite, 2003).
supported by research in hard rock mining circles. The Marker trials and modelling of draw at a sub-level caving
mining industry should support development trials of some mine which have clearly demonstrated different widths of
of these other methods in hard rock mines. isolated draw compared to modern conventional
The need for reliable assessments of in-situ stress is estimations.
widely recognised, and in some cases (eg Argyle Diamonds,
WA) has been a factor in decisions to establish earlier mine Increasingly, areas of uncertainty or risk are being
access than would otherwise have been available, to recognised at feasibility, and where they cannot be
provide valuable confirmatory data during the feasibility designed out of the project, contingency plans are
process. established. These rely on recognising the on-set of a
unfavourable condition, and it is here that modern
3 RISK AREAS monitoring methods are proving very successful.
One example is the Ridgeway Gold Mine in Australia. A
In addition to the technical risk areas listed above, there major component of the feasibility study was identification of
are also a number of other risks which can impact the major mining risks associated with using the SLC
dramatically on the success of a project: method. This process resulted in a series of Major Hazard
Unintentional bias in studies conducted in-house. This is Management Plans (MHMP), each related to a specific
a substantial risk, despite the best efforts of those group of hazards (Dunstan and Power, 2003). A range of
involved (Bass, 1987). Rigorous independent audit and monitoring strategies and so-called triggers were
review of the Study at various stages is considered implemented, including deep open holes, and seismic
essential (McCarthy, 2002). monitoring (Pfitzner, 2003).
The pressures of time and money, which are substantial
factors in large studies, and which can lead to rushed 5 ARE SLC MINES OPTIMISED?
investigations of certain issues, and a reluctance to re-
visit early assumptions later in the Study process. The author contends that many sub-level caving (SLC)
The move from Pre-Feasibility to Feasibility Study is operations may not be as profitable as they could be or, at
recognised as a risk if, as noted by McCarthy (2002), the least, the industry lacks the analytical tools to make such an
Pre-Feasibility Study has not been sufficiently assessment.
comprehensive. McCarthy argues it is the Pre-Feasibility Some SLC mines perform better than expectations, but
Study which is the most important stage of investigation. this can be due to a number of factors, including (i)
Insufficient challenging of sophisticated analyses done by excessively conservative or optimistic expectations during
consultants, such as stress modelling, or modelling of feasibility, (ii) errors in assumptions on recovery and
draw behaviour. This can be due in part to lack of dilution, or (iii) inaccuracies in drawpoint reconciliations,
knowledge on the part of those reviewing the results. allowing the mine to draw beyond plan on the levels below,
Both these examples of complex modelling can be prone recovering material left behind.
to significant errors, or at least generate Some SLC mines do not perform as well as expected.
misunderstandings, where not calibrated against local Often SLC designs are functional, but in many cases are
conditions. The latter is of course not always possible, but probably sub-optimal, largely as a function of the complexity
the results should be assessed with this clearly in mind. of the problem. But optimisation requires a committed mine
We suffer from two syndromes; the "Black Box", and "If its staff who recognise the value of controlled experimentation;
in colour, its true!". robust marker field trials; and a large orebody which
The track record of feasibility studies has generally been provides the time for incorporating the results of trials into
poor, and a number of investigations from the 1970s subsequent level designs. The expanding range and
onwards have analysed performances and sought application of numerical models (eg. the new draw model
explanations. In a study of production rates in US projects, CaveSim (Sharrock, 2004)) has considerable potential in
Tatman (2001) found that 35% of mines did not achieve their this regard, with proper calibration.
planned rate. In a study of 105 cases, McCarthy (2003) SLC layout design is a compromise between drift and
found that three factors commonly led to under- brow stability, and primary recovery (draw). Figure 1
performance; lack of impartiality of the study team, criticism shows a preliminary design chart for use during the early
of the way the study was organised or funded, and stages of design, prior to undertaking any stress analyses
unrealistic study deadlines. of proposed layouts. The proposed development
extraction ratio (ER%, defined as the ratio of widths of the
4 UNEXPECTED OUTCOMES SLC drifts and intervening pillars) is plotted against the
stress/strength ratio on the sublevel. Under difficult mining
A number of major caving projects have not performed to conditions, designing for an ER in excess of 40% is
the expectations which existed at Feasibility. Some have probably optimistic.

72 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Once refined, guidelines such as this can reduce the need process, and includes features such as risk calculators, and
to significantly re-design a mine layout, when stress automated reporting.
analyses undertaken later in the design process highlight
some fundamental geotechnical problems. With an 7 THE WAY FORWARD
estimate of the isolated draw zone width, preferably from
both empirical and numerical methods, an improved In the authors experience, feasibility studies for caving
preliminary SLC layout may be defined. mines should always incorporate two components:
Emphasis on independent reviews at various stages in
the Study, for both Pre- and full Feasibility Studies, and
Rigorous risk assessment at all stages of investigation,
and continuing into operations as a crucial management
tool, with well defined triggers, responses, and
accountabilities. The process must be objective, with
independent input to overcome unintentional bias. The
risk team must be carefully selected, comprising a mixture
of Study team members and some who are independent
from the Study (either within or from outside the owner
organisation).

Continued research is also required into certain

fundamentals:
More sophisticated investigation of the impacts of major
structures on cave initiation and propagation, through
historical review, modelling, and sensitivity studies.
Further research into alternative methods of stress
estimation or measurement from deep boreholes.
Continued increase in the use of numerical stress
analysis and material flow models, but accompanied by
rigorous interrogation and questioning of results, by
independent specialists.
Figura 1: SLC development design chart Improved design methodologies for optimising SLC
layouts, balancing the opposing requirements of
development stability and draw recovery / performance.
6 RISK ASSESSMENT
The International Caving Study (ICS) continues to
Risk assessment is increasingly a feature of Health and contribute to understanding of caving operations, and the
Safety legislation around the world, and is an invaluable development of new design methodologies and tools. The
tool in mining feasibility studies. A major outcome of a findings from these studies are only slowly disseminated to
risk assessment, beyond an understanding of the degree the industry at large, given the financial support provided to
of risk to the operation, is a clear set of contingency plans the project by its sponsors. Some of the items listed here
and monitoring triggers which, with regular updating, are being addressed by the ICS, some not.
remain important management tools throughout the life of
the project. A typical example is the risk of inrush or 8 CONCLUSIONS
mudrush into the cave, in which meteoric or sub-surface
waters mix with fines, from either the surface weathered Caving methods of mining have experienced a
zone or within the cave, to create a potential risk of rejuvenation in the last 5-10 years, and substantial
inrush at the drawpoints. Various strategies have been advances have been made in the range and sophistication
adopted by mines at which this risk is considered of techniques used in feasibility studies into caving
sufficient to warrant specific mitigation or contingency operations. Some significant challenges however remain.
planning. The trend towards caving of increasingly competent
Mining consultants and project owners alike have a rockmasses (which were historically not considered suitable
tendency to unwittingly mask areas of uncertainty by for these methods) has presented some unique challenges,
averaging important design inputs, to simplify design and required modifications to classical design tools, and
tasks (and reporting). A statement such as ".the development of new alternatives.
average MRMR of the orebody is 55, and the HR
required for caving is 25m" may be an elegant summary ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of a complex problem, or a misleading over-
simplification. If the latter, through the Study process this The author is grateful to his colleagues in AMC
simplification filters out inherent variability, as the design Consultants for their comments and input to this article.
team concentrate on other necessary downstream
tasks. Risk assessment assists in maintaining the profile REFERENCES
of known uncertainties, and ensures those risks are
incorporated into all future planning. Bass, C. B, 1987. Reserve Data for Project Planning.
Some mining organisations (eg. Rio Tinto plc, Newcrest AusIMM Reserves and Resources Symposium, Nov.
Mining Ltd) have fully embraced risk assessment as a core 1987.
to any feasibility investigations, and roll the results through Dunstan GE and Power G, 2003. Managing technical risk
into the operating phase, continually updating the risk at Ridgeway sublevel caving mine. Proceedings of the
assessment as conditions change. Mining Risk Management conference, AusIMM,
Risk assessment software such as the NSCA Electronic Melbourne, Australia.
Risk Database (ODonoghue and Quelch, 2001) can Hebblewhite, B K, 2003. Northparkes Findings The
significantly ease and streamline the risk assessment implications for geotechnical professionals in the mining

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 73

 industry. Ground Control in Mining Technology & Pfitzner, M, 2003. Monitoring a blind sub-level cave - A
Practice. AGCM Conference. case study of an integrated approach at Newcrest
Laubscher, D H, and Jakubek, J, 2001. MRMR Minings Ridgeway Gold Mine. Ground Control in Mining
Classification for Jointed Rockmasses. In: Underground Technology & Practice. AGCM Conference.
Mining Methods Handbook: Engineering Fundamentals Seong-Seung Kang, Katsuhiko Kaneko, Jun-Mo Kim,
and International Case Studies. SME, 2001. Yuzu Obara. Clarification of the regional and local in situ
McCarthy, P L, 2002. Feasibility Studies and Economic stresses using the CCBO technique and numerical
Models for Deep Mines. First International Seminar on analysis. Island Arc, vol.12, p.p.247-255, Blackwell
Deep and High Stress Mining. Australian Centre for Science (2003).
Geomechanics, Perth. Sharrock, G, 2004.
McCarthy P L 2003. Managing Technical Risk for Mine Sjberg, J and Klasson, H. Stress measurements in
Feasibility Studies. Mining Risk Management Conference, deep boreholes using the Borre (SSPB) probe. Special
Sydney NSW 9-12, September 2003. Issue of the IJRMMS: Rock Stress Estimation ISRM
ODonoghue, L and Quelch, J. Managing Health and Suggested Methods and Associated Supporting
Safety Risks - NSCA Risk Management Tools. National Papers, Volume 40, Issues 7-8, Pages 955-1276
Safety Council of Australia Limited, Brisbane, (October - December 2003).
Queensland, 2001. Tatman C R, 2001. Production Rate Selection for Steeply
Oikawa, Y and Yamaguchi, T. Stress measurement using Dipping Tabular Deposits, Mining Engineering October
rock core in an HDR field. Proceedings World 2001, pp. 62-64
Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu - Tohoku, Japan,
May 28 - June 10, 2000.

74 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Production capacity
of a mass caving
Jos Pesce, Gerente General, Alfonso Ovalle, Consultor Asociado, Metlica Consultores S.A.

Abstract
This paper reviews the factors that affect the maximum production capacity of a mass caving operation (block caving,
panel caving). After analysing the multiple planning, design and operating factors that traditionally are considered to
affect the determination of the maximum possible production capacity, it is concluded that there are only two factors that
have an influence: column height and caving rate. Surprisingly the extraction rate has no influence in determining the
maximum production capacity of a mass caving. The definition of the column height and its feasible range are analysed,
describing how to determine the minimum, maximum and optimal column heights. Regarding the undercutting rate, a
discussion about the theoretical and practical aspects is presented. There is reference in the paper to practical examples.

1 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE start up capital cost); restrict the exploitation to a high
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION CAPACITY OF grade sector (improve the cash flow); adaptation to
A MASS CAVING OPERATION. existing infrastructure (less capital expenditure), as for
example the existence of a main transport level.
The relevant factors normally considered in the planning, The selected column height must be the maximum which
design and operation of a mass caving operation are is compatible with technical criteria. The incentives to
presented in Table 1. choose big heights are to minimize development costs
Some of these factors are basically to define the and to maximize the production capacity.
applicability of the mass caving mining method, such as The optimum column height is determined by strategic an
cavability, primary fragmentation, stability of mine openings, economic criteria. Shown in figure 1 are the form of the
dilution, repairing of openings, water and mud inflow and the cost curves depending on column heights, some of which
undercutting sequence. If any of these factors is increase with column heights and some of which
unmanageable, the applicability of the method will be at decrease with column heights. There exists therefore, a
stake. It can be argued that the primary fragmentation can column height or a range of column heights, with a
be solved inducing the caving, which could be done if the minimum net present value of the cost.
evaluation parameters of the project justify it. There are four technical factors whose relationship with
This analysis supposes that the mentioned factors fall in column height needs to be underlined: stability of
the range that allow that applicability of the mass caving openings, useful life of drawpoints, dilution, and the risk of
method to the ore body. The interest is to focus on those loss of ore.
factors that affect the determination of the maximum
capacity of the ore body under study. o The stability of openings, especially those of the
The authors, through their experience, have reduced the production level (which are the greater part of the
factors of Table 1, to only three basic independent factors permanent openings of the exploitation method) depend
affecting the maximum capacity of a mass caving: mostly on the type of rock on which they are on, of the
undercutting rate or development velocity (measured in stress environment and on the design of the fortification.
square meters to undercut per year), extraction rate or draw This is one aspect that must be taken into account when
down rate (measured as mm/day), and the panel or column considering column height. The instability of a sector can
height (measured in m). cause the loss of productive areas that can seriously
Therefore, the interrelation between these three factors affect the fulfilment of the production program.
affecting the maximum capacity of a mass caving will be o The useful life of drawpoints is a function of the design and
analysed. the construction quality of them, of the secondary blasting
and of the abrasion caused by ore flow. In general, the
2 DISCUSSION OF COLUMN HEIGHT. draw point repair cost is increasing with column height.
o The dilution has a behaviour related to column height, to
The column height of a massive caving operation is firstly extraction management and to the number of faces
limited by the geometry of the ore body to exploit. There are exposed to diluents. It is possible that with proper
caving operations with column heights ranging from 50 to extraction management, dilution will be decreasing with
600 m. For very high ore bodies the definition of the column increasing column height.
heights to select should follow the following criteria, of o The risk of loosing ore because of broken and lost ground
course with due consideration to the business aspects of the is an increasing function of column height. This depends
exploitation searching to maximize profits or returns: on the extraction grid selected, on the particular geology,
The column height must be able provide a minimum profit. on the correct undercutting sequence and on the
The most frequent incentives to choose a low column are: regularity of draw.
accelerate the start up time of the project (minimize the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 75

 Table 1 RELEVANT FACTORS AFFECTING A MASSIVE UNDERCUTTING: DEPENDENCY ON BASIC FACTORS

Overall Factors Specific Factors Basic Factors

Undercutting Extraction Column
rate rate height

Design and Global geometry Interference with other productive

construction sectors _ _
Base area geometry _
Column height _
Overall extraction sequence _
Quantity of independent fronts _
Design Extraction grid _
Desing of operating modulus _
Materials handling system _
Modality of undercut _
Undercutting sequence _
Nature Geotechnics Primary /seconday fragmentacin _
Stability of openings and constructions _
In-situ and induced stresses _
Geology Water and mud _
Characteristics of dilutant material _
Operations Modality of operation Unit processes _ _
Secondary fragmentation _
Availability of resources _ _
Utilization of resources _ _

3 DISCUSSION OF THE UNDERCUT RATE For both bodies, two undercutting rates are considered:
20.000 m2/yr and 36.000 m2/yr.
The undercut rate or the velocity to incorporate new Also, two extraction rates are considered: 150 mm/day
production area depends on various factors. and 300 mm/day.
For example, there is a great difference in the These examples have a referential specific gravity of 2,6
undercutting rate between the systems called "previous t/m3.
undercut", "post undercut" or the intermediate situation
named "advanced undercut". This is due to the space and
access restrictions of the previous undercut system, which
limits the rate of development and constructions, basically
due to the coordination difficulties of the different unit
operations that compose the undercutting. In a normal or
"post undercut system" it is possible to achieve an
undercutting rate of around 36.000 m2/yr in one face, while
in a system of "previous undercut", for the same situation, it
is difficult to surpass 24.000 m2/yr.

The undercut rate depends ultimately on the following

factors:
Design of the undercut system
Equipment availability to build that design
Work organization
Operations and sequence restrictions

4 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY

A simulation of the production capacity of a mass caving

operation is presented in figure 2, based in a mass balance
between the amount of material incorporated by
undercutting and the amount of material consumed by
production.
Two ore bodies are considered, each with the same base
area of 300.000 m2, one with a 150 m high column and the
other with a 300 m high column.

76 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 2 presents the production capacity for the 150 m 5 EXTRACTION RATE, RAMP UP TIME
high column ore body, with an undercutting rate of 20.000 TO STADY STATE AND ACTIVE AREA
m2/yr and with an extraction rate of 150 mm/day (120
mm/day with 80% area utilization). It can be seen in table 2 as pointed by the arrows that the
The maximum capacity is slightly more than 21.000 tpd, extraction rate, which is intuitively thought of as defining the
which is attained at the 4th year of production, with a life of maximum capacity, plays no role in this definition. It only
12 years. The steady state total active area is 62.000 m2. matters in how fast the steady state is reached, but once it
Table 2 summarizes the results for the 150 m and 300 m is reached, a fast extraction rate only means a fast depletion
high column bodies, for all possible situations. rate of the columns. If the column depletion rate is faster

Table 2: Production capacities of examples

Area to Column Extraction Undercut Active Production Ramp

undercut height rate rate area capacity up

m2 m mm/day m2/yr m2 tpd yrs

150 150 20.000 61.000 21.000 4

300 20.000 31.000 21.000 3
150 36.000 120.000 38.000 4
300.000 300 36.000 56.000 38.000 3

300 150 20.000 120.000 42.000 7

300 20.000 60.000 42.000 4
150 36.000 220.000 76.000 7
300 36.000 110.000 76.000 4

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 77

that the undercutting rate, the production capacity will The extraction rate has no influence in the determination
decrease. If the undercutting rate is faster than the depletion of the of the maximum capacity of a mass caving, only
rate, the production capacity can then grow. But the affecting the ramp up period to achieve steady state, and
determinant factor is the undercutting rate and not the once this is attained, it only determines the amount of active
extraction rate. As seen in the summarize of table 2, for a area available for production.
given column height and a given extraction rate, a higher An effort to increase the extraction rate past certain limits,
extraction rate means less active area and a low extraction besides the geomechanical and dilution risks that this may
rate means more active area, but in both cases the cause, will only decrease the total active area available for
maximum attainable capacity of the ore body is the same. production, and will increase the risk of fulfilling the
The amount of active area to keep has two main production programs.
motivations. On one side, with the least possible active Of the two independent factors that influence the
area, the operations will be more concentrated and there will maximum production capacity of a mass caving, the column
be lower costs in items such as ventilation, supervision, height is fixed as an initial design parameter, with an
maintenance of openings. This is true up to a certain extent, economic criteria that considers the technical restrictions
because exaggerated operations concentration increases imposed by the ore body, and once the floor of the
the operational interferences and therefore the operating production level is fixed, there is little room for change in the
cost, influencing even the extraction rate in a negative way. column height, except for changes in the cut of grade of the
On the other hand, it is of interest to keep a large active area draw points, that will only have a marginal effect on the
to minimize the risks of not complying with the production column height. It is the other factor that can be handled
program in case of unforeseen situations that may cause easier, the undercutting rate, which can be increased with
large areas to go out of production. There is a compromise an industrial engineering analysis orientated to the
situation in between these two situations, to keep costs optimization of development operations.
down and to keep risks down.
Undoubtedly that in the short time, a variation of the REFERENCES
extraction rate will vary the production capacity of the active
area, but these are temporary effects that cannot be Alvarez, Ricardo; Pesce, Jos. 1987. Blocs foudroys. Le
maintained on the long run. If in the short range, there is an comportement du tirage et le phnomne de la dilution.
increase of the extraction rate, the production capacity will Un modle de prdiction. Diplome dtudes approfondies,
momentarily increase, and this situation can be maintained Gnie Geologique et Minier, Ecole de Mines de Nancy,
for a time lapse smaller than the average life of the columns, France. pp-54
after which the production rate will decrease to values even Araneda, Octavio. 2002. Private communications.
lower than what was being produced before the Laubscher, D.H. 1994. Cave mining: state of the art.
disturbance. The only way to avoid this drop in production is Journal of the South African Institute of Mning and
increasing the undercutting rate before the columns whose Metallurgy, Oct. 1994, pp 279-292
extraction rates were increased, are depleted. Ovalle, Alfonso; Codoceo, Javier. Sept. 1977. Factores
The previous discussion indicates that planning the que inciden en la productividad de un bloque en la mina
production capacity for a given sector or project, must El Teniente. Revista Minerales, Instituto de Ingenieros de
necessarily be complemented with strategic/operational Minas de Chile, pp 5-29, Santiago, Chile.
considerations as have been mentioned. Ovalle, Alfonso. Nov. 2001. Programa de simulacin de
capacidad productiva en panel caving. Excel.
6 CONCLUSIONS

The maximum production capacity of a massive caving

depends only on the column height and on the undercutting
rate for a give ore body.

78 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Production capacity
of a mass caving
Jos Pesce, Gerente General, Alfonso Ovalle, Consultor Asociado, Metlica Consultores S.A.

Abstract
This paper reviews the factors that affect the maximum production capacity of a mass caving operation (block caving,
panel caving). After analysing the multiple planning, design and operating factors that traditionally are considered to
affect the determination of the maximum possible production capacity, it is concluded that there are only two factors that
have an influence: column height and caving rate. Surprisingly the extraction rate has no influence in determining the
maximum production capacity of a mass caving. The definition of the column height and its feasible range are analysed,
describing how to determine the minimum, maximum and optimal column heights. Regarding the undercutting rate, a
discussion about the theoretical and practical aspects is presented. There is reference in the paper to practical examples.

1 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE start up capital cost); restrict the exploitation to a high
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION CAPACITY OF grade sector (improve the cash flow); adaptation to
A MASS CAVING OPERATION. existing infrastructure (less capital expenditure), as for
example the existence of a main transport level.
The relevant factors normally considered in the planning, The selected column height must be the maximum which
design and operation of a mass caving operation are is compatible with technical criteria. The incentives to
presented in Table 1. choose big heights are to minimize development costs
Some of these factors are basically to define the and to maximize the production capacity.
applicability of the mass caving mining method, such as The optimum column height is determined by strategic an
cavability, primary fragmentation, stability of mine openings, economic criteria. Shown in figure 1 are the form of the
dilution, repairing of openings, water and mud inflow and the cost curves depending on column heights, some of which
undercutting sequence. If any of these factors is increase with column heights and some of which
unmanageable, the applicability of the method will be at decrease with column heights. There exists therefore, a
stake. It can be argued that the primary fragmentation can column height or a range of column heights, with a
be solved inducing the caving, which could be done if the minimum net present value of the cost.
evaluation parameters of the project justify it. There are four technical factors whose relationship with
This analysis supposes that the mentioned factors fall in column height needs to be underlined: stability of
the range that allow that applicability of the mass caving openings, useful life of drawpoints, dilution, and the risk of
method to the ore body. The interest is to focus on those loss of ore.
factors that affect the determination of the maximum
capacity of the ore body under study. o The stability of openings, especially those of the
The authors, through their experience, have reduced the production level (which are the greater part of the
factors of Table 1, to only three basic independent factors permanent openings of the exploitation method) depend
affecting the maximum capacity of a mass caving: mostly on the type of rock on which they are on, of the
undercutting rate or development velocity (measured in stress environment and on the design of the fortification.
square meters to undercut per year), extraction rate or draw This is one aspect that must be taken into account when
down rate (measured as mm/day), and the panel or column considering column height. The instability of a sector can
height (measured in m). cause the loss of productive areas that can seriously
Therefore, the interrelation between these three factors affect the fulfilment of the production program.
affecting the maximum capacity of a mass caving will be o The useful life of drawpoints is a function of the design and
analysed. the construction quality of them, of the secondary blasting
and of the abrasion caused by ore flow. In general, the
2 DISCUSSION OF COLUMN HEIGHT. draw point repair cost is increasing with column height.
o The dilution has a behaviour related to column height, to
The column height of a massive caving operation is firstly extraction management and to the number of faces
limited by the geometry of the ore body to exploit. There are exposed to diluents. It is possible that with proper
caving operations with column heights ranging from 50 to extraction management, dilution will be decreasing with
600 m. For very high ore bodies the definition of the column increasing column height.
heights to select should follow the following criteria, of o The risk of loosing ore because of broken and lost ground
course with due consideration to the business aspects of the is an increasing function of column height. This depends
exploitation searching to maximize profits or returns: on the extraction grid selected, on the particular geology,
The column height must be able provide a minimum profit. on the correct undercutting sequence and on the
The most frequent incentives to choose a low column are: regularity of draw.
accelerate the start up time of the project (minimize the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 75

 Table 1 RELEVANT FACTORS AFFECTING A MASSIVE UNDERCUTTING: DEPENDENCY ON BASIC FACTORS

Overall Factors Specific Factors Basic Factors

Undercutting Extraction Column
rate rate height

Design and Global geometry Interference with other productive

construction sectors _ _
Base area geometry _
Column height _
Overall extraction sequence _
Quantity of independent fronts _
Design Extraction grid _
Desing of operating modulus _
Materials handling system _
Modality of undercut _
Undercutting sequence _
Nature Geotechnics Primary /seconday fragmentacin _
Stability of openings and constructions _
In-situ and induced stresses _
Geology Water and mud _
Characteristics of dilutant material _
Operations Modality of operation Unit processes _ _
Secondary fragmentation _
Availability of resources _ _
Utilization of resources _ _

3 DISCUSSION OF THE UNDERCUT RATE For both bodies, two undercutting rates are considered:
20.000 m2/yr and 36.000 m2/yr.
The undercut rate or the velocity to incorporate new Also, two extraction rates are considered: 150 mm/day
production area depends on various factors. and 300 mm/day.
For example, there is a great difference in the These examples have a referential specific gravity of 2,6
undercutting rate between the systems called "previous t/m3.
undercut", "post undercut" or the intermediate situation
named "advanced undercut". This is due to the space and
access restrictions of the previous undercut system, which
limits the rate of development and constructions, basically
due to the coordination difficulties of the different unit
operations that compose the undercutting. In a normal or
"post undercut system" it is possible to achieve an
undercutting rate of around 36.000 m2/yr in one face, while
in a system of "previous undercut", for the same situation, it
is difficult to surpass 24.000 m2/yr.

The undercut rate depends ultimately on the following

factors:
Design of the undercut system
Equipment availability to build that design
Work organization
Operations and sequence restrictions

4 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
OF PRODUCTION CAPACITY

A simulation of the production capacity of a mass caving

operation is presented in figure 2, based in a mass balance
between the amount of material incorporated by
undercutting and the amount of material consumed by
production.
Two ore bodies are considered, each with the same base
area of 300.000 m2, one with a 150 m high column and the
other with a 300 m high column.

76 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 2 presents the production capacity for the 150 m 5 EXTRACTION RATE, RAMP UP TIME
high column ore body, with an undercutting rate of 20.000 TO STADY STATE AND ACTIVE AREA
m2/yr and with an extraction rate of 150 mm/day (120
mm/day with 80% area utilization). It can be seen in table 2 as pointed by the arrows that the
The maximum capacity is slightly more than 21.000 tpd, extraction rate, which is intuitively thought of as defining the
which is attained at the 4th year of production, with a life of maximum capacity, plays no role in this definition. It only
12 years. The steady state total active area is 62.000 m2. matters in how fast the steady state is reached, but once it
Table 2 summarizes the results for the 150 m and 300 m is reached, a fast extraction rate only means a fast depletion
high column bodies, for all possible situations. rate of the columns. If the column depletion rate is faster

Table 2: Production capacities of examples

Area to Column Extraction Undercut Active Production Ramp

undercut height rate rate area capacity up

m2 m mm/day m2/yr m2 tpd yrs

150 150 20.000 61.000 21.000 4

300 20.000 31.000 21.000 3
150 36.000 120.000 38.000 4
300.000 300 36.000 56.000 38.000 3

300 150 20.000 120.000 42.000 7

300 20.000 60.000 42.000 4
150 36.000 220.000 76.000 7
300 36.000 110.000 76.000 4

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 77

that the undercutting rate, the production capacity will The extraction rate has no influence in the determination
decrease. If the undercutting rate is faster than the depletion of the of the maximum capacity of a mass caving, only
rate, the production capacity can then grow. But the affecting the ramp up period to achieve steady state, and
determinant factor is the undercutting rate and not the once this is attained, it only determines the amount of active
extraction rate. As seen in the summarize of table 2, for a area available for production.
given column height and a given extraction rate, a higher An effort to increase the extraction rate past certain limits,
extraction rate means less active area and a low extraction besides the geomechanical and dilution risks that this may
rate means more active area, but in both cases the cause, will only decrease the total active area available for
maximum attainable capacity of the ore body is the same. production, and will increase the risk of fulfilling the
The amount of active area to keep has two main production programs.
motivations. On one side, with the least possible active Of the two independent factors that influence the
area, the operations will be more concentrated and there will maximum production capacity of a mass caving, the column
be lower costs in items such as ventilation, supervision, height is fixed as an initial design parameter, with an
maintenance of openings. This is true up to a certain extent, economic criteria that considers the technical restrictions
because exaggerated operations concentration increases imposed by the ore body, and once the floor of the
the operational interferences and therefore the operating production level is fixed, there is little room for change in the
cost, influencing even the extraction rate in a negative way. column height, except for changes in the cut of grade of the
On the other hand, it is of interest to keep a large active area draw points, that will only have a marginal effect on the
to minimize the risks of not complying with the production column height. It is the other factor that can be handled
program in case of unforeseen situations that may cause easier, the undercutting rate, which can be increased with
large areas to go out of production. There is a compromise an industrial engineering analysis orientated to the
situation in between these two situations, to keep costs optimization of development operations.
down and to keep risks down.
Undoubtedly that in the short time, a variation of the REFERENCES
extraction rate will vary the production capacity of the active
area, but these are temporary effects that cannot be Alvarez, Ricardo; Pesce, Jos. 1987. Blocs foudroys. Le
maintained on the long run. If in the short range, there is an comportement du tirage et le phnomne de la dilution.
increase of the extraction rate, the production capacity will Un modle de prdiction. Diplome dtudes approfondies,
momentarily increase, and this situation can be maintained Gnie Geologique et Minier, Ecole de Mines de Nancy,
for a time lapse smaller than the average life of the columns, France. pp-54
after which the production rate will decrease to values even Araneda, Octavio. 2002. Private communications.
lower than what was being produced before the Laubscher, D.H. 1994. Cave mining: state of the art.
disturbance. The only way to avoid this drop in production is Journal of the South African Institute of Mning and
increasing the undercutting rate before the columns whose Metallurgy, Oct. 1994, pp 279-292
extraction rates were increased, are depleted. Ovalle, Alfonso; Codoceo, Javier. Sept. 1977. Factores
The previous discussion indicates that planning the que inciden en la productividad de un bloque en la mina
production capacity for a given sector or project, must El Teniente. Revista Minerales, Instituto de Ingenieros de
necessarily be complemented with strategic/operational Minas de Chile, pp 5-29, Santiago, Chile.
considerations as have been mentioned. Ovalle, Alfonso. Nov. 2001. Programa de simulacin de
capacidad productiva en panel caving. Excel.
6 CONCLUSIONS

The maximum production capacity of a massive caving

depends only on the column height and on the undercutting
rate for a give ore body.

78 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Continuous mining
for caving method
Francisco Carrasco J., Vctor Encina M., Ren Le-Faux C.
Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A., IM2,
Fernando Geister B., Direccin Investigacin y Desarrollo, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Continuous mining system is an alternative mine design to perform block caving method. This paper describes the whole
configuration of the system and its generic parameters, showing technical and economical convenience of its application.
The system is based on simultaneous ore extraction from all active draw points. To do that, it is proposed to use a set of
stationary extractor devices in each drawpoint. Extractors feed a conveying system trough transfer points, the conveyor
system hauls the ore to an underground crusher or sizer after which a conventional belt conveyor system transports the
crushed material to surface.
The proposed system is able to get high rates of extraction, allowing the owner to set great production capacity even if
the extension of the footprint is no so large. Cost of production will be less than conventional LHD system; full automated
and remote operation can be done from a control room based on standard central command technology of stationary
equipment in industrial plants.

1 INTRODUCTION Mining for Block Caving Method, its whole configuration and
its generic parameters to show its technical and economical
Since 1998, Codelco Chile has been developing its convenience.
Technological Programs for Underground Mining with its
Institute for Innovation in Mining and Metallurgy, IM2, which 2 FUNDAMENTALS
has introduced the Continuous Mining concept as one
commanding objective, aimed to surpass the limit of the Mining process is composed by only two sub
dominant critical technological dimension of underground processes: Fragmentation and Transportation.
mining methods, which in present time tends to be less than Fragmentation is the process by means the rock in place
0.5 t/m2-day when mining hard rock by caving mining is transformed in broken ore and transportation consist
method. on remove those fragments and transfer them to a
After six years, those research projects have given some mineral processing plant.
results and in present time Codelco-Chile is running a Fragmentation can be done by blasting or caving, and
specific project to validate the new Continuous Mining for different material handling systems can be used to
Block Caving Method in an industrial scale. transport the ore depending of the size distribution of bulk
Nowadays Continuous Mining concept is much more material.
pertinent, as we consider that long term plans of Codelco- In underground mining of large ore bodies, the most
Chile, are demanding 550 ktpd of underground production economical mining method applied is the one called
for next decade, what means more than 3 times than current Block Caving, consisting in get the fragmentation by
underground mines production. caving and extract the ore, like "milking" it, from a
Such a challenge cannot be face following continuous drawpoints infrastructure arranged below the caved
improvements, but it requires a technological break out, material.
especially if we see that those mines will be located in low Initially this method was developed to mine ore bodies
grade, harder rock and in deeper stressed zones. whose rock was well fractured. As its costs are very
The strategy followed was to think the process first and attractive, nowadays it is also applied in rock without or with
after that, to demand the technologies required to achieve very few open discontinuities, what we call "hard rock",
the requested output. That means work in a process driven where under stress conditions, fracturing can be induced
innovation instead of a technological one. In such a strategy, during the caving process.
it was set that the new mining method will be based on the Main aspects limiting block caving application in hard rock
following concepts: under stress conditions are, large size of material resulting
Method will be not adapted to rock characteristics, but of caving and seismic effect of caving propagation. Seismic
rock will be conditioned to best apply block caving events caused by caving propagation may eventually cause
method. damage on infrastructure or equipment or even personnel
Draw will be done simultaneously and continually, in time injuries.
and in ore flow, from all active drawpoints. Coarse material had push the designer to introduce large
Mine has to be operated remotely and fully assisted by loaders and secondary reduction equipment underground
automated tasks. with the consequence of enlarging drawpoint spacing and
The target under those concepts are to be able to get a drifts size and to have a batch process extracting the ore
greater rate of extraction and to reduce the mining costs from few drawpoints at a time.
while assures a safe and reliable production process Although many improvements have been introduced to
independently of ore body rock and ore body location. maintain acceptable safety and effectiveness as, large
This paper describes the fundamentals of Continuous size material handling equipment, mine design

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 79

adjustments and some production restrictions to avoid Continuous and simultaneous extraction cannot be
seismic effects, mines productivity have became stuck practiced using loaders, but it requires having special kind
and limited to a mean rate of extraction less than 0.5 of feeders to be installed on the drawpoints and a
t/m2-day. continuous conveying system.
This stagnation can be due to improvement have been Both feeders and conveyor are now under designing and
oriented not to causes but to consequences of caving in testing process taking care of following conditions:
hard rock. That is, assuming as an unavoidable fact that Material flow has to occur only when the feeder is on and
broken ore have to bring large pieces so, extraction process stops when it is off.
had to be adapted to that condition. In case of blasting hangups, as it is expected to occur, the
When IM2 looked for new mining process able to increase feeder has not to be damaged.
underground production, they realize they could choose to Feeder and conveyor design has to allow performing
continue with block caving if they look for complementary maintenance and repairing tasks free at all of any risk to
technologies to aid its sub process to be more effective. workers caused by material flow.
That means to have a sustainable caving process producing Continuous conveying system should be able to be loaded
well sized broken ore, to assure expeditious confined gravity simultaneously at different points along the conveyor and
flow to drawpoints and to define a continuous material should be able to stop and start up fully loaded.
handling process. These aiding technologies are based on Both feeders and conveyor should be operated in remote
following concepts: and automated mode.

2.1 Preconditioning Then, by doing both continuous and simultaneous

As natural caving was not producing a suitable product extraction, a combined effect of easier and greater drawing
when applied on not well fractured hard rock, it was define is expected to be achieved from the same active area. That
a target in looking for a treatment of ore mass before caving effect results in a greater rate of extraction and in a greater
with the purpose of: utilization of time, in such a way that no stops of production
To assure caving propagation: It is known that the more will be need for changing operation shifts.
fractured is the ore mass, the easier and faster is the
caving propagation process. 2.3 Automation and Remote Control
To improve the fragmentation: As in caving, fragments are Considering that this new method will be applied to new
finally formed trough fractures, the more fractured the ore projects during the next decade, when labor requirements
mass, the smaller the size of fragments, and smaller the will be more exigent. Then, the target was to look for a
size of larger pieces. system of work that could assure a better comfort and life
quality for workers than current standards, avoiding as
Then, an important work was done in developing much as possible, the personnel working on night shifts and
preconditioning technology adapting hidrofracturing living far from family.
petroleum industry experience to mining, as part of the It was also looked for a centralized command of feeders
research program of second stage of International as a mean of draw control, for driving depletion strategies
Caving Study, and in other internal research about on line and in real time.
confined blasting method, both to be applied on rock Using stationary equipments, it is easy to have a
mass before caving. centralized command and control room governing the
This is not the paper to give a detailed description of those process as a "rock factory", based on digital instrumentation
preconditioning technologies, but we can say that great and information technology as commonly used in modern
progress has been obtained in experimental applications industry. This command room could be located very far from
performed at Andina and Salvador mines. the mine, for example in a well developed city or even in a
So for the purpose of designing the new mining process, different country.
preconditioning is an enabler technology, as it is the base to Undoubtedly, this vision of the mine as a rock factory,
assure the ore will be caved in a reasonable time and the remotely commanded will contribute to improve mining work
product of caving will be well fragmented for allowing an condition and workers perception. So better possibilities will
expeditious flow of broken material trough drawpoints. be open to hire and keep personnel for mine development
and that mentioned day shift of production resetting and
2.2 Continuous and Simultaneous Drawing maintenance.
The main requirement to this block caving reengineering
is to be able to increase the production coming from same 3 MINE DESIGN
or similar extension of footprint mines. The target defined for
ore extraction was to design a system of continuous and The following is a brief description of a Continuous Mine
simultaneous ore drawing from all active drawpoints with the design.
following purpose: As previously mentioned, preconditioning is the
To increase the rate of extraction: Drawpoints technology that traces the path to continuous mining system
utilization when using batch LHD system is very low, so described as follow. The ore body preconditioning take
a way to increase the rate of extraction it to increase place from undercut level, previous to the operation and
such utilization by drawing them simultaneously. An using technologies like hydraulic fragmentation and
important increase of rate of extraction will result of massive blasting without a free face.
simultaneous extraction even extracting much less The undercut for caving can be done in any standard way
than actually does LHD equipment when loading from as it is done in every block caving mine of Codelco-Chile.
a drawpoint. This operation marks the beginning of the extraction from
To assure the ore flow: Gravity flow can be seen as a the drawpoints.
succession of loosening effect due to the extraction of As it said before, each drawpoint is equipped with a
some material from the drawpoint. Based on experience stationary feeder to extract the ore from the drawpoints for
on gravity flow, it is easier to draw material when it is loose feeding a continuous conveyor.
than when it is settled or compacted, so continuous Continuous and simultaneous operation is required to
drawing will aid to maintain a loosened status of broken increase the rate of extraction. In fact, considering a very
ore favoring ore flow. conservative case, where the feeder has one half of the

80 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

extraction capacity of LHD equipment (6 t) and if it takes For Conventional LHD system propagation rate of
twice the time to produce it, feeder productivity will be extraction is 0.40 t/m2-d but in Continuous Mining with
approximately 46 t/h per drawpoint. Then the combined preconditioning it will increase to 0.6 t/m2-d. After 30% of
effect of all drawpoint working simultaneously at that ore extraction, no restriction in extraction rate is assumed
productivity gives a rate of extraction of approximately 3 except material handling capacity.
t/m2-d that is, 6 to 8 times the current rates. Material handling capacity for Conventional LHD System
Conveying system and an appropriate arrangement of ore is 0.7 t/m2-d and for Continuous Mining is 2.8 t/m2-d.
passes are to be set to transfer the ore to a crusher for Ore body footprint is as follows:
reducing the size of ore up to be compatible with belt - Width: 270 m.
conveyor transporting, which has to convey the ore to the - Length: 800 m.
mineral processing plant. - Panel High: 200 m.
An isometric sketch of the whole system is shown as Two fronts of 270 m long (equal to footprint width)
follow: production can be run from central part to extremes of the
ore body.

For Conventional LHD System, production in one front

is limited by the amount of production drifts, in this case
9 (30 m spaced) and the extension of a drift is defined
by some optimum distance of LHD hauling, usually 120
m.
So the maximum area in full production in such a front for
Conventional LHD System would be 32,400 m2 (270 m x
120 m) plus other 21,600 m2 in propagation giving a total of
54,000 m2 of active area per front.
On the other hand, for Continuous Mining System, whose
production module is composed by 36 drawpoints of 225 m2
each, one module is 90 x 90 m.
In order to balance the production in a stable output, it is
required to have 2 modules in propagation per each module in
full production. So we can say that production in CM will come
from blocks composed by 3 modules (1 full + 2 in propagation)
giving block dimensions of 270 m long by 90 m width.
Therefore, for the same front, it is possible to operate with
3 blocks giving a total active area of 72,900 m2.
On Table 1, it is presented a comparison of technical
performance of both systems applied to the same front of
production:

Figure 1: Isometric view unit MC Table 1: Technical performance CM

(1): UCL; (2): Drawbell; (3): Service Level (drawpoints); (4):
Production Level (secondary transport); (5): ore pass; (6): Conventional Continuous
Reduction Level; (7): Crusher equipment; (8): Ore pass to LHD mining mining
main conveyor. current future

In this scheme, unhangup process and secondary

Extraction rate
blasting will be done with conventional technology or with
new technologies nowadays under development. Propagation t/m2-d 0.40 0.60
The material handling configuration, based in automated Full t/m2-d 0.70 2.80
stationary equipments, allows an expert control system for Mean t/m2-d 0.57 1.33
commanding the system functioning in each one of its stages.
Production tpd 30,700 97,000
Continuous Mining is thought to operate continuously
during 18 hours, since 3 PM to 9 AM in the next day, letting Active area m2 54,000 72,900
a day shift of 6 hours per day to maintenance, repairing and width m 270 270
ore flow resetting. length m 200 270
If any drawpoint get hanged up during the operation time, Active drawpoint unit 240 324
it will remains in that status till next day shift when
production crew go into the mine to reset the flow, the same Ramp up time year 3.8 1.6
if a feeder or other equipment brakes down.
Development and preparing of new area can operate all
day in 4 shifts of 6 hours, for assuring opportune A Table 1 result suggests a great potential to increase the
replacement of exhausted area. production of Codelco-Chiles underground mining due to:
It can be seen an important increase in production per
4 TECHNICAL ECONOMICS INDEXS front is got with CM without a proportional increase of
active area.
To emphasize the impact of the new method on Table 1 refers to only one front of production, if more
production performance, it is presented ahead a fronts are available, CM has a potential of getting much
hypothetical example with following design criteria: more production than any calculation done applying
Drawpoint spacing arranged in an equilateral grid of Conventional LHD system.
15x15 m, corresponding to of 225 m2 of area per Also it can be seen an important decrease of time
drawpoint. required to get full production (ramp up) in CM System

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 81

 compared to Conventional LHD System, This will have a researchers that have been involve in hidrofracturing for
great effect in NPV when applied in a new mine. preconditioning. Also, the authors want to acknowledge the
permission given by Codelco Chile to publish this technical
All these result leads the great conclusion of CM will give paper.
a significant contribution to the business when applying this
new mining concept in new mining projects. REFERENCES

5 CONCLUSIONS Chacn, E., Quiones, L., Gonzalez, J., Barrera, V., 2002.
Pre-acondicionamiento de macizos rocosos competentes
A new approach for innovation following the strategy of para la explotacin por mtodos de hundimiento, pp.19-
thinking first the process, and after that, to demand the 34. IIMCH magazine, Santiago, Chile Vol. 57, N 245,
required technologies to achieve the requested output was may-june 2002.
applied to study mining process. That strategy has been Encina, V. and Correa, L., 2001. Minera Continua: Un
very fruitful leading the researches of Underground Mining quiebre tecnolgico ad portas, in 52th IIMCH Convention,
Technological Program started in 1998, trough unexpected 7-10 November, La Serena, Chile.
paths and getting surprising results, that can be interpreted IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
as a validation of the strategy of having a process driven 2001. Tcnicas de manejo de materiales en el nivel de
innovation focus instead of a technological one. produccin, Divisin Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal
One product of Underground Mining Technological Report.
Program is Continuous Mining for Block Caving Method, IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
which is a mine design and a mining concept able to face 2002. Tecnologas de transporte continuo, Divisin
future challenge of Codelco Chiles mines. Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
Continuous Mining for Block Caving Method concept is IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
based on three main fundaments: 2003. Diseo Conceptual para Minera Continua, Divisin
Preconditioning as an enabler technology, to assure the Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
caving propagation and an expeditious flow of broken IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
material trough drawpoints. 2003. Estudio de metodologa de acondicionamiento de
Continuous and simultaneous drawing for increasing the macizo rocoso para hundimiento, Divisin Andina,
rate of extraction and day time utilization. Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
Remote commanding of stationary equipment to have a IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
draw control on line and in real time governing the 2003. Estudio de minera alternativa en Tercer Panel,
process as a "rock factory". Divisin Andina, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
Maass, S, 2003. Anlisis de competitividad de mtodos
Although both preconditioning and continuous and de explotacin de minas mediante indicadores
simultaneous drawing are nowadays under its final steps of tecnolgicos, 118 p. Final Thesis to obtain Degree in
development, there are not fatal failures threatening the Mining Engineer, Universidad de Chile.
research program, so in the near future an industrial Minera Chilena. N 275, May 2004, Santiago, Chile.
validation test of the whole system will be performed. Prez, V, 2001. La investigacin e innovacin tecnolgica
en la minera del cobre, 54 p. Cochilco research,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Santiago, Chile.
Villarz, J., 2003. Industria del Cobre: Los desafos del
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues of Codelco- Siglo XXI. Codelco Chile CEO presentation in
Chile operations and IM2 that helped them during the Cooper2003, Santiago, Chile.
development of this research and to ICS II team of

82 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Current practices
and trends in cave mining
Germn Flores, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile
Antonio Karzulovic, A. Karzulovic & Assoc. Ltd., Santiago, Chile
Edwin T. Brown, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, University of Queensland, Australia

Abstract
Although many caving mines are now exploiting deeper and more massive orebodies, and several large open pits are planning
a transition to underground cave mining, there is no single and convenient reference on current practices and trends in cave
mining. Hence, as part of the International Caving Study Stage II (ICS-II) funded by nine major international mining companies,
a comprehensive benchmarking study was undertaken. The goal of this study was to establish current practices and trends,
with emphasis on the key areas that have large impacts on the economics of a mining project, geomechanics, mine design,
mine operation, and geotechnical hazards. Data were collected and interviews conducted during visits made to 17 mines in
Australia, Canada, Chile, Indonesia, South Africa, Sweden and the USA. A comprehensive review of the technical literature
provided information on a further 88 mines. This paper outlines the current trends and practices in caving mining, and
summarizes them in a table containing data that may be used during scoping and pre-feasibility studies of cave mining projects,
including transitions from open pit to underground mining.

1 INTRODUCTION
Table 1: Mines Visited
Several mines are planning a transition from open pit to
underground cave mining in the medium or long term. Country Mine Mining Method(s)
Accordingly, the International Caving Study Stage II (ICS-II),
managed by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Australia Cadia Hill OP.
Centre, Brisbane, Australia, included a task of providing Mount Keith OP considering a transition to UG.
practical geotechnical guidelines for the transition from open Northparkes Mine that developed a transition
pit to underground cave mining. As part of this task, a from OP to UG by BC.
benchmarking study was carried out to collect data from
mines that have developed, or are planning to develop such Ridgeway UG by SLC.
transitions, and from other mines (open pits or underground) Canada Kidd Creek Mine that developed a transition
that could provide relevant data. The collected data were from OP to UG by SOP.
supplemented by a comprehensive review of the technical Chile Andina OP and UG by BC/PC.
literature. This study which was planned and executed so as Chuquicamata OP considering a transition to
to optimize data collection, included the following elements: UG by PC.
Survey Design: To facilitate data collection, an Excel
El Teniente UG by PC.
spreadsheet was designed, and e-mailed to the mines
included in the study. Salvador UG by PC.
Mine Visits: The mines listed in Table 1 were visited, and Indonesia Grasberg OP.
relevant information was collected. Grasberg DOZ UG by PC.
Additional Data Collection: A comprehensive survey of the
South Africa Finsch Mine that developed a transition
technical literature was undertaken to collect supplementary
from OP to UG by SOP.
data from 88 additional mines.
Data Processing: The collected data were analysed in order Koffiefontein Mine that developed a transition
to develop histograms and, where possible, correlations from OP to UG by SOP/SLC/FC.
showing current practice and trends in underground mining by Palabora Mine developing a transition
caving methods. When enough data were available the relative from OP to UG by PC.
frequency of selected parameters was computed, and when Sweden Kiruna Mine that developed a transition
the available data were limited, the relative importance of the from OP to UG by SLC.
parameters was assessed.
USA Bingham OP considering a transition
Benchmarking Report: The data, conclusions and
Canyon to UG by PC.
recommendations resulting from this study were presented
Henderson UG by PC.
in a Final Report submitted to the sponsors of ICS-II (Flores
and Karzulovic, 2002). OP Open pit mine/mining
The results of this benchmarking study reflecting current UG Underground mine/mining
practices and trends in cave mining, are summarized in this SLC / SOP Sublevel caving / Sublevel open stoping
paper. BC / PC Block caving / Panel caving

2 GEOMECHANICS

The analysis of the data on Geological Structures

indicates that:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 83

a. In most underground caving mines, subvertical structures d. Similar relationships were derived for the minimum and
(dips > 60o) predominate over subhorizontal structures maximum values of the stress ratio, KMIN and KMAX:
(dips < 30o).
b. In underground and open pit mines the data on the
orientations of structures are typically much better than
the data on their lengths, spacings, and apertures.
1250 100 (3)
0.6 + K Min 0.2 +
c. The geotechnical characterization of structures generally z z
is poorer for underground mines than for open pit mines.
d. In spite of the increasing use of numerical models, the
quality of input data on the mechanical properties of
structures is, in most of cases, poor. 1500 90 (4)
1.0 + K Max 0.3 +
z z
The analysis of the data on Intact Rock and Rock Mass
Properties indicates that:
a. Usually the unit weight (g), and the uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) of the intact rock are known, but The analysis of the data on Hydrogeology indicates that:
information on shear strength and deformability is much a. Most mines do not consider hydrogeological charac-
poorer. terization to be a high priority.
b. Typically UCS values are smaller for open pit mine rocks b. The most commonly used drainage systems are sumps
(average: 80 MPa) that for underground mine rocks (78%), subhorizontal drains (14%) and drainage tunnels
(average: 130 MPa). (8%).
c. Typically RQD values are smaller for open pit mine rocks c. The most typical monitoring systems are observation
(average: 60% to 70%) than for underground mine rocks wells (open holes), piezometers and flow rate
(average: 70% to 85%). measurement devices.
d. The most commonly used method of rock mass
classification in the underground mines studied is The analysis of the data on Geotechnical Software
Laubschers RMR (53%), followed by Bartons Q (26%), indicates that:
and Bieniawskis RMR (15%). a. For two-dimensional numerical analyses the most
e. Typical Laubschers RMR ranges found in different mining commonly used codes are FLAC (50%), UDEC (33%),
conditions are shown in Table 2. and EXAMINE (10%).
b. For three-dimensional numerical analyses the most
commonly used codes are FLAC3D (44%), 3DEC (26%),
Table 2: Typical Laubschers RMR Range and MAP3D (18%).

Mining Method Laubschers RMR Range 3 MINE DESIGN

The analysis of the data on Mine Accesses indicates that:

Open Pit 20 to 40 a. The use of shafts as the only access has decreased since
Open Stoping 40 to 80 1970.
b. The use of declines as the only access has increased
Sublevel Caving 40 to 70
since 1970.
Block Caving 30 to 70 c. Before 1970 in 70% of the case surveyed, shafts were
Panel Caving 40 to 80 used as accesses and in 30% declines were used.
d. In the period 1970 to 1990, in 46% of the cases shafts
were used as accesses, in 42% declines were used, and
in 13% both shafts and declines were used.
f. The central trend relating Laubschers RMR and MRMR is: e. After 1990, in 36% of the cases shafts were used as
accesses, in 50% declines were used, and in 14% both
MRMR = 0,9 RMR (1) shafts and declines, were used.

g. The geotechnical characterization of rock masses seems The analysis of the data on Block Heights and Footprints
to be poorer in underground than in open pit mines. indicates that:
Indeed, in spite of the increasing use of numerical models a. As shown in Figure 1, since 1970 block heights have
the quality of input data on rock mass properties is, in increased in block and panel caving mines. Before 1970,
most cases, poor to fair. the typical block height was 100 m; for the period 1970-
1990 it was 160 m, and since 1990 it has been 240 m.
The analysis of the data on In Situ Stresses indicates that: b. In block and panel caving mines the footprint area varies
a. Currently the CSIRO Hollow Inclusion Cell is the most widely, but in 80% of the cases, it is smaller than 250,000
commonly used method for in situ stress measurements. m2 with an average of 165,000 m2.
b. Typically in underground caving mines the in situ major c. As shown in Figure 2, the ratio between footprint length
principal stress, S1, varies from 30 to 40 MPa; and the in (L) and width (B) rarely exceeds 3, and in almost 60% of
situ minimum principal stress, S3, varies from 10 to 20 the cases it is smaller than 2. Nevertheless, in many large
MPa. open pit mines currently considering a transition to
c. In underground mines the mean value of the stress ratio, underground cave mining this ratio will be larger than 3.
KMEAN, is bounded as proposed by Hoek and Brown d. It seems that most block and panel caving mines have
(1980), where the depth z is in meters: ignored a possible relationship between block height (H)
and footprint geometry (defined by its width B). As a
preliminary conclusion, and as shown in Figure 3, the
1500 100 data collected suggested that:
0.5 + K MEAN 0.3 + (2)
z z If H/B 1 the cave will easily connect to surface (or to an
upper mined out level).

84 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 a. As shown in Figure 4, the shape of the initial area for
caving is predominantly square or rectangular, but in a
few cases other shapes (e.g. triangular) have been used.
b. As shown in Figure 4, the available data indicates that the
area for caving initiation has an average value of 10,000
m2, and typically varies from 5,000 to 15,000 m2.

Figure 1: Evolution with time of block height in block and

panel caving mines.

Figure 4: Relative frequency of initial caving areas and their

shapes in block and panel caving mines.

c. As shown in Figure 5, the hydraulic radius, HR, of the

initial caving area varies from 15 to 45 m, with an average
of 20 to 30 m.

Figure 2: Values of the footprint ratio L/B in block and panel

caving mines.

Figure 5: Relative frequency of hydraulic radii of the initial

caving area in block and panel caving mines.

d. In 60% of the cases some measures were taken to facilitate

cave initiation (slots: 53%, artificial chimneys: 7%).

The analysis of the data on the Undercut Level, UCL,

indicates that:

a. The distance between UCL drifts varies from 10 to 35 m,

Figure 3: Relation between H and B in block and panel with an average of 20 to 25 m.
caving mines. b. The width of UCL drifts has increased with time. Typically,
before 1970 it was 2 to 3 m, during 1970-1990 it was 3 m,
and since 1990 it has been 4 m.
c. The height of UCL drifts has increased with time.
If 2 H/B > 1 the cave probably will connect to surface (or Typically, before 1970 it was 2 to 2.5 m, during 1970-1990
to an upper mined out level). it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 3.5 to 4 m.
If H/B > 2 the cave could have problems to connect to d. The undercut height shows no time-dependent trend. It
surface (or to an upper mined out level). varies from 3 to 20 m, with an average of 8 to 12 m.
e. As shown in Figure 6, the average undercutting rate,
The analysis of the data on Caving Initiation indicates RUC, varies from 500 to 5,000 m2/month, with an average
that: of 2,000 to 3,000 m2/month.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 85

 The analysis of the data on Support indicates that:
a. In most underground caving mines support on the UCL
consists of only bolts. In some mines this support also
includes mesh and shotcrete in the UCL access drifts.
b. In most underground caving mines support on the
EXL includes bolts (typically 1.8 to 2.4 m long, at
spacings of 1.0 to 1.3 m), mesh and shotcrete
(typically 50 mm). In many cases it also includes
cables, typically 5 to 8 m long, at intersections). Also
some mines use straps and osro-straps, as illustrated
in Figure 8.
c. Bolt lengths range from 1.2 to 3.8 m, with typical values
of 2 to 2.3 m on the UCL, and 2 to 2.5 m on the EXL.
d. Bolt spacings range from 0.6 to 1.4 m, being typically 1.0
m for both the UCL and the EXL.
e. There is no clear difference in the ratio of the bolt length,
L, to the drift width, W, used on the UCL and EXL. In most
cases the ratio L/W ranges from 1.5 to 3.
Figure 6: Relative frequencies of average undercutting
rates, RUC, in block and panel caving mines.

The analysis of the data on the Extraction Level, EXL,

indicates that:
a. The crown-pillar thickness (from the EXL floor to the UCL
floor) shows an increasing trend with time. Typically,
before 1970 it was 7.5 to 10 m, from 1970-1990 it was
12.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 15 to 17.5 m.
b. The spacing between EXL drifts shows an increasing
trend with time. Typically, before 1970 it was 12 to 16 m,
from 1970-1990 it was 20 to 24 m, and since 1990 it has
been 26 to 28 m.
c. The width of EXL drifts shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 2.5 m, from 1970-1990
it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 4 to 4.5 m.
d. The height of EXL drifts shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 2 to 2.5 m, from 1970-
1990 it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 3.5 to
4.5 m.
e. The draw point spacing shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 8 m, from 1970-1990 it
was 12 m, and since 1990 it has been 15 m.
f. The influence area of draw points shows an increasing
trend with time. Typically, before 1970 it was 50 m2, from
1970-1990 it was 125 m2, and since 1990 it has been 200
to 225 m2.
g. The most commonly used extraction level geometry is the
herringbone layout (54% of the cases), followed by the El
Teniente layout (40% of cases).
h. As shown in Figure 7, the average draw rate, RDW, varies
from 0.05 to 0.7 m/day, with an average of 0.2 to 0.25
m/day.
Figure 8: EXL support by bolts, mesh and osro-straps at a
South African underground mine.

f. For preliminary estimations of bolt length, the following

relations are suggested:
Poor quality rock masses (20 RMR 40):

L (m) = 0.60 x W + 0.60 (5)

Fair quality rock masses (40 RMR 60):

L (m) = 0.45 x W + 0.45 (6)

Good quality rock masses (60 RMR 80):

L (m) = 0.30 x W + 0.30 (7)

Figure 7: Relative frequencies of average draw rates, RDW,
in block and panel caving mines.

86 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

g. Underground caving mines in rockburst prone ground Collapses correspond to the relatively slow failure of UCL
have also used mesh and lacing, as a complementary and/or EXL pillars, which triggers crown pillar failure, and
support for the EXL drifts. drift closure. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate this type of
h. The support of the draw points differs from one mine to geotechnical hazard.
another, but in most cases it includes steel arches, cable
bolts, and concrete and/or shotcrete. The number of steel
arches previously varied from 2 to 7, but currently most
mines used 2 to 3 steel arches.

The analysis of the data on Material Handling Systems

indicates that in 57% of the cases examined, caving mines
use production shafts; in 27% of cases they use conveyor
belts; in 12% they use trains; and in 4% they use trucks.

4 MINE OPERATION

The analysis of the data on Mine Operations indicates

that:
a. The powder factor for undercut blasting varies widely,
from 200 to 1000 g/tonne; with an average of 400 to 500
g/tonne.
b. LHD capacity varies from 7 to 19 tonnes, with an average
of 11 tonnes.
c. LHD tramming distance varies widely, from 25 to 300 m, Figure 10: Collapse of an UCL drift at Te 4 Sur, El Teniente
with an average of 125 to 150 m. mine, 1989.
d. In almost 50% of cases, the oversize limit varies from 1.8
to 2 m3 but has a wide range from 0.4 to 2.4 m3. The
average oversize limit is 1.6 m3.

5 GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING

The analysis of the data on Geotechnical Monitoring in

caving mines indicates that:
a. As shown in Figure 9, the most commonly used
monitoring systems are field inspections (100%), local
displacement measurements (82%), seismic monitoring
(64%), time domain reflectometry (64%), convergence
measurements (36%) and observation boreholes (36%).
b. As shown in Figure 9, the geotechnical monitoring systems
that have generally produced the most satisfactory results
are convergence measurements, field inspections, seismic
monitoring, time domain reflectometry, aerial photography
and water flow measurements.

Figure 11: Collapse of an EXL drift at Ten 4 Sur, El Teniente

mine, 1989.

The analysis of the data on Collapses indicates that:

a. The area affected by a single collapse has varied from
140 to 17,500 m2, with an average of 3,700 m2.
b. The most common causes of collapses are irregular draw
rate and/or poor draw management, presence of major
geological structures, deficient mine planning and/or poor
mining sequences, and lack of communication between
the geotechnical, planning and mine operations groups.
c. The most common remedial measures for collapses are
regularization of draw rates and/or improved draw
management, improved mining sequences, additional
support, and improved communication between the
geotechnical, planning and mine operations groups.
Figure 9: Relative frequency of use and degree of
satisfaction of geotechnical monitoring systems used in Rockbursts arise from mining-induced seismic events that
underground caving mines. cause sudden and violent failure of a volume of rock, which
may or may not be defined by structures. Figures 12 and 13
illustrate this type of geotechnical hazard.
6 GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS

The main geotechnical hazards affecting underground

caving mines are collapses, rockbursts, subsidence, water
inflows and mudrushes, and hangups.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 87

 Figure 14 illustrates a subsidence crater associated with
cave mining.

Figure 12: Typical major rockburst damage without

structural control, affecting a UCL drift on Ten Sub 6, El
Teniente mine, 1991.

Figure 14: Subsidence crater caused by block and panel

caving at Salvador mine, Chile, 2003.

The analysis of the data on Subsidence indicates that:

a. The depth of a subsidence crater may vary from less than
100 to 1400 m, with the average being about 450 m.
b. The angle of break, a, varies from 40 to 90, depending
on the rock mass quality and the structures in the rock
mass (in few cases there are even overhanging crater
walls).
c. The most common factors that may exacerbate
subsidence are the presence of major unfavourably
oriented geological structures, a poorer rock mass quality
than expected, poor draw management and deficient
mine planning.
d. The most common remedial measures for dealing with
subsidence are geotechnical monitoring, geotechnically
improved mine planning and mining sequence and, in the
final analysis, relocating infrastructure that could be
affected by subsidence.
Water Inflows / Mudrushes correspond to sudden inflows
of water and/or mud from drawpoints or other underground
openings. Due to their nature these phenomena propagate
Figure 13: Typical major rockburst damage with structural rapidly, endangering people, equipment and infrastructure.
control, affecting a drift on the Ventilation Level of Ten Sub Figure 15 illustrates the damage that can be caused.
6, El Teniente mine, 1990.

The analysis of the data on Rockbursts indicates that:

a. The most common causes of rockbursts are the presence
of major geological structures, high stresses, a non-
favourable mining sequence, an excessive undercutting
rate, and an excessive draw rate.
b. The most common remedial measures for rockbursts are
seismic monitoring, improved mining sequences from
geotechnical considerations, reduced draw rates, and the
implementation of contingency plans (from access
restrictions to the closure of a mining sector).

Subsidence corresponds to the lowering of the ground

surface due to mining causing the development of a crater.
Within the caves zone of influence, the rock mass
undergoes deformations that could damage the mines
surface and/or underground infrastructure.
Commonly, the geometry of a subsidence crater is
defined by its depth, H, and the angle of break, a, defined as
the inclination with the horizontal of an imaginary line
connecting the UCL edge with the perimeter of the crater at
surface (defined by the limit of the zone where the rock Figure 15: Damage caused by a mudrush in an
mass shows large discontinuous deformations). underground caving mine.

88 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The analysis of the data on Water Inflows and Mudrushes c. The most common causes of hangups are unexpected
indicates that: geological-geotechnical conditions, stresses too low to
a. The most common causes of water inflows and induce stress caving, stresses high enough to develop
mudrushes are the presence of wet/clayey ore, fine clamping forces arresting stress release caving,
fragmentation, a crater acting as a water collector and reductions in the undercut height, non-standard undercut
deficient draw management. geometry, no measures taken to facilitate cave initiation
b. The most common remedial measures for dealing with and poor draw extraction/management.
these hazards are surface stabilization, improved draw d. The most common remedial measures for dealing with
management, development and implementation of hangups are increasing the undercut area, weakening of
contingency plans, implementation of drainage systems the hangup boundaries, conditioning the rock mass in the
and instrumentation and monitoring. cave back and improved draw management.

Hangups arise from the arrest of cave propagation due to 7 CONCLUSIONS

the formation of a metastable geometry that could
eventually fail suddenly, generating air blasts and causing The interpretation of the data collected in this study has allowed
significant damage in the underground mines excavations. current trends and practices in underground mining by caving
Figure 16 shows an example of this type of hazard. The methods to be identified. Table 3 summarizes the currently used
analysis of the data on Hangups indicates that: values of the most relevant parameters. This compilation may be
of value in scoping and pre-feasibility studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the JKMRC

and the sponsors of ICS-II: Codelco, De Beers, LKAB,
Newcrest Mining, Northparkes, Rio Tinto, Sandvik-Tamrock
and WMC. They also wish to express their gratitude to all those
who helped them to collect data at the mines visited: Andina,
Bingham Canyon, Cadia, Chuquicamata, El Teniente, Finsch,
Grasberg Open Pit, Grasberg Underground (DOZ),
Henderson, Kidd Creek, Kiruna, Koffiefontein, Mount Keith,
Northparkes, Palabora, Ridgeway and Salvador. Finally, the
authors wish to especially acknowledge the support provided
by Division Codelco Norte for this research.

REFERENCES
Figure 16: Formation of chimney craters immediately after
the failure of the hangup at Inca West Sector, Salvador Flores, G and Karzulovic, A, 2002. Benchmarking Report,
mine, Chile (December 5, 1999). prepared for ICS-II, JKMRC and Itasca Consulting Group,
Inc.: Brisbane.
a. The area of hangups has varied widely, from 1,000 m2 to Hoek, E and Brown, E T, 1980. Underground Excavations
more than 35,000 m2, with an average of 12,000 m2. in Rock, 527 p., Institution of Mining and Metallurgy:
b. Reported data on air blasts are related to hangups having London.
areas larger than 10,000 m2.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 89

 Table 3: Typical Parameters for Block and Panel Caving Mines

Parameter Typical Value Comments

Rock Mass Quality 50 RMR < 60 If RMR > 60 rock mass cavability must be evaluated carefully.

Accesses Decline Currently 70% of mines prefer declines, and 20% use both
declines and shafts as mine access.

Block Height 210 m This typical block height could vary by 20%.

Footprint < 50,000 m2 30,000 m2 These typical areas could vary +20%. It is recommended to
Area 50,000 to 100,000 m2 75,000 m2 use equal or larger areas, but not smaller than the typical
> 100,000 m2 170,000 m2 values. Also, square areas are better than the rectangular
ones.

Caving Area 10,000 m2 Smaller areas are not recommended, especially in

Initiation massive rock masses.
Shape Square Internal corners must be avoided (eg an L shaped area).
Measures to Facilitate Slot Highly recommended to facilitate cave initiation.
Hydraulic Radius 20 to 30 m Avoid being close to the limit in Laubschers chart.

UCL Drifts Spacing 15 m This is the current practice.

Height 4m Could be increased but not decreased.
Width 4m
Undercut Height 8m Could vary, but be careful if using small undercutting heights.
Undercutting Rate 2100 m2/month Could be increased but be careful with induced seismicity,
especially if in a high stress environment.

EXL Drifts Crown-Pillar 17 m Could vary by 20% (measured from UCL floor to EXT floor).
Spacing 30 m Could vary from 26 to 36 m.
Height 4m Could be increased but not decreased.
Width 4m

Draw Spacing 15 m Could vary from 13 to 18 m.

Points Influence Area 225 m2 Could vary from 169 to 324 m2.

Draw Rates 0.20 m/day This is an average value. Typically lower values are used at the
beginning of caving, and higher values are used when more than
30% of the block height has been extracted.

LHD Capacity 11 tonnes Could vary by 20%.

Equipment Tramming Distance 140 m Smaller tramming distances are preferable.

Powder Factor 400 g/tonne For undercutting blasting. It could vary 20%.

Oversize Limit 1.8 to 2.0 m3 Could vary by 20%.

Subsidence RMR < 70 > 45 a is the angle of break.

RMR > 70 > 60

Geotechnical Hazards The project must take account that collapses, rockbursts, subsidence, water inflows and
mudrushes, and hangups could occur.

Instrumentation & Monitoring The most common monitoring systems include displacements and seismicity. It is recommended to
include a seismic monitoring system, especially in massive hard rock and/or high
stress environments.

(1) These typical values are intended only for the scoping and pre-feasibility stages of a mining project.
(2) RMR values are for Laubschers 1990 system.

90 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Current practices
and trends in cave mining
Germn Flores, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile
Antonio Karzulovic, A. Karzulovic & Assoc. Ltd., Santiago, Chile
Edwin T. Brown, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, University of Queensland, Australia

Abstract
Although many caving mines are now exploiting deeper and more massive orebodies, and several large open pits are planning
a transition to underground cave mining, there is no single and convenient reference on current practices and trends in cave
mining. Hence, as part of the International Caving Study Stage II (ICS-II) funded by nine major international mining companies,
a comprehensive benchmarking study was undertaken. The goal of this study was to establish current practices and trends,
with emphasis on the key areas that have large impacts on the economics of a mining project, geomechanics, mine design,
mine operation, and geotechnical hazards. Data were collected and interviews conducted during visits made to 17 mines in
Australia, Canada, Chile, Indonesia, South Africa, Sweden and the USA. A comprehensive review of the technical literature
provided information on a further 88 mines. This paper outlines the current trends and practices in caving mining, and
summarizes them in a table containing data that may be used during scoping and pre-feasibility studies of cave mining projects,
including transitions from open pit to underground mining.

1 INTRODUCTION
Table 1: Mines Visited
Several mines are planning a transition from open pit to
underground cave mining in the medium or long term. Country Mine Mining Method(s)
Accordingly, the International Caving Study Stage II (ICS-II),
managed by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Australia Cadia Hill OP.
Centre, Brisbane, Australia, included a task of providing Mount Keith OP considering a transition to UG.
practical geotechnical guidelines for the transition from open Northparkes Mine that developed a transition
pit to underground cave mining. As part of this task, a from OP to UG by BC.
benchmarking study was carried out to collect data from
mines that have developed, or are planning to develop such Ridgeway UG by SLC.
transitions, and from other mines (open pits or underground) Canada Kidd Creek Mine that developed a transition
that could provide relevant data. The collected data were from OP to UG by SOP.
supplemented by a comprehensive review of the technical Chile Andina OP and UG by BC/PC.
literature. This study which was planned and executed so as Chuquicamata OP considering a transition to
to optimize data collection, included the following elements: UG by PC.
Survey Design: To facilitate data collection, an Excel
El Teniente UG by PC.
spreadsheet was designed, and e-mailed to the mines
included in the study. Salvador UG by PC.
Mine Visits: The mines listed in Table 1 were visited, and Indonesia Grasberg OP.
relevant information was collected. Grasberg DOZ UG by PC.
Additional Data Collection: A comprehensive survey of the
South Africa Finsch Mine that developed a transition
technical literature was undertaken to collect supplementary
from OP to UG by SOP.
data from 88 additional mines.
Data Processing: The collected data were analysed in order Koffiefontein Mine that developed a transition
to develop histograms and, where possible, correlations from OP to UG by SOP/SLC/FC.
showing current practice and trends in underground mining by Palabora Mine developing a transition
caving methods. When enough data were available the relative from OP to UG by PC.
frequency of selected parameters was computed, and when Sweden Kiruna Mine that developed a transition
the available data were limited, the relative importance of the from OP to UG by SLC.
parameters was assessed.
USA Bingham OP considering a transition
Benchmarking Report: The data, conclusions and
Canyon to UG by PC.
recommendations resulting from this study were presented
Henderson UG by PC.
in a Final Report submitted to the sponsors of ICS-II (Flores
and Karzulovic, 2002). OP Open pit mine/mining
The results of this benchmarking study reflecting current UG Underground mine/mining
practices and trends in cave mining, are summarized in this SLC / SOP Sublevel caving / Sublevel open stoping
paper. BC / PC Block caving / Panel caving

2 GEOMECHANICS

The analysis of the data on Geological Structures

indicates that:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 83

a. In most underground caving mines, subvertical structures d. Similar relationships were derived for the minimum and
(dips > 60o) predominate over subhorizontal structures maximum values of the stress ratio, KMIN and KMAX:
(dips < 30o).
b. In underground and open pit mines the data on the
orientations of structures are typically much better than
the data on their lengths, spacings, and apertures.
1250 100 (3)
0.6 + K Min 0.2 +
c. The geotechnical characterization of structures generally z z
is poorer for underground mines than for open pit mines.
d. In spite of the increasing use of numerical models, the
quality of input data on the mechanical properties of
structures is, in most of cases, poor. 1500 90 (4)
1.0 + K Max 0.3 +
z z
The analysis of the data on Intact Rock and Rock Mass
Properties indicates that:
a. Usually the unit weight (g), and the uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) of the intact rock are known, but The analysis of the data on Hydrogeology indicates that:
information on shear strength and deformability is much a. Most mines do not consider hydrogeological charac-
poorer. terization to be a high priority.
b. Typically UCS values are smaller for open pit mine rocks b. The most commonly used drainage systems are sumps
(average: 80 MPa) that for underground mine rocks (78%), subhorizontal drains (14%) and drainage tunnels
(average: 130 MPa). (8%).
c. Typically RQD values are smaller for open pit mine rocks c. The most typical monitoring systems are observation
(average: 60% to 70%) than for underground mine rocks wells (open holes), piezometers and flow rate
(average: 70% to 85%). measurement devices.
d. The most commonly used method of rock mass
classification in the underground mines studied is The analysis of the data on Geotechnical Software
Laubschers RMR (53%), followed by Bartons Q (26%), indicates that:
and Bieniawskis RMR (15%). a. For two-dimensional numerical analyses the most
e. Typical Laubschers RMR ranges found in different mining commonly used codes are FLAC (50%), UDEC (33%),
conditions are shown in Table 2. and EXAMINE (10%).
b. For three-dimensional numerical analyses the most
commonly used codes are FLAC3D (44%), 3DEC (26%),
Table 2: Typical Laubschers RMR Range and MAP3D (18%).

Mining Method Laubschers RMR Range 3 MINE DESIGN

The analysis of the data on Mine Accesses indicates that:

Open Pit 20 to 40 a. The use of shafts as the only access has decreased since
Open Stoping 40 to 80 1970.
b. The use of declines as the only access has increased
Sublevel Caving 40 to 70
since 1970.
Block Caving 30 to 70 c. Before 1970 in 70% of the case surveyed, shafts were
Panel Caving 40 to 80 used as accesses and in 30% declines were used.
d. In the period 1970 to 1990, in 46% of the cases shafts
were used as accesses, in 42% declines were used, and
in 13% both shafts and declines were used.
f. The central trend relating Laubschers RMR and MRMR is: e. After 1990, in 36% of the cases shafts were used as
accesses, in 50% declines were used, and in 14% both
MRMR = 0,9 RMR (1) shafts and declines, were used.

g. The geotechnical characterization of rock masses seems The analysis of the data on Block Heights and Footprints
to be poorer in underground than in open pit mines. indicates that:
Indeed, in spite of the increasing use of numerical models a. As shown in Figure 1, since 1970 block heights have
the quality of input data on rock mass properties is, in increased in block and panel caving mines. Before 1970,
most cases, poor to fair. the typical block height was 100 m; for the period 1970-
1990 it was 160 m, and since 1990 it has been 240 m.
The analysis of the data on In Situ Stresses indicates that: b. In block and panel caving mines the footprint area varies
a. Currently the CSIRO Hollow Inclusion Cell is the most widely, but in 80% of the cases, it is smaller than 250,000
commonly used method for in situ stress measurements. m2 with an average of 165,000 m2.
b. Typically in underground caving mines the in situ major c. As shown in Figure 2, the ratio between footprint length
principal stress, S1, varies from 30 to 40 MPa; and the in (L) and width (B) rarely exceeds 3, and in almost 60% of
situ minimum principal stress, S3, varies from 10 to 20 the cases it is smaller than 2. Nevertheless, in many large
MPa. open pit mines currently considering a transition to
c. In underground mines the mean value of the stress ratio, underground cave mining this ratio will be larger than 3.
KMEAN, is bounded as proposed by Hoek and Brown d. It seems that most block and panel caving mines have
(1980), where the depth z is in meters: ignored a possible relationship between block height (H)
and footprint geometry (defined by its width B). As a
preliminary conclusion, and as shown in Figure 3, the
1500 100 data collected suggested that:
0.5 + K MEAN 0.3 + (2)
z z If H/B 1 the cave will easily connect to surface (or to an
upper mined out level).

84 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 a. As shown in Figure 4, the shape of the initial area for
caving is predominantly square or rectangular, but in a
few cases other shapes (e.g. triangular) have been used.
b. As shown in Figure 4, the available data indicates that the
area for caving initiation has an average value of 10,000
m2, and typically varies from 5,000 to 15,000 m2.

Figure 1: Evolution with time of block height in block and

panel caving mines.

Figure 4: Relative frequency of initial caving areas and their

shapes in block and panel caving mines.

c. As shown in Figure 5, the hydraulic radius, HR, of the

initial caving area varies from 15 to 45 m, with an average
of 20 to 30 m.

Figure 2: Values of the footprint ratio L/B in block and panel

caving mines.

Figure 5: Relative frequency of hydraulic radii of the initial

caving area in block and panel caving mines.

d. In 60% of the cases some measures were taken to facilitate

cave initiation (slots: 53%, artificial chimneys: 7%).

The analysis of the data on the Undercut Level, UCL,

indicates that:

a. The distance between UCL drifts varies from 10 to 35 m,

Figure 3: Relation between H and B in block and panel with an average of 20 to 25 m.
caving mines. b. The width of UCL drifts has increased with time. Typically,
before 1970 it was 2 to 3 m, during 1970-1990 it was 3 m,
and since 1990 it has been 4 m.
c. The height of UCL drifts has increased with time.
If 2 H/B > 1 the cave probably will connect to surface (or Typically, before 1970 it was 2 to 2.5 m, during 1970-1990
to an upper mined out level). it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 3.5 to 4 m.
If H/B > 2 the cave could have problems to connect to d. The undercut height shows no time-dependent trend. It
surface (or to an upper mined out level). varies from 3 to 20 m, with an average of 8 to 12 m.
e. As shown in Figure 6, the average undercutting rate,
The analysis of the data on Caving Initiation indicates RUC, varies from 500 to 5,000 m2/month, with an average
that: of 2,000 to 3,000 m2/month.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 85

 The analysis of the data on Support indicates that:
a. In most underground caving mines support on the UCL
consists of only bolts. In some mines this support also
includes mesh and shotcrete in the UCL access drifts.
b. In most underground caving mines support on the
EXL includes bolts (typically 1.8 to 2.4 m long, at
spacings of 1.0 to 1.3 m), mesh and shotcrete
(typically 50 mm). In many cases it also includes
cables, typically 5 to 8 m long, at intersections). Also
some mines use straps and osro-straps, as illustrated
in Figure 8.
c. Bolt lengths range from 1.2 to 3.8 m, with typical values
of 2 to 2.3 m on the UCL, and 2 to 2.5 m on the EXL.
d. Bolt spacings range from 0.6 to 1.4 m, being typically 1.0
m for both the UCL and the EXL.
e. There is no clear difference in the ratio of the bolt length,
L, to the drift width, W, used on the UCL and EXL. In most
cases the ratio L/W ranges from 1.5 to 3.
Figure 6: Relative frequencies of average undercutting
rates, RUC, in block and panel caving mines.

The analysis of the data on the Extraction Level, EXL,

indicates that:
a. The crown-pillar thickness (from the EXL floor to the UCL
floor) shows an increasing trend with time. Typically,
before 1970 it was 7.5 to 10 m, from 1970-1990 it was
12.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 15 to 17.5 m.
b. The spacing between EXL drifts shows an increasing
trend with time. Typically, before 1970 it was 12 to 16 m,
from 1970-1990 it was 20 to 24 m, and since 1990 it has
been 26 to 28 m.
c. The width of EXL drifts shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 2.5 m, from 1970-1990
it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 4 to 4.5 m.
d. The height of EXL drifts shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 2 to 2.5 m, from 1970-
1990 it was 3 to 3.5 m, and since 1990 it has been 3.5 to
4.5 m.
e. The draw point spacing shows an increasing trend with
time. Typically, before 1970 it was 8 m, from 1970-1990 it
was 12 m, and since 1990 it has been 15 m.
f. The influence area of draw points shows an increasing
trend with time. Typically, before 1970 it was 50 m2, from
1970-1990 it was 125 m2, and since 1990 it has been 200
to 225 m2.
g. The most commonly used extraction level geometry is the
herringbone layout (54% of the cases), followed by the El
Teniente layout (40% of cases).
h. As shown in Figure 7, the average draw rate, RDW, varies
from 0.05 to 0.7 m/day, with an average of 0.2 to 0.25
m/day.
Figure 8: EXL support by bolts, mesh and osro-straps at a
South African underground mine.

f. For preliminary estimations of bolt length, the following

relations are suggested:
Poor quality rock masses (20 RMR 40):

L (m) = 0.60 x W + 0.60 (5)

Fair quality rock masses (40 RMR 60):

L (m) = 0.45 x W + 0.45 (6)

Good quality rock masses (60 RMR 80):

L (m) = 0.30 x W + 0.30 (7)

Figure 7: Relative frequencies of average draw rates, RDW,
in block and panel caving mines.

86 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

g. Underground caving mines in rockburst prone ground Collapses correspond to the relatively slow failure of UCL
have also used mesh and lacing, as a complementary and/or EXL pillars, which triggers crown pillar failure, and
support for the EXL drifts. drift closure. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate this type of
h. The support of the draw points differs from one mine to geotechnical hazard.
another, but in most cases it includes steel arches, cable
bolts, and concrete and/or shotcrete. The number of steel
arches previously varied from 2 to 7, but currently most
mines used 2 to 3 steel arches.

The analysis of the data on Material Handling Systems

indicates that in 57% of the cases examined, caving mines
use production shafts; in 27% of cases they use conveyor
belts; in 12% they use trains; and in 4% they use trucks.

4 MINE OPERATION

The analysis of the data on Mine Operations indicates

that:
a. The powder factor for undercut blasting varies widely,
from 200 to 1000 g/tonne; with an average of 400 to 500
g/tonne.
b. LHD capacity varies from 7 to 19 tonnes, with an average
of 11 tonnes.
c. LHD tramming distance varies widely, from 25 to 300 m, Figure 10: Collapse of an UCL drift at Te 4 Sur, El Teniente
with an average of 125 to 150 m. mine, 1989.
d. In almost 50% of cases, the oversize limit varies from 1.8
to 2 m3 but has a wide range from 0.4 to 2.4 m3. The
average oversize limit is 1.6 m3.

5 GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING

The analysis of the data on Geotechnical Monitoring in

caving mines indicates that:
a. As shown in Figure 9, the most commonly used
monitoring systems are field inspections (100%), local
displacement measurements (82%), seismic monitoring
(64%), time domain reflectometry (64%), convergence
measurements (36%) and observation boreholes (36%).
b. As shown in Figure 9, the geotechnical monitoring systems
that have generally produced the most satisfactory results
are convergence measurements, field inspections, seismic
monitoring, time domain reflectometry, aerial photography
and water flow measurements.

Figure 11: Collapse of an EXL drift at Ten 4 Sur, El Teniente

mine, 1989.

The analysis of the data on Collapses indicates that:

a. The area affected by a single collapse has varied from
140 to 17,500 m2, with an average of 3,700 m2.
b. The most common causes of collapses are irregular draw
rate and/or poor draw management, presence of major
geological structures, deficient mine planning and/or poor
mining sequences, and lack of communication between
the geotechnical, planning and mine operations groups.
c. The most common remedial measures for collapses are
regularization of draw rates and/or improved draw
management, improved mining sequences, additional
support, and improved communication between the
geotechnical, planning and mine operations groups.
Figure 9: Relative frequency of use and degree of
satisfaction of geotechnical monitoring systems used in Rockbursts arise from mining-induced seismic events that
underground caving mines. cause sudden and violent failure of a volume of rock, which
may or may not be defined by structures. Figures 12 and 13
illustrate this type of geotechnical hazard.
6 GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS

The main geotechnical hazards affecting underground

caving mines are collapses, rockbursts, subsidence, water
inflows and mudrushes, and hangups.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 87

 Figure 14 illustrates a subsidence crater associated with
cave mining.

Figure 12: Typical major rockburst damage without

structural control, affecting a UCL drift on Ten Sub 6, El
Teniente mine, 1991.

Figure 14: Subsidence crater caused by block and panel

caving at Salvador mine, Chile, 2003.

The analysis of the data on Subsidence indicates that:

a. The depth of a subsidence crater may vary from less than
100 to 1400 m, with the average being about 450 m.
b. The angle of break, a, varies from 40 to 90, depending
on the rock mass quality and the structures in the rock
mass (in few cases there are even overhanging crater
walls).
c. The most common factors that may exacerbate
subsidence are the presence of major unfavourably
oriented geological structures, a poorer rock mass quality
than expected, poor draw management and deficient
mine planning.
d. The most common remedial measures for dealing with
subsidence are geotechnical monitoring, geotechnically
improved mine planning and mining sequence and, in the
final analysis, relocating infrastructure that could be
affected by subsidence.
Water Inflows / Mudrushes correspond to sudden inflows
of water and/or mud from drawpoints or other underground
openings. Due to their nature these phenomena propagate
Figure 13: Typical major rockburst damage with structural rapidly, endangering people, equipment and infrastructure.
control, affecting a drift on the Ventilation Level of Ten Sub Figure 15 illustrates the damage that can be caused.
6, El Teniente mine, 1990.

The analysis of the data on Rockbursts indicates that:

a. The most common causes of rockbursts are the presence
of major geological structures, high stresses, a non-
favourable mining sequence, an excessive undercutting
rate, and an excessive draw rate.
b. The most common remedial measures for rockbursts are
seismic monitoring, improved mining sequences from
geotechnical considerations, reduced draw rates, and the
implementation of contingency plans (from access
restrictions to the closure of a mining sector).

Subsidence corresponds to the lowering of the ground

surface due to mining causing the development of a crater.
Within the caves zone of influence, the rock mass
undergoes deformations that could damage the mines
surface and/or underground infrastructure.
Commonly, the geometry of a subsidence crater is
defined by its depth, H, and the angle of break, a, defined as
the inclination with the horizontal of an imaginary line
connecting the UCL edge with the perimeter of the crater at
surface (defined by the limit of the zone where the rock Figure 15: Damage caused by a mudrush in an
mass shows large discontinuous deformations). underground caving mine.

88 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The analysis of the data on Water Inflows and Mudrushes c. The most common causes of hangups are unexpected
indicates that: geological-geotechnical conditions, stresses too low to
a. The most common causes of water inflows and induce stress caving, stresses high enough to develop
mudrushes are the presence of wet/clayey ore, fine clamping forces arresting stress release caving,
fragmentation, a crater acting as a water collector and reductions in the undercut height, non-standard undercut
deficient draw management. geometry, no measures taken to facilitate cave initiation
b. The most common remedial measures for dealing with and poor draw extraction/management.
these hazards are surface stabilization, improved draw d. The most common remedial measures for dealing with
management, development and implementation of hangups are increasing the undercut area, weakening of
contingency plans, implementation of drainage systems the hangup boundaries, conditioning the rock mass in the
and instrumentation and monitoring. cave back and improved draw management.

Hangups arise from the arrest of cave propagation due to 7 CONCLUSIONS

the formation of a metastable geometry that could
eventually fail suddenly, generating air blasts and causing The interpretation of the data collected in this study has allowed
significant damage in the underground mines excavations. current trends and practices in underground mining by caving
Figure 16 shows an example of this type of hazard. The methods to be identified. Table 3 summarizes the currently used
analysis of the data on Hangups indicates that: values of the most relevant parameters. This compilation may be
of value in scoping and pre-feasibility studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the JKMRC

and the sponsors of ICS-II: Codelco, De Beers, LKAB,
Newcrest Mining, Northparkes, Rio Tinto, Sandvik-Tamrock
and WMC. They also wish to express their gratitude to all those
who helped them to collect data at the mines visited: Andina,
Bingham Canyon, Cadia, Chuquicamata, El Teniente, Finsch,
Grasberg Open Pit, Grasberg Underground (DOZ),
Henderson, Kidd Creek, Kiruna, Koffiefontein, Mount Keith,
Northparkes, Palabora, Ridgeway and Salvador. Finally, the
authors wish to especially acknowledge the support provided
by Division Codelco Norte for this research.

REFERENCES
Figure 16: Formation of chimney craters immediately after
the failure of the hangup at Inca West Sector, Salvador Flores, G and Karzulovic, A, 2002. Benchmarking Report,
mine, Chile (December 5, 1999). prepared for ICS-II, JKMRC and Itasca Consulting Group,
Inc.: Brisbane.
a. The area of hangups has varied widely, from 1,000 m2 to Hoek, E and Brown, E T, 1980. Underground Excavations
more than 35,000 m2, with an average of 12,000 m2. in Rock, 527 p., Institution of Mining and Metallurgy:
b. Reported data on air blasts are related to hangups having London.
areas larger than 10,000 m2.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 89

 Table 3: Typical Parameters for Block and Panel Caving Mines

Parameter Typical Value Comments

Rock Mass Quality 50 RMR < 60 If RMR > 60 rock mass cavability must be evaluated carefully.

Accesses Decline Currently 70% of mines prefer declines, and 20% use both
declines and shafts as mine access.

Block Height 210 m This typical block height could vary by 20%.

Footprint < 50,000 m2 30,000 m2 These typical areas could vary +20%. It is recommended to
Area 50,000 to 100,000 m2 75,000 m2 use equal or larger areas, but not smaller than the typical
> 100,000 m2 170,000 m2 values. Also, square areas are better than the rectangular
ones.

Caving Area 10,000 m2 Smaller areas are not recommended, especially in

Initiation massive rock masses.
Shape Square Internal corners must be avoided (eg an L shaped area).
Measures to Facilitate Slot Highly recommended to facilitate cave initiation.
Hydraulic Radius 20 to 30 m Avoid being close to the limit in Laubschers chart.

UCL Drifts Spacing 15 m This is the current practice.

Height 4m Could be increased but not decreased.
Width 4m
Undercut Height 8m Could vary, but be careful if using small undercutting heights.
Undercutting Rate 2100 m2/month Could be increased but be careful with induced seismicity,
especially if in a high stress environment.

EXL Drifts Crown-Pillar 17 m Could vary by 20% (measured from UCL floor to EXT floor).
Spacing 30 m Could vary from 26 to 36 m.
Height 4m Could be increased but not decreased.
Width 4m

Draw Spacing 15 m Could vary from 13 to 18 m.

Points Influence Area 225 m2 Could vary from 169 to 324 m2.

Draw Rates 0.20 m/day This is an average value. Typically lower values are used at the
beginning of caving, and higher values are used when more than
30% of the block height has been extracted.

LHD Capacity 11 tonnes Could vary by 20%.

Equipment Tramming Distance 140 m Smaller tramming distances are preferable.

Powder Factor 400 g/tonne For undercutting blasting. It could vary 20%.

Oversize Limit 1.8 to 2.0 m3 Could vary by 20%.

Subsidence RMR < 70 > 45 a is the angle of break.

RMR > 70 > 60

Geotechnical Hazards The project must take account that collapses, rockbursts, subsidence, water inflows and
mudrushes, and hangups could occur.

Instrumentation & Monitoring The most common monitoring systems include displacements and seismicity. It is recommended to
include a seismic monitoring system, especially in massive hard rock and/or high
stress environments.

(1) These typical values are intended only for the scoping and pre-feasibility stages of a mining project.
(2) RMR values are for Laubschers 1990 system.

90 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Incline cave: A technical alternative
method to mine kimberlite
deposits at depth.
Miguel Paucar and Collin Mthombeni, Finsch Mine, De Beers, South Africa

Abstract
De Beers underground operations have mined kimberlitic pipes utilizing the Block caving as the preferred mining method
since the late 1950s. These pipes are been mined at shallow depth, with large ore body footprint size, and with low block
heights.
The requirement to extend the life of the existing operations has resulted in investigations for mining at greater depth and
higher block heights due to the decreasing footprint and volume of the orebody at depth. Therefore, it is strategic for De
Beers to design and propose alternative mining methods, which will reduce the technical risks at similar or lower costs
to ensure a safe and efficient ore extraction.
This paper describes the experience and challenges of the Block cave method to meet the technical requirements of
mining at depth and higher block heights. An incline cave mining method is proposed as an alternative method to meet
some of the challenges of mining kimberlite at depth.

1 INTRODUCTION shape with steeply dipping (80o to 85o) walls, as shown in

Figure 2. This shape is consistent, although it reflects the
De Beers has been exploiting the Finsch Mine diamond- hardness of the country rock that the kimberlite broke
bearing kimberlite pipe since 1966. Open-pit methods were through on its way to surface.
first used to exploit the diamond pipe. After the open-pit The kimberlite within the pipe can usually be sub-divided
operation the mine changed to underground operations and into three broad facies:
the pipe was divided into series of blocks, as shown in The hypabyssal facies, which is plug-like, dyke intrusion,
Figure 1. Block 1 and 2 were mined by a combination of comprising of a harder, more competent kimberlite.
open pit and blasthole open stoping methods. Block 3 is The diatreme facies, which constitutes the mid portion of
exclusively blasthole open stoping while Block 4 will employ the pipe, consist of various types of Tuffistic Kimberlite
block caving (Preece, 1998). Block 5 is currently being Breccias (TKB).
delineated and as part of the pre-feasibility study alternative The crater facies, which is the upper portion, is influenced
mining methods are being investigated. by the surface venting of the volcano.
Due to the pipes decreasing geometry (tapering at an
angles between 76 -86 degrees), and footprint size with Most of the pipes have inclusions of the country rock
depth, the Block 5 drop down has been set at 250 metres. through which they have intruded, being mostly basalt at
This is more from a financial stand point than anything else. Finsch Mine or quartzite at Cullinan Diamond Mine. These
This will result in a considerable change in the mining inclusions create a complex rock mass structures which are
environment, since no kimberlite pipe has at yet been mined exacerbated by the hygroscopic nature of kimberlite. On
at these block heights. exposure kimberlite deteriorates rapidly, leading to relatively
As part of the investigations into determining the most low design rockmass strength, being between 18 to 25 MPa
suitable mining method for the block, an inclined drawpoint for TKB kimberlite.
caving layout was identified as one. An incline drawpoint
layout was first introduced at Gaths Mine, Zimbabwe, as it
was not possible to maintain a horizontal layout
(Laubscher, 2000).
This paper describes the proposed mining method,
compared to the block caving method, using the Finsch pipe
geometry as a case study. Although the incline cave is
mostly applicable to dipping orebodies, there is no reason
why this method should not be applied to other mining
situations.

2 GEOLOGY AND GEOMECHANICS

Kimberlite, the rock in which diamonds are generally

found, consists of a mixture of different rock materials
whose most important constituents are: (1) fragments of
peridotite, eclogite, (2) large crystals of peridotite or eclogite
altered by fluids in the kimberlite and by ground water and
(3) the matrix, which is the crystallized kimberlite magma.
The original kimberlitic volcanoes are now known as
"pipes" because of the typically carrot or inverted-cone Figure 1: Diagrammatic section of Finsch Mine.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 91

 Rockmass classification techniques, as well as numerical Higher in-situ stresses, poor rock conditions (structures)
modeling techniques have been applied to the mine design and water resulting in an increased risk of not achieving
and planning process. Due to the complexity of the mine production.
kimberlite, these models generally require extensive
validation by back analysis. Common challenges for mining kimberlite pipes are the
difficulties being experienced in maintaining the extraction
level. The drawpoint horizon is only capable of standing for
a limited time and in the worst cases completely collapsed
tunnels may be required to be re-established and re-
supported several times at high cost during their productive
life (Laubscher and Esterhuizen, 1994). This is because the
extraction level is developed in relatively weak rock and also
as much as 50% of the rock on the extraction level is
extracted to create production tunnels, crosscuts and
drawbells required for mining. The rock strength capacity
starts being challenged, and also the rock is deteriorating
due the blasting/mining activities which cause serious
damage.
In an attempt to alleviate the situation, various
modifications are being made based on past experiences.
These modifications vary from various support techniques
and extraction level layouts (distance between drawpoints,
shapes of drawpoints, El Teniente v/s herringbone layouts)
to undercutting techniques (pre and post undercut, advance
undercut, undercut height, etc). Detailed information on
these modifications is to be found in Bartlett, 1998. Although
some benefit can be derived from these measures, it
Figure 2: Cross section of a typical kimberlite pipe in South becomes increasingly apparent that the horizontal
Africa (Harlow, 1997). extraction level could be becoming totally unsuited to the
ground conditions that are being experienced. Anticipating
that the problems encountered would compound with depth,
3 BLOCK CAVE MINING CHALLENGES the need to investigate an alternative mining method for the
IN KIMBERLITE PIPES kimberlite pipes at depth and higher block heights is
becoming more and more apparent.
The challenges of mining kimberlitic pipes at depth are Alternative caving mining methods previously being
that: applied in kimberlite pipes such as the Sub Level Caving
The decreasing footprint results in increasing the block (previously applied in Kimberley Mines) and the Front Cave
heights in order to optimize the required economic life (applied in Koffiefontein Mine) have been investigated. The
from the block being mined. SLC was found to be not economically attractive due to the

Figure 3: Layout and design of Incline cave - 3D model of levels and infraestructure required.

92 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

amount of development, support and the drill and blast will be blasted above the top extraction level to extend the
running cost associated with the method. The Front Cave undercut to the contact of the orebody. Rings will be drilled
had the limitation of not being suitable for higher block from the crosscuts, and blasted into the slot for a distance
heights and the limited production output due to the of 11m to form the draw cones. A permanent drawpoint
geometry of the pipe. brow will then be established at that position. Caving is
initiated once the slot and draw cones are connected
between the different levels, forming a continuous undercut
4 DESIGN AND LAYOUT area inclined at 45 degrees, as shown in Figure 5.
OF THE INCLINE CAVE METHOD

4.1 General description

The incline cave method proposed here is based on the
false footwall incline cave method being applied in Gaths
Mine, Zimbabwe.
The preliminary design and layout presented in this paper
is just a step in the iterative process and will be revisited in
the cycle of planning and design before a final layout is
produced. All the design parameters for a horizontal block
caving layouts have been assumed to be the same for the
incline caving layout.
The method entails the development of a number of
extraction levels at the lower part of the block.
For the block height of about 250m, seven extraction
levels, at 15m vertical intervals, will be developed in the
bottom of the block (Figure 3). The extraction tunnels will be
15m apart, and will be staggered from level to level as in 1) Slot opening
sub-level caving. The ends of the tunnels will be located Scale 1:1000
along a plane inclined at 45 degrees as shown in Figure 4.
The eighth level will be the goundhandling level, where
the ore will be crushed and then conveyed to the shaft
station.

4.2 Block size and height

At 250m below the current mining level, the pipe has a
footprint of approximately 4 hectares (max 250m length by
150m wide). A mirror image (see Figure 4) incline layout
has been applied in order to limit the production working
area to the least number of levels. This layout has resulted
in 7 production (extraction) levels, with the bottom level
drawing the highest columns (220m) and the top level
drawing shortest column height (175m).

2) Undercut opening
Scale 1:1000

Figure 4: Section view of the pipe and level positions.

4.3 Undercutting
Continuous slots will be blasted, 4m wide and 15m high, 3) Caving and Loading
to connect the ends of the crosscuts on each level, as Scale 1:1000
shown in Figure 5 (slot opening). An additional wider slot

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 93

 in conjunction with Blumhm Burton consultants. The
findings recommended a force exhaust system for the
development phase and an exhaust system for the
undercutting and production stages. The volume of air
required is 760 m3/sec. compared to 680 m3/sec. for the
block caving method.

5 STABILITY AND SUPPORT

From the experience at Gaths and Cassiar mines it has

been shown that if the inclined cave design is correctly
orientated in relation to the stresses and structures, the
general or global stability is much better than the traditional
horizontal block caving method.
The pillars formed in a conventional Block cave; by the
undercut and extraction level tunnel development (major
apex) and by drawbell opening (minor apex) are free-
standing pillars that are inherently weak and require
4) Retreat using SLC method extensive support and major expense. The advantage of the
Scale 1:1000 incline cave layout is that the drawpoints and production
tunnels are located in a narrow zone backed by solid
ground.
Support has always been an issue in Block caving;
Figure 5: Mining sequence of the Incline cave method. the extraction level has to undergo various stress
changes. During undercutting operations it is under a
The undercut initiation position was influenced by: high compressive load, and once the undercut is
Geotechnical factors to ensure caving propagation, completed the extraction level tunnel goes under
High grade area, tension or stress relaxation. Therefore for these severe
The amount of development before caving ocurrs. stress changes a increased level of support is required
for the extraction level. In the case of the incline cave
The selected option was to initiate undercut from the the stress distribution is different since it has
south position; from the bottom level up, as shown in production tunnels in different levels. The amount of
Figure 6. support required on the production tunnels and
drawpoints will be less (lower cost) than in the block
caving due to the better stability.
The incline cave design provides more drawpoints than
the block cave method and the strengh of them is greater
too, meaning the drawpoint availability is higher, and
hopefully a lower repair cost.
Support is designed on the basis of experience, rock
mass characterisation, and expected stress changes
associated with cave mining as predicted by numerical
stress modelling. The support requirements for the various
areas in the mine excavations are:

Dolomite
Access ramps and rim tunnels 2.9m X 25mm fully grouted
rock bolts at a 1.5m square pattern installed during primary
development. In areas where additional support is
necessary, shotcrete and wire mesh will supplement the
rock bolt support.

Rim tunnel/loading drive break-aways 3.8m X 25mm rock

bolts, 6.0m fully grouted pre-tensioned rope anchors and
meshing/shotcrete if required.

Kimberlite
Figure 6: Method of undercutting From corner bottom up. Loading drives in kimberlite sealant, 25mm shotcrete,
3.8m X 25mm rock bolts at 1.0m square pattern, meshing
and strapping and a final 100mm layer of shotcrete.
4.4 Remnants and wedge mining
The ore in the final triangular wedge of ground containing Slot tunnels As per the loading drives above except at the
the tunnels will be recovered by sub-level caving of the intersections with the loading tunnels where additional 6.0m
tunnels, as shown in Figure 5. The wedge that could not be rope anchors will be installed to support the large spans.
mined after the sub level cave (SLC) mining will be allowed
to cave down to the next mining block. Loading drive contact support where necessary steel
arches will be installed in highly unstable contact areas to
4.5 Ventilation support the key blocks.
It was first thought that the Incline Cave method would
have a much higher air requirements than a Block Cave. A Drawpoint support will be as per current mine practices,
ventilation study was carried out by Anglo Technical Division these being the Koffiefontein type semi-permanent

94 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

drawpoint (SPD) support design for the front cave. Advantages
Consisting of 6m long anchors, RSJ sets and concrete. High productivity due to close drawpoint spacing.
Covering levels from 790m down to 880m, makes easier
6 PRODUCTION AND DRAW CONTROL to recover ore from upper levels.
In the event of damage to an access tunnel, columns can
Ore is removed from the drawpoint by diesel LHD machines, be drawn from the adjacent tunnel because they are
which will transport the ore to orepasses. All the levels feed a placed in different levels.
common orepass system on both sides of the pipe. Unlike in More drawpoints covering larger footprint area more
panel caving if an access tunnels get damaged, the column can productivity.
be drawn from the adjacent tunnel. Stress distribution is improved, especially during
As Dr. D. Laubscher defines draw control: "Practice of undercutting and reduction in tunnels support cost.
controlling tonnages drawn from individual drawpoints with One drawpoint is dedicated to a tunnel on a level, makes
the object of: Minimize dilution, ensure maximum ore automation more applicable.
recovery, avoid damaging load concentration on the
extraction level and avoid creation of conditions leading to Disadvantages
air blast, mud rushes, etc". Never applied in kimberlite mining.
(Laubscher, 2000). The grade and fragmentation in the Long lead time is needed to install most of the
dilution zone must be known in order to practice good draw infrastructure in place before the start of undercutting.
control. A poor draw control means drawing of fine material More metres to be developed and capital investment are
at the expense of coarse material. Draw control discipline relatively higher.
must be applied so that coarse material must be drilled and Multi-tipping level is seen as major challenge due to
blasted at the end of the shift. ventilation.
During the production phase, brow wear will occur, and Supervision not concentrated in one level.
conditions may deteriorate because of weak rock, but the
instalattion of brow support as semi permanent drawpoint ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(SPD) will reduce it and enhance stability in this area. Unlike
a conventional block-cave layout, a particular brow position The authors would like to thank Alan Guest, General
can be abandoned and mining can fall back along the Manager, Geotechnical Engineering for his encouragement
drawpoint to a more stable location. This is made possible and comments during the preparation of this paper. The
by the greater length of drawpoint drifts and the absence of authors acknowledge the permission of Management,
extraction pillars with limited dimensions. In falling back, the Finsch Mine and the Director Operations, De Beers
effect on the draw control and interaction with other levels Consolidated Mines to publish this paper.
should be considered.
REFERENCES
7 CONCLUSIONS
Bartlett, P, 1998. Planning a mechanised cave with coarse
The incline cave method is a combination of sub-level fragmentation in Kimberlite, PhD thesis.
caving and block caving (low cost - high production in weak Diaz, G and Tobar, P, 2000. Panel caving experiences and
rock) but it has never been applied in the mining of macrotrench An alternative exploitation method at the El
kimberlite pipes, although successes have been noted at Teniente mine, Codelco Chile. Massmin 2000, Brisbane,
King section, Gaths Mine in Zimbabwe and Cassiar Mine in Australia, pp. 235 247.
Canada (Laubscher and Esterhuizen, 1994). However, due Harlow, G, 1997. The Nature of Diamonds Cambridge
to advantages mentioned before, we believe that this University press in association with the American
method warrants further investigation in order to minimize Museum of Natural History.
risks inherent to unproven technology. The risks can be Laubscher, D, 2000. A practical manual on Block Caving
reduced by fragmentation analysis, draw control, dilution For the International Caving Study.
model through PCBC studies, scheduling of activities using Laubscher, D and Esterhuizen, G, 1994. Inclined-
a software tool, and simulation of mining equipment drawpoint caving a cave mining method. XVth
requirements and the overall ore extraction system. Congress, Johannesburg, SAIMM. Volume 1 pp. 247-250.
Owen, K and Guest, A, 1994. Underground mining of
The advantages and disadvantages of the method are as kimberlite pipes. XVth Congress, Johannesburg, SAIMM.
follows: Volume 1 pp. 207-218.
Preece, C, 1998. Finsch Mine; Open pit to open stoping to
Block caving, Underground mining methods, pp. 439 453.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 95

 Quantifying open
stope performance
E. Villaescusa, Professor of Geomechanics, Western Australian School of Mines

Abstract
Stope performance is reviewed with respect to the overall stope design process. Global and detailed design issues are
identified along the way, and the stope design note is described in detail. Stope performance is quantified based on
depth of failure measurements, which are calculated using block models of Cavity Monitoring System wireframes and
tested against the stope design boundaries. Finally a stope performance assessment summary data sheet is also
provided.

1 INTRODUCTION extraction of individual stopes. Finally, a monitoring and

back analysis strategy is required to allow a documented
The sublevel open stoping method (SLOS) are used to closure of the mine design loop.
extract large massive or tabular, steeply-dipping competent
orebodies surrounded by competent host rocks which in 3 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL
general have few constraints regarding the shape, size and CHARACTERIZATION
continuity of the mineralization. In general, open stopes are
relatively large excavations in which ring drilling is the main The stope design process starts with an initial orebody
method of rock breakage (Villaescusa, 2000). delineation process to provide an interpolated outline of the
The SLOS method offers several advantages including, low grade contours. This information is critical and is initially
cost and efficient non-entry production operations, utilization of used to locate the required drilling and mucking drives along
highly mechanized, mobile drilling and loading production the orebody in question. The accuracy of the delineated
equipment, high production rates with a minimum level of grade boundaries is a function of the nature of the orebody,
personnel. Furthermore, production operations are the amount of drilling information and the mining access
concentrated into few locations such as ring drilling, blasting through the orebody. For narrow orebodies, development is
and drawpoint mucking. The disadvantages include a carried out under strict geological control, a process that
requirement for a significant level of development requires geological mapping of drives and crosscuts
infrastructure before production starts, thus incurring a high through the orebodies (and sometimes additional in-fill
initial capital investment. However, most of the development drilling) in order to define the stope ore-waste contacts.
occurs within the orebody. In addition, the stopes must be The suggested approach is to obtain representative
designed with regular boundaries and internal waste pockets (mine-wide) rock mass properties required during the
can not be separated within the broken ore. Similarly, global excavation design and stability analysis stages. In
delineated ore can not be recovered beyond a designed stope most cases, this information is obtained from diamond
boundary. Consequently, ore dilution, consisting of low-grade, drill holes (core logging of non-oriented holes, as well as
waste rock or minefill materials, may occur at the stope geotechnical holes) and direct mapping of underground
boundaries. Furthermore, ore loss due to insufficient breakage openings. Geophysical tools can also used for orebody
can also occur within the stope boundaries. delineation and rock mass characterization. The
The stope performance is measured by the ability to confidence in the geological information must be
achieve maximum extraction with minimal dilution. Hence, sufficient to establish the nature and irregularities of the
the success of the method relies on the stability of large orebody, the nature and location of major controlling
(mainly un-reinforced) stope walls and crowns as well as the geological structures, the general rock mass
stability of any fill masses exposed characteristics as well as to perform an economic
evaluation to determine whether a particular block should
2 STOPE DESIGN PROCESS be mined. This type of information requires that the
sampling process extend beyond the orebody boundaries
Stope design for dilution control requires interactions in order to determine the likelihood of failure from
among geology, mine planning, rock mechanics and orebody hangingwalls, footwalls or stope crowns.
operating personnel (Villaescusa, 1998). The overall Experience has shown that the interpolated grade may
rational methodology for the stope design process is shown define the economics of a stope, but the geological structures
in Figure 1. Six key stages (and key personnel) are and the location (and alignment) of the drives up-dip may
identified, with the orebody delineation and rock mass define the final shape. Lithology and the presence of major
characterization stages as the basic input. The tasks faults and joints relative to the stope wall orientations need to
consists of an early determination of rockmass properties on be anticipated in order to control dilution (See Figure 2). A need
a block scale, followed by an estimate of the likely loading exists for routine geological mapping and timely interpretations
conditions from the mining sequences. The process to keep the geology current and to determine areas of low rock
requires a global and a detailed design stage, where global mass strength, associated with clay fracture filling and
design issues are relevant and applicable within entire moderate to complete wall alteration. Interpreted geology maps
areas of a mine, such as an extension of an existing across all stope levels, on a stope composite basis, are
orebody, while detailed design issues are applicable to the essential tools for evaluating the likely influence of rock type

96 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

and major geological discontinuities on the actual stope of mine access and infrastructure, dimensions of sublevel
performance. intervals, backfill requirements and infrastructure,
equipment and ventilation considerations, etc. Stress
analysis of the global production schedules is critical to
determine the loading conditions (stress and displacement)
likely to result from a proposed mine-wide stoping
sequence.

Table 1. Global (block) design issues.

Exploration drilling requirements for

orebody delineation for the designed area
Area wide rock mass characterization
from borehole data and direct access
Overall mining method selection
Quantity and grade of ore required
with respect to scheduled metal targets
Access and infrastructure development requirements -
ore handling systems, workshops, etc.
Production scheduling, details and timing
Induced stresses from scheduled sequences,
including extraction directions
Primary and secondary stope dimensions
(including regional access pillars)
Backfill system requirements
Equipment requirements
Ventilation
Global economic assessment

5 DETAILED DESIGN
Figure 1. A formalized stope design methodology from data
collection to stope reconciliation. Detailed design is related to the extraction of individual
stopes within a global area and it represents the process of
establishing an optimum extraction method for an individual
stope, subject to a number of variables and constraints.
Blasthole geometry, firing sequence, ground support,
ventilation and economics are some of the key variables
considered. The constraints include the orebody
boundaries, the geological structures, any existing
development, and in some cases, any adjacent backfill
masses (See Figure 3).
Detailed design is achieved by means of a stope design
note issued to the planning and operating personnel. Such
a document includes detail on the overall extraction
philosophy, plans of sublevel development, sections
showing blasthole design concepts and drilling and blasting
parameters, ventilation, geology, rock mechanics and
overall firing sequence.
All the topics included on a stope design document are
inter-related. The extraction philosophy provides a general
overview of the design, safety and production issues for a
Figure 2: Massive stope hangingwall failure controlled by particular section of an orebody. Properly reinforced stope
large scale faults. development is required to allow access for drilling, blasting
and mucking. Development size is a function of the stoping
method and the equipment utilised. Knowledge of the nature
4 GLOBAL DESIGN and stability of the adjacent backfill masses is needed to
design cleaner rings or to avoid toeing of blastholes into the
Global design issues are related to the design and backfill.
stability of large sections of a mine, such as a new orebody Structural geology considerations such as the presence of
extension at depth or at the abutment for an existing major geological discontinuities often influence the blasting
deposit. Global design issues are schematically sequences. Other factors considered are the stress re-
represented on Figure 1, and listed in detail in Table 1. The distributions within and around a stope and likely to control
issues involved include global orebody delineation, design fall-off behaviour on the exposed walls. In addition, the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 97

retreat direction of the blasthole rings must take into account Once a final stope design status has been achieved, the
the stope ventilation network, with a retreat direction into blasthole design is undertaken by considering the
fresh air. production rigs that will be used, the ore limits, the survey
pick-up of the access development, the extent and
6 STOPE DESIGN NOTE sublevels of the stope, as well as the ring burden and toe
spacing (See Figure 4). The ore limits are usually updated
A stope design note covers many aspects involved in the in accordance with the completed stope development.
development and production of a stope (See Table 2). A scaled floor plan showing details of the latest survey
Technical presentations are required to encourage technical information including any vertical openings and status of
input from all the members of the design team (geology, surrounding stopes will be provided to assist the drillers.
rock mechanics, planning, operations and management). Locations of hangingwall, footwall, cut-off detail and location
They usually occur twice within the design process: at the of the main rings are also included. A long section that
conceptual design stages and prior to the issue of the final includes a schematic view of the stope cut-off raise, the cut-
drill and blast design. Feedback from both meetings should off, the production rings and the trough undercuts, is also
be incorporated into the final stope design. completed. This section helps to explain the stope design
philosophy, and becomes a useful tool during drilling and
blasting of the stope.
Table 2. Stope design presentation issues
7 STOPE EXTRACTION
Geological structures
Stope access and development requirements The actual firing sequence used to extract individual
Ore passes, loading bays, etc. stopes is likely to influence stress re-distribution as well as
blast induced damage within a stope. Stress and blast
Stope cut-off location
induced fall-off within a stope boundary may lead to poor
Production blast directions mucking performance during extraction. Although fall-off
Stability issues, ground support requirements resulting from stope firing is not the only source of poor
fragmentation, it can be minimized by avoiding excessive
Stress re-distributions assessment
undercutting of the stope walls (See Figure 5).
Backfill or permanent pillar demands A number of design options can be used to reduce stope
Production schedule undercut; including for example, firing the cut-off slot to the
full height of the stope before blasting of the main rings
Ventilation requirements
commences. This can be followed by the sequential blasting
Detailed economic analysis of the main rings to the full stope height (Villaescusa, 2000).
The objective is to reduce the number of stope faces
exposed, thereby reducing the potential for time related

Figure 3. Multiple lift stope showing main ring and diaphragm ring details.

98 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 4. Cross section view showing drilling details in multiple lift open stoping.

A stope firing sequence also determines the rate of

exposure of the main geological discontinuities intersecting
a stope (See Figure 6). A rapid exposure of a large fault
may occur after mass blasting or after progressive firing to
a fault (See Figure 6a). Such exposures may not allow
sufficient time for a gradual stress relief. If the orientation of
the stress field is unfavorable, large shear stresses may
result and induce local and regional fault movements
leading to stope fall-off. In order to optimize stability, stope
firings should proceed across a structure to allow
progressive stress relief of the shear stresses (See Figure
6b).

Figure 5. Stope wall undercutting within a stope firing

sequence.

structurally controlled fall-off. Undercut of the main rings can

Figure 6. Exposure of large geological features during
be avoided by designing the troughs to be blasted with
stoping operations.
coinciding faces.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 99

 Table 3. Example of potential problems and solutions in open stoping.

Open Stope Activity Potential Problem Potential Solution

Rock mass characterization Design may not be stable Back analyze

previous extracted stopes

Different domain for design Geological engineering judgement

Within stope boundaries

Insufficient information More geological mapping

Major discontinuities Consider firing sequences

intersect stope walls and cablebolt reinforcement

Stope design Design by default Better preparation job

use databases of stope performance

Tonnage and grade do not Better geological interpretation needed

match the design

Stope access is not in the Better planning

appropriate location

Orebody delineation do not match More definition drilling, use

the geological interpretation geophysical techniques

Excessive development in waste Optimize the block design

Not following the design Spot check and quality control,

better communication with production

Drilling and blasting Excessive hole deviation Down hole surveys, better
operator skills, laser alignment

Not following design Efficient supervision

Not drilling to required depth Efficient supervision

Poor workmanship due to bonus driven There may not be a short term solution

Explosive malfunctioning Review pattern

Area of low or high powder factor Use modelling blasting software

Falloff Less aggressive design?

Inability to establish failure Use information from seismic system

triggering mechanism

Mucking Orepass hang-up Limit intake size (use screen)

Large fragmentation/fall-off Optimize drilling and blasting

Long tramming distances Improve block design

Poor ventilation Review ventilation system

Poor reporting practices More personnel training

Poor drawpoint condition Support and reinforcement

Continuous fall-off inside the stope Exclusion periods

Stope survey Ability to survey as stope is extracted Communication with survey department

Limited access Establish stope access doors

Poor ventilation, laser beam Improve ventilation

can not shoot through

Fall-off may damage equipment Wait until ground stabilizes

100 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

8 STOPE PERFORMANCE

A stope performance review is undertaken as a technical

audit of a stope design process. The review is performed
during the stope extraction (after each firing) to monitor the
conditions at the exposed stope walls, including backbreak,
underbreak and broken ore fragmentation. The purpose of
the review is to determine any variations from a planned
stope design extraction strategy. To achieve this, a series of
stope surveys can be carried out after each significant firing,
and also following the completion of all firings (See Figure
7).

Figure 8. Production profile from a high lift bench stope

Figure 9. Cumulative plot of time vs volume for fired and

mucked volumes.

Figure 7. Longitudinal section view of a large scale bench With the advent of the Cavity Monitoring System (CMS)
stope showing consecutive surveys indicating minimal stope survey technique (Miller et al., 1992), information about
backbreak. the actual variations from a designed stope shape can be
routinely obtained and used analytically to calculate dilution,
depth of failure and to determine structural control by large
faults at the stope boundaries. Contours of depth of failure can
The performance review provides a mechanism to be determined by filling the CMS wireframes with blocks and
record the observations from operators and technical using the stope orientation information to orient the block model
personnel in order to indicate problems and successes such that Y direction of the blocks is perpendicular to the
during stope extraction. A database that highlights hangingwall, the X direction parallel to the strike and Z direction
lessons to be learnt and improvements to be made can parallel to the dip of the stopes as shown in Figure 10.
be adopted for each stope. Table 3 shows some of the
typical problems and possible solutions (by no means
exhaustive) encountered in open stoping. In addition to
those problems, stopes left open over long periods of
time may be influenced by time-dependent regional fault
behaviour. Stress re-distribution, production blasting and
backfill drainage from adjacent stopes are likely to
influence stope stability over a period of time. Blast
damage and the effects of water from backfill can be
transmitted along common fault structures intersecting a
number of stopes. Instability may create difficult remote
mucking conditions due to large material falling off into
the stope. These delays (stope production tails) actually
extend the stope life, which in turn may contribute to
more overbreak and more mucking delays. Figure 10. A CMS wireframe filled with 0.25m x 0.25m x
Production profiles are usually shown as histograms of 0.25m blocks.
mucked volume on a daily basis. The data in Figure 8
show that long-hole winzing (or any re-slotting) actually The block model can then be interrogated using the lode
slow down productivity. Since dilution is defined as any hangingwall and footwall and the CMS wireframes. The
material that is extracted beyond the boundaries of a blocks inside the CMS wireframe, yet outside the lode
designed orebody outline, a comparison of mucked hangingwall boundaries (depth of failure) need to be
versus designed volume can be used to estimate dilution determined. Once the thickness for each column of blocks
as shown in Figure 9. in the Y direction is calculated, the information can then be
contoured using 0.5 metre intervals as shown in Figure 11.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 101

 Information from failure depths can be used to
compare stope performance between double and single
lift stopes for a similar range of strike lengths and rock
mass conditions (See Figure 12). Back analysis of CMS
data can be used as a diagnostic tool to identify stopes
where blast damage may be causing early failures as
shown in Figure 12(a). The stope highlighted by a large
circle shows a depth of failure that is not in accordance
with the other stopes of similar size and shape at this
particular mining operation.
The data in Figure 12(b) show that for this site similar
depths of failure were experienced within the short stopes
(25m high down dip) compared with the large stopes (50m
down dip). A stronger geometrical control on the behaviour
was experienced within the large stopes, where a range of
failure depths can be established for stopes having a similar
strike length. The depth of failure within the short stopes
was controlled by factors other then geometry, such as blast
damage or time dependency. The depth of failure increases
sharply when the hydraulic radius exceeds 8 as shown in
Figure 13. The depth of failure in the stope footwalls is not
controlled by stope geometry.
The stope performance can also be quantified by plotting
depth of failure versus critical span as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 11. Longitudinal view of hangingwall depth of failure The economical impact of dilution can readily be linked to
contours showing structurally controlled failure depth of failure. The larger the critical span for this particular

Figure 12. Depth of failure for different hangingwall stope geometries.

Figure 13. Depth of failure for different hydraulic radius

102 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 detrimental effects of failures (See Figure 15) can only be
established using an economic model of dilution.
In order to ensure that the actual stope performance
information is used to the best advantage, and to improve
future designs, the details of stope design and its underlying
assumptions can be documented in a Stope Atlas, where
the history of the stope performance is recorded from the
initial firing through to final stope completion. The
information contained varies depending upon the stoping
practices at a particular mine site. The following issues may
be included:
Figure 14. Depth of failure for different spans within a Geology
shallow dipping tabular open stope operation. Geological orebody model and interpretations, geological
structural and rock mass properties.
operation, the larger the failure depth. A reduction on the Stope design
critical spans may require additional pillars (hence ore loss). Initial stope design geometry, documentation of changes
The balance between additional pillars versus the to design parameters, the reason and the results.

Table 4. Suggested stope performance assessment summary

STOPE PERFORMANCE REVIEW

Stope name: By: Date:

Material Designed Actual Tonnes mucked

Ore (t)

Grade (%)

Internal dilution (%)

External dilution (%)

Underbreak (%) -

Fill dilution (%) -

Geology:
The effects of major geological structures, rock types and properties
Reasons for any difference between design and actual grade and tonnes

Development:
Problems and concerns regarding ground conditions
Performance of ground support

Drilling:
Whether any holes or ring section could not be drilled as planned, set-up or deviation problems. Reasons for variation
from design.

Blasting:
Any problems encountered with charging, firing or design sequence.
The results of the blast, eg. Fragmentation, misfires, freezing of holes, induced failures

Production mucking:
Ventilation problems or otherwise with chosen circuit. Drawpoint and orepass conditions. Broken ore left in base of
stope?

Backfill:
Condition of fill passes, filling times and cement ratios used, any problems encountered.

Rock mechanics:
Stope and adjacent development stability. Timing of failures, and features that contributed to dilution, effects of blasting,
structure and stress.
Exposure and stability of adjacent fill masses.

Planning and design:

General comments on original vs. actual extraction. Recommended changes to design procedure. Financial analysis of
stope extraction.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 103

 Stope summary
A one page stope performance review for easy reference
(See Table 4).

9 CONCLUSIONS

The Stope performance is measured by the ability to

achieve maximum extraction with minimal dilution. The key
variable used to compare performance is depth of failure,
which is calculated using CMS wireframes and the
designed stope boundaries. The data show that depth of
failure can be used to identify blast damage and other
factors controlling stability such as time dependency. Depth
of failure increases significantly when the stope size
exceeds a critical value and can be readily used to develop
economic models of dilution.

REFERENCES
Figure 15. The detrimental effects of stope back failure
following stope blasting leading to ore contamination and Miller, F., Jacob, D. and Y. Potvin, 1992. Cavity Monitoring
ore loss. System: Update and applications. 94th Annual General
Meeting. Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Montreal.
Stope extraction
Villaescusa, E., 1998. Geotechnical design for dilution
Drilling and blasting practice, in-the-hole survey data and
control in underground mining. Mine Planning and
comparison to design, fragmentation assessment.
Equipment Selection. Singhal R. (ed), Balkema,
Stope performance
Rotterdam, 141-149.
Maximum spans achieved, stope survey (CMS) data,
Villaescusa, E. 2000. A review of sublevel stoping.
back analysis of failures, geotechnical information that
MassMin2000, Chitombo G. (ed), The AusIMM:
contributed to understanding the failures, ground support
Melbourne, 577-590.
performance.

104 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Mining method selection for diamond
mines - Challenges in the Arctic
Jaroslav Jakubec, Chris Page, SRK Consulting, Canada
Paul Harvey, BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc, Canada

Abstract
Following South Africa and Russia, Canada has become the latest country to open an underground diamond mine. The
Koala North underground mine, North Americas first underground diamond mine, formally opened in November 2002.
The Canadian Arctic poses several challenges that are not common on mines located in warmer climates and the mining
method selection process must take such challenges into consideration. This paper illustrates the decision making
process used at EKATI Diamond Mine to select an underground mining method that is applicable for kimberlite pipes in
Arctic conditions.

1 INTRODUCTION methods and to provide access to the lower elevations of

the Panda and Koala pipes which will also be developed as
EKATI Diamond Mine was the first diamond mine in underground operations once the open pit mining is
Canada. Since its opening in 1998, the mine has produced completed.
more than 23 million carats. Currently its annual output This paper does not aim at detailed mining method
contributes to approximately 6% of world diamond description but rather tries to comment on the specifics of
production by value. kimberlite mining in the Arctic context. It is restricted to the
EKATI Diamond Mine has another "first". Mass kimberlite pipes not to dikes or sills.
underground mining has found a new frontier in the Arctic
with the successful commissioning and operation of the 2 CHOICE OF MINING METHOD - BASIC
Koala North mine (see Figure 1). CONSIDERATIONS

The context for a mining operation is usually something

that man cannot change: the in situ rock mass and
geometrical characteristics of the economic mineralization,
the weather, the topography, geographical location - are
things that must be taken into account and the planned
operations must be appropriate to this context and not
continually in conflict.
A mining method must be appropriate to the context of
rock mass, orebody geometry and geology. Those are the
conditions which cannot be changed and in which the
mining method must perform. If the mining method is in
conflict with the context then it will not perform as expected
(and expectations usually come from other mines where the
method is applied).
In summary the choice of a mining method depends on
the following:
Figure 1: Open benching method was introduced at Koala Geology
North kimberlite pipe. The photograph shows upper Orebody size and geometry
extraction levels Grade distribution
Rock mass competency
The work carried out for the choice and design of the Disturbances
mining method at Koala North identified a number of External constraints
significant differences between underground operations in
kimberlite and those in other hard rocks. In addition to the Geology - includes continuity and predictability of the
specifics of mining kimberlite, the challenges posed by the lithology that hosts the economic material; whether the ore
Arctic conditions also had to be considered. These can be visually identified or whether cut-off is to a grade
differences are due to the specific context of kimberlite rock boundary.
mass properties, the typical evolution of mining in Geometry - actual mining shapes, size, attitude, dip;
kimberlites and, also, the consideration of the very harsh variability of short and long range geometry that might affect
weather and often the presence of permafrost planned dilution
The Koala North pipe has been selected as a trial Grade distribution - values contoured to different cut-offs;
underground mine for the purpose of testing mining geometry and continuity of value shapes; value of dilution

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 105

 Rock mass - strength and competence of the rock mass Supported Methods
for both orebody and host rock and affect on excavation These methods use back fill, either cemented or un-
stability (especially unplanned dilution) and fragmentation cemented, to modify the size and shape of the open
from blasting or natural caving excavation or to provide a working platform.
Geological structure - major through-going, significantly Open stoping - usually large excavations drilled with rings
weakening, structures that could affect very large and filled with cemented fill. Although this method is widely
excavations or mining directions and sequences used in the world, it is not used in diamond mining.
Disturbances - in situ stresses, magnitude and Cut-and-Fill - there are several varieties of cut and fill
orientation; presence of water that could decrease stability which generally use un-cemented fill with varying amounts
or cause wet muck rushes and/or protection of ground of back support; it is notable as a "man-entry" method and
water; high rock temperatures or presence of permafrost is sensitive to the quality of the ore rock mass. The varieties
External Constraints - production rate required versus the of this method include:
TVM (tonnes per vertical metre), rock mass conditions and Conventional cut and fill
mining method; protection of surface and avoidance of Post-Pillar cut and fill
caving or limiting of subsidence. Bench-and-Fill

3 BASIC MINING METHODS - REVIEW Drift-and-Fill - usually applied where the rock mass is too
weak for conventional Post-Pillar cut and fill. Excavations
Most of the underground mining methods can be grouped are mined and then filled before starting the next
into three basic categories: excavation. Depending if the mining progresses up or down,
Caving methods overhand or underhand cut and fill could be developed.
Open stope methods (unsupported)
Supported methods 4 KIMBERLITE CONTEXT

3.1 Caving Methods Someone once said "kimberlite is not a rock"! And there
Natural caving is some substance to this statement. Kimberlites, although
This includes a group of methods that rely on the rock they often appear strong and competent, can weather and
mass that will cave under gravity and/or stress. The method lose strength when exposed to moisture. They can also be
has several variations depending on orebody size and very absorbent to blasting and therefore difficult to break.
geometry and on the rock mass quality. Kimberlites generally behave very differently to other hard
Block Caving - applies usually to smaller ore bodies rocks and the most significant kimberlite issues that could
where the whole footprint is caved at once. influence mining method selection are discussed in
Panel Caving - all the major caving mines use panel with following paragraphs.
a caving face that progresses across the footprint of the
orebody. 4.1 Country Rock
Inclined Caving - where there is a significant dip or plunge Most of the known kimberlite pipes in Canadas Slave
and the production level can be fitted to the plunging Province have intruded into strong and competent
geometry with a "Sub-Level Caving" type layout. granites. This high contrast in rock mass properties
Front Caving - applied where the rock mass is too weak to between granite and kimberlite could be both a bonus
maintain the production development over a large area or in and a possible problem. When the kimberlite is
steeply dipping ore bodies. A single line of draw points is excavated, the stress balance is upset and kimberlite
developed, caved and exhausted before starting the next line. can yield to re-distribute the stresses back into the
country rock. The bonus is that rock mass dilation is
Induced Caving minimal due to the stiffness of the material and once the
This includes methods where the ore might be too strong stress is re-distributed the pipe walls can be very stable
to cave (but the hanging wall will cave, or where extraction allowing maximum recovery of the kimberlite ore with
is developed directly from surface or from an open pit floor); relatively little dilution.
or where the fragmentation from natural caving is too
coarse. 4.2 Pipe Geometry
Sub-Level Caving (SLC) - very regular pattern of diamond The geometry of kimberlite pipes is relatively unique with
shaped blast hole rings. This method is typically used in their carrot shaped bodies. There is often increased
competent rock mass. complexity of the root of the pipe and a single pipe can
Blast or Hydrofractured Assisted Caving this method break into separate zones with quite variable geometry.
had limited use in the past on some of the De Beers mines. There is always a risk of assuming that the pipe geometry is
It was also used at Northparkes mine but as a remedial regular where there is not enough pierce points. Often there
measure not as a primary mining method. New advances are significant overhangs of country rock or gouges where
are currently being made in this field in South America and the kimberlite has protruded into the pipe walls; as well,
Australia. extremely large fragments of country rock can be slightly
Open Stoping with mass blasting of pillars - typical open detached from the pipe wall and be surrounded by
stoping geometry with an array of pillars left and then mass- kimberlite.
blasted and most of the draw is under choke conditions.
4.3 Pipe Contact Zones
3.2 Open Stope Methods The kimberlite pipe contact zones in the mining context
These include methods where the stoping excavations are disturbed rocks adjacent to the pipe. Two types of
are un-caved and unfilled; excavations must remain contact zones can be recognized; the internal pipe contact
reasonably stable usually for the life of the mine. zone within the kimberlite body and external pipe contact
Room-and-pillar - regular or random pillar layout in flat zones located in the country rocks (Jakubec, 2003). Both
lying geometry usually less than 15 to 30; method very contact zones could have significant impact on a mining
sensitive to ground conditions operation from the point of view of stability, cavability, wet
Open stoping with permanent pillars - applied in steeper muck flow and dilution. It is not always easy to recognize the
deposits where room and pillar cannot be operated.3.3 contact zones in the drill core and as a result they could be

106 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

overlooked when considering mining method choice and Freezing muckpile - broken rock (ore or waste) can freeze
designs. after blasting and may require re-blasting before mucking.
Also, snow could accumulate in open drawpoints during the
4.4 Kimberlite facies and Inclusions storms.
There can often be several facies within the same pipe Freezing of the cave material - free caving material can
with very contrasting rock mass properties and susceptibility subsequently be wetted during thaw and then be re-frozen
to weathering. This could pose difficulties for selecting a sufficiently solid that it causes caving problems or bridging
single mining method. that interrupts the natural flow of broken material.
Kimberlites often contain varying amounts of country rock Icing-up of blast holes: - ice build up in the drillholes was
as a result of emplacement and formation of the pipe. experienced at Koala North during the freshet and freeze up
These waste xenoliths can sometimes be extremely large in season and requires re-drill.
size and can have significant affects on excavation behavior Stabilizing effect of frozen pipe walls - during the winter
and could pose problems for caving or material handling. months exposed pipe walls will be frozen and very stable.
De-stabilizing effect of ice jacking freezing of water in
4.5 Kimberlite Weathering the open joints will cause volumetric expansion and
The susceptibility to weathering can impose constraints on movements of the loose blocks. Subsequent melting could
operations and mine design. Where rapidly weathering destabilize the blocks resulting in a rockfall.
kimberlite is present, no water should be allowed to come into
contact with kimberlite. Exposed kimberlite surfaces might have
to be kept completely dry with the application of sealants and the
use of dry drilling. This could pose a significant problem in an
Arctic environment since there are no commercially available
sealants for wet conditions or very cold climate.

Figure 3: Snow accumulation outside the drawpoint could

pose operational problems.

Figure 2: Photo illustrates rapid weathering and strength Fogging - affect of very cold air coming into contact with
deterioration of clay rich kimberlite. warmer and moist conditions, especially in a draw point or
in a decline. This could have a significant impact on haulage
Another issue could be floor deterioration resulting in very and people and material movement.
poor tramming conditions for mechanized equipment. Trafficability - build-up of ice on roadways, especially at
However, excellent running surfaces could be obtained the portals to declines and in the open drawpoints, requires
when the kimberlite drawpoint roadways freeze with special and continual attention to prevent slippery
impacted ice in winter. conditions. (At exhaust shafts, to such an extent that could
Lastly, the kimberlite susceptible to weathering could form constrict the opening and flow of air.) For example, at
mud resulting in conditions that give rise to mud or wet muck Polaris Mine, located in the Canadian high Arctic, damp
rushes into the underground excavations. passes could freeze completely in a matter of weeks.
Effect of underground cold on productivity - the
5 ARCTIC CONTEXT effectiveness of both men and/or equipment can be affected
if air must be kept below freezing to preserve the
The Artic imposes another layer of complexity when strengthening effect of the permafrost.
considering the mining method selection. The main issues Shotcrete mix for cold climate - special additives are often
are associated with: required to ensure that shotcrete will set. Constituents have to
The frigid subzero temperatures and extremely be stored above freezing before use and heated water or
challenging weather conditions heated aggregates and brine is necessary. Similar
Permafrost which can extend to over 400m below surface considerations are required for grouting of rock reinforcement.
in certain parts of the Arctic Brine drilling - if rapid weathering rocks are not present
and dry drilling is not possible then brine is necessary to
In the context of EKATI, the permafrost is usually located combat freezing.
only in the country rock as the softer, more erodable
kimberlite often results in a shallow lake below which the 6 DECISION PROCESS FOR
ground is not frozen a talik zone. The permafrost can MINING METHOD SELECTION
effectively prevent the flow of ground water and significantly
improve the rock mass competency The decision process that was used for identifying the
The impact of the freezing temperatures and permafrost most suitable mining method was based on the following
can impose the following design and operating constraints: fundamentals:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 107

 Must be safe - no compromise on safety when some of the kimberlite facies are also low value and
Technically viable - work more or less as planned - one form dilution); in the Canadian Arctic the waste is usually a
can never be sure but the method must be appropriate to very competent granite type rock; the stability and,
the in situ context therefore, the amount of waste material that will fall into the
Economically viable - this might be obvious but it is space left as the kimberlite is extracted will depend on:
important to take into account what might go wrong rather The thickness of the contact zone within the wall rock; the
than assume that everything will go as planned (often "as contact zone will almost definitely fail and is the minimum
hoped") amount of waste material that will fall into the excavation
Should have sufficient flexibility within the method to be Overall slope stability of the exposed wall rock beyond the
able to manage problems (in underground mining results contact zone; a function of rock mass competence,
seldom go entirely according to plan and problems need through-going weakening structures and geometry -
to be anticipated and solutions in place) standard slope stability considerations
The enhanced stability initially given by permafrost must
The decision process can be divided into two main steps: be considered especially if the freezing conditions mean
First, ensure that the concepts on which a method there is slope pressurization from ground water
depends are technically viable; the method must work The action of near-surface ice-jacking from freeze/thaw
approximately as designed. cycle
Second, that the mining rate and grade deliver a value
well in excess of the cost. There must be sufficient "room" Operating Issues - The operating factors are nearly all a
to operate at the desired production rates and that dilution question of the challenging cold:
can be managed. In most methods the dilution can be Freezing muck piles: muck-piles that are moist and are
decreased at the expense of recovery and recovery does not immediately moved can freeze and require re-blasting
not usually have a significant impact on the net present Icing-up of blast holes
value. It is very important to keep a close watch on the Fogging: mixing of very cold and heated and moist air
risk/reward relationship; a formal risk analysis cannot be usually at the draw points: a question of direction of flow
left until the end of the study; it is a continuing process. and pressures
Ice build-up: at the entrance of declines and ventilation
Technical Considerations shafts: simply a question of operating procedures
The dominant technical considerations that have to be Freezing of cave: limited or extensive freezing of the
tested during the process are: cave could interrupt the flow of material and could result
Caving - If caving is necessary then it must cave: there in major, high hang-ups
are several recognized methods for estimating caving and Productivity of men and equipment: there appears to
empirical information database. be adequate information from mines like Polaris, Nanisivik
Stability - If a stable face is needed (open benching), or and Raglan, and now Koala North for reasonable
stable open stopes are necessary, or the economics are assessment of this issue
sensitive to the cost of ground support then stability is an
issue. There are again several recognized approaches that 7 MINING METHOD BASICS EKATI CASE STUDY
can be used for stability assessment but the overriding
consideration for kimberlites is the question of weathering As a result of the decision process four basic methods
on exposure and, in the Arctic conditions, the potentially can be identified as candidates in a possible order of
strengthening effect of permafrost. increasing costs:
Fragmentation - If the orebody will cave and is sufficiently Natural caving
competent for a caving layout then what will be the Open benching
fragmentation? The estimation of fragmentation is not Pre-break caving
nearly as well understood as rock mass stability and Supported methods with cemented fill
cavability but methods are being developed to get better
estimates It should be noted that currently the only significant
Mud rush - If a natural or pre-break cave is feasible but underground diamond mining experiences are from De
the rock mass in the cave or in the country rock is Beers operations, mainly in South Africa. The methods that
susceptible to weathering and degradation, is there a are, or were, used in any significant way include natural
potential for mud rush and can the mud rush potential be caving, VCR assisted caving, open benching, and sublevel
managed? caving. Besides the International kimberlite pipe in Russia
Rock masses that are insufficiently competent for caving which uses the drift and fill method to combat poor ground
layouts are unlikely to be sufficiently competent for open conditions and some trial developments at Aikhal kimberlite
stoping with cemented back fill either; in this case the pipe, there are no operations using back fill in kimberlite.
methods like drift-and-fill have to be considered. Howeve,r Some of the operational issues specific to kimberlite
such methods have extremely high cost and very low mining in Arctic conditions for the four selected methods are
production rates and are unlikely to be economical in the discussed below.
Arctic.
If either open benching or caving is an option then 7.1 Natural Caving
choosing between the options is now a question of The natural caving is low cost (although up-front capital
operational achievements. can be high) and is the best for managing dilution through
good draw control. If the method is feasible (can achieve a
Operating Considerations sustainable cave, can maintain a stable production level and
As we said before: safe and economical. The economics are oversize and hang-ups are manageable) then operating
mostly a question of managing grade (dilution) and production problems specific to the Arctic environment are possibly
rate (having the mining room and understanding the things that limited due to the considerable height of caved material
might go wrong and reduce the planned rate). These are the overlying the production level for much of the caves life.
operating considerations as outlined previously. Mud: many kimberlites can form mud; the build-up of
Dilution - In most kimberlite pipes the dilution comes from snow and ice in the crater and the thawing of this material
the wall of the pipe (in larger pipes there are occasions could cause problems

108 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Freezing of cave: if the ice in the base of the cave forms 7.3 Pre-break Caving
the equivalent of a cirque (glacier in a depression) and Sub-level caving
does not thaw during summer this might interfere with the Sub-level caving is a choke method and it relies on broken
cave. material to confine the blast and keep the broken ore near
to the draw point. Although it is considered a high dilution
7.2 Open Benching method in the context of narrow kimberlite ore bodies with
Open benching, if properly operated, is a cheaper method strong country rocks that will not cave this may not be a
than SLC as it does not operate under choke conditions and consideration unless the grade carrying kimberlite does not
therefore the drilling and blasting and development layout go all the way to the surface.
does not have to be as tight. As the name implies, all the
blasting faces are open and a certain level of stability is The use of SLC may overcome some of the concerns with
required: open benching, such as:
Remote control loading: much of the draw would be in the No requirement for remote control loading
open and operators would have to stand in a safety bay to No need for remote secondary breakage (both these two
guard against rocks falling from the pipe walls; but with the could be an issue if kimberlite is "sticky" and doesnt flow
advances in tele-remote this is no longer an issue. well)
Blast hole loading: the open draw points pose a risk; can Draw points always full of muck so less problems with
be modified by having a number of rings pre-loaded or as ventilation
in case of Koala North a scoop-movable, heavy duty steel No open benches thus no risk of rock fall into the
barricade was used in the drawpoint before charging (see drawpoint
Figure 4).
Open bench stability: individual face heights might need SLC has some of the same problems as open benching
to be limited in order to maintain overall face mining front such as concerns with brow stability and loss of drill holes.
stability. There are also some additional concerns:
Loss of drill holes: damage due to blasting, freezing Mud: because the SLC is a top down method the risk of
closed or potentially weak ground wet muck flow is higher than in block cave. This is also
Freezing of muck-piles: very cold temperatures supported by De Beers experiences in South Africa.
combined with wet rock Freezing of cave: Wet broken material could freeze,
Coarse fragmentation: small blasts in potentially damaged bridge and interfere with the draw.
and unstable faces; need for remote secondary blasting
Ventilation: open draw points; extreme cold in the work Blast assisted caving
place impacting on productivity, equipment selection and VCR type (or other types of layouts) caving assistance
requiring regular breaks and dedicated warming facilities might be best considered under the management of
u/g. Also need to regulate air onto levels and install air cavability for natural caving methods. The method was
dryers on compressors to ensure no moisture that can successfully introduced at De Beers and Bultfontein
freeze in compressed air lines mines in Kimberley (Granger, 1992). In the context of
Loss of brows: over-break of brows and need for kimberlite the VCR can "suffer" from the same problem
charging and hole cleaning in an open draw point; pre- as any method relying on blasting, and that is drillhole
charging is probably advisable if explosives can resist stability in poor quality ground. Since the method does
freezing temperatures not communicate with the surface there are no Arctic
Pipe wall stability: the pipe walls and contact zones may specific issues for kimberlites that are in talik zones.
be a source of loose material and/or massive failures; Kimberlites located in permafrost could have potential
dilution and possible risk at open draw points challenges associated with stability and effectiveness of
explosives.
If open benching does not proceed as planned then SLC
might very quickly become a more predictable and therefore 7.4 Supported Methods with Cemented Fill
more effective method. The good results that have been In a situation where caving is not feasible and where the
achieved by Koala North are encouraging. economic material does not go through to surface, then
open stoping with post fill is a possibility. This is probably the
most widely used mining method outside diamond mining
and needs no further explanation here.
Apart from the same operating issues that would affect all
methods, the one particular issue affecting the backfill
method in the Arctic context would be risk of freezing the fill.
If the fill material is below freezing and the kimberlite
orebody is in permafrost or more likely the material has
to be cemented; back fill would have to be kept in storage to
be above freezing and possibly special additives might be
required. Polaris successfully operated with cemented fill
and therefore there are solutions to these issues.

8 CONCLUSIONS

The mining method selection process for kimberlite pipes

located in the Arctic poses numerous challenges that have
to be considered. Without taking kimberlite characteristics
and severe weather conditions into context the mine design
could fail.
The Koala North project using "open benching" is a
Figure 4: Protective steel barricade was used in the successful outcome of a decision process that BHP Billiton
drawpoints during the blast hole charging. Diamonds went through to reach a compromise between

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 109

the certainty of operational outcomes and economics whilst REFERENCES
ensuring no compromise on safety.
Granger, Q.P., 1992. VCR - assisted Block Caving a
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Viable Future for Kimberley Mines. MASSMIN 92,
SAIMM, Johannesburg, South Africa, pp.11-19
The authors would like to thank BHP Billiton Diamonds for Jakubec, J., 2003. Role of Geology in Diamond Project
permission to publish this paper. Also, the help of Tyla Hay Development. 8th International Kimberlite Conference
of SRK in making this paper a reality is greatly appreciated. Abstracts. Victoria, Canada

110 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In Situ Leaching as
a mass mining method
Steve Hildebrand and Dan Ramey, CRCMining, UQ Experimental Mine, Isles Road, Indooroopilly,
QLD 4068, Australia And Mining Solutions, Inc., Tucson, AZ USA

Abstract
In situ leaching is a proven mining method that has been used for over forty years within the USA. It can be considered
as the primary method for mining or it can be used as the final stage in the extraction history from an ore body, much
like salvage mining. When an ore body is appraised for mining, generally open pit mining and underground mining
techniques are considered. The historic evolution of the minerals industry has led to the mining of the highest grade and
most accessible deposits first. As the world continues to mine out its shallow and high-grade ores, deeper and lower
grade ores are being accessed at ever increasing expense. More energy at an ever increasing cost is required to
process deeper and lower grade ores.
In situ mining represents an opportunity to successfully employ mass mining methods that can achieve the goal of low
cost production from low grade and/or deep ore bodies. In addition in situ mining can increase the consumptive
efficiency of ore bodies that are currently using conventional mining methods during their life cycle.
The mining operations at San Manuel, Arizona are an example of using in situ technology for mass mining. The San
Manuel Mine was comprised of an underground sulphide block caving mine, an oxide open pit mine and an in situ
operation located between these two larger production entities. The combination of these three mining methods
increased the consumptive efficiency of the ore body. In situ mass mining allowed additional mineral resources to be
placed into production and transformed a mineral resource into a mineral reserve.

INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF MASS MINING

In situ mining technology has been used in the metals, It would be presumptuous to offer a definition for a
energy and industrial mineral segments of the mining concept that is in common usage today in the mining
industry for many years. In this discussion of in situ industry. However a few comments are worth while. A
leaching as a mass mining technology, the discussion will distinction of mass mining is that it must be a continuous
confine itself to comments about resources within the process of mining which provides a consistent feed to a
copper industry. reduction plant, for example a concentrator. The concept of
The copper industry has been, and remains, an mass mining applies to underground production whose
increasingly competitive environment and the world price is costs profiles must be comparable to those obtained in large
a dominate influence on the industry. The ability for a open pit mines. Gideon Chitombo1 states that "The holy
mining company to remain economically competitive in the grail of mass mining is to produce large tonnages of ore at
current copper market depends on its ability to generate a similar cost to a large open pit mine,"
cash flow and returns on investments, even during periods Within the copper industry, mass mining can apply equally
of significantly depressed copper prices. Due to the to sulphide or oxide resources. The methods of mass
influence of the world copper market, the copper industry is mining underground are known widely and include block
forced to have a flexible cost profile, which allows greater caving, sublevel caving, panel caving, and others. The
control over the major cost components used to produce mass mining process flow is coupled to a reduction unit
copper. Escalating mining and recovery costs require such as a heap leach or a concentrator.
methods that are more efficient and responsive in order to In most mines the end product of production is measured
remain economically competitive within the world market. in tonnes of ore. For instance, the Magma Copper
Historically, most successful companies have relied on Companys San Manuel Mine in Arizona had an
applying traditional technology to rich ore bodies. As time underground block caving sulphide operation that was rated
progresses, the largest, richest and most accessible of the at greater than 55,000 tonnes per day (tpd). If this was an
known copper ore bodies become depleted. However, a oxide operation, it would have delivered tonnes of ore to a
great deal of copper mineralization known to exist is too heap leach operation, not a concentrator.
deeply-buried and/or low-grade to be mined economically However if we are to consider in situ leaching as a method
using conventional techniques, which involve massive of mass mining, the end product of mass mining must be
material handling and processing. However, the leaching presented differently. With in situ leaching (ISL) the end
potential of a particular resource is often an under exploited product is a pregnant leach solution (PLS) with a particular
resource, to which most copper companies need to examine copper tenor that is considered on a mass or load basis.
and develop to its fullest potential. The ability to access With a sulphide or oxide underground operation, a mass or
these resources depends on the development of alternative load basis can be calculated enabling a true comparison
mining technologies. The application of in situ mining with ISL mass mining. A comparison of mass mining
technology is one method of accessing the full potential of techniques can accurately be accomplished using daily
these resources. production rates and unit cost of production. The following

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 111

two tables using hypothetical tonnages and costs are situ leaching techniques follows. Classifying ISL operations
presented to strengthen this comparison. can be accomplished by determining whether the resource
A comparison of mass mining rates described on a daily has previously been mined or not. If the ISL mine is virgin
basis is shown in Table 1. The information demonstrates that resource, it is called a "green-field" application, while if the
although the descriptive metrics for the mining methods are ISL mine is following previous mining efforts; it is called a
different they can all be compared on a daily mass basis. "brown-field" application.
A brown-field application is a situation in which the
remnant resource is mined with ISL techniques following
Table 1 open pit or underground mining activity. "Brown-field"
applications have occurred in numerous sites within the
Mass Daily tonnes Copper Daily copper industry. Magma Copper Company (and later BHP
Mining Or Tenor Copper Copper) operated a successful in situ leaching operation at
M3/hr (kg) Miami, Arizona for over forty-five years. Block caving at
Miami was curtailed over fifty years ago and the initial in situ
solutions were treated in cementation cells for direct smelter
Sulphide UG 55,000 0.65% 358,000 feed. The San Manuel Mine, also in Arizona, operated a
Oxide 90,000 0.35% 315,000 very successful in situ leaching operation in the remnant
block caving ore body and the oxide resource left after the
In situ 2,270 2.00gpl 109,000
completion of open pit mining.
The green-field applications of ISL technology have not
been advanced into operations yet because most mining
If we assume typical costs for an underground sulphide companies have not developed their ISL technology.
block caving operation, an oxide open pit operation and an Examinations of virgin resources have been primarily
in situ leach operation on a daily cost basis, the values completed by evaluating the potential of open pit or
presented in Table 2 can be generated. underground techniques. However, recently there has been
much greater interest within the mining community for
examining new resources, that have never been mined, for
the potential of open pit, underground and in situ leaching.
Table 2
A recent green-field property that evaluated underground,
open pit and ISL mining technology was Poston Butte
Mass Total Daily Daily Cost
porphyry copper deposit at Florence, Arizona. Magma
Mining Costs Copper lbs. per lb.
Copper Company and later BHP Copper examined the
property and initiated a proof of concept test for in situ
leaching. The results of the evaluations can be summed up
Sulphide UG $550,000 780,000 $0.705
by the abstract from another paper which states, "Low costs
Oxide $350,000 700,000 $0.500 associated with in situ copper leaching provide the
opportunity for developing copper resources which are
In situ $75,000 240,000 $0.313
uneconomic by conventional mining methods."
In the future, new copper resources will be located deeper
underground and generally have lower tenors. All three major
Table 2 illustrates the cost relationship between 3 mining categories of mining, underground, open pit and in situ leaching
situations. Although the comparison is theoretical, the will have to be considered in order to make a thorough
values presented in the two tables are based on the examination of a resource. These resources will be evaluated
experience of the authors. Generally, the underground using a sequential methodology moving from very well known
sulphide mine will have a larger work force and a physically methods and costs to less well known methods. There is also
larger reduction plant. An oxide mine will also have a larger the possibility to mix the major technologies if the resource is
work force, use heap leaching or vat leaching for dissolution conducive to simultaneous development. "Target orebodies for
of copper and higher costs. An ISL operation generally has mass mining can be technically challenging and require the
a much smaller work force and the reduction plant is application of ingenious operational practices to maximise
simplified to an SX-EW operation. The ISL mine will usually extraction rates and achieve lowest possible operating costs
have a lower unit cost for a pound of copper than while maintaining high levels of safety." This is a challenge for
underground operations. mass mining and ISL is a technique that meets the demands of
modern mining.
UNDERGROUND ACCESS
IN SITU LEACHING; A NEW DIRECTION
There is another important distinction involving in situ
leaching operations versus other underground mass mining Each in situ leaching opportunity requires a logical
techniques. All mass mining methods require physical approach to the investigation of its potential, evolving from
underground access to the ore body. Access is also simple to more complex techniques. A quick and relatively
required by an ISL mine however, in most in situ operations, inexpensive analysis of a resource, termed a portfolio
access to the underground ore body is obtained by drilling analysis, examines the resource in a general way to quickly
holes from the surface, which act as injection and recovery eliminate those resources which clearly demonstrate their
wells. There is no requirement for the work force to have unsuitability to ISL mining.
physical access to the underground in an ISL mine. The If a resource is acceptable after the first analysis, the next
elimination of the necessity to place personnel underground investigation, termed a fatal flaw analysis, delves into the
is an improvement from a safety point of view. resource in more depth. The fatal flaw analysis considers those
characteristics which are favourable to ISL or any which would
CLASSIFYING IN SITU MINES be fatal and preclude any additional project development.
The third examination, which is technically termed the critical
If it is accepted that in situ leaching is a legitimate mass element analysis, completes the formal examination of a
mining method, then a discussion of the types of possible in resources potential for in situ technology. This investigation is

112 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

performed with a thorough look at all major disciplines required THE SAN MANUEL IN SITU MINE A CASE STUDY OF
for a successful ISL mine and includes a detailed financial AN ISL MINE
examination. The owner will be able to make knowledgeable
decisions concerning the potential of an ISL mine, balancing The San Manuel Mine was developed initially in the 1950s
potential risk with potential gain. Whether to proceed with the as an underground block caving mine of a massive low grade
development can be made at this time. The final phase in an porphyry copper deposit. The deposit was sliced in half by a
in situ investigation involves a large scaled test which becomes normal fault that displaced the down-thrown block a thousand
the proof of concept examination. metres to the West. Figure 2 is an aerial view of the Open Pit,
production shafts and ISL mining location.
ISL MINES RESEARCH POTENTIAL Weathering of the upper half (San Manuel), which was
closer to the surface, occurred over time eventually creating
There have been many successful in situ leaching mines, a copper oxide cap comprised primarily of chrysocolla. The
mining not just copper but also uranium and other industrial down-thrown block, called the Kalamazoo, is primarily
minerals. There is the potential to investigate other mineral chalcopyrite. Average sulphide tenor in the San Manuel
leaching in the future. These different minerals will require some portion of the orebody was 0.65% copper with an acid
"proof of concept" testing either done through the auspices of a soluble tenor of 0.45%.
research centre or by interested mining companies. The underground block caving mined the lower portion of
The equipment used typically with ISL mining operations the San Manuel orebody for over 40 years before production
is commonly accessible and has an extensive history of use. was shifted to the Kalamazoo exclusively. In the early
However, as this technology develops new methods and 1980s during a slump in the world copper price, Magma
new technology will be developed such as the use of Copper Company began an extensive investigation of the
hydraulic pumps. Sensing probes are being developed that potential of exploiting the oxide resource.
help move ISL mining from the status of an art, into a In 1985 several reverse circulation injection holes were
recognized technology. Drilling is a major cost component drilled in order to verify collection points underground on 4
for an ISL mine, whether on the surface or underground, different levels. Drill holes were cased and a mild acidic
and research into methods and new approaches is ongoing. solution injected. The location of PLS collected
underground was documented as well as ground water
dilution. Acid and copper fronts in the collection solution
CONSUMPTIVE EFFICIENCY were verified.
In 1986, a large scale test was directed by an organization
In comparing various mining methods, there is an called the San Manuel Oxide Committee (SMOX),
economic tool called consumptive efficiency that is composed of metallurgists, analytical chemists, and oxide
useful. Consumptive efficiency can be defined as the personnel from the Magma mine. The constant overview by
measure of resources contributing to production and is this committee was instrumental in determining the
determined as the percent of an ore body that contributes economic feasibility of the project. In addition the
to production. determination to initiate open pit mining of the upper portion
All mines have economic limits that continuously change with of the cap originated with this committee.
time and market conditions. These economic conditions In 1987 and 1988, engineering of the underground in situ
provide boundaries to the amount of ore that can be placed into PLS pumping system was begun and constructed in a
production at any point in time. These boundaries separate partnership between contractual construction workers and
economic ore from uneconomic ore, and as the resource is Magma miners. This project involved construction of three
mined, move ore from a reserve to resource status. The major underground pump stations, an independent electrical
highest consumptive efficiency of an ore body would involve supply and a 100% backup source. A SCADA system was
the use of a single or multiple mining techniques which allows designed with each pump station and operated with a
mining of the greatest amount of the ore body. programmable logic controller. Two 12" 316L stainless steel
pipelines were installed in an operating shaft at the mine
site. This PLS handling system was designed for
1,817m3/hr
This PLS handling system ran flawlessly for more than
twelve years with only minor equipment maintenance
requirements.

Figure 2 Aerial View of San Manuel Mine Figure 3 ISL Mine at San Manuel

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 113

 In January 1995, open pit mining of oxide was terminated.
A comparison of the unit cost of production between open
pit mining and in situ leaching showed that in situ had
greater economic potential. In late 1993 engineering for a
surface PLS pumping system was initiated with construction
and commissioning completed just prior to the termination of
the open pit mining. Figure 3 shows the ISL mine within the
San Manuel ore body.
Much of the construction was completed in an active
subsidence zone from the underground block caving
activity. The ISL system was designed to handle
2,725m3/hr. Over 25,000 metres of HDPE pipe in various
sizes and SDRs was installed during this period.
Figure 4 has a view of the in situ wells fields and the top
two pump stations.

Figure 6 PLS Pumping Well

Figure 4 ISL well fields

Figure 5 is a typical well field with both injection and

recovery wells and using a production mode known as well-
to-well leaching. All wells were developed in a similar
manner so that changes in operation for hydrological
reasons could be easily accomplished.

Figure 7 Copper Cathode for Export

The consumptive efficiency of the ore body was maximized

by utilizing three unique mining techniques in the same ore
body at the same time.
The competiveness of the current copper market makes it
important for companies to place consumptive efficiency as
a goal in their strategic planning process. The ability to
utilize more than one mining technique at an ore body is a
proven method to attain higher efficiencies. In situ leaching
can be, and will be, a mass mining technology that will allow
many companies to extract additional value from their
resources. In situ leaching is also an opportunity for
Figure 5 ISL Well Field research and development as the technique is utilized in the
copper industry and with other minerals.
Figure 6 shows a typical production well surface
arrangement.
The finished product from the SX-EW plant is shown in REFERENCE
Figure 7 and was five nine copper (99.999%) pure, meeting
all LME and Comex standards easily. Chitombo, Gideon, "Mass Mining Challenge,
Opportunties and Trends Part 1, MiningNews.Net, 31
CONCLUSIONS July 2000
Ramey, Dan and Beane, Richard, "In situ Project
The experiences at San Manuel demonstrate that in situ Evaluation: Magma Coppers Approach, COPPER 95
leaching is a mass mining method. The daily production COBRE 95
rates for the ISL mine, although lower than the other Chitombo, Gideon, "Mass Mining Challenge,
underground and surface circuits, were sufficient to Opportunties and Trends Part 1, MiningNews.Net, 31
influence the overall finances of the entire mining operation. July 2000

114 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 4
Mine Planning I:
Fundamentals
116 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Mine project life cycle
Robin M Kear, Independent Mining Advisor

Abstract
Significant projects are often undertaken in the mining industry. These projects can extend mine life by several years and
involve considerable resources. Such projects are normally developed through several stages from conception to
implementation and each of these stages has a specific function with a particular environment thus requiring different
management and technical skills. In order to correctly manage and staff a project during these stages and also to enable
an orderly progression through the project it is helpful to recognise the requirements of these stages.
This paper examines a mining project from the delineation of a resource to implementation and attempts to identify the
individual stages, the broad concepts that define them and the management issues that need to be considered. The
views are based on the authors experience on several mining projects. It is hoped that the paper may assist a reader
in ascertaining their requirements when commencing or during a project execution.

1 INTRODUCTION 3.1 Strategic Environment

This environment is required when the development of a
Mining projects are normally highly expensive, have a strategy is required. The strategy is the broad plan required
long lead time and extend mine life for many years. The to achieve an objective. This requires "free" or lateral
actual planning of a project can take considerable time and thinking and all possible scenarios, which could lead to the
resources. Because of these factors it is important that a objective, need to be identified. Normally, for a mining
project moves through various distinct phases prior to project, the objective is to obtain the best economics from a
construction. These phases should ensure that if the project particular resource. In summary "Define the Goal".
is not viable, expenditure is curtailed as soon as possible or
if viable, then the best possible return is obtained with the 3.2 Tactical Environment
minimum risk. These project phases require different mind In this environment the objective is to develop and implement
sets and consequently have different intellectual the tactics required to achieve a strategic objective. In the
environments. This and the purpose of each phase are often mining sense this would be the procurement and utilisation of
misunderstood which can cause significant problems in resources such as capital and labour to achieve the defined
bringing a project to a successful conclusion. strategic plan. In summary "Achieve the Goal".
For the purposes of this paper, a mining project covers the The mining industry operates mainly in a tactical
phases after the ore resource has been defined, either as an environment. A strategy is set and the organisation and
extension of an existing mine or as new ore body. This management effort is concentrated on the best employment
paper examines the phases through which a project moves of the available resources to achieve the strategic
and, should the mine prove viable, to the final construction objectives, such as production and construction targets.
and implementation. The paper is more a discussion of the However, when a new project commences it is important for
various principles and concepts involved rather than a the strategy to be first determined and requires that the
definitive study. planning team shifts from the tactical to the strategic
environment. This can present various problems especially
2 PROJECT CONCEPTION as not all people are strategic thinkers, and even those who
are will require some time to adjust to this environment.
Most major mining projects will be one, or a combination During the progress of a project the environment changes
of the following from strategic to tactical as shown in the following figure.
A new ore body has been discovered.
An extension to an existing mine.
An expansion of, or a change to, an existing mine.

Within most mining groups the objective of a project is to

increase the value of the company. In some situations other
factors may enter the equation. It is therefore important to
define what parameter or parameters the project must
satisfy. Also the correct environment should be set up to
ensure that project phases are correctly undertaken.

3 INTELLECTUAL ENVIRONMENT

For the purposes of this paper, two environments will be

considered. The first being strategic and the second tactical.
The following broadly defines the differences between them. Figure 1 Environment over Time

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 117

 Strategic issues are most prominent at the start of a 4.4 Identify Trade off Studies
project falling off as criteria are defined. Tactical issues grow From the assumptions and other parts of the investigation
over time. Expenditure on a project normally follows the various alternatives will be identified. These will require to
tactical curve, that is, increases over time. be further investigated and incorporated into the on going
The following paragraphs broadly indicate the schedule and budget.
requirements of each phase and the transition between
these environments. 4.5 Develop the Pre Feasibility Scope, Schedule and
Budget
4 PHASE 1 - CONCEPTUAL If a potential project is identified then the conceptual study
is required to justify the expenditure for the subsequent
The purpose of the conceptual study is to determine if phase, normally a pre-feasibility study. A schedule and cost
there is a potential project and if so justify the expenditure for this study must be produced for approval. The schedule
for a pre-feasibility study. A potential project would be one should show the various trade off studies and data gathering
which meets the required selection criteria. Normally the exercises identified during the conceptual study.
selection is based on economics but could be on other This conceptual phase should not be rushed and the
parameters. This phase will indicate some of the major design team should be small and comprise of senior staff.
design criteria. The staff should not have routine responsibilities as well as
Unfortunately, it is this conceptual phase that is often the project. Ideally the team should vary between the
inadequately undertaken. With a rush for production, major following numbers:-
criteria can be arbitrarily set to continue with present
practice or something that has been observed on a visit to
another property. Often a junior engineer is requested to do Table 1 Phase One Manning
some basic calculations and if positive the study leaps into
the detail. What is required is to stand back from the present Position Maximum Minimum
situation and critically examine all facets of the situation. To Number Number
do this adequately requires properly experienced engineers
who have had the necessary exposure to the mining Project Manager 1 0
industry. Unfortunately engineers of this type are not too
Mining Engineer 1 1
common and are often thought to be "too valuable" to
"waste" on a study. However, this stage of the project starts Mech/Elect Engineer 1 0
to lay the foundations for subsequent work, has the most Metallurgy 1 0
impact on the outcome and is therefore of the utmost
Geotech/Geology 1 0
importance.
In order to successfully complete a conceptual study it Accountant 1 0
should comprise of the following components. Secretary 1 0
Total 7 1
4.1 Identification of Major Design Parameters
All potential options must be looked at such as the mining
method, production rates, major design boundaries and
mine elevations. Where possible, constraints should be left Some of the disciplines may not be required to be full time
out of the equation. This will enable the costs of these but the team should have access to these skills for particular
constraints to be evaluated when they are later applied. areas of the investigation.
Assumptions should be positive and tests done to evaluate Routine responsibilities for the team should be as
the effects of varying the parameters between the perceived minimum as possible as these are normally tactical whereas
confidence limits. These iterations should identify the major the study is strategic. These modes require different
design criteria for the project. Various techniques are mindsets and changing from one to the other is difficult. In
available to assist in these evaluations, one of which is the the end neither is completed satisfactorily. A small team is
evaluation or economic surface analysis of the project. required, as a conceptual study is extremely fluid with major
changes occurring regularly. Each member must be aware
4.2 Develop the Economics of the latest status of these changes. After being involved in
A cash flow model is required to assist in the evaluation of several projects the author has devised the following
the various options. The model should be simple and easily formula for strategic planning
understood. The purpose of the model is to allow for the
ranking of alternatives rather than for absolute values. Kears Rule of Planning -- C proportional to n^2
Checks should be made on the effect of different selection
criteria to determine if these affect the choice of an option. If Where n is the number of components and C is confusion.
so then this should be discussed with the management to
ensure that the correct selection criteria have been chosen. Although this may seem facetious there is some truth in
If the selection criteria are to be economic then it is normally an inverse relationship between numbers and the ability to
best, at this stage, to use the Net Present Value (NPV) at be innovative, especially during conceptual planning.
the required hurdle rate rather than say the Internal Rate of Obviously there should be some form of progress
Return (IRR). There are many views on this and the team management during the study and the best would appear to
must be sure that they are using the correct parameter for be management by milestones. It is pointless to attempt to
ranking of the alternatives. identify every task that must be undertaken, as the tasks in
this stage will constantly be changing. To be continuously
4.3 List the Assumptions updating the schedule to reflect this will require enormous
In order to complete this stage of the investigation various resources and probably all the teams time. Rather identify
assumptions will be made. These will need to be confirmed the broad areas that need to be accomplished and when
during later phases and as such will be required to be they need to be completed. This keeps the schedule simple,
included in the further schedule and budget. preferably on one page or at most two. The individual(s) will

118 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

then know at what point these sections must be completed the work completed during this phase show that the project
and adjust the investigations accordingly. does not meet the requirements it should be stopped with
Once a conceptual study has been correctly undertaken it suitable documentation to revisit the study should any of the
is often observed that the study has raised more questions main drivers change over time.
than it has answered. In fact, this is as it should be as
various assumptions must be tested and trade off studies
Table 2 Pre-FeasibilityManning
will be required in the following stage.
The conceptual stage is strategic in nature and as such
Position Maximum Minimum
requires lateral thinking. Very little is routine and many
changes will take place during this stage. Number Number
Should the conceptual phase indicate that there is a
suitable prize, under various assumptions it should justify Project Manager 1 0
the following study phase. However, if the project does not Mining Engineer 2 1
appear positive even under optimistic assumptions the Mech/Elect Engineer 2 1
project should be stopped. In this case it is important to Metallurgy 2 1
document the work completed and also the major drivers Geotech/Geology 1 0
which could change the outcome. This will make it relatively
Accountant 1 0
easy to recommence should one of the drivers change, for
example the mineral price. Secretary 1 0
Total 10 3
5 PHASE 2 - PRE FEASIBILITY

This phase of the project is to firm up and or confirm the 6 PHASE 3 - FEASIBILITY AND DETAILED DESIGN
issues identified in the conceptual phase and to justify the
expenditure for the feasibility and detailed design stage of The purpose of this phase is to provide an estimate of the
the project. The major design criteria should have been required accuracy to justify the major capital required for
decided during the conceptual study. However, it is often the construction and implementation. Provided that the previous
case that some parameters have not been settled due to phases have been satisfactorily completed, the project at
lack of data, or further investigation is required. Therefore this stage should have a comprehensive design criteria
the pre feasibility study should be done in two stages. document. All major decisions should have been made.
Decisions, which are required in this phase of the project,
5.1 Pre Feasibility Initial Stage should relate to the specific system under design with no or
This stage is required to obtain the required data and/or almost no impact on other systems.
complete the investigations highlighted in the conceptual This phase will require considerable manpower, either in
study. The assumptions made during the conceptual study the team or contractors. If major changes are made during
should be tested and updated if required. There are often this stage there is a very real danger that team members will
trade off studies to be completed and visits to other be working with obsolete design criteria with the possibility
operations are useful at this point. of serious flaws in the design and the associated money and
A major problem, which may be experienced, is the lack timing consequences.
of reliable non mining costs. It is sometimes supposed that If the previous phases have been properly completed then
a project is a mining project and therefore all the detail and this stage is largely tactical. The design criteria having been
planning is mining related. However, the design criteria can set now need to be incorporated into the design. Major
be hugely affected by the non mining costs and these need decisions should not be made during this stage but rather
to be properly identified and quantified for the correct the effort should be directed at producing the required detail
determination of the design criteria. This first stage remains to give an estimate of the desired accuracy. This stage is
strategic with a few tactical issues being required. largely tactical, with the management concentrating on
using the available resources to produce a design to the
5.2 Pre Feasibility Second Stage specifications of the required accuracy. Continuity between
Once the assumptions and trade off studies have been this and the previous phase is required and a properly
competed it is then required to commence detailing the design convened steering committee is one technique to ensure
criteria, develop a schedule of resources and budget for the continuity by the inclusion of the conceptual and pre-
Feasibility stage. More detailed cash flow models are required feasibility team members.
and a detailed justification for the feasibility should be The high costs of this phase are mainly due to the number of
developed. Up to this point study expenditure and manpower persons required with typical numbers being shown below
requirements are normally not high. The exception would be
data capture, for example a drilling program. Once the project
moves into the following feasibility and detailed design phase Table 3 Feasibility Manning
considerable resources, both manpower and money, are
required. For this reason a detailed and reasonable accurate Position Maximum Minimum
justification is required prior to committing these resources. It is Number Number
important that all major issues have been resolved at the
completion of this phase. This second stage has a reduced Project Manager 1 0
strategic component and the tactical issues are beginning to Mining Engineer 3 1
become the predominant ones.
Mech/Elect Engineer 4 2
At this point the team will possibly expand and typical
numbers are shown in the following table Metallurgy 3 1
Control of this phase can still be on milestones, but these Geotech/Geology 2 1
will be more specific than in the previous phase. Accountant 1 0
Basically this phase, collects data that is required, Secretary 1 0
completes trade off studies, confirms that there is a viable Technicians 300 100
project and if so details and justifies the next phase. Should

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 119

7 APPROVAL construction team as they will be focussed on the
construction. Rather it is suggested that either these fall
Whilst each phase of the project requires approval, the under the design team or preferably under their own
move from the feasibility and detailed design to the management structure.
construction phase is a major event in the project
development. Considerable sums of money are involved, 10 IMPLEMENTATION - COMMISSIONING
not to mention that the mines future for many years is
probably decided at this point. The time required to obtain Major projects most often do not just switch on. Systems
approval should be included in the schedule as it can take require time to bed down, people require time to learn new
several months to obtain this approval. techniques and, especially with mining methods, time is
required to build up production. If sufficient time is not
8 PHASE 4 - CONSTRUCTION allowed for these activities the pressures on the team will
often dictate the use of "short-cuts". These "short-cuts" can
The construction phase should have a dedicated be extremely detrimental to the long term viability of the
management team which should be different from the mine and should be avoided. The best avoidance strategy is
design team. This phase is definitely tactical and requires to allow a realistic time for these activities and ramp-up.
good control and discipline. It is essential that both schedule
and cost tracking systems are in place before commencing 11 SUMMARY
construction. These systems should be able to show the
original schedule, possibly a revised schedule and the This paper has emphasised the conceptual phase of a
actual to date with variances highlighted. These systems project. This is because the concepts set the foundation for
should be installed and demonstrated before any activities all further work. Properly done the other phases flow from
or expenditure take place. this stage and the team will be confident that the correct
The design team is still required to continue with details. criteria have been set. In practice and for various reasons it
When approval has been granted it is normal that only 30%- is often the pre feasibility or feasibility study that is used as
40% of the detailed design has been completed. Therefore the start point with the major criteria being arbitrarily set, this
an excess of 60% of the design still has to be completed. does not often lead to the best utilisation of the resource. A
This should not be left to the construction team to manage mine has only one resource and can mine this resource
and hence the design team will still function well into the once. There is only one method that will produce the best
construction phase. economics for this resource, others may be economic but of
Control of this phase is important firstly to ensure that lesser value. In view of the magnitude of the capital normally
what has been designed is constructed and secondly the required for a mining project and the usual life of a project
quality of work must not be an impediment to the future of many years the effort in determining the best project is
production. The Steering Committee becomes much more well justified.
of a control issue and should have members from both the
design team and the future production team. The committee ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
should not be under the control of the Project Manager.
There are doubtless many papers and textbooks which
9 SUB PROJECTS cover the management of a mining project. The author
readily admits that these will probably give the reader much
Often, several possible improvements to the approved greater insight into the issues involved however they tend to
design have been identified but rely on new technology or deal with the management of a project whereas this paper
systems still under development. Whilst the approved has attempted to highlight the issues to be managed.
design should be based on practical and achievable This paper has been the result of the observations made
systems there is often a window of time available to prove on many mines and the author would like to thank his many
up these newer systems and include them in the project. clients for the ideas and discussions over the years. The
The cut off times for proving these systems should be author stresses that this paper is based on his observations
determined and separate project teams be convened to and conclusions but hopes that these will form a basis for
undertake this work with their own schedules and budgets. discussion and may assist in the formulation of a suitable
The management of these teams should not fall under the strategy for a mining project.

120 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Block caving planning
under metal price uncertainty
Sergio Fuentes S., Mining Civil Engineer, Universidad de Chile, M.Sc. (Eng),
Queens University, 2003, Director, Metlica Consultores S.A., Chile

Abstract
The common practice in mine planning, irrespective of mining method, is to make decisions based on deterministic
future metal prices. Later, during the economic evaluation of the project, stochastic tools are employed to identify and
quantify risk factors such as metal prices when mine design and planning has already been completed. Given the
capital-intensive nature and long preproduction periods of mining projects, especially in block caving, incorrect price
assumptions present a significant source of uncertainty to project feasibility. This proposal outlines the introduction of a
stochastic simulation method in the primary phase of mine planning, assigning metal prices based on probabilistic
distributions. Utilizing this method combined with standard procedures for defining mining areas in block caving permits
characterizing and prioritizing ore reserves based on price uncertainty, giving an additional decision tool to mine
planners.

1. INTRODUCTION metal scenario, including identification and quantification of

associated risks at an early stage of the planning process.
Conventional mine planning encompasses all or part of
the development of a mine, including feasibility, profitability, 2. RISK RELATED TO COSTS, GRADES
detail development, scheduling of extraction sequences, AND METAL PRICES
operation of equipment and transportation. Mine planners
usually estimate the different parameters used for the The mining business is intrinsically more risky than most
planning process from standard procedures available in the other common business areas. Figure 1 shows a scheme of
engineering field such as cost information databases from uncertainties for open pit planning associated with the stage
similar operations, experience and engineering judgement. of the development of the pit (Blackwell,1993), and this
This standard approach is usually based on the state of the figure defines the uncertain information and conditions that
art associated with a given mining method. apply to mining generally.
Nevertheless, these procedures, databases and
experience are usually incomplete or have a large degree of
uncertainty related to the nature of basic estimations on
such as the heterogeneity of the rock mass, geological
environment and etc.
These uncertainties are present in every stage of the mine
planning and design process and include:
Definition of the geological model.
Ore resource or mineral inventory estimation.
Rock mechanics behaviour of a design.
Metallurgical performance.
Operational performance.
Cost and economic estimations.
Local political conditions and regulations.
Market product price forecasting.
Environmental issues.

From the above abbreviated list, it is readily apparent that

mining, and especially block caving, is inherently risky.
Traditionally, the decision making process under uncertainty
has been managed using standard risk and sensitivity analyses
for the cash flows of projects. However, sensitivity analyses
alone are not sufficient, and to be rigorous it is necessary to Figure 1: Uncertainty of Factors in Mine Planning versus Pit
check and adjust major assumptions used to define a project Development (Blackwell, 1993)
such as the final exploitation limits and cut-off grade applied to
ore, and further re-evaluate cash flows. Traditionally mine planners have been managing
The risk is greater with block caving as opposed to uncertainty in the planning and design process by using
conventional mining because the response time required for iterative estimations and sensitivity analyses of project
adjustments of cut-off grades and mine costs, even if these cash flows. This process demands substantial and
are possible, is large. intensive use of resources to identify the most important
This paper proposes a method for managing uncertainty parameters influencing the results of mine planning and
during the block cave mine planning process under a multi- design.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 121

 Currently, many tools are available to produce data, The future is never certain and so metal price forecasts
conduct sensitivity analyses, and produce final numbers cannot be expected to be accurate. Indeed, it therefore
from a base scenario. These tools include geostatistical follows that any economic evaluation will never be exact.
approaches for ore grade estimations, probabilistic risk and
sensitivity analyses for cash flows, and economic indexes. 5. STOCHASTIC SIMULATION
In most cases, operating and capital costs and similar
technical variables are defined within reasonable limits with "The fundamental rationale for using simulation in any
limited impact on project economics. This is in contrast to discipline (whether or not this is economics or operations
the risk associated with external variables such as metal research) is mans unceasing quest for knowledge about the
prices and market forecasts that have much greater impact. future. This search for knowledge and the desire to predict
Although several tools are being used in the mining the future are as old as the history of mankind." (Naylor,
industry for risk management, low metal price trends of Balintfy, Burdick & Chu, 1968).
important commodities, along with the lack of availability of Although simulation has been applied to some extremely
high grade deposits, are pressing the mining industry to diverse forms of model building, ranging from Renaissance
produce, and improve on, more reliable designs and painting and sculpture to the spacing and computing of
production schedules. This is especially true in low grade neurological processes, it has come to mean something
(marginal) and impurity rich (penalty producing) ore bodies quite specific.
where profit margins are small, if they exist at all. Modern use of the word traces its origin to the late 1940s
with the work of Neumann and Ulman (Naylor, Balintfy,
3. RISK AND UNCERTAINTY Burdick & Chu, 1968). They used an original mathematical
technique termed "Monte Carlo Analysis" to solve certain
Decision theory literature indicates two distinct types of nuclear-shielding problems (Monte Carlo simulation was
uncertainty (Rose, 1976): named after Monte Carlo, Monaco, where the primary
Risk is a concept used to characterize situations where attractions are casinos and games of chance).
past data can be useful in predicting an occurrence in the At the beginning the term "Monte Carlo" applied only to
future such as the probability of a road accident or the the use of stochastic simulation methods for solving strictly
tossing of a coin. deterministic problems. Later it was generalized and
Uncertainty is a concept referring to situations where became "a popularized synonym for simulation of
there is no suitably supported past data or experience. stochastic processes " (Naylor, Balintfy, Burdick & Chu,
1968).
Metal prices fall more reasonably under the uncertainty Generally speaking Monte Carlo simulation is a form of
concept as it is not known when the metal price will return simulation where randomly generated values for uncertain
to some past value. variables are used over and over again to simulate a model
The main questions here are, firstly how could we (Goldman, 2000).
characterize this uncertainty factor, and secondly, how could Stochastic or Monte Carlo simulations are based on the
we manage this characterization in block caving mine generation of pseudo random numbers (usually between 0
planning procedures. and 1), which are introduced into the cumulative probability
functions for predefined variables. As a result of this
4. METAL PRICES UNCERTAINTY probabilistic definition of values, the model is fed a new
state permitting the updating of the internal database
Metal price uncertainty and its impact have been under describing the model.
discussion for many years. The effects on mine planning are Consequently, this procedure is repeated 100 to 1000
critical, hence the continuing recurrence in mining industry times or more, each time prompting a random choice of one
publications. Metal prices are critical inputs in defining ore or more values for variables. A counter controls the
and waste, and the foundations of the mining business, simulation, and the counter is increased until a predefined
including ore reserves, are defined based on commodity condition or imposed constraint is met, as Figure 2 shows in
(metal) prices. a very simplistic scheme.
In 1903, Williams (in Rickard et al, 1907, page 1) wrote "It
has been estimated that 95 per cent of the commercial and
industrial enterprises which are started every year ultimately
prove unprofitable. Such business failures are primarily due
to incorrect estimation of the trade conditions which obtain
in every field of commercial operation". This quotation
shows that this problem has been of concern for at least a
century.
During the 1930s, other authors affirmed that forecasting
metal prices is perhaps the most doubtful and speculative of
any of the elements in mineral valuation. At that time some
of the important elements affecting price forecasts were
identified, including relative rate of growth of supply and
demand, competition, substitution of commodities,
technology trends, and international market conditions
being the most relevant.
More recently, organizations, such as the Chamber of
Mines of South Africa have stated (Storrad, 1981); "the
uncertainties associated with risk factors such as selling
prices can not be defined in a completely objective way.
Human judgement unavoidably plays the major part in
assessing these uncertainties, and the quality of the final
answer obtained therefore depends critically on the quality Figure 2: Stochastic Simulations, Simplistic and Schematic
of the judgement involved at this stage". Representation

122 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The number of times the simulation must be carried out
depends on the confidence limits required for the final result.

6. GENERAL PROPOSAL FOR MINE PLANNING &

METAL PRICE UNCERTAINTY

Figure 3 shows the traditional procedure used to evaluate

metal price uncertainty in a project. In this example a Monte
Carlo Simulation (MCS) of the cash flow varying under a
random evaluation of a metal price distribution is used for
the entire life of the project.

Figure 4: Simple Open Pit Cross Section, Defining Price

Certainty Parameter (PCP)

Assuming a metal price probability distribution was

provided for the economic model, and each block was
evaluated independently N times (with N large), then 100%
of the time block W1 will be waste, but will always be
included in the design because it leads to the mining of the
highly profitable block O9.
The Price Certainty Parameter for this waste block is
100%, and the block has a 100% economic certainty of
being included in the design envelope for any given metal
price and should be mined.
On the other hand, if the peripheral block O6 were
included only 50 % of the time in a series of open pit
optimizations, then its PCP value is 50%.
Figure 5 below shows a flow sheet diagram describing the
proposed assignment and management of a stochastic
certainty index to each block of resources in the block
model as a result of a mine planning evaluation.

Figure 3: Traditional Mine Planning and Decision Process

During this standard deterministic mine planning process,

no probabilities of outcomes are specified, so the decision
maker (mine planner) must rely on personal judgement and
intuition to put the sensitivities of the variables into
perspective, and to assess what might happen with many
inter-related sources of price uncertainty, especially in the
case of a multiple metals ore body.
In this paper it is proposed to introduce probability metal
price distributions for the different valuable metals present in
the ore body in the primary economic evaluation of the
resource.
By providing a measure of this uncertainty will allow the
mine planner to make decisions during the many stages of
the planning process. As this measure represents the
certainty generated from metal price variability, the author
will name it the Price Certainty Parameter (PCP), which will
provide a value for the probability that any block has a
chance to participate in a profitable design, i.e. be
considered for mining in the planning process, even though
it may not be ore.
This Price Certainty Parameter (PCP) will not reflect the
exact final economic value of the mine plan and design,
because detailed estimation is carried out downstream of
this process. Even if the reserves are well scheduled, the
final certainty of the project should be less than the average
of the PCP when the discount rate and dilution are taken
into account.
Using a simple open pit moving cone example, it is
possible to deduce that the PCP is the probability of a
resource block being considered inside a profitable design.
That does not mean the block is profitable by itself, but, by
leading to ore, it might increase the value of the design as a
whole. Cleary we could observe this concept if we analyse
a block of waste located above a high grade ore block in an
open pit planning process as shown in Figure 4. Figure 5: Proposed Mine Planning Flow Sheet

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 123

 The Price Certainty Parameter of a resource block
could be defined as "The probability of that resource
block being included in a specific design, taking into
account metal price probability distributions". This
probability could be estimated as a result of several
random metal price evaluations of the mining limits for a
given mining plan or method.
For block caving the PCP parameter can be estimated
by evaluating each column of ore using randomly
obtained metal prices for each block in the column
several times. In the case of an open pit those
parameters could be obtained by carrying out several
optimization evaluations (e.g. Lerchs-Grossmann (1965)
or moving cone, Lizotte(1988)), where the PCP for each
block is re-calculated several times.
Using this characterization of "Certainty" as associated
with metal prices, it is possible to generate alternative
designs, envelopes and sequences, and make decisions by
referencing PCP values as a numerical parameter. This
parameter quantifies, in some way, the economic advantage
of mining a defined volume of material (ore or waste)
considered in the design before any economical evaluation
is carried out.
This characterization, with a numerical qualification of
resources in the entire block model, will help support the
making of decisions during the mine planning process.
The assumptions used to assign a certainty index (PCP)
to each block in the block model are:

Unknown Metal Price in the Future Figure 6: PCP Footprint Output for a Block Cave Column
The first assumption is that the market price of any given Valuation
metal in the future is unknown; intuitions, opinions, short-
term trends, etc. all produce a rough expected value range. The ore reserves included as part as mineable envelop
can be characterized using standard tonnage-"certainty"
Metal Prices as Probability Distributions curves, as is shown in Figure 7.
It is assumed that we can represent each metal price This "tonnage - certainty" distribution (or
with a probability distribution describing possible future certainty/tonnage curve, comparable to a grade/tonnage
price behaviour. There are so many factors affecting curve) can be obtained and should provide a good general
metal price behaviour that it is impossible to numerical measure of the risk in any particular design. This
demonstrate that metal prices are deterministic distribution can give a global indicator of the resources
variables. It is also impossible to demonstrate that metal already considered in the mining envelope, including all
prices are truly random variables taking values in non-profitable columns added to the design due to
accordance with a probability distribution. operational or geotechnical reasons.

The author considers the characterization of the uncertain

behaviour of metal prices as a random variable, and this is
far more reasonable than the assumption of a deterministic
model. The same assumption is made by all risk analysis
software packages.
There is a direct relation between the profitability of a
column and PCP because a high PCP value is an
indication of the profitability of the column for a wide
range of metal prices as used in the metal price
simulation.

7. MANAGING PRICE CERTAINTY

PARAMETER IN BLOCK CAVING

Specifically in block caving, using the "Price Certainty

Parameter" it is possible to characterize each column in the
entire area, representing the probability of each column
being included in a mine design for a given metal prices Figure 7: Tonnage Certainty Curves
distributions.
Additionally, as a result of the several evaluations for the This information provides the planning engineer some
columns, an expected economic value is available for each confirmation that the operational mine envelope developed
column and should to be used, together with PCP values, to is adequately mining with the available resource.
make a single informed decision in the mine planning For the definition of an operational area to mine, each
process without waiting for several economic evaluations to project board should select the minimum "cut off certainty",
be completed. taking into account PCP distribution resulting from the area
A footprint representation for PCP values associated to under analysis, "risk guidelines" for the project, etc.
each column can be observed graphically in Figure 6.

124 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 At this stage, some of the most important definitions in The stochastic scenario considered trapezoidal
block cave planning are achieved, only using mine planning probabilistic price distributions for Cu, Mo, Ag and Au. The
outputs specific distributions are shown in Figure 9.
Once mineable envelope and final column heights to be This probabilistic distribution is usually used when the
exploited are defined, the mining sequence definition is behaviour of the variable is unknown, maximum and
made. Again, this situation could be solved using PCP minimum values are defined, clearly highlighting best and
values as a good guideline for profitability of the ore worst commodity price scenarios. As well, a range with
resources. equal probability (uniform) in between indicates the most
Scheduling columns that show highest PCP values at the probable expectation, guess or feeling, etc., about the future
beginning of the mining sequence will imply highest profit trend of mean prices.
resulting in the initial production periods of the project. In consequence, this probabilistic approach for our lack of
knowledge appears as a reasonable representation of this
8. CASE STUDY ignorance and actual metal price forecasting.
If we consider that this sector will not be in production
A case study was developed using information from before 2010, then the question is what metal price must be
Codelco-Chile, El Salvador Mine. The A- Norte Sector, located used for ore reserve definition. Generally speaking, to make
in the Northern part of the main ore body as shows Figure 8, the decision, we can use several metal price valuations, an
was evaluated using the standard process (fixed metal prices) economical envelope using our best "engineering
and also using this proposed and complementary methodology judgement".
(stochastic metal price distributions). Standard methodology used in block caving planning,
permitted to obtain outputs associated with metal
production, ore production rate and copper ore grade
profiles as shown in Figure 10 to Figure 12.

Figure 8: General Plan View of El Salvador Mine

This marginal area was studied using five deterministic

copper prices (75, 80, 85, 90 and 95US$/lb), keeping Figure 10: Fine Copper Production
constant Mo, Ag and Au prices.

Figure 9: Trapezoidal Distributions Used Figure 11: Mine Production Rate

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 125

Figure 12: Mine Production Rate Figure 14: Expected NPV Values using MCS

The main differences can be observed in 95 cents Using the certainty characterization made in the
scenario with longer exploitable reserves due to the grater Stochastic Scenario, it is possible to observe a direct
area to mine. Indeed, this scenario has approximately three relation between the mean PCP value of each scenario and
more times of ore reserves compared with the 90 cents or NPV variability by metal prices and discount rate.
stochastic scenario.
If we develop a standard economic evaluation, means
deterministic metal prices for each of them, we obtain
outputs such are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 15: NPV Variability & Certainty by Scenario and

Discount Rate

9. CONCLUSIONS

Figure 13: Deterministic NPV Evaluation The introduction and estimation of a certainty parameter
during the primary definition of the (ore) block model in the
Same cash flows were evaluating using MCS, obtaining block cave planning process, based on metal price
an expected NPV for several discount rates for each probabilistic distributions and Monte Carlo simulation
scenario, as is shown in Figure 14. techniques, shows that:
There is a direct relationship between values of the price
certainty parameter (PCP) and the profitability of a given
resource block.
Independent of the cut-off certainty value used by the
mine planner, it is possible to obtain in one step a
complete picture of the economic potential of the

126 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 resources under analysis, and consequently an advanced Fuentes, S., (2003). Planning Block Caving Operations
measure of the economic risk associated with any given with Metal Price Uncertainty, M Sc Thesis, Queens
design. University, Kingston, Canada.
This proposed procedure provides mine planners with a Goldman, L., (2000). Risk Analysis and Monte Carlo
safe and profitable exploitation envelope and mining Simulation, Decisioneering Inc.,
sequence far more quickly than the standard h t t p : / / w w w. d e c i s i o n e e r i n g . c o m / m o n t e - c a r l o -
(deterministic plus sensitivity) methodology. simulation.html.
The estimation of the certainty value for each resource Lane, K.F., (1991). The Economic Definition of Ore,
block permits the concept of risk management to be Mining Journal Books Ltd., London, England, ISBN 0
applied during the entire block caving planning process, 900117 45 1, pp 6 33
obtaining quantifiable support for many decisions instead Leith, C.K., (1938). Mineral Valuation of the Future, The
of using "engineering judgement". Further, the Maple Press Co., New York.
identification of material in the (say) 40-50% and 50-60% Lerchs, H. and I. Grossmann, (1965), Optimum Design of
certainty range by location and volume would provide an Open-pit Mines, Transactions, CIM, Vol LXVIII, pp. 17-24
equivalent sensitivity analysis to several deterministic Lizotte, Y., (1988). The Economics of Computerized Open
scenarios. Pit Design, International Journal of Surface Mining, A.A.
In a similar manner to the development of the metal price Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands,Vol 2, 59-78.
certainty concept, it would be advantageous to introduce Metlica S.A., (2001). Ingeniera Bsica A-Norte El
the same concepts to other uncertain variables such as Salvador, Internal Report.
mineral inventory estimates (grades) and geotechnical Metlica S.A., (1998). Manual de uso Mdulo de
parameters to provide a more complete characterization Planificacin Block Caving, MineSight, Internal Report.
of the certainty of any given resource block. Naylor, T., J. Balintfy, D. Burdick and K. Chu, (1968).
Computer Simulation Techniques, John Wiley & Sons,
The methodology developed can still be improved upon, U.S.A., pp 1 22; 68-71.
especially the fixed metal price probability distribution Rickard, T.A. and H.C. Hoover, (1907). The Economics of
which will continue to be a subject for discussion. Mining, Ingalls, Gilman & Others (eds.), 2nd Edition, New
The basic objective of providing block caving planners with York, Hill Publishing Co, pp 1.
an additional tool for making decisions prior to reaching the Rose, L.M., (1976). Engineering Investment Decisions,
stage of the final cash flow evaluation has been met. Without Planning under Uncertainty, Elsevier Scientific Publishing
this tool, and without substantial investment of time and human Co., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, ISBN-0 444 41522 X,
resources, a single mine plan could lead to the rejection of the pp 42 136.
decision to start a mine, or the starting of a mine with no Storrad, C.D. (1981). South African Mine Valuation,
prospects of making a return on capital employed. Chamber of Mines of South Africa, Johannesburg, ISBN 0
620 02155 1, pp 448 456.
REFERENCES

Blackwell, G. H., (1993). Computerized Mine Planning for

Medium-Size Open-Pits, Trans. Instn. Min. Metall. (Sect.
A: Min, Industry), 102, May- August 1993, A83 A88.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 127

 Towards an integrated approach
to block cave planning
Enrique Rubio, PhD, Candidate, Cristin Cceres, Graduate Student,
Malcolm Scoble, Department Head, University of British Columbia

Abstract
Block cave planning is a challenging task that is dependent upon effective predictive modeling of the rock mass and the
mining system. In reviewing the planning methodology of several operations worldwide it seems evident that such
models are not fully integrated within the planning process. The lack of integration challenges realistic production plans
and potentially results in conservatively using more resources than needed to achieve desired production targets.
This paper presents a methodology to develop a mine planning process for block caving that integrates geomechanical
and fragmentation models within the production schedule algorithms. This aims to demonstrate a more robust and
reliable approach to block cave planning. Case studies are presented to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed
approach compared to some current practice.

1 INTRODUCTION more resources than needed to achieve a desired

production target.
Current mine planning practices at block caving
operations tend to be based upon a set of heuristic rules
that have been learned throughout the life of the mine and
similar deposits.
It is well accepted by the underground mining
community that geotechnical-geomechanical aspects of
the rock mass and the mining method need to be
included as part of the planning process. Nevertheless,
only a few attempts have been made in order to actually
integrate ground-related problems into underground mine
planning (Kazakidis and Scoble 2002). In block caving
their influence affects the definition of the mining
sequence, draw rate and draw point failure rate among
others. This paper relates to ongoing research whose
main objective is to embed the fundamental
geotechnical-geomechanical models into the production
scheduling tools so that the algorithms can respond to
variation in the rock mass behaviour.

2 THE CONCEPT
Figure 1: Rock mass interaction within the mine planning
Several decisions related to mine design and mine process
planning in block caving are based upon initial modeling that
holds a high degree of uncertainty related to the behavior of There are four main models identified in this research as
the rock mass. Consequently, a fair amount of modeling that are needed in order to sustain the regular mine planning
has to take place in order to achieve a comprehensive view activities. These models are fragmentation, geomechanical,
of the rock mass and the mining system. The relationships geological and reconciliation models. Figure 2 shows how
between these initial models is shown in figure 1. The these fundamental models should be supporting the mine
modeling is normally used to estimate parameters such as: planning parameters, such as draw rate, undercut
stress distribution at the front cave to decide upon the sequence, development rate, tonnage, draw method
mining sequence; stress re-distribution on the cave back to (Diering, 2004) and production targets.
estimate ultimate fragmentation; fragmentation models to The fragmentation model estimates the ultimate
estimate draw point productivity. Even though there may be fragmentation that leads to the estimation of mine design,
a fair amount of modeling at the beginning of a block cave mixing parameters, mining equipment and draw point
project, very little ouput tends to be carried forward into the productivity. The geomechanical model inducts the mine
ongoing mine planning activities. For example, how often design into a three- dimensional stress analysis computer
do we see a stress model supporting any changes to the program such as FLAC 3D, MAP3D that can simulate the
undercut sequence within a yearly plan? The same could be effect from a stresses point of view of different mining
asked about the angle of draw or draw rate. At the moment strategies in conjunction with the mining plan. The main
these rock mass models are not fully integrated into the output of this model will be the stress distribution on the
mine planning systems. This challenges the ability to cave back, front cave (abutment stress zone), and induced
generate realistic production plans and often leads to using stresses due to differential draw across the active layout.

128 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The geological model links data relating to structure, ground support and draw point repair. Therefore the
lithology and mineralogy with the ultimate metallurgical important relationship to be used in production planning is
recovery. This model aims to build the information towards the production drift availability versus maximum draw rate
a geometallurgical model that can provide a reasonable per draw point. Figure 3 shows an example of maximum
estimate of the metallurgical recovery based on the draw rate per draw point as a function of the production drift
combination of the composite lithologies. availability based on a given layout configuration (ore pass
The reconciliation model is one of the most important spacing), equipment size, cycle time, and number of loaders
models supporting the mine planning system. It provides the per drift.
tools to analyze the historical behavior of the mine. It can
capture information on the underground mine and will
provide a set of reliability measures regarding the
compliance with different production plans. This model also
provides the information to feed the fragmentation and
geomechanical models to calibrate and reconcile the initial
estimates.

Figure 3: Maximum draw rate per draw point as a function

of production drift availability.

A more comprehensive simulation model is under

construction to model the relationships shown in figure 3,
including draw point oversize and hang ups versus different
secondary blasting strategies.
In an attempt to model the effect of fragmentation on a
production schedule, an initial fragmentation model was
built for different lithological settings, that were categorized
Figure 2: Block caving fundamental models according to the quantity of rock over 2m3. This estimation
decreased in height in taking into account the effect of
This paper concentrates mainly on the fragmentation and secondary fragmentation. A block model was then
geomechanical models. constructed using as an attribute the percentage of the
block over 2m3. This attribute was built into the draw
column and depleted using PC-BC software (Diering, 2000)
3 FRAGMENTATION MODELS and average of the attribute >2m3 per draw column is
shown in figure 4.
Fragmentation models are essential to the estimation
of the productivity of a draw point. They consist of an
estimation of the primary and secondary fragmentation
based on initial rock mass jointing, joint conditions and
an estimation of the stress behaviour on the cave back
(Esterhuizen, 1994). This model should also estimate the
amount of rock over 2m3 in volume which seems to be a
good indicator of the medium height hang up frequency.
Stress behaviour plays an important role in the
estimation of the ultimate fragmentation. Therefore the
fragmentation models need to be linked to the
geomechanical model. Using a recently developed
algorithm the fragmentation models could eventually
integrate estimates of erosion as part of the secondary
fragmentation process (Jensen, 1999). There are a few
models that have succeeded in representing this
fragmentation models such as Joints (Villaescusa, 1991),
BCF (Esterhuizen, 1994). Further analysis and
calibration need to be done to assess the quality of these
models.
Little information has been found on the relationships
supporting draw point productivity as a function of Figure 4: Plan of the percentage of rock >2m3
fragmentation. In fact, individual draw point productivity as
a function of fragmentation alone is meaningless, since the The next step consisted of simulating a long term
productivity ultimately will be determined by the availability production schedule and reporting the amount of rock over
of the production drift. The drift availability is also a function >2m3. Within the production schedule the draw rate was
of the secondary breakage and other activities related to modified depending on the amount of rock over >2m3.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 129

Figure 5 shows the typical adjustment factor used based on effect of the stresses on the front cave. In this paper the
the amount of rock over >2m3. In this model there was no abutment stress has been the starting point to build a full
consideration regarding production drift availability. scale model. The initial modeling was performed using the
MAP3D boundary element method (MAP 3D, 2003). The
rock mass parameters used in the modeling are shown in
table 1 (Karzulovic ,1999). The stress state is also shown in
table 2.

Table 1: Rock mass parameters

Parameter Value

Young Modulus [GPa] 40.0

Poissons ratio 0.2
Cohesion [MPa] 6.2
Friction angle [o] 43.0
Tensile Strength [MPa] 1.0
Figure 5: Draw rate adjustment as a function of percentage
UCS [MPa] 30.0
of rock >2m3

Finally the production plan and the forecast of the

tonnage of coarse fragmentation are shown in figure 6. Table 2: Far field stress state
The fragmentation forecast needs to be calibrated
against field observations. This step is considered to be
crucial in order to understand and modify several Stress component Value (MPa)
assumptions that are made at the beginning of the
modeling process.
O1 80

O2 50

O3 30

The stress state showed in table 2 represents the pre-

mining stress conditions at 1000 m depth. The orientation of
the principal stress is East West due to tectonics. The
spacing of undercut drifts is 15m. The initial model is shown
in figure 7. At this stage it was interesting to measure the
change in the stress conditions in the center of the pillars
supporting the undercut level. Points spaced 5m apart were
placed along the undercut pillars to measure the change in
the stress conditions, see figure 8.

Figure 6: Long term production plan including the

fragmentation forecast.

4 GEOMECHANICS ASPECTS OF
BLOCK CAVING MINE PLANNING

In this research the main aspects of rock mechanics

under study are as follows:
Stress distribution at the cave back which affects primary
fragmentation and alters the risk associated with air gaps
Seismic activity induced at the cave back by mining
activity
Stress re-distribution at the draw points induced by
uneven draw
Abutment stress acting on the front cave as a result of
stress re-distribution, causing early damage to production
and undercut drifts and other related production areas.

4.1. Abutment stress and angle of draw

The abutment stress zones have been examined closely
in the literature Lorig et al (1995) and McKinnon and Lorig Figure 7: Conceptual model to verify abutment stress
(1999). The abutment stress area is the result of the stress condition at the front cave.
re-distribution at the front cave due to the large extension of
the cave. Usually linear models are sufficient to capture the

130 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 back these two are coupled together through the caving
rate.
A full scaled model shown in figure 10 was constructed in
order to determine the relationship between the angle of
draw and the changes in geometry and magnitude of the
abutment stress zone.
For the model in figure 10 the deviatoric stress (1 2)
pre- and post-mining were computed and compared for
different angles of draw. There are two main results derived
from figure 11. The first is that as the angle of draw
becomes shallower then the deviatoric stress decreases.
The second is that the extent of the abutment stress area
increases as the angle of draw becomes steeper.
Figure 8: Abutment stress zone using an elastic rock mass
model.

Figure 8 shows that the abutment stress zone extends up

to 30 m ahead of the front cave. The magnitude of the
vertical stress increases up to two times the initial pre-
mining stress.
It is generally accepted that the geometry of the cave
back controls the stress re-distribution on the front cave.
The angle of draw is a function of the amount of new
production area incorporated in a given period and the
draw performance in the area of old draw points. A low
new opened area and incremental height of draw ratio
leads to a steeper angle of draw than a higher ratio. An
example of the evolution of the angle of draw is shown
in figure 9. Usually this angle is measured in the Figure 11: Change of deviatoric stress as a function of the
direction of the undercut sequence. Even though the angle of draw.
angle of draw is not the same as the angle of the cave

A relationship similar to that shown in figure 11 is

useful to quantify the potential damage and loss of
undercut area as a result of a given production strategy.
Several mines around the world will mature and face the
question as to whether to keep drawing from old
"theoretically exhausted" draw points or to keep
undercutting. It is clear that the decision to stop
undercutting is economically correct since it leads to
capital cost savings. However, the geomechanical
implications of this decision may perhaps end up
jeopardizing the mines operational life.

4.2. Frictional forces as a result of uneven draw

The second aspect of the geomechanical model
supporting mine planning is related to the induced stresses
due to uneven draw. It is well known among the mining
community that isolated draw produces two effects: early
Figure 9: Evolution of the angle of draw throughout the dilution and induced stresses on the production drifts.
mine life. Recently, Freeport has conducted extensive convergence
monitoring, Febrian et al (2004), that raises the issue of
induced stresses due to differential draw.
The flow of broken rock surrounded by compacted or
semi-compacted, broken rock induces frictional forces that
will develop on the flow boundary impacting the overall load
of the pillars sustaining the production tunnels (Jenike,
1962). Also Kvapil (1965) developed a gravity flow model in
which the components are illustrated in figure 13. The
components of the gravity flow model developed by Kvapil
are as follows:
1 Ellipsoid of motion
2 Funnel of loose material produced by the flow
3 Boundary of motion zone
4 Zone without motion

d deviation angle due to frictional properties of boundary

wall
Figure 10: Full scale model to assess angle of draw on the
stress configuration at the front cave area using MAP3D Kvapil also recognized the fact that the flow is altered by
an angle due to the existence of a frictional force acting on

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 131

the wall. Angle will increase as the friction of the granular resolution of the stresses on the area under study. There
material and the wall increases. were 8 columns modeled using interfaces to enable the
differential movement of them. Vertical right and left
boundaries were fixed to prevent horizontal movement. The
bottom boundary was fixed to prevent vertical movement.
Gravity was applied with large strain coordinate update to
show the deformation of the elements.
The bottom boundary of the size of a column was freed in
the middle of the caved zone to represent extraction of
material. The properties used in the model are as follows

Density = 2.3 t/m

Cohesion = 0.0 MPa
Friction Angle = 40.0 deg
Dilation = 0.0 deg
Tensile Strength = 0.0 MPa
Youngs Modulus = 500 MPa
Poissons ratio = 0.3
Cohesion = 0.0 MPa
Friction Angle = 40.0 deg
Dilation = 0.0 deg
Figure 12: Induced stress as a result of uneven draw Tensile Strength = 0.0 MPa
Stiffness = 500 MPa/m

In order to prevent free falling material, a velocity was

assigned at the bottom nodes to represent the extraction
rate. In this case, 0.0001 meters per time step was
modeled. The model was cycle for 60000 cycles until the
vertical stress histories converged to a stable situation. Six
history points were located 15 m from the edge of the
opening to measure the evolution of the vertical stress.
Figure 14 shows the location of the history points and
velocity vectors.
Figure 15 shows the vertical stress history of points
located 15m from the edge of the opening. Vertical stress
increased from 18 to 28 MPa due to frictional forces
between the drawing and static columns.
A profile of the vertical stress across the production
level is shown in figure 16. It is possible to see that the
induced stress area due to frictional forces extends up
to 25 m from the edge of the opening. Beyond this point
the vertical stress stays at the same pre mining
condition.

Figure 13: Gravity flow model (Kvapil 1964)

Differential draw develops a frictional force that works

against the motion of the flowing rock mass. As result of this
behavior, a surface of contact between rock in motion and
static is developed. This frictional force is proportional to the
friction angle of the surface of contact, horizontal stress and
the length of the surface of contact.
A model using FLAC 2D (Board, 1989) was constructed to
analyze the behaviour of the frictional forces and the impact
of this frictional force on the stresses acting on the major
apex pillar. The number of grid elements was 50 x 50,
representing a 100m wide by 600m height muck pile. The
grid density increases with depth to achieve a better Figure 14: Velocity vectors and position of the history points.

132 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 15: Vertical stress measured at the history points

Figure 17: PFC model simulating even draw

Figure 16: Profile of vertical stress across the production

level.

Figure 18: PRC model simulating isolated draw

A second model was developed using PFC 2D to test
the effect of the frictional forces on the behaviour of the
gravity flow process. The rock mass was modeled using From figure 18 is seeing that as a result of performing
an assembly of 1000 particles of a radius varying isolated draw there was formed an stable arc. This is
between 1.8 and 2.2 m, a multiplier factor of 1.5 was consistent with the theory that a higher frictional forces
used to reach the desired initial stress condition. The acting on the edges will tend to produce stable arcs; Egger
block dimensions were 200 height and 150 m wide. The (1983), Morgan (1999), have presented similar behaviour in
initial stress state was 6 MPa vertical stress at top of the soil mechanics. Therefore it is possible to conclude that
undercut level. The initial stress equilibrium was reached isolated draw does increase the frictional forces which
after 8000 cycles. The friction coefficient assigned to the induce the rotation of the principal stresses tensor
particles was 0.5 according to the friction angle under approaching a state of equilibrium. The even draw scenario
study. shows that the pillar of rock overlying on the major apex
There were two models in order to simulate even draw pillar continuously fails without allowing the frictional forces
and isolated draw condition. The even draw condition to induce a consistent rotation of the principal stress tensor.
was simulated by creating two opening at the bottom wall There were several measurement points defined above
and leave the model running for 25000 cycles. The the major apex pillar at 5, 30 and 60 meters above the top
second model consisted of running 10000 cycles as the of the pillar. Figure 19 shows the change of porosity at 5
first model, in which both opening were drawing particles, meters above the major apex pillar. It is possible to see
and after one of the openings was closed simulating idle from figure 19 that porosity consistently decreases as a
draw point condition for 15000 cycles. Figures 17 and 18 result of performing even draw. Figure 20 shows the
are showing both of the models described above, being evolution of porosity using the isolated draw model. It is
17 the even draw simulation and 18 the isolated draw seeing that by performing isolated draw the major apex
simulation becomes fully loaded of body forces that make the muck
pile sited on top of the major apex to compact and
consequently failure.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 133

 More research needs to be done to better understand the
constitutive relationship between stress and primary
fragmentation, as well as dilution behavior. Thus the
stresses will not only be linked to the undercutting sequence
but also to the entire production system.

REFERENCES

Board, M. FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua)

Version 2.20. U.S. NRC, NUREG/CR-5430, October 1989
Cundall, P., and M. Board, 1988. A Microcomputer
Program for Modeling Large- Strain Plasticity Problems.
In Numerical Methods in Geomechanics (Proceedings of
the 6th International Conference, Innsbruck, Austria, April
1988), pp. 2101-2108. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
Diering T, (2000). PC-BC: A Block Cave Design and Draw
Control System. Proceedings Massmin 2000. Brisbane,
AusIMM, pp301-335.
Figure 19: Porosity above major apex pillar measuring on Diering T, (2004). Computational considerations for
the even draw model production scheduling of block cave mines. Proceedings
MassMin 2004, Santiago, Chile.
Egger 1983
Esterhuizen, G S, 1994. A program to predict block cave
fragmentation. Technical reference and user guide,
version 2.1.
Febrian, I, Yudanto, W, Rubio E. (2004) Application of
Convergence monitoring to Manage Induced Stress by
Mining Activities at PT Freeport Indonesia Deep Ore Zone
Mine. Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago, Chile.
Itasca, 2000. FLAC3D, Fast Lagrangian Analysis of
Continua in 3 Dimensions. Version 2.0. Itasca consulting
group, Inc: Minneapolis
Jenike, A W, (1961). Gravity flow of solids. Trans. Inst.
Chem. Engrs. Vol.40, pp 264-271
Karzulovic, A,1999. Comentarios relativos a las
propiedades del macizo rocoso que conforman los pilares
del sector Teniente Sub 6 N FW1. Geotechnical note DT-
CG-99-016 from A Karzulovic & Asoc to El Teniente
Division, Codelco- Chile.
Kazakidis, V.N. and M. Scoble, 2002. Accounting for
Figure 20: Porosity above major apex pillar measuring on Ground-related Problems in Planning Mine Production
the isolated draw model Systems. Int. Jnl. Mineral Resources Engineering,
Imperial College Press, London, 11, 1, pp. 35-57.
There is on going research to construct a more Kvapil R. (1965). Gravity Flow of Granular Materials in
comprehensive model to correlate the differential draw Hoppers and Bins. Part I and II, Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining
versus the activity of body forces on the crown pillar Sci. Vol 2, pp.35-41
supporting the production level of a block cave operation. Lorig, J L, Board, M P, Potyondy, D O and Coetzee, M J,
(1995). Numerical modelling of caving using continuum
5 CONCLUSIONS and micro-mechanical models. In CAMAI95: 3rd
Canadian Conference on Computer Applications in the
Integrating geomechanical rock mass behavior into Mineral Industry, pp 416-425.
underground production scheduling provides a more robust McKinnon, S D and Lorig, L J, (1999). Considerations for
mine planning model that will lead to a more realistic three dimensional modelling in analysis of underground
financial plan. This should avoid hidden costs that may excavations. In Distinct Element Modelling in
impact the economics of the project and improve safety in Geomechanics (Ed: V W Sharma, X R Saxena and R D
the workplace. Woods), pp 145-166. Oxford and IBH Publishing: New
The integration of stress behavior into production Delhi.
planning aims to better understand the behaviour of the MAP3D, 2003. MAP3D, Three-Dimensional Boundary
caving back, enabling mine planners to anticipate eventual Element Formulation, versin 49. Mine Modelling Pty Ltd.
air gaps and rock bursting at the caving back. Morgan, J. K., and M. S. Boettcher. (1999). Numerical
It has been demonstrated throughout numerical modeling Simulations of Granular Shear Zones Using the Distinct
that differential draw induces frictional forces that affect the Element Method: 1. Shear Zone Kinematics and the
orientation of the principal stress tensor. This change on the Micromechanics of Localization, J. Geophys. Res.
stresses configuration leads to higher probability of 104(B2), 2703-2719
experiencing of hang ups and compaction of the material Villaescusa, E, 1991. A three dimensional modelo f rock
located above the major apex pillar inducing higher vertical jointing. PhD thesis (unpublished), University of
stress. Queensland, Brisbane.

134 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Computational considerations
for production scheduling
of block cave mines
Tony Diering, Principal Consultant, Gemcom Software International Inc.

Abstract
Production scheduling for block cave operations can be complex. The factors to be considered include geotechnical
constraints, cave shape, draw point development sequence, draw point productivity, production block limits such as
loader capacity and/or ore pass capacity and variable shut-off grade or mining costs. In addition, for some caves, the
material flow can be very non-linear, especially when material moves between the draw point during the depletion
process.
Advantages and disadvantages of treating this as a single multi-period problem or as a number of smaller problems for
each time period are presented. The nature of the problem also changes during the life of a cave from initial production
build up to final closure.
Over the years, a number of different scheduling methods have been introduced into the PC-BC program to handle these
different situations. Methods include cave surface following, mining oldest draw points first so as to move a cave front,
NPV optimization or depletion of historical tonnages. LP techniques may be used in some, but not all cases. In addition,
special tools are required for updating long term plans due to short term draw order variations.
The logic, advantages and disadvantages of these different methods are described in this paper.

1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM Minimum tonnage per period

Maximum tonnage per period
The basic problem is to try to predict or schedule the "best" Maximum total tonnage per draw point
tonnages to extract from a number of draw points for various Maximum total tonnage per period
periods of time. The time period can be very short, such as a Ratio of tonnage from current draw point compared with
day or it can extend over the life of mine. This is an old problem neighbours.
in mining which has been solved (or not solved) to various Height of draw of current draw point with respect to
extents for different mining methods. In the case of block neighbours
caving, much work has already been done by A. Guest of De Percentage drawn for current draw point with respect to
Beers, the International Cave Study and also by others such as neighbours
NCL in Chile and T. Diering with Gemcoms PC-BC package. Maximum tonnage from selected groups of draw points in
In a typical instance, one will start off with a number of a period (Usually the groups of draw points are referred
draw points (di) from which it is desired to extract tons tij for to as production blocks or panels)
a number of time periods j. In doing this, the intent is to
maximize revenue R or some time discounted equivalent of Many of these constraints are themselves quite
R (i.e. NPV). The allowable tonnages tij are heavily complex to estimate and may well be non-linearly
constrained, to the extent that the constraints will often dependent on tij. A key factor in all of this is the
determine the allowable values of tij. In many cases, the maximum allowable tonnage per draw points per period.
objective may be to achieve a certain "draw profile" which is This is typically limited by what is called a PRC
in fact not primarily dependent on NPV or revenues. Even (Production Rate Curve). This will specify the maximum
in this case, NPV is still an important objective, since, if a tonnage per square metre per day which is allowed to be
bad profile is achieved, then this is adverse from a mining extracted from a draw point. The computation of this
perspective which in turn leads to higher mining costs and curve is in itself complex.
more dilution and lower grades which reduces the NPV. In trying to solve the various aspects of the problem,
This then becomes a linear or more likely non-linear one needs to consider two main scenarios, solving for tij
optimization problem typical in operations research. However, for a single time period j, and solving for tij for multiple
the value of R can be a very non-linear function of the tonnages time steps j=1,M If there are many time steps and many
tij, since the revenue is dependent on the draw point grades gij draw points, then the total number of variables becomes
which in turn are variable with tij and also on the interaction of large if one is using non-linear programming solvers and
the tij from one draw point with all other ones. Of course, the it then becomes desirable to linearize the problem by
extent to which the problem can be solved depends on making various assumptions.
various assumptions about the process of solving the problem. Another way to tackle the problem is to apply common
sense rules or heuristics which, perhaps, could provide
2 OVERALL OBJECTIVES common sense solutions and also give an indication as to
OF THE OPTIMIZATION PROCESS what extent the problem is flexible enough to warrant
optimization procedures. For example, if the tonnage
As mentioned above the overall objective is to maximize requested from draw points always exceeds what is able to
NPV subject to various constraints. Some of the constraints be produced, then the problem is self limiting and no
which can be applied are as follows: optimization is necessary

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 135

3 NOTATION Advantages of single step approach
Grades can be assumed constant (and known) for each
The following notation is used in this paper. run
Less equations to solve
N Number of Draw points Objective function can be set up to maximize local draw
M Number of time periods control constraints or some local dollar value or grade
i The ith draw point target
j The jth time period Sequencing of draw points does not arise, since it is
tij Tons for draw point i for time period j known which draw points are active in each step
Ti Total tonnage allowed for draw point i If some intermediate HOD surfaces can be established by
Tj Total tonnage allowed for time period j some other means (e.g. Upside down pit optimizer) then
cij PRC tonnage limit for draw point i for period j these can be used as intermediate control surfaces for the
bij Minimum tonnage allowed for draw point i in step by step approach. In this manner, the overall
period j. bij 0 problem of NPV optimization is removed from the problem
eij Allowable difference in tonnage between draw and it becomes one of draw control (or draw management
point and its neighbours as it is sometimes referred to)
mij Mean tonnage of neighbours
hij HOD for draw point i in period j Disadvantages of single step approach
F Objective Function to be maximized Decisions made now can potentially lead to a "bottle
gij Grade of draw point i in time period j neck" down the road. There is no forward looking
rij Revenue from draw point i in period j capability
(adjusted for mining costs)
dj Discount fraction in period j Advantages of multi step approach
NPV Net present value Solves the overall problem in a single step
HOD Height of draw Short term decisions are guided by future considerations
LP Linear programming problem
NLP Non-linear programming problem Disadvantages of multi step approach
Leads to large problems (number of draw points * number
4 A SAMPLE PROBLEM of time periods)
Grades are more complex to model and likely to be non-
Consider the sample problem of maximizing NPV for M linear. Grade profiles may have to be simplified
periods: Care has to be taken to input the development sequence
Convergence to a unique "best" solution is not assured
Likely to require commercial solver engines
F = rij dj In some cases, the extent of non-linear behaviour makes
= gij * tij * dj numeric solution virtually impossible.

Constraints 6 THE DEVELOPMENT CYCLE OF DRAW POINTS

AND PRODUCTION BUILD UP
tij cij PRC limits per draw point
tij bij Lower limit per draw point In producing schedules, it is useful to consider what
tij Ti Total tonnage limits per draw point happens to draw points during their "life" in a schedule.
tij = Tj Tonnage limits for each period Consider the following steps:
The draw point is Planned status. During this time tij=0.
If we do this, the program will simply take the maximum Draw point has just been developed or undercut. During
allowable tons from the highest grade draw points as soon this time, the PRC limits cij are likely to be quite low and
as possible. Therefore, we need to add in extra constraints the tonnage from each draw point must be kept in close
which limit how tonnages are related to neighbouring draw alignment with the tonnages of its neighbours.
points. The time until the cave limit breaks to surface or other
previous cave zone (or gets "far away"). In general if a
tij mij + eij swell factor is 20%, then the broken zone will extend 5
tij mij - eij times as high as the height of draw. During this time, the
shape of the cave back is important. Thus the hij values
In general, there are considerable benefits to be gained if need to be constrained or monitored.
the problem can be formulated as an LP instead of NLP. In the final stages of draw, Height of draw is of less
Solutions are faster and the solver routines can generally concern and percent draw is of more relevance. It is
handle larger problems. So the problem will often be how to desirable to have draw points close in an "orderly"
linearize a problem or to convert it to a quadratic manner. Tonnage from one draw point compared with its
programming problem. neighbours is still important.
In the above example, the grades are variable and are The draw point is closed. This usually happens when the
functions of tij and tij (for previous periods). Thus the limiting tons for the draw point has been reached. In
objective is actually non-linear. This can be accommodated some circumstances, when variable shut-off grades are
by having a look up table to get the grades, but this will slow being used, then the limiting tons are also variable.
down solution time as well as probably resulting in multiple
local maxima in the objective function. During this overall process, the ability of the system to
meet various production demands varies significantly as
5 SINGLE PERIOD vs. MULTI-PERIOD well. In the early stages, the production capacity (C) falls
well short of the tonnage demand (D) and basically, draw
There are several advantages and disadvantages in each points are drawn as fast as is allowed (via the PRC curve).
approach. These are listed below: As more draw points are developed, the draw area
increases and the production rate for individual draw points

136 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

increases, then production capacity increases until C > D Draw points are usually assumed to be of known and
and results in some production flexibility. This is where the constant status during the short range runs.
scope for NLP optimization arises. Later in the life, there are Draw tends to be "Even" in the short term (i.e. proportional
no more new draw points available and the active draw area in that draw points which are behind are drawn faster and
starts to reduce resulting again in a stage where C < D. draw points which are ahead are drawn less.)
Here again, there is little or no need for NLP optimizers. Draw can be "Even" or in the form of a moving front or
This is studied in more detail later. even a "segmented moving front" for the long term. In this
For block cave mines (including panel caving), there are a case, the shape of the draw profile is more important.
number of different draw strategies which can be applied. It In the short term, it is quite likely that tonnage limits will
is useful to represent these graphically to better understand also be set for groups of draw points. For example,
their characteristics and behaviour. The graph below various production blocks or panels (or drifts) might each
(termed Draw Method Graph) shows a list of draw points on have their own tonnage target (or often referred to as a
the x-axis and the tonnage per draw point on the y-axis. "call").
Draw points are ordered on the X-axis by sequence with
oldest to the left and newest to the right. The number of
active draw points defines the "active area". Maximum tons
per draw point are constrained by the PRC limit and
minimum tons per draw point are also shown (often set
equal to zero). The PRC limit and active zone define the
capacity of the draw points for a given period. If D < C, then
there is some flexibility as to how tons are taken from each
draw point. For a moving front or panel caving method,
maximum tons are taken from the oldest draw points and
minimum tons from the newer ones. In PC-BC, this method
is referred to as AUTO as shown in the figure below.

6.2. A Panel caving example

This example demonstrates two aspects of the scheduling
process:
If actual historical tonnages result in an uneven HOD
profile, then the schedule needs to be corrective in putting
the HOD profile back on track
For a moving front, the HOD surface is inclined and
moves across the block cave footprint.
The top line below represents a target cave surface (or
shape). The line "Past" might represent actual tons drawn
after a given period of time. We want to evolve the shape to
The use of AUTO method often results in "idle" draw the top line.
points where no tons are extracted in a given period. This
is a very useful technique to study the minimum
development rate (commissioning of new draw points) to
achieve a desired production rate (reduced rate of capital
expenditure).
Other methods can also be represented in a similar
manner. See the EVEN, SMOOTH and COMBO
methods shown below. SMOOTH is similar to AUTO, but
ensures that no draw points are idle by having a
transition from the PRC limited tonnages of older to the
minimum tons for the newest draw points. EVEN
method tries to take tons from each draw point
proportional to what is remaining in the column. This is
the opposite of AUTO and takes the highest tonnages
from the newest draw points. "COMBO" is similar to
EVEN, but constrained by the maximum PRC.

6.1. Differences between daily and longer term

schedules
There are various differences between the two situations
which are listed below:
Usually in the short term, the target tonnages are aimed
to reach a given tonnage over the next few days (e.g. In step 1, the program is able to correct the tonnages
daily tonnages aim to reach a monthly target). (New) for most of the draw points except where maximum

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 137

current tons per draw point (2500t) per step is reached. second (or subsequent draw points are developed).
(New = Past + Current). Thereafter, in a simple case, equal tons will be drawn from
After a few more steps, we can see how the shape is each draw point until one or other of the draw points closes
restored to the target, except for draw points to the right, due to the maximum tonnage for that draw point being
which have closed due to reaching their maximum allowable reached. This defines the "target tonnage line" for the
tonnages. schedule.
Next, we know that we cannot mine negative tonnages
from any draw point. Thus, we can only move upwards and
to the right. We cannot move down or to the left on this
graph. The next constraint is the PRC limit for each draw
point. This is a limit on the maximum tonnage for each draw
point in a given period. These show up as vertical and
horizontal lines on the above graph. Points outside this
region are not feasible. In addition, there may be
constraints which limit the tonnage from one draw point
depending on the tonnages from neighbours. These are
referred to as "neighbour constraints". They are shown as
short diagonal lines on the above figure.
Next we define the production target for a given period.
This is the total tonnage from all draw points in a given
period. In this example, with only two draw points, we get a
straight line (of slope = -1). The ideal target would be where
the production line meets the target line. However, this lies
outside the feasible domain, so we have to look only at
feasible solutions. This is represented by the heavy line
where the production line is inside the domain defined by
the other tonnage constraints. At this stage, it is easy to see
It should be noted that if the PRC curves are changing that the required solution is where the heavy line comes
dynamically, then the program will continually need to make closest to the target line. See "best solution" above.
these adjustments. Also, in the shorter term, hang ups will
restrict actual tonnages so that the correction process will
always be ongoing.

7 SCHEDULING CONSIDERATIONS FOR

A TWO DRAW POINT EXAMPLE

7.1. Single time step

It is common in the literature to study complex problems
by reducing the situation to a simple example with only a
few unknowns. The example here for block cave scheduling
provides a very useful tool to help study different aspects of
the overall problem.
The next figures show this concept. Each figure has
various comments by way of explanation.

In the second example above, the production capacity of the

draw points has been reduced. Thus the ability of the system to
meet the required production tons is also reduced. In fact, there
is no feasible solution as the feasible domain (based on tonnage
constraints) does not intersect the production line. We thus
have one of two possible alternatives. One is to take the
maximum tonnage from each draw point so as to get as close
to the production target as possible. (This is referred to as a
PRC limited tonnage). The problem with this approach is that it
does not move us any closer to the target tonnage.
The second is to sacrifice some tonnage production so as
to be able to move closer to the target tonnage line.
Of course, there are a large number of similar alternatives
which could arise. But inspection of the graphical
representation is always useful in helping to understand the
The example above shows a situation with two draw different possibilities. One can imagine that with hundreds
points and the two axes represent the cumulative tons or thousands of draw points, the solution is quite complex.
drawn for each draw point. At any point in time, the current
state of draw is represented by a single point on this graph 7.2. Multi-time steps
(see "Start" above. For a moving front example, we will Next we look at a multi-step scenario. The production
always draw some tons from the first draw points before the tons for each period is represented by a diagonal line. The

138 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

distance between the lines depends on the production broken. This represents a more realistic scenario. Draw
target. In addition to the short term PRC limits for draw point point 1 is mined faster than draw point 2 initially, since it has
tonnages, we also have the maximum total tons per draw higher grades, then draw point 2 is mined faster, then draw
point which define the overall "box" in which we need to point 1 again and so on. Doing this, instead of following a
work. single trend line, results in better NPV, while still obeying the
The example below shows a typical production solution in applied constraints for each step.
which tons are drawn in an unequal manner from each draw
point over the life of the draw points and the "solution" 8 SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
moves towards the top right corner.
Experience has taught us some basic factors to be aware
of:
You wont get the final solution the first time.
There is no "optimal" solution. You need to study and
compare different alternatives to get a better
understanding of the important factors and constraints in
a schedule.
Engineering judgement is still very important in this
process.
Aspect ratio (length to height) of the cave has a significant
effect on the production strategy.
The grade of dilution (and its effect on ore treatment) can
also be significant. In some block caves, the grade of
"dilution material" is often close to ore grade. This is
obviously a lot less "harmful" than dilution material of zero
grade, such as gabbro material in a kimberlite pipe.
However situation like this can induce operators to
disregard draw control practices that could damage the
geomechnical stability of the mine.

8.1. A "Northparkes" type deposit

Height to width ratio is high
In this example, every change in direction of the tonnage Dilution is less significant
line represents a change in draw strategy driven by the set Usually has higher grade central core
of constraints and the target defined in that particular period. Caveability and hydraulic radius are problematic
In general, big changes would be considered undesirable as Usually all draw points active for most of cave life.
would near vertical or near horizontal lines
Now (above), we superimpose on the production graph Strategy is to pull draw points at equal rate initially for first
the expected grades from each draw point. For draw point 20%-30% of HOD to get cave established and then pull
1, the grades are (3.0, 4.0, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5). For draw point central core (high grade zone) faster than outer draw points,
number 2, the grades are (2.5, 3.5, 2.2, 0.8, 0.6, 0.1). By while maintaining relatively smooth draw profile.
"grade" we mean any variable which can be linked to the
dollar value of the draw points. 8.2. A "Kimberlite" type deposit
Height to width ratio 1
Dilution is very significant
Grades generally less variable
Need to pull new draw points as fast as possible (to PRC
limit) to try to get cave profile as flat as possible.
Have to close older draw points to limit age of draw points
(repair costs) and total number of active draw points.

8.3. Large Cu/Au type deposit

Height to width ratio < 0.8
Dilution is often, but not always problematic
Grades are variable, so sequence and cave shape affect
value significantly
New draw point sequence (undercut shape) is very
important.

9 CONCLUSIONS

Much of the logic around the scheduling of large open pits

applies to scheduling of block caves. In both cases,
geotechnical constraints are very important. In both cases,
the potential to add value to the overall project, through
In this example, we now constrain the tonnages using careful scheduling is significant. Using tools, such as PC-
PRC and neighbour limits. It is seen that the overall trend BC allows you to understand the scheduling characteristics
of the schedule line is similar to before, but cannot deviate and achieve a sound engineering balance between
too far from the diagonal line connecting the bottom left with geotechnical risk and the reward of improved Net Present
the top right otherwise neighbourhood constraints are Value.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 139

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES

The author is grateful to National Research Council of Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC: A block cave design and draw
Canada who sponsored some of this work via the Industrial control system, Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
Research Assistance Program. Thanks are also due to pp. 469-484.
Gemcom Software International Inc. for time and funding to Guest, A., van Houd, G.J. van Johannides, A. and
complete the work and submit this paper. Scheepers, L.F., An Application of Linear Programming
for Block Cave Draw Control. Proceedings MassMin
2000, Brisbane, pp. 461-488.

140 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Block cave production planning
using operation research tools
Enrique Rubio, PhD Candidate, University of British Columbia Mining Consultant,
Tony Diering, Principal Consultant, Gemcom Software International

Abstract
In the pas, manual methods have been used to plan and schedule the extraction of ore from different block cave
operations worldwide. The basic assumption of these methods has been the validity of a set of heuristics, traditionally,
used to plan and schedule production coming out of an active panel. Currently, however, there are several operations
research tools (previously used in the manufacturing sector) that could be used in block cave mine planning. This paper
describes the application of mathematical programming to formulate optimization problems whose solution may perhaps
drive the production strategy of a block cave mine. Some of these strategies such as net present value optimization,
draw profile optimization and minimization of long short term gap have been formulated.
The construction of the optimization problems has required a rational study of which mining constraints are applicable
in each case. In doing so it has been found that the formulation of the objective function as well as the set of constraints
that define the feasible space of solutions are both critical to effective mine planning solutions. At the moment the full
scale algorithms have been incorporated into the PC-BC block caving commercial package. One of the results of this
research has been the integration of the opportunity cost into PC-BC to compute best height of draw in a dynamic
manner. The second result has been the development of draw method called NPV which maximizes the net earnings
per period. Another result has been the introduction of a new draw method called SURF, which aims to minimize the
difference between actual height of draw and the target represented by a surface.
Different mathematical techniques have been used to solve the optimization problems such as direct iterative methods,
linear programming, golden section search technique and integer programming. The results of applying optimization to
different operations worldwide will be presented and outlined in this paper. Finally a discussion about the role of
optimization in block caving will be presented

1 INTRODUCTION 2 OPERATIONS RESEARCH IN

PRODUCTION SCHEDULING
The planning of a block cave mine poses considerable
difficulties in the areas of safety, environment, ground The problem of computing a production schedule in an
control and production scheduling. As the industry is faced underground mine can be understood as an operations
with more marginal resources, it is becoming imperative to research problem in which there is an objective function
generate production schedules which will provide optimal subject to operational constraints. Trout in 1994 developed
operating strategies and make the industry more a model to optimize the cycle time of the unit operations
competitive (Chanda, 1990). related to a long-hole mining method. Also Chanda in 1990
Production scheduling of any mining system has a developed a model to optimize production from a slusher
profound effect on the economics of the operation. In a block cave method using scrapers as production machines.
marginal deposit the application of the correct scheduling Both of these authors concentrated on a short term planning
mechanism might affect the life of the mine. Usually the problems that cover a time horizon of a few weeks to a few
scheduling problems are complex due to the nature and months. Neither of these algorithms have recognized the
variety of the constraints acting upon the system (Denby, fact that the set of constraints is a function of the planning
1994). Although several authors such as Caccetta and horizon under study, for example, a long term production
Giannini (1988), Wilke et al (1984), Gershon (1987) have schedule should contain much less detail than a short term
attempted to develop methodologies to optimize production plan. However the long term plan includes clear definitions
schedules, none has satisfactorily produced a robust related to mining reserves, production sequence, and
technique which has an acceptable level of success. One production rate. More sophisticated algorithms have been
of the main reasons for this unsuccessful history has been developed by Guest (2000) and Matthews (2001) to analyse
the failure in defining the objective function in relation to the and compute long term plans. Guest in 2000 postulated that
mine planning horizons. by following a set of surfaces that conceptually define a
In this research two main planning strategies will be draw control strategy dilution can be minimized and
formulated as potential goals to be optimised as part of the therefore NPV maximized. Matthew also presented an
long term planning process. The first one is the algorithm which could be used to define the optimum
maximization of net present value, which has been a opening and closure sequence in a cut an fill mine. Both of
traditional interest of mining companies to optimise in such these algorithms recognized the fact that by using integer
a way that all the mining, metallurgic and environmental variables in their formulation the computation time often is
constraints are fulfilled. The second strategy developed in inadequate. Also both authors described that the solution
this research is maximization of mine life, which often has for the computing time is relaxing the integer variable to
been associated with a societal goal to maintain reach a feasible solution in a reasonable time. It has been
employment levels. proven (Terlaky, 1996) that by relaxing the integer variables

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 141

in a mixed integer algorithm the optimum solution can differ
dangerously from the solution provided by the optimizer.
One of the problems found in the current literature is that
there has been very little analysis of the adequate set of
constraints applicable for different planning horizons. Also
none of these algorithms have shown a case study in which Subject to the depletion rate
a large scale model had been computed.
Before stating the mathematical problem of computing a Rt+1 Rt = qt R0 given and T a variable in the
production schedule in a block cave mine, it is important to optimization
describe the operational constraints applicable to block
cave as a mining method, the following list presented by
Rubio, 2000 summarizes a few of them: Maximization of the discounted utility function subject to
Development rate states the maximum feasible number the exhaustion constraint leads to the Lagrangian:
of draw points to be opened at any given time within the
schedule horizon. This constraint is usually based on the
geometry and geotechnics of the ore body and the (1)
existent infrastructure of the mine, which typically will
define the number of accesses available to the mining
faces The first order optimality condition is presented by:
Undercut sequence defines the order in which the draw
points will be open. This constraint usually acts on the
draw point status activating those that are at the front of (2)
the production face. This component assumes that the
layout has been previously computed and it is fixed in the
optimization. Note that represents the first derivative of the production
Maximum opened production area at any given time cost with respect to the depletion rate in period t. The
within the production schedule has to be constrained derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the remaining
according to the size of the ore body, available resources in period t is presented as follows:
infrastructure and equipment availability. A large number
of active draw points might lead into serious operational
problems such as exceeding optimum haulage distance (3)
or problematic maintenance of draw points.
Draw rate; the draw rate will control flow of muck at the
draw point. The draw ratio is a function of the Finally the derivative with respect to the Lagrange
fragmentation and the caveability model. Ultimately the constant is as follows:
draw ratio will define the capacity of the draw point and it
needs to be fast enough to avoid compaction and slow
enough to avoid air gaps. (4)
Draw ratio defines a temporarily relationship in tonnage
between one draw point and its neighbors. It is believed
that this parameter will control the dilution entry point and By replacing (3) on (2) pt = Cq + t (5)
the damage of the production level due to induced
stresses.
Period Constraints; the period constraints forces the Equation (5) means that the marginal profit should equal
mining system to produce the desired production usually the marginal production cost plus a variable cost . This
keeping it within a range that allows flexibility for potential variable cost is called the shadow price of initial reserves,
operational variations. or the value of having an extra initial ton to be extracted
optimally in period t.
Note that in this formulation mining reserves are not part From an optimization point of view t represents the
of the set of constraints. This breaks the traditional opportunity cost of depleting a particular unit of resource in
paradigm of computing mining reserves in advance of period t instead of saving it for the next period of production.
computing a production schedule. In this case the mining In summary the mining interpretation for equation 5 is that
reserves will be computed as a result of the optimal the result of applying the marginal cost plus an extra
production schedule. "artificial" cost per period to define the economic outline per
period will lead to the strategy {qt }T0 that will deplete
3 NPV OPTIMIZATION IN BLOCK optimally the mineral deposit.
CAVE PRODUCTION SCHEDULING In the context of an arithmetic example Gray (1914) was
the first author recognizing an additional cost to marginal
According to the theory of non renewable natural extraction calling it opportunity cost. The second author that
resources the problem of optimizing net present value can developed a formulation for non renewable natural
be written as follows (Conrad, J M 1999): resources optimization was Hotelling, 1931 who introduced
Suppose a utility function t = ptqt C (qt), where is the the concept of depletion strategy. Hotelling stated that the
rate of depletion of the natural resources in period t, pt is the optimum depletion strategy is the one that depletes the
spot price of the underlying resource, C (qt) is the production natural resources at such a rate that the growth of the rent
cost as a function of the depletion rate. The objective is to generated for depleting natural resources is similar to the
maximize the discounted utility function subject to the rate of return. Nevertheless it was Lane in 1988 who first
limited amount of resources R0. Lets call the discount introduced formally a methodology to compute the
factor pt which is a function of the discount rate and the opportunity cost in mining. Lane postulates that the
period of the depletion to be discounted. optimum strategy should be optimal at the whole resource
The problem to solve can be formulated as follows: depletion path, the optimum strategy should not only

142 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

maximize the individual cash flows but also include the
effect of these cash flows in the value of the remaining
reserves. The last could be summarized in the following
formula (6).

(6)

From (6) represents the maximum net present value for

the deposit, is the total amount of mineral resource to be
depleted, represents the marginal cash flow of depleting
one ton of ore in period t following the shut off grade w, with
w being part of the overall optimal depletion strategy. is
the time to deplete and process one ton of ore. is the
period discount rate. dV*
dT is the gain or the loss of depleting
one ton of ore in period t upon variable economic and
market conditions. Figure1: Schematic representation of the feasible area of
Note from 6 that the optimum marginal reserves for production at any given period of the production schedule
depletion (left hand side of the equation 6), will be reached
when the contribution to the optimal NPV (V* ) of the last ton
depleted is equal to zero. Therefore the last ton of ore the current period and planned draw points that are draw
depleted in period t should fulfill the following relationship: points located next in the sequence. Also all the constraints
of the optimization have been graphically represented to
define the feasible area. The solution of the optimization will
(7) provide a draw method (Diering, 2004) that defines the
tonnage to be drawn from everyone of the active and new
draw points. Note that the feasible area should be large
The above formulation has tremendous implications from enough to contain the draw method that would fulfill the total
the perspective of the economics of natural resources, tons production target. Otherwise the problem is
because it provides a mechanism to compute the Langrage considered to be fully constrained and sub-optimal solution
constants presented before in equation 5. Thus combining will be found.
5 and 7: The optimal draw method will be such that draw points
containing higher dollar value will be drawn more and
draw points with lower will be drawn less or not at all.
(8) The draw points that are not drawn in a period are shut
down moving the boundary (C), shown in figure 1, to the
right. Consequently the next period in the schedule the
In summary the economy of natural resource theory says active area would be reduced and more new draw points
that the optimum depletion strategy is the one that covers will be needed. Thus the chart in figure 1 is re-drawn for
the marginal cost plus the opportunity cost of depleting the this new period and the draw method re-computed. This
actual resources instead of leaving them in the ground for process is repeated until reaching the end of the life of
the next depletion period. the mine.
One of the problems with the above formulation applied to The mechanism to incorporate the opportunity cost in the
Block Caving would be to find the set of shut off grades production schedule consists of computing the dollar value
(shut off grade policy) that leads to an optimum solution. per draw point in every period of the production schedule.
The following section will show how the concept of The dollar value per draw point calculation will be used for
opportunity cost has been implemented in order to derive an two purposes, the first one will shut down those draw points
optimum depletion strategy. that do not have enough remaining value and second will be
used to plot the chart shown in figure 1. Consequently the
3.1. Application of opportunity cost in block caving active draw points will be drawn according to the draw
production schedules method described above to drive the NPV to its maximum
The following algorithm has been introduced into the PC- point.
BC software from Gemcom Software International (Diering, The algorithm to add the opportunity cost in the
2000) as part of their routines to optimize the NPV of a production schedule is as follows:
production schedule. 1. Set the initial boundary conditions
Before stating the algorithm used to introduce the TMINi i I sets the minimum tonnage to be mined per
opportunity cost in the production schedule it is important to draw point with I draw points across the layout OCto =
draw graphically all the constraints related to the production t T sets the initial value of opportunity cost for the time
schedule, figure 1 shows the feasible area for one period of horizon of the production schedule
the production schedule. 2. Incorporate new draw points according to the given
Figure 1 the X axis represents the dollar value per draw undercut sequence.
point, this value is computed by integrating vertically the 3. Compute dollar value per draw point DVit i Activet
value of the draw column until it declines due to a decrease +Newt, t T. Note that already contains the marginal
in the metal content. The Y axis represents the tonnage to cost.
be mined per draw point; this is one of the optimization If draw point i contains less value than the opportunity
variables. The chart is divided into 4 areas by closed draw cost (DVti < OCkt ) and the tonnage drawn from draw
points (C) which are draw points already exhausted, active point i exceeds the minimum allowable (TMINi) then draw
draw points (A) which are draw points in production, new point i is shut down.
draw points (N) which is also an optimization variable and Otherwise draw point i will still be in production and will
represents new draw points commissioned to production in be drawn according to the draw method.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 143

 If there is an extra capacity the newest draw points are Every iteration would produce a different set of
flagged as idle status. If there is not enough capacity the opportunity costs per period. Thus OCkt would represent
tonnage target constraint is broken. the opportunity cost of period t after iteration k. Calling the
4. Deplete assigned tonnages from the draw column and optimum iteration z, OCzt would represent the optimum
update the model. Then move to the next period t=t +1, opportunity cost policy that would drive the optimum
return to 2 production strategy. The total tonnage drawn per draw point
would represent the optimum mining reserves. Thus this
After computing the production schedule in this first algorithm integrates the production schedule and the mining
iteration the opportunity cost per period is updated as reserves optimisation in a single algorithm. This result is
follows: fairly significant considering the fact that traditionally these
Compute revenue per period Rt = Valvuet *dt where two processes are computed independently of each other.
Valvuet is the average dollar value in period t and dt is the Ultimately the above algorithm produces a variable shut
total tonnage sent to the mill in period t off grade policy that drives the production schedule to its
maximum net present value.
Development cost per period Dt = nt * DPC where nt is
the number of new draw points incorporated and used in 3.2. Opportunity Cost varying economic conditions
period t and DPC is the construction cost of a draw point.
In the presented algorithm the term _ dV has not been
Profit per period Pt = Rt Dt dt
included as the scenario under analysis has been steady
Remaining deposit value per period economic and market conditions. However in the real world
the metal prices change as well as the supply and demand
T Pk for metals. Therefore it would be meaningless to optimize a
Vt = production schedule without considering metal price
k=t+1 ( 1 + ) k-1 changes. However the problem would be to forecast how
the prices will behave in the future. The following algorithm
, where is the discount rate per period. Note that this assumes that the vector of metal prices along the life of the
value is computed at every period of the production mine is known and is part of the evaluation variables.
schedule. For example if the market is facing a rise in metal prices,
then it may be more appropriate to wait for prices to recover.
Opportunity cost per period is computed according Alternative, while waiting for increased prices the deposit is
Vt losing value in delaying its operation. Yet there is a trade off
equation 6 OCt = between the incremental value gained by economical
C external changes and by opportunity cost.
, where C represents the average mill capacity. This There are a few parameters that need to be defined to
equation does not integrate the term _ dV formulate the integration of dV / dT into the optimization
dt algorithm such as:
because it assumes that the economic conditions as well
as the market conditions stay steady along the life of the RFt is the revenue factor per period.
mine.
Table 1 shows an example of how the system computes MCt is the mining cost per period including the processing
one set of opportunity costs after one iteration. cost.

Rt is the revenue earned in period t.

Table 1: Opportunity cost calculation after
iterating once the production schedule is the revenue that would be earned if the project is
delayed in one period of time. It takes economic parameters
nt Rt Dt Pt Vt OCt from t +1 period.

3 2,919,365 360,000 2,559,365 11,576,159 6,32 Pt is the profit earned in period t.

0 2,921,512 0 2,921,512 9,812,263 5,36
2 2,343,786 240,000 2,103,786 8,689,703 4,75 is the profit using .
1 1,451,375 120,000 1,331,375 8,227,298 4,49
0 1,374,377 0 1,374,377 7,675,651 4,19 Vt is the remaining value of the mine at the end of year t.
1 1,375,122 120,000 1,255,122 7,188,094 3,93
1 1,874,756 120,000 1,754,756 6,152,147 3,36 Wt is the future value of the mine at the end of year t using
1 2,543,706 120,000 2,423,706 4,343,656 2,37 economic parameters of year t +1.
0 1,892,513 0 1,892,513 2,885,509 1,58
1 1,901,043 120,000 1,781,043 1,393,016 0,76 Gt is the head grade simulated by the production
0 1,294,969 0 1,294,969 237,349 0,13 schedule.
0 208,914 0 208,914 52,170 0,03
0 57,387 0 57,387 0 0,00 The calculations proceed as follows:
0 0 0 0 0 0,00
0 0 0 0 0 0,00

0,1
DPC 120,000
C 183,050
NPV 12,850,476

144 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 2: Comparison of two different schedules
without and with dV/dT

Draw Point Name HOD_OC HOD_OC-dV/dT

E1N1 75 75
E2N1 75 75
E3N1 75 75
dV
Then the factor = Wt - Vt is known and the opportunity E4N1 105 216
dt E5N1 105 191
cost per period can be computed as follows: E6N1 105 205
E7N1 105 186
E8N1 105 172
E9N1 105 126
E10N1 105 122
Figure 2 shows the effect of dV/dT on the resulting NPV 000$ 14,965 15,047
opportunity costs. Note that the opportunity cost without Reserves 2,029,028 3,093,550
incorporating dV/dT does not have any relation to the
revenue factor or metal price. In contrast, the opportunity
objective function is avoided. Clearly the problem is 3D
cost including dV/dT has a direct correlation with the
because the decisions variables are, for example, when to
shut off a draw point, which represents the vertical
revenue factor. Yet the inclusion of on the calculation
dimension of the problem and also when to open a new
draw point, which represents the horizontal dimension of the
problem. The following representation of 4 draw points that
of the opportunity cost could lead to a totally different
contain 3 slices each is used to represent the problem in two
production schedule and therefore the set of opportunity
dimensions. This representation shows profit per slice
costs that does not include the term accounting for variable
scaled by 1000. The order in which the draw points have
economic conditions would drive to a sub optimal production
been sorted depends on the opening sequence previously
schedule.
defined.

Table 3: 2D representation of the slice file.

2,24 1,12 1,12 11,23

2,24 4,49 2,24 -3,38
9,98 3,24 5,48 6,61

Sllice #, j Draw point #, i

The next step of the optimization process is to find a

combination of the above blocks to extract in every period of
Figure 2: Opportunity cost with and without dV/dT
the schedule that will optimize the overall NPV. Therefore
the problem is to find a set of binary matrixes that will tell
Table 2 shows the resulting optimal height of draws for
when to mine every one of the blocks making up the slice
two different scenarios HOD_OC and HOD_OC-dV/dT. The
file. A representation of these matrices is shown in Table 4
first scenario (HOD_OC) does not include the term dV/dT,
with the extraction of the first year of the production
alternative HOD_OC-dV/dT does it. It is clear that the
schedule. The meaning of this matrix is that the first 2 slices
impact of the change in value due to economic change is
of draw point 1 and the 1 slice of draw point 2 are drawn in
significant. The algorithm without the differential of value
the first year of the production schedule.
with time does not reproduce a realistic scenario because it
does not account for the relation between shut off grade and
metal price returning lower NPV and mining reserves. On
the contrary, the algorithm with the differential of value on Table 4: Binary matrix representing the first period
time does couple price and grade, reporting higher NPV and of the production schedule.
mining reserves.
0 0 0 0
3.3. Integer programming approach to optimize NPV in 1 0 0 0
a block cave production schuedule
1 1 0 0
The problem of NPV maximization in a block caving
operation can be described as a large scale, multi-period,
mixed-integer linear programming problem. The
Clearly the binary variables should fulfill all the rules
development of the model to solve this problem began with
related to block cave mining. For example the slices as well
translating the optimization problem in two dimensions, so
as the draw point need to be mined following the matrixs
that the non linearity between tonnage and grade in the
sequence.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 145

 The above algorithm was written on AMPL 1999 which is The above algorithm has been tested using up to 100
a system for writing the optimization problem in draw points with 20 slices each and the time horizon for the
mathematical language. Once the problem is written in production schedule has been set to be 14 years. The time
mathematical language AMPL translates the problem and to solve the problem has been around 2.5 hours using a
passes it to CPLEX which is the engine used to search for Pentium 4 computer, 2.1 GHz of speed and 520 MB of ram
the solution to the optimization problem. memory.
Table 5 shows the resolution of a 7 draw point theoretical
The algorithm is presented as follows: problem. Every draw point contains 3 slices per column.
The economic values per slice are presented in the first
Problem dimensions matrix, the following matrixes show how the depletion of the
I , total number of draw points across the layout slices will be performed in every of the production schedule.
J , total number of slices within a draw point Note that the draw rate used in this case constrains the
T , time horizon for the production schedule extraction of 1 slice per period, per draw point. Also the
maximum number of new draw points per period was set up
Problem Parameters to be 2.

valvueij , dollar value for draw point i slice number j. This

parameter is similar to the matrix presented in Table 3

Ton_t arg et , production target for period t

dri , maximum draw rate for draw point i
newt , maximum development rate per period.
Mblocki, minimum number of blocks to be drawn from
each draw point i

Decision Variables

dijt =
{ 1, If draw point i, slice j is mined in period t

0, Otherwise

This set of variables represents the binary matrixes

showed in figure 4

Objective Function

i , j ,T d * valueij
Maxdijt ijt t ; where is the period discount rate
i , j ,t (1+ a )
Constraints
Table 5: Resolution of NPV optimization using integer
Draw point sequence within a draw point programming.
k

d
t =1
ijt dij +1k ;j=1..J,K=1..T,i=1..I The final reserves outline of the above problem is
presented in Table 6. Note that the algorithm does not
Draw point sequence across the layout smooth the final reserves outline ("hair cut") because this
k process is believed to be part of a second optimization,
d
t =1
ijt di +1 jk ;j=1,i=1..II,k=1..T which perhaps specifically may not be a task of the strategic
long term planning.
Every slice can be mined just once
T

d
t =1
ijt 1;i=1..I,j=1..j
Maximum development rate
I

d
i =1
ilt newt ;t=1..T
Maximum draw rate
j Table 6: Final reserves outline using integer programming.
d ijt dri ;i=1..I,t=1..T
j =1 This algorithm lacks several constraints that may apply in
Maximum production rate the planning of a block cave mine such as reserves outline
I, j smoothing, draw ratio between a draw point and its
d ijt ton _ t arg et1 neighbours. However the intend of this algorithm is to
i, j operate in conjunction with a system such as PC-BC that
Minimum number of slices per draw point could introduce the level of detail desired for the planning of
j ,T the block cave.
d
j ,t
ijt Mblocki ; i = 1..I

146 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

4 MINIMIZE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO inimum draw rate per draw point per period.
SURFACES USING QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING In this case mining reserves represent a constraint in the
optimization unlike NPV optimization where the mining
There are two applications of this objective function; the reserves represent a variable in the optimization process.
first one is the application of an angle of draw as the desire The way of introducing the reserves as a constraint is by
draw profile, the second one is the minimization of using a binary status variable called "closed" which
differences between actual height of draw versus a desired indicates whether the draw point has been depleted or not.
target. The first application is related with having a "good" Since the status variable "active" is affected by the closed
draw performance which leads to retarding the dilution entry status variable, reserves affect the status of the active draw
point. If dilution is delayed the life of the mine is prolonged, points. Therefore if a draw point has been depleted the
since draw points can still be opened for a longer period of status variable "closed" would be 1 and the respective
time. The second application of this objective function is "active" variable would be 0.
more related with the link between long term plans and the Some assumptions to solve the problem are as follows:
short term plans. The long term plan provides the target Integer variables were relaxed
height of draw for a certain period of time and the short term Draw points shut down when they reach their Best Height
plan provides the current height of draw situation. of Draw
The first application to minimize the difference between Draw rates used were constant along the production
the current draw profile and a desired draw profile has schedule
already been developed by Rahal, 2003. However this The algorithm used to solve the problem was the basic
author uses a linear function consisting of two main Linear and Quadratic Solver commercialized by Frontline
deviations: current profile with respect to a target and Technology.
current production with respect to a target. The problem A model of 10 draw points with 10 slices each was set up
with this formulation is that the minimum deviation could be in order to solve the original problem. This optimization also
achieved by having a large deviation at the beginning of the fits into the category of multi period problem, in this case 10
schedule and a small deviation at the end of the schedule, period optimization. A graph showing the overall cumulated
eventually resulting in a total deviation equal 0. The production drawn from draw points is shown in Figure 3. In
proposed algorithm in this paper is the minimization of the this example the main objective of the optimization is to
square of the deviation which will produce a much efficient minimize the variance of the tonnages being drawn at any
search mechanism using quadratic programming and also a given period of the production schedule. Note from Figure
better decision from a scheduling point of view. Therefore 3 that by applying this algorithm the height of draws per
all deviations either happening at the beginning of the period per draw point describes an overall angle of
schedule or at the end of it will count the same for the extraction or draw. It is also possible to demonstrate that
objective function. the angle of draw is directly related to the draw ratio ( ).
Therefore the angle of draw can be easily planned and
Objective function evaluated by modifying the draw ratio constraint.
T I 2
min at * {^ dit dt }
t =1 i =1
at, number of active draw points in period t

dt, average tonnage drawn in period "t" from the active

draw points or any desired target
dt, tonnage to be drawn from draw point i in period t. This
is the main variable in the optimization process, which
ultimately leads to the production schedule

Constraints
Development rate
Figure 3: Angle of draw as a result of minimize the variance
vt Newt t = 1..T . Note that this is an integer variable. of the tonnages drawn per period.

Tonnage target A different way of approaching the problem of optimizing

I draw performance is to impose a desired draw surface that
d
i =1
it TTU t
t=1..T being TTU
is believed to follow a particular cave behavior which
ultimately will minimize dilution. Figure 4 shows a draw
I
profile in which the first 2 years of the schedule were drawn
without constraints and the following years a particular
d
i =1
it TTLt angle was imposed to be followed as the main objective of
the optimization.
and TTL the maximum and the minimum production rate The above methodology needs to be carefully constrained
in period t respectively. with the minimum tonnage to be drawn per draw point
otherwise isolated draw (which is undesidable) could be an
Draw rate optimal solution for the algorithm. Therefore the upper and
dit TU it * ait i=1 to I and t=1 to T lower bound for the draw rate should be carefully studied
and controlled by the draw ratio parameter. It is clear that a
dit TLit * ait more relaxed draw ratio constraint will produce a more
productive schedule however this may induce the entrance
Note that draw ratio dcf is part of the above constraint by of early dilution and point load on the major apex pillar.
TUit l, being TU and the maximum and the
TLit it
dcft

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 147

 Table 8: NPV optimization using variable shut off grade
approach

Note from table 8 that the increase in the NPV is due to

Figure 4: Minimize the difference between the current and the optimization of the blended grade and the reduction of
the desired draw profile. the development rate. The evolution of opportunity cost
throughout the optimization process is shown in figure 6.
5 CASE STUDY

The following case study presents a mine that contains

1219 draw points in the current layout. The mining method
is panel caving with traditional undercutting. The pre
computed mining reserves corresponds to 237 Mt with
0.98%Cu. The mill capacity has been set up to be a
maximum of 11 Mt/year. Figure 5 shows a 3D display of the
layout using PC-BC software.

Figure 6: Opportunity cost for different iterations throughout

the optimization process

The difference between shut off grades across the

economic layout for the base case and the optimized
Figure 5: 3D display of a 1219 draw points layout. scenario is presented in figure 7. It is interesting to note that
the last draw points in the optimized sequence and the base
case shut off grade is similar. Between sequence number
The current mining cost structure used in the optimization 200 and 300 the shut off grade for the optimized case is
is presented in table 7. These costs do not include fixed lower than the base case because there is no enough
costs which are added separately in the evaluation of the flexibility or rather active draw points to fulfill the production
production schedule. target. Then the optimization algorithm decides to keep low
grade draw points active to achieve the desired production
rate.

Table 7: Cost structure used in the optimization.

The maximum development rate per year was set up to

be 120 draw points. The draw rate varies per draw point
and it moves in range 0.5 to 0.65 t/m2/day.
Table 8 shows the result of the optimization using variable
shut off grade approach. It is possible to see that the
increase in the NPV is about 19% while the mining reserves
are reduced by 12% with respect to the base case. Figure 7: Resulting shut off grade throughout the life of the
mine.

148 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

6 CONCLUSIONS Conrad J M, (1999). Resource Economics. Cambridge
University Press; 0 edition (October 28, 1999). ISBN:
Operations research tools can be used to plan and 0521649749
schedule block cave mines. The level at which these tools Denby, B and Schofield, D, 1995. The Use of Genetic
are applied would define the success of the resultant Algorithms in Underground Mine Scheduling.
production schedules. Proceedings XXVth APCOM, pp 389-394
The process of identifying the constraints that apply to the (AusIMM:Brisbane)
corresponding planning horizon is a critical step in defining Diering T, (2000). PC-BC: A Block Cave Design and Draw
the operations research problem. A wrong decision about a Control System. Proceedings Massmin 2000. Brisbane,
set of constraints could lead to a good answer for the wrong AusIMM, pp301-335.
problem. The process of establishing the adequate Diering T, (2004). Computational considerations for
constraints enables mine planners to better understand the production scheduling of block cave mines
mining problem. . Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago, Chile.
The use of opportunity cost in production scheduling can Gershon, M, 1987. Heuristic approaches for mine
lead to improvement of the NPV of the operations by several planning and production scheduling. Int J of Min and Geol
million dollars. The reserves as well as the development Eng. 5:1-13
rate are in this case rather an output of the optimization Gray L C, (1914). Rent Under the Assumption of
process than an input. Exhaustibility. The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 28,
Further research needs to be done in order to develop No.3, May 1914 466-489
new technologies that could perhaps have the ability to Guest A R et al, (2000). An Application of Linear
integrate new constraints that would better forecast the Programming for Block Cave Draw Control. Proceeding
reaction of the rock mass to different mining strategies. In Massmin 2000, Brisbane.
particular the addition of uncertainty based upon actual Hotelling H, (1931). The Economics of Exhaustible
performance will be a key parameter to be incorporated in Resources. The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 39,
the future generation of production schedulers in block No.2, Apr. 1931 137-175
caving operations. Lane K L (1988). The Economic Definition of Ore. Mining
Journal Books LTD, London.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Rahal, D., Smith, M., van Hout, G., and von Johannedis,
A., 2003. The use of mixed integer linear programming
Funding for this research project was provided by for long-term scheduling in block caving mines.
Gemcom Software International and the National Research Proceedings APCOM 2003, Cape Town, South Africa.
Council of Canada. Also University of British Columbia to Rubio, E., Scoble, M and Dunbar, W. S., 2001.
provide guidance along the research presented in this Scheduling in block caving operations using operational
paper. In particular Dr. Scott Dunbar, Dr. Malcolm Scoble for research tools. In Proceedings Minespace 2001.
their contribution to finish this paper. Proceedings Annual General Meeting of the Canadian
Institute of Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum, Quebec
REFERENCES City, Canada.
Terlaky T (1996). Interior Point Methods of Mathematical
Cacceta, L and Giannini, L M, 1988. The generation of Programming. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
minimum search patterns in the optimum design of open Trout L P, (1995). Underground Mine Production
pit mines. Bull Proc Australasian Inst Min Metall, 293(5): Scheduling Using Mixed Integer Programming.
57-61. Proceeding APCOM XXV, Brisbane, pp 395-400.
Chanda E C K, (1990). An Application of Integer
Programming and Simulation to Production Planning for a
Stratiform Ore Body. Mining Science and Technology,
11:165/172

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 149

 Reliability theory applied to
block cave production scheduling
Enrique Rubio, PhD, Candidate, W Scott Dunbar, Associate Professor; Malcolm Scoble, Department Head,
Robert Hall, Assistant Professor, University of British Columbia

Abstract
The long term plan in a block cave mine is based upon a number of assumptions about the behaviour of the rock mass.
Production forecasts will rely on these assumptions even when data are available to suggest modifications to those
assumptions. This can compromise not only the economics of the project but also the global geomechanical stability of
the mine. Even though there might be several goals that a production schedule of a block cave mine could follow, at the
moment, there is no tool to measure how precisely those goals are met.
Reliability theory introduces a new metric to production schedules which ultimately will measure the ability of different
production strategies to achieve production targets. In this approach the reliability of a draw point can be computed
using historical forecasts versus historical production data. The individual draw point reliabilities can then be linked
though a set of equations to compute the overall block cave reliability. This aims to provide a different means to
schedule block cave mines adding an index of uncertainty to the overall production schedule as well as the factors that
contribute to it. Several examples will be presented as a proof of concept.

1 INTRODUCTION availability of the production system as a whole. As an

analogy, this could be implemented in a mine that is
Historically, production schedules in Block Caving composed out of different processes in which every one of
operations have been computed using heuristic methods the components has a different failure rate.
learned over the years during the operation of the mine. This paper aims to demonstrate the ability of reliability
Some research on planning or scheduling block cave models to integrate operational information in the estimation
operations has focused on the use of operations research of the best production strategy.
tools to allocate resources such as equipment and labor
(Rubio, Scoble and Dunbar, 2001) or to minimize costs or 2 CAVING METHODS AND UNCERTAINTY MODELS
maximize net present value (Smith and Rahal, 2001; Rahal
et al, 2003). There is no published record of the regular Block caving has gained increased popularity in recent year
application of such methods in a block caving operation. due to its ability to produce large tonnages at low operating
Recently, operations research tools have been introduced to cost. However, there are several issues that add considerable
facilitate the planning methodology either in the short term uncertainty to the mining method such as: caveability in
planning (Chanda, 1990) and long term planning (Guest et competent and highly stressed ore bodies (De Nicola and
al, 2000). Nevertheless, there is still a need to introduce Fishwick, 2000); seismicity due the presence of high stresses
algorithms that are able to adapt to the dynamic conditions that could adversely affect the mining method (Dunlop and
of an underground mine. One of the main problems that Gaete, 1995); stress redistribution due to a particular draw
block cave mines are facing at the moment is the lack of strategy; ultimate fragmentation that may have been poorly
integration of operational information into the construction of estimated for the rock mass; lack of precision in estimating the
production schedules. There have been a few attempts to grade distribution within the ore body; and dilution or the
integrate uncertainty models into operations research manner in which waste is included in the caved rock mass as it
models stochastical programming methods (Smith, 1999) moves toward the draw points (Dolipas R, 2000). Inadequate
have not been able to provide an easy way of integrating the recognition and understanding of these issues can lead to
variance of the rock mass models into the mine planning disruption of production performance. However, it has been
system. It is clear that the success of a production plan will observed that some block cave operations perform better than
depend upon the ability of the mine planning system to others when facing these uncertainties. It seems that the
incorporate uncertainty found in rock mass behaviour and in amount of planning and its ability to integrate the above
the mining system. The understanding of what constitutes mentioned issues plays a significant role in the success of a
a successful mine plan in this paper is the means to be able block caving operation.
to forecast the correct amount of resources needed to
achieve a desired production target. Operations research 3 PLANNING AND SCHEDULING METHODS
tools in mine planning tend to be limited to strategic mine APPLIED TO CAVING METHODS
planning or long term production schedules that do not
incorporate the degree of detail needed at the operational In order to ensure that the ore production rate meets
levels. requirements and to efficiently allocate resources such as
Reliability systems theory has been extensively used in capital, equipment and labor, a block cave mine plan and
mechanical engineering to compute maintenance plans and schedule must be defined. The aspects of mine planning
derive operational decisions. One of the advantages of this that need to be fully considered to properly plan a block
methodology is that it can integrate all the operational cave mine are as follows:
components of a production system, incorporating the Draw point sequence:. i.e. the order and timing by which
failure rate of the components as part of the forecasted the draw points should be incorporated in production.

150 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Active area: i.e. the number of draw points that should be the caved zone; amount of secondary blasting activity
developed per period (Dessureault, Scoble, Rubio, 2000). There is a lack of
Draw rate: i.e. how fast can material be extracted from published work dealing with the relationship of
these draw points to provide the best value to the fragmentation to production scheduling. Fragmentation
operations. tends to vary across the active area due to factors such as
Draw constraints: i.e. identification of the main operational discontinuity frequency, rock mass strength, and other
constraints that limit the productivity of a draw point. geomechanical factors such as the stresses acting in the
Draw profile: i.e. what should be the distribution of rock mass. In turn, the stresses are related to rock mass
tonnages within an active panel to guaranty the global properties, the rate of draw, the draw pattern and the
stability of the mine location of draw points as the operation proceeds. These
Geotechnical constraints: i.e. how does the draw profile relationships are complex and are likely to be site-
affect the geomechanical response of the rock mass dependent. Thus it seems clear that a robust production
planning tool should be empirically based and should
The above factors are linked through several production integrate available production data with measured
rules that traditionally have been derived from heuristics and geomechanical data, such as: deformation, stress
experience at different operations. Figure 1 shows an indicators, fragmentation data, and rock mass properties.
operating mine that has successfully forecast its production
ramp-up as a result of using the factors above and the 4 UNCERTAINTY IN BLOCK
appropriate heuristic rules. CAVE PRODUCTION PLANNING

The difference between forecast and actual production of

a draw point could be used as a measure of the reliability of
the draw point to produce ore. Figure 2 compares one
month of production between forecast and actual tonnage
taken from the same operation as shown in figure 1. Note
that even though the global tonnage forecasted has been
fulfilled, the distribution of tonnage per period across the
active area has not been achieved. This tonnage variance
per draw point induces two well known operational
behaviors: Under Pulling and Over Pulling. Under pulling
means that the actual tonnage is less than the forecast for
the draw point and over pulling means that the draw point
has exceeded its planned tonnage.

Figure 1: Production back-analysis of an existent operation

Currently, when a production plan is computed then all

draw points have the same chance of being part of the
schedule. However, in every block cave operation there are
draw points that tend to produce more easily than others or
the productivity of draw points varies across the active area.
This variance in draw point productivity clearly reflects the
uncertainty in predicting rock mass behavior to plan the
production associated with a particular schedule.
Production from a draw point depends on several rock
mass and design parameters such as: equipment size,
layout configuration, stresses on the production tunnels, Figure 2: One month of tonnage reconciliation per draw
haulage infrastructure, seismic activity. One of the most point
relevant parameters, however, appears to be the ultimate
fragmentation of the rock mass. Fragmentation models
such as BCF developed by Esterhuinzen (1994), Brown It is generally accepted that under pull and over pull
(2003) and Wang et al (2003) could be used to estimate the behaviour leads to early dilution entry, over induced
fragmentation curve of a given rock type and thus forecast stresses, and increased discrepancies between planned
the frequency of oversize and hang ups occurring at draw and operational performance. Therefore it seems clear that
points. These fragmentations models will finally affect the production plans need to be based on a draw point by draw
draw point productivity. However, current practice is to point basis; otherwise imprecise analysis can place at risk
employ a trial and error process until full production is the life and economic return of the mine.
achieved without introducing the interruptions that the Figure 3 shows the monthly average relative deviation
secondary blasting activity adds to the production system. between forecast and actual tonnages drawn from 40 draw
Generally by adding the secondary blasting activity then the points during a 36 month period at an actual mine. It
productivity of a block or a production unit decreases and demonstrates that draw points can vary considerably in the
therefore the time to achieve full production is usually longer precision of estimating production performance. It also
than planned. The impact of this situation on the economics demonstrates the need for production planning to integrate
of the mine is significant. a new way of quantifying the historical production variance
Fragmentation models are also used to define other between forecast and actual. Then this variance could be
aspects of the design and planning of a block cave mine, used to correct the future forecast or even better help to
such as: draw point layouts (Laubscher, 1994); mixing within study the relationship between this deviation and rock mass

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 151

properties. This paper now will introduce this concept
Table 2. Actual tonnage drawn
through a method that computes a reliability parameter as a
measure of production variance
planned tons Mar-98 Apr-98 May-98 Jun-98

09 01H 1800 3500 2500 500

09 02F 3000 4500 5500
09 02H 2500 2400
11 01F 1350 2150

Table 3. Relative tonnage deviation:

actual versus forecast

planned tons Mar-98 Apr-98 May-98 Jun-98

09 01H 0.20 0.40 0.29 0.83

09 02F 1.00 0.50 0.10
Figure 3: Monthly average relative deviations between 09 02H 1.50 0.04
forecast and actual tonnages 11 01F 0.13 0.13

The reliability of a production plan is computed as a

function of the individual draw point reliability. The reliability The reliability of a draw point will be evaluated by
of a draw point is computed as another property of a draw assuming that a 50% or less average monthly relative
point, alongside grade, dilution, draw rate, as follows: tonnage deviation is acceptable. Then the reliability index is
computed as the percentage of the time that a draw point
Draw points i = 1..l, Periods j = 1..J has been reliable during its life. Thus the reliability index of
draw point 09 01H would be _=75%, since the deviations in
March, April and May were less than 50%. The reliability of
the selected four draw points is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Draw point reliability

, actual tonnage drawn from draw point i in period j
Draw Point Reliability
, planned tonnage to be drawn from draw point i in
period j 09 01H 75%
09 02F 67%
ri j =
{ 1 if di j K

0 otherwise
09 02H
11 01F
50%
100%
is an indicator of the compliance over a deviation K of the Applying the same concept to the data shown in figure 3
plan with respect to the actual tonnage drawn. Finally the it is possible to see in figure 4 that there is a variation of
reliability of the draw point is computed as: reliability within the active panel. Consequently for the next
j monthly forecast there will be more confidence in predicting
j draw point 13 02F than 01 01F in achieving the production
r
j =1
i target.
Ri =
j
Table 1 and Table 2 show a production plan and the actual
tonnages drawn from four of the 40 draw points showed in
figure 3. Table 3 shows the relative deviation between
forecast and actual tonnages.

Table 1. Production forecast for four draw points

planned tons Mar-98 Apr-98 May-98 Jun-98

09 01H 1500 2500 3500 3000

09 02F 1500 3000 5000
09 02H 1000 2500
Figure 4. Reliability index of draw points in figure 1.
11 01F 1200 1900
As more observations are made, then the reliability index
can be recomputed. Figure 5 shows the change of the
reliability index with time for four draw points chosen from
the 40 draw points of figure 3. This shows that the reliability
index cannot be assumed to be independent of time and

152 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

therefore an adjustment of the index will be necessary to
develop long term schedules.

Figure 5. Change of reliability index with time for different

draw points

The next step in developing the application of the

reliability theory to block cave planning is to assemble the
individual draw point reliabilities into the block cave Figure 7. Representation of a block cave mine
reliability
The ore passes, numbered from 1 to 3, and draw points
5 APPLICATION OF RELIABILITY are indexed according to position with respect to ore pass
THEORY TO PRODUCTION PLANNING and draw point, e.g. would be the jth draw point in ore pass
i. Draw points in the same panel will be in parallel and in
The reliability of the system relates to the probability of an series with the ore pass. Therefore the reliability of a panel
entire system failing, based on the knowledge of the failure is given by:
distribution associated with the systems component
(Kaufmann et al, 1977). Reliability theory has been used
extensively to analyze mechanical systems, even the j (i )
process of ants foraging (Herbers, 1981). In order to RPi = ROPi 1 C (1 RDik )
compute the reliability of the system, it is first necessary to k =1
map its component processes. The relationships between
these processes also need to be established. Then an where is the reliability of panel i, is the reliability of ore
analogy with electric circuits is used to compute the system pass i, and is the reliability of the jth draw point located on
reliability. For example, the reliability of two dependant panel i. J(i) is the number of draw points in panel i. Since the
processes is computed as if these two processes were three panels in figure 7 operate in series, then the reliability
connected in series. The same applies for two independent of the system shown is given by:
processes in which the reliability is computed as if the
processes were connected in parallel. Figure 6 shows a few R = RP1 RP2 RP3
different kinds of process connections, Herbers (1981), as
follows: The base case scenario will consist of having the same
a) in series reliability for all elements equal to 0.8, i.e. ROP1 = RDij =
b) in parallel 0.8 for all i and j. Then the system reliability would be R =
c) parallel - series 0.487. Now consider two cases:
d) in series - parallel
Case 1: Suppose that the reliability of any draw point in
Each of the above would have a different formula to panel 1 decreases to 0.5 due to poor draw control and
compute the overall system reliability. operational factors. Then the reliability of the production
area would be R = 0.486 (See Table 5), not a significant
difference from the base case.

Case 2: If instead the reliability of any draw point in panel

3 (the cave front) decreases to 0.5, then the reliability of the
entire system would be R = 0.456. This is an interesting
result; since the reliability model suggests that it is more
important to keep draw points at the cave front in proper
operation rather than old draw points to enhance the
performance of the production area.

Table 5: Production area reliability

Figure 6: Processes connections presented by Herbers by panel for different cases
(1981)
Consider a mine with three production panels. Each panel Panel 1 Panel 2 Panel 3 System R
has an ore pass and several draw points linked to it, as
shown in figure 7. Each of the panels has to produce an Base case 0.799 0.794 0.768 0.487
equal tonnage at any given period to maintain the uniform
draw pattern in order to avoid early dilution as well as high Case 1 0.797 0.794 0.768 0.486
stresses in the production area. Case 2 0.799 0.794 0.72 0.456

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 153

 The reliability model could also be used to help decide become so large that a "hang-up" occurs. Production from
where to open a new draw point by showing in which way the draw points may still proceed, however, at a lower
the system becomes more reliable. For example, consider reliability. If production stops, then caving still occurs but
Case 2 above where there is a draw point in the cave front this induces potentially damaging stresses onto the
with low reliability and it is desired to open a new draw point adjacent draw points, thus affecting production from the
(with reliability 0.8) so that the entire production area panel in the long term.
becomes more reliable. Suppose also that operational Development of a realistic and robust production planning
constraints in panel 2 mean that the new draw point can model for block caving operations is a challenging task. The
only be located in panels 1 or 3. The calculation of the issues and factors described above should also be included
system reliability for both these scenarios is shown in Tables in such a model.
6 and 7 respectively.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Table 6: System reliability for a new
Even though current production scheduling methods may
draw point in panel 1 (shown in bold)
forecast the global tonnage to be mined per period
accurately, there is often exists a significant tonnage
Panel 1 Panel 2 Panel 3
variance between forecast and actual production on a draw
ROPi 0.8 0.8 0.8 point by draw point basis. This variance generally results
from inadequate integration of the fundamental models that
RDil 0.8 0.8 0.8 sustain the planning of a block cave operation and also the
RDi2 0.8 0.8 0.5 inability to deal with operational data.
Reliability theory has been studied as a means to allow
RDi3 0.8 0.8 mine planners to account for the actual production
RDi4 0.8 performance as part of the mine planning system. Also,
reliability theory provides a way to analyze the weakest link
RDi5 0.8 within a mine plan from a process point of view. There is a
RPi 0.8 0.79 0.72 System R = 0,46 need to integrate the more fundamental process models
and field monitoring data to improve the precision of
production scheduling
Table 7: System reliability for a new
draw point in panel 3 (shown in bold) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Panel 1 Panel 2 Panel 3 The authors are grateful to Gemcom Software

International Inc. for time and funding to complete the work
ROPi 0.8 0.8 0.8 and submit this paper.
RDil 0.8 0.8 0.8 REFERENCES
RDi2 0.8 0.8 0.5
Brown, E. T., (2003). Block Caving Geomechanics. Julius
RDi3 0.8 0.8 0.8
Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, JKTech Pty Ltd.
RDi4 0.8 Chanda E C K, (1990). An Application of Integer
RDi5 Programming and Simulation to Production Planning for a
Stratiform Ore Body. Mining Science and Technology,
RPi 0.8 0.79 0.78 System R = 0,50 11:165/172
De Nicola, R., Fishwick, M., (2000). An Underground Air
Blast- Codelco Chile Division El Salvador. Proceeding
The results in Tables 6 and 7 show that the effect of Massmin 2000, Brisbane.
opening a new draw point at the cave front is much greater Dessureault, S., Scoble, M., Rubio, E, (2000). Simulating
than opening it at the back of the active area. This is Block Cave Secondary Breakage - An Application of
because the contribution of the extra draw point in panel 3 Information and Operations Management Tools in Mass
to the overall reliability is much larger than in panel 1. Mining Systems. Proc. of Massmin 2000. (AusIMM:
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possibly damaging the rock mass and affecting Dolipas R S, (2000). Rock Mechanics as Applied in Philex
fragmentation at other draw points. This could render Block Cave Operations. Proceeding Massmin 2000,
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development and operation of draw points such as Ants," Journal of Theoretical Biology, 89 (1981) 175-189.
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point development. These issues are more related to short Mathematical Models for the Study of the Reliability of
term planning but could also affect the reliability of the entire System. New York: Academic Press (1977).
production system. During production from a panel, it is Laubscher D H, (1994). Cave Mining- The State of the Art,
common for the fragments in one or more draw points to J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall. , Vol. 94, pp. 279-292.

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 Rahal, D., Smith, M., van Hout, G., and von Johannedis, Smith, M. L. and Rahal, D., (2001). Draw control
A., (2003). The use of mixed integer linear programming optimization in the context of production scheduling. In
for long-term scheduling in block caving mines. In Proceedings 17th International Congress and Exhibition
Proceedings APCOM 2003: 31st International of Turkey, Chamber of Mining Engineers of Turkey,
Symposium on the Application of Computers and Ankara, Turkey, pp 831-838.
Operations research in the Minerals Industries, May 14- Smith M L, (1999). The influence Deposit Uncertainty on
16, 2003, Cape Town, South Africa. Mine Production Scheduling. International Journal of
Rubio, E., Scoble, M and Dunbar, W. S., (2001). Surface Mining, 13:173-178
Scheduling in block caving operations using operational Wang, L. G., Yamashita, S., Sugimoto, F., Pan, C., and
research tools. In Proceedings Minespace 2001. Annual Tan, G., (2003). A methodology for predicting the in situ
General Meeting of the Canadian Institute of Mining, size and shape distribution of rock blocks. Rock
Metallurgy, and Petroleum, Quebec City, Canada. Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 36, 121-142.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 155

 Integrating Work Index into
mine planning at large
scale mining operations
Jose A. Caceres S., MSc(Eng), PhD Candidate
Charles W. Pelley, PhD, P.Eng P.D. (Takis) Katsabanis, PhD, P.Eng.
Shadan Kelebek, PhD, Associate Professors, Department of Mining Engineering, Queens University

Abstract
Mine planning and mineral processing optimization are usually treated as two unconnected problems, especially at open
pit and panel caving mines where the cut-off grade is practically the only variable optimized and analyzed for in the
planning proposes.
Using existing planning tool, the output is a reserve consumption strategy privileging higher grades. With the earlier
consumption of the highest grades, every year produces revenues which are closer to the cost and potentially even
below cost. However, there are other ore characteristics that can also affect the profitability of the operation.
A new methodology has been developed, incorporating the grinding and flotation relationship into the mining economic
models for the simultaneous analysis and optimization of the throughput-work index-recovery relationship through
changes in the mining limits, sequence and redefinition of the reserve consumption strategy.
A mine-site that implements this new planning strategy, can expect to increase the NPV from 5 to 15% depending on
the actual operational settings.
Two case studies have been developed, showing how the inclusion of the work index in the economic model changes
the phase and mining sequence in an open pit mine and the caving sequence and the optimum column height in a panel
caving mine.

1 INTRODUCTION schedule, an operational plant with its behavior studied by

laboratory testing or developed from historic data.
The most recent studies integrating mining and mineral Better models or better optimization engines can improve
processing have been named "Mine to Mill". These studies every step of the methodology. The target function is the
try to maximize the net present value by optimizing the NPV for the long-term planning, and changing that target
recovery-throughput relation for an on-going operation. would not change the structure of the methodology, just the
The concept has been previously explored. parameter and potentially the results.
Carlisle(1954), suggested the advantage of increased
throughput over the mill design capacity, Steine(1978) 1.1.1 Concentrator Elements
shows the potential improvement of cash flow by the Considering an operating plant, the main work must be
throughput increments of increasing grinding size, without centered in grinding and flotation. In conventional grinding
considering the impact on the mine planning. circuits, the first task is to build throughput-Wi-product size
Camus(2002) suggests the advantage of increasing relationships, usually based on the Bond approach,
throughput by sacrificing recovery, considering the recovery calibrated and modified for real performance data. The
as a lineal function of throughput. analysis will generate a set of equations or surfaces placing
These studies assume a maximum capacity in the mill, a potential throughput in function of product size (Usually
accept the actual mine design and mining schedules, P80) and Wi. The achievable production rate will be
and optimize only the cut-off grades. Initial apprehension indicated by the grinding analysis and must be constrained
from mineral processing professionals for these kinds of by a maximum capacity analysis.
studies is understood as it is risky to assume a maximum In flotation, the task is based on statistical analysis
capacity without having information about the rock using ANOVA, Stepwise Regression or Structural
properties. It is not valid to assume a potential recovery Equation Modeling to build a predictive model for the
without having certainty about product size as mineral Metallurgical Recovery (Cu, Nickel.etc). The model can
processing performances are evaluated by throughput be checked, corrected even replaced by flotation batch
and recovery goals. Considering these factors, the tests, where the recovery is well correlated with control
"initial" apprehension is largely justified and explained variables (grinding size, average grade, lithology), the
by the uncertainty in one of the important variables for support must be accompanied by a sensitivity analysis
the performance and design of conventional grinding where the predictive capacity can be checked. Back
circuits, the Work Index (Wi). analysis and/or cross validations are highly
The research presented here, developed by the Queens recommended.
University Mine to Mill project, incorporates previous The flotation analysis must include the time/ residence
researchers findings but goes a step forward with the effect on the recovery, by the statistical analysis or the
inclusion of Work Index into the mining planning. flotation kinetics made on the plant.
The economical analysis in the concentrator must be able
1.1 Wi Planning Methodology to split the fixed and variable costs (considered fixed in this
The methodology is a recursive algorithm for long term marginal scenario where no new investments are
planning for operating mines. The method starts by considered). The main items to be analyzed generally must
assuming a known mining method, an initial mining be the energy and iron consumption of grinding.

156 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The final elements must be the analysis of the maximum Opticut. In underground mines, an incremental technique
capacity reachable for the concentrator; the analysis must can be set up.
review all the plant stages and identify bottle necks. Once all the variables are set up and related to each
Summarizing, the elements required in the Concentrator other, it is possible to estimate the effect of changes in
to apply to Mine Plant Simultaneous Planning are the throughput and Wi on recovery and liberation size to find the
following: optimum production rate.
The P80-Tonnage-Wi Relationship The optimization engine could be an iterative method like
A Recovery (P8,Wi, Grade, , other), predictive model. dynamic programming, or multivariable methods for non
Maximum Capacity Analysis lineal problems starting with the generalized reduced
The Fixed and Variable Cost Structure. gradient, considering an important number of starting
solutions to increase the chance of finding the global
1.1.2 Mine Elements. optimal solution.
Assuming a mining method is already selected, a mining
limit and sequence has been defined, a cut-off optimization 1.1.6 Wi inclusion.
has been carried out based on the traditional throughput The Wi has to be included in the base case, the
definition (Probably defined by the concentrator); the mine production plan, the recovery-production rate functions
must produce an initial reserve schedule and mining plan and into the maximum capacity analysis. The Wi must be
with a average grade and Wi by period (if the Wi included in the economic model affecting simultaneously
optimization is going to be included). All these initial production rate, capacity and recovery, in the block model
approaches are useful to build a Base Case to use an initial or mining units, (Blocks, Benches, Stopes, Panel and
evaluation. Areas) and reevaluate these mining units and apply the
The same structures cost analysis carried out on the method used to define the sequence depending of every
concentrator must be repeated on the mine, splitting again mining method. For example for an open pit, it is
the fixed and the variable costs. necessary to build the profit matrix and apply the Lerch &
Finally, just like the concentrator, a maximum capacity Grossman method or Moving Cone with the decreasing
analysis must be included. For an open pit mine, the price series or increasing cost series and define the new
capacity is almost unconstrained and is directly related with potential phases and sequence and optimize the cut-off
the equipment. For underground mines upper limits exist grade including the variable recovery and re-evaluate the
and must be identified. production schedule.
Summarizing, the elements required to apply to mine and For Panel Caving mines, the method is similar, accepting
plant simultaneous planning for mining professionals are the the caving level, including the effects of Wi on the caving
following: limits, the caving sequences and Lanes method applied to
An Initial Reserves Schedule optimize the column height. Figure 1 shows this concept.
A Maximum Production Rate Analysis
The Fixed and Variable Cost Structure. 1.1.7 Stop Criteria.
The global methodology stops when the difference
1.1.3 Evaluation Methodology including a Variable between the NPV for the solution immediately posterior and
Recovery the actual solution is lower than a tolerance value.
A critical step is to accept the fact that recovery cannot be
estimated as a constant value for the next 25 years. All the
previous and following steps, and the extra value gained by
carrying out better planning, will be wasted if at the end,
somebody declares "The recovery for the next 25 years will
be 89.99%". The most critical step is to modify the actual
evaluation system in every mine site by including the
recovery as a reliable function of input data, like
throughputs, work index, grades or rock types. The
evaluation of any system depends on every operating
characteristic.

1.1.4 Base Case Economic Evaluation

Considering the data generated for the mine and the
concentrator, an economic evaluation estimating the initial
NPV has to be built. The economic evaluation must be the
result of the compromises assumed by the mine in the long-
term period, accepted by management, and define the most
relevant parameter of the mine. In most cases this will be
the NPV of the actual operation. Figure 1 Wi Inclusion Concept

1.1.5 The Optimization Module.

The optimization model must recreate the economic value of 2 INDUSTRIAL CASE
the base case, (based on the economic evaluation already
made) and must be able to calculate directly the target function, The following is a simplified industrial case where grades,
net present value, cash flow or rate of return as a function of work index, mineral processing data and correlations belong
changes in tonnage, recovery, grades, and Wi. This module, to an actual mine site in central of Chile. With the intention
core of the Mine to Mill, must be able to calculate average of simplifying and enhancing the general character of the
grades facing increases or decreases in the production rate, exercise and protecting the mine information, the analysis is
and simultaneously must calculate the new recovery caused by based only on copper as the main valuable component.
new throughput and/or new grades and Wi. The analysis considers a conventional circuit and applies
The way to solve the problem in an open pit is using the the methodology previously described for an underground
incremental technique provided by software package like Panel Caving.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 157

2.1 Concentrator Analysis
The grinding circuit is composed of a single open-circuit Table 1 Economic Parameters Underground Mine
mill plus a conventional mill initially designed for 33
[Kton/day], based on an average Wi of 15 [Kwh/ston]. The Parameters
capacity analysis shows that without a constraint in the
product size the technical maximum capacity will be 38 Cu Price 130.00 cUS$/lb
Kton/day, limited by the behavior of the rod mill. Additionally Discount 35.00 cUS$/lb
there is a product size constraint in the range 260-300 um Interest Rate 10.00 %
because of pulp transportation problems. Total Mining Cost 3.26 US$/Ton
The throughput, work index, and product size relations, Processing Cost 4.30 US$/Ton
calibrated with actual data, are shown in Figure 2. Mining Cost 0.98 US$/Ton
Statistical Analysis shows that the P80 explains more than Processing Variable Cost 2.15 US$/Ton
80% of the variance in the recovery data and flotation
kinetics ensures adequate residence time for a scenario of
38 Kton/day. This justifies no inclusion of a penalty in the Furthermore, it seems logical to assume that the "soft rock"
recovery associated with a lack of residence time. Figure 3 is associated with the higher grades which assumes when
shows the P80-Recovery relation considered. These figures planning using opportunity cost only one should get the best
are from Kelebek (2000). grades and softest rocks in the first years of the mine life.
Under this assumption it is enough to consider the average
Wi from the annual reports to equal 15 Kwh/st.

Figure 2 Actual Conventional Grinding Circuit Calibration

Figure 4 Optimal Sequence, Average Wi

Considering a production rate of 33 Kton/day, average, an

average Wi (15 Kwh) and the economic parameters from table 1,
the optimal caving sequence, is highly orientated to the south part
of the mine as shown in Figure 4. This follows higher grades and
higher column heights due to the copper price considered.
Table 2 shows the production plan and economic evaluation
resulting after smooth the caving sequences and considering
Figure 3 Recovery-P80 Relation the concentrator information shown in Fgures 2 and 3.
Table 2 Production Plan Average Wi
NPV = 1164.8 MUS$
2.2 Underground Mine
The underground mine is a Block Caving operation with a
maximum capacity of 48 Kton/Day because of area and
caving constraints. The analysis is based on copper for
envelope limits and caving sequences design. Lanes
methodology was used to define the optimum column
height. A copper price of 130 US$/Ton was used with an
interest rate of 10%. Table 1 shows the economic
parameters considered.
The base case considers the same economic parameters
from Table 1 and a production rate of 33 Kton/day. An
important first step is to examine what happens if work index
information is simply omitted because, for example, the high
copper price suggests that grade is far more important or as
in the recent past with a price of $US0.70 /lb, there is neither
the time or economic resource to get Wi information.

158 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The production plan is one from a mine site which does The 33Kton/day production plan, after smoothing the
consider mine to mill relationships and assumes a flat caving sequence and now including Wi and Cu grade has a
recovery and a flat throughput. But, what happens if the net present value of 1149.6 MUS$. This recovers 38 MUS$
previous plan does not assume an average work index but of 54 MUS$ initially "lost" because it assumes a more
instead measures and includes those values in the block realistic flotation plant. Table 4 shows the production plan
model? and evaluation for this new sequence.
Because of work index inclusion, recovery is no longer flat
but changes according to liberation size, reflecting the Table 4 Production Plan and Evaluation Wi-CU Sequence
actual behavior of a flotation plant. The assumption of 15
Kwh/ston for the following 17 years has a cost in net present
value of 54 MUS$ as shown in Table 3. Very few planners
would predict that inclusion of the actual Wi in their plan
would reduce the NPV by 5%. This demonstrates the
problem with building production plans using non-evaluated
assumptions or, worst yet, to choose to ignore such an
important factor in their evaluations.

Table 3 Production Expected Work Index

NPV = 1111.5 MUS$

It is necessary to define the optimal production rate based on

information from the block model, projecting grades and Wi as
function of changes in throughput. This analysis must connect
the reserve behaviour to define the optimal throughput with a
NPV maximization target. Figure 6 shows the profit and
recoveries for a simplified case considering a fixed grade.
Is important to highlight that this kind of "static" analysis
is only for the academic purposes, as it is impossible to
assume that with increased throughput the grades will
remain constant. Connecting every block each containing
the true differing grades, Wi and cost to the optimal
throughput decision, and associating the mining variables
The important next step is to re-analyze, the caving such as sequences and column height while always
sequence and column heights now considering Wi and respecting the constraint of maximum column height and
concentrator relations. The resulting caving sequence, as extraction speed, is the key to real mine to mill optimization.
shown in Figure 5, is strongly central and north oriented, Building the optimal production plan under the concentrators
because of the value added or subtracted by work index in constraints, increases the NPV for the 17 years of mine life by
potential throughput increases, and variable recoveries. 8,7 % as shown in Table 5, and increases the profit by 14 and
32% during the first two years. (Figure 7).
It is necessary to question if all the sequences and column
height analysis is necessary. Why not accept the actual
sequence and column heights and just go to the maximum
capacity of 38 Kton/day. This is similar to Carlisle (1954) who
states "Except for gross maladjustment of mill capacity to ore
reserves, the optimum rate of recovery in the short run is likely
to be close to designed mill capacity. In many mines it is
profitable to work the mill at greater than designed capacity".

Figure 6 Profit and Recovery as Function of Throughput

Figure 5 Caving Sequence with Wi Inclusion static analysis.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 159

 Table 5 Expanded Production Plan Optimal Cu-Wi especially those based on selective mining, there is no room
Sequence NPV 1206 for optimization, grades are extremely confined to small
spaces and there are no mining options. However, even
without sequence optimization, it is healthy to estimate the
behavior of a flotation plant based on something better than
an average value. The next industrial Case analyzes the
correlation between Wi and Grades for an Open Pit Mine.

3 ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS

After reviewing the underground case, the following

conclusions can be drawn.
Work Index is a variable that in any case justifies its
inclusion in mine planning at an early stage, and has an
importance equivalent product grades.
Inclusion of Work Index, will imply changes in mining
sequences and mining variables as important as column
height definition.
In concentrators where recovery is strongly related to
product size or P80, work index selection or modification
by better mining sequences is a valid way to increase
Accepting the original sequence and building a production throughput without additional investment.
plan for 38 Kton/day (Table 6) without including the Wi A flat recovery curve, smooth work index-P80
increases the NPV by just 1.3%, while increasing relationship, plus a flat grade profile, is the manner to
throughput by 15% and forcing the P80 over the constraint increase revenues without additional investment.
of 260-300 um, getting values around 310 um the year 1 Metallurgical recovery improvements by work index
and 322.8 um year 9. This is certainly not an acceptable reduction have the potential to significantly increase cash
route. flow and NPV.
The improvement in mining sequences by the inclusion of
work index data has the potential for significant increases
in profitability, as demonstrated the case study presented.
Relating this analysis to initial project design and linking
the mine sequence and Wi, with the plant design is an
unexplored area with an enormous potential.

ACKNOWLEGEMENT

Mr. Carlos Valenzuela Vega Metalica Consultoress

Engineering Chief.
Metalica Consultores for the support provided to the
author.
The mines that provided the information used in this work
and congratulate them for risking the resources required to
generate the Work Index information and including it in the
block model.

Figure 7 Profit Comparison Underground Case REFERENCES

Table 6 Plan 38 Kton/day Original Sequence Bond F.C. (1961) "Crushing and grinding calculations" pp
1-12, British Chemical Engineering, 6, 1960 (Revised
1961 by Allis Chalmers Publication 07R923B).
Camus, J., (2002) "Management of Mineral Resources:
Creating Value in the Mining Business", An SME
publication ISBN 0-87335-216-5.
Carlisle, Donald (1954) "The economic of a fund resource
with particular reference to mining". The American
Economic Review. September issue, pp. 595-619.
Lane, K. 1988 "The economic definition of ore"
S. Kelebek, (2000) "Analysis of Andina data on the effect
of primary grind size on the recovery of Cu with
implications on processing tonnage", An internal Queens
University report for Metalica, Santiago Chile.
Steane H.A. (1978) "Coarser grind may mean lower metal
recovery but higher profit" Canadian Mining Journal, June
issue, pp 2-6.

A second and unavoidable question is whether it is

possible to get a lower Wi without decreasing Cu grade, is
there a correlation between them?. For some mines,

160 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 An evolutionary model for
underground mining planning
Jos Saavedra, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes
Marco Alfaro, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes and Metlica Consultores S.A.
Jorge Amaya, Centro de Modelamiento Matemtico, Universidad de Chile

Abstract
In this work we present a methodological approach for finding near optimal solutions to the problem of defining plans for
underground mines. This problem of obvious combinatorial nature is intractable by means of traditional techniques
(Mixed Integer Programming for example). The approach proposed here is based in the mechanism of natural selection,
we construct a Genetic Algorithm to conduct the search of a approximate solution to the problem. In order to acquire
this objective, we first need a model which characterizes the gravitational flow of material from the drawpoints, the
chosen model for this objective is a cellular automata specifically designed with very simple rules of local evolution. The
model was implemented and tested, the time needed for a solution in real type cases is much less than the time human
planner needs actually for the same task. Possible extensions to this model are presented.

I. INTRODUCTION Another important source of problems in this deterministic

perspective is the combinatorial explosion of the problem.
Underground mining operations are very complex in We have the following result:
nature. The main factors that determine this complexity
(between others) are the unsuitable knowledge of ore Proposition I.1
resources contained in the mine and the parameters that
characterize them. From this point of view, we can obviously If we call Sk,l,m the number of feasible sequences in
see that human planners are unable to handling this
complexity and as a consequence very poor solutions are a sector of k blocks width by l blocks length by m
obtained.
The problem of underground mining planning can be blocks height, with m k,l, the we have
defined as choosing the best production plan in order to
maximize the benefits derived from the operations. This (k l)m < Sk,l,m < (k l m)!
planning could be made in three distinct scenarios: short
term (operational), mid term (tactical) and long term
(strategical). In this paper we focus our attention to the the proof of this proposition can be found in the work [7].
operational case. As an application of this result, if we consider a sector with
Many resources are wasted in preparing mining plans. dimensions then we are in presence of at least possible
Usually this task takes two or three workers dedicated only sequences, if we take 1 second in evaluating each one of
to this work. Moreover, they dont have any tools available this sequences then we need at least
and this imposes on the final solutions the human planner 34048129883307965499746321664130 years in order to
bias. Some efforts have been made to solve this situation. resolve this problem. So an obvious conclusion is that
From the point of view of classical optimization we can exhaustive search is a very bad strategy for this class of
consider a model that has the following features: problems.
The mine is subdivided into blocks of homogeneous Of course not every sequence is feasible. One possible
dimensions that conform a domain without holes (edge choice, in order to reduce this high number of sequences, is
connected). to make an algorithm that can generate feasible sequences.
When we extract a block from a given drawpoint, the Its not hard to see that this approach faces other problems
blocks that are in the same column descend in one that are not easy to resolve, for example to decide if a given
position (precedence restrictions) . sequence is feasible.
Ore extraction is supposed to be realized in a soft manner, In this paper we propose a model that breaks this
in the sense that adjacent columns cant show high classical approach to the problem of underground mining
differences in height, this restriction prevents dilution planning. We choose as an alternative an Evolutionary
entry. Model because of the flexibility and good empirical results
Usually the objective function of this kind of models is the in problems of higher complexity (like the one presented
Net Present Value (NPV) of the economic result of the here).
business derived from the operations.
II. EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS
this point of view is the dominant one presented in the
work [6]. Genetic Algorithms (GA from now) were introduced by
One of the problems that isnt resolved by this approach John Holland in 1975. They are inspired in Darwins
is the incorporation of the stochastic behavior of mechanisms of natural selection. Such mechanisms
Gravitational Flow. Because of this, we call to this kind of establish that an individual is generated as a mixture of the
models deterministic. genes from his parents by means of crossover, added to this

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 161

process of mixture there is a process called mutation Definition IV.1
(change in some segments of genetic material).
This last mechanism implies in some way evolution
because add novel elements not present in the genetic Given a set of drawpoints {i}ni=l we define a Extraction
information from parents. Finally, the adaptation to the
medium makes that some individuals survive and inherit Chart as a matrix M Mmxn with the number of
their genes to his sons. The general form of an Evolutionary
Algorithm is the following: drawpoints and m the number of turns. The coefficient mij

of this matrix is defined as:

t := 0;
initialize (P(0));
mij : = tons (expressed in shovels) to extract in
evaluate(P(0));
drawpoint j in turn i
While Not has been done Do
P (t) : = select parents (P(t)); Observation IV.1
P (t) : = recombinate (P(t)); Extraction Chart M dont have to be a square matrix.
P (t) : = mutate (P(t));
evaluate (P(t)); If we call to demand (in shovels) in turn i then we have
P (t + 1) := natural selection(P(t); P(t));
n
t := t + 1;
m
k =1
ik D1
Next
In this Algorithm t is the counter of generations and
evaluate (P) implies to evaluate fitness function to every " " in the last restriction gives the choice of not satisfy
member of population P. This algorithm finish when the the hole demand, if not we could force our algorithm to
fitness value of actual population P(t) in time t dont innovate extract blocks that gives worse solutions.
or after a fixed number of iterations.
B. Chromosome Representation
The considerations in the moment of implementing GA The natural chromosome representation for a extraction
strategies are: chromosomic representation, population chart is a matrix like the one previously defined. This will be
size, fitness function, crossover and mutation operators, the formal structure in which we will define the crossover
crossover and mutation probabilities. For further reading on and mutation operators.
this technique go to references [3], [5], [7].
C. Crossover Operator
Given two individuals (matrix) from a given population, for
III. MODELS FOR GRAVITATIONAL FLOW example M;N, we define the associated crossover operator
as:
If we want to incorporate the stochastic behavior of
granular flow in our model we need first consider models for We select randomly a number in the set {1,...,m} (i.e. we
this phenomenon. select randomly a turn). Let i* such number.
In the last decade, some efforts have been made. The
main results were obtained by chilean well known scientists, We consider the submatrices of M and N given by M1 =
Eric Goles [1] and Servet Martnez [4]. These two = (mij) i*i=1, j {1,...,n} and, M2 = (mij)mi=i* +1, j {1,..., n}
approaches are similar in the kind of technique used, both and analog for N.
are cellular automata models.
Another interesting model is the one proposed by We define the new matrices
Gregorio Gonzlez [2]. In this work the ideas presented in
[1] are refined. Applications to underground mining are M N
presented. M = 1 and = 1
The most recent development in this area is the model N2 M2
presented by Marco Alfaro [8]. This model is a Cellular
Automata that has the benefit of simple rules of evolution, This crossover operator guarantees feasibility from turn to
and as a consequence, its possible to obtain a efficient turn of extraction charts, this because we maintain demand
implementation [9]. inequality in each turn.
Independent of the chosen model, its fundamental
for the proposed methodology to have some D. Mutation Operator
gravitational flow model. As we will see in the next To define a mutation operator we have to randomly select
section, our model consider a gravitational flow model a turn (row in the extraction matrix). We proceed then to re-
in the kernel of the evaluation function of the proposed balance the selected row with a number randomly chosen
genetic algorithm. between 0 and the demand of the turn, then we distribute
randomly in to the selected turn. This operator guarantees
IV. PROPOSED EVOLUTIONARY MODEL feasibility of the selected row (the number chosen is less
than demand).
A. Extraction Charts
Operations in underground mining are realized in E. Fitness Function
turns. Such turns are usually of 8 hours each one and In order to evaluate the fitness of a extraction chart
each day is divided in three turns. Given a set of we have to run a simulation of the chart and then
drawpoints {i }ni=1 a Extraction Chart is an assignment obtain a list of blocks with laws of ore grades. With
of tons to extract for each drawpoint en each turn. We this information we can obtain the benefit given by
can if we wish consider another kinds of periods like that extraction chart incorporating NPV in this
days, weeks, months, etc. Formally: calculation.

162 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

F. The Algorithm The results of the iterations are summarized in the
The search algorithm is described with the following following picture. This picture illustrate the behavior of the
pseudo-code: best solution in each iteration:

Algorithm.
Inputs:
Block Model
Location of Drawpoints
Population Size n
Parameters: Crossover and Mutation Probabilities
Iterations
Probabilities for Cellular Automata
Outputs:
Optimal Extraction Chart
Algorithm:
Initialize Extraction Charts Population
(n Extraction Charts):
P(0);
Fitness Evaluation(P(0));
For t = 0 To V FIG. 1: Best Individual Evolution.
Begin
Crossover (P(t)): P(t + 1); As we can see, the algorithm generates a sequence of
Mutation (P(t + 1)); solutions in which each one is at least equal or better than
Fitness Evaluation (P(t + 1)); the previous.
Next Generation Selection (P(t),P(t + 1));
End For B. Calibration of Model Parameters
In order to operate this GA, we need calibrate the
Function Fitness Evaluation(P(t)); functional parameters. The used example was the previous
For i = 1 To n one. We will vary crossover and mutation probabilities.
Begin To denote the instances of the problem we will use the
Simulate(Extraction Chart i(t)); notation An1/n2M, where n1 is crossover probability, n2
Cellular Automata(Extraction Chart i(t)); mutation probability, selection method A (Parents and Sons:
Economic Evaluation(Extraction Chart i(t)); PH; Only Sons: SH) and parent selection M (Roulette: R;
End For Drawing: S).
End Function
Each instance was runned 30 times and we determine in
V. NUMERICAL RESULTS which generation we reach the optimum. The following table
resumes the results.
A. Trivial Case
This case is a sector of 4 by 4 by 4 blocks, all of them with Instance Mean Standard Deviation
grade 0, i.e. sterile. This simple example has only two
extraction points, one in coordinates (1; 1; 0) and the other
in coordinates (3; 2; 0). The obvious solution to this problem PH80/20S 64.93 22.89
is to extract nothing from drawpoints. This example was PH90/30S 50.17 21.55
tested with the following parameters: PH80/30S 45.70 20.36
PH80/40S 38.33 20.33
Application Parameters PH80/50S 35.40 15.70
PH90/20S 61.13 27.64
Turn Number 5
PH100/20S 55.23 27.17
Max. Demand in each Turn 10 PH100/0S 100.00 0.00 (*)
PH100/100S 31.70 9.50
GA Parameters SH100/100S 100.00 0.00 (*)
SH80/20S 100.00 0.00 (*)
Iterations Number 100
PH100/100R 28.97 15.01
Population Size 10
Crossover Probability 0.8 (*) means that instance doesnt converge
Mutation Probability 0.2 never in 100 iterations.

Selection Policy Between Parents and Sons C. Another Factors

We prove many others effects: Maximum Demand,
Selection Method Drawing
Number of Blocks, Population Size, Drawpoints Number.
Almost all of them gives a linear dependence between the
The solution to this problem was obtained in 63 iterations. number of iterations needed to reach the optimum and the
increase of the values. The only factor that shows
exponential behavior is Maximum Demand, i.e., if we vary
0.02 0.10 0.02
the Maximum Demand parameter then the number of
0.10 0.51 0.10
iterations needed to converge grows exponentially. We
0.02 0.10 0.02
summarize this effects in the following table:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 163

 Effect Variation Result constructed with the same philosophy so we can expect
some kind of integration and scale economies between +
Max. Demand Grow Exponential Grow both models.
Number of Blocks Grow Linear Grow In the future we hope to construct a model that
Population Size Grow Linear Decrease incorporates gravitational flow simulations and downstream
Drawpoints Number Grow Linear Grow operations.
Another source of extensions to the model is to consider
operational events as stochastic processes. In this way
D. Real Scale Example simulations of extraction charts would be more realistic. In order
This example was runned with the following parameters: to accomplish this objective is needed historical data to calibrate
the parameters of the involved stochastic processes.
Application Parameters
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Turn Number 12
As an obvious first conclusion we have that this problem
Max. Demand in each Turn 100 has a very large number of involved variables.
Number of Drawpoints 171 In this moment its really very difficult consider the hole
complexity of this problem. For example at the moment
Number of Blocks 400000
there arent appropriate models to handle the breaking of
the solid rock.
GA Parameters Another important conclusion is that the stochastic nature
of the phenomenon is hard to include in the modeling
process. Some attempts have been made but at the
Iterations Number 34
moment this efforts are in initial development. The proposed
Population Size 8 methodology could be applied in real type situations. The
Crossover Probability 1 response times are good compared with human planners.
The most important advantages of the methodology is that
Mutation Probability 1
we can test in an efficient way many choices and that the
Selection Policy Between Parents and Sons search procedure is well conducted.
Selection Method Drawing With this methodology we are in presence of a flexible
model that can be customized to satisfy the planner needs.

The results are summarized in the following table: VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Results J.S. wish to acknowledge the support of FAI (Fondo de

Ayuda a la Investigacin), Proyecto Ingeniera 2004,
Execution Time 3:11 Universidad de Los Andes.
Iterations Number 34 REFERENCES

We can extrapolate this result and see that in real [1] Eric Goles y Sebastin Pea: Modelamiento y
situations it would take about 8 hours to finish the Simulacin del Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final PB5-
optimization process. 10004, Apndice N2, 1996.
[2] Gregorio Gonzlez: Estudio del Comportamiento de un
VI. EXTENSIONS TO THE MODEL Material Granular Mediante Modelos Computacionales.
Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil
The proposed model dont consider downstream Matemtico, 1999.
operations. These operations are in general the most [3] John R. Koza: Genetic Programming: on the programming
restrictive operations. For example in some downstream of computers by means of natural selection, The MIT Press,
operations smooth ore grade is required, the fine mid term Cambridge, Massachussets, 1992.
promise has to be accomplished, etc. In all of these cases [4] Servet Martnez: Consideraciones Acerca del
the proposed model dont give an answer. Modelamiento de Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final
PB5- 10004, Apndice N3, 1996.
Recently, an extension of the model proposed in this [5] Zbigniew Michalewicz: Genetic Algorithms + Data
paper have been implemented [10]. This model uses Structures = Evolution Programs, Springer, 1996.
Genetic Algorithms too and the main characteristics are: [6] Nelson Morales: Modelos Matemticos para
1. Genetic Algorithms mechanisms in the search of Planificacin Minera. Memoria para optar al ttulo de
solutions. Ingeniero Civil Matemtico, Universidad de Chile, 2002.
2. Mixture Models for Ore Unload. [7] Jos Saavedra: Secuencias, Flujo Gravitacional y
3. Operations are considered as transport problem. Evolucin en Planificacin Minera. Memoria para optar
4. Restrictions on the quantity of ore to be extracted from al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil Matemtico, Universidad de
drawpoints are imposed. Chile, 2002.
5. Capacity constraints in downstream operations are [8] Marco Alfaro, Jos Saavedra: Predictive Models for
considered. Gravitational Flow. To be presented in MassMin 2004.
6. NPV evaluation. [9] Carlo Caldern, Marco Alfaro, Jos Saavedra:
7. Drawpoint Grade behavior is assumed. Computational Model for Simulation and Visualization of
Gravitational Flow. To be presented in MassMin 2004.
In real type situations, the response time of this [10] Andrs Donoso: Modelos para la Planificacin
implementation are in the order of 3:00 hrs [10]. Operacional de Produccin en Minera Subterrnea.
The next challenge is to integrate the model proposed in Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil
[7] whit the one proposed in [10]. Both models were Industrial, Universidad de Los Andes, 2004.

164 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 5
Gravitational Flow
166 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Theory of gravity flow (Part 1)
Andrs Susaeta, Mining Consultant, Professor Mining Department, University of Chile, Chile

Abstract
The results of 4 years of a research project over gravity flow based on sand model experiments, conceptual analysis
and back analysis from the Codelco mines is presented. The emphasis of the paper is on a "knew concept" of interactive
gravity flow, that has been developed from sand experiments results and conceptual analysis, and confirmed with
empirical observations from the 3 underground Caving operations of Codelco.
The proposed model for gravity flow is a function of extraction, material properties and layout geometry. This model
integrates the experimental and conceptual results to generate a general model of gravity flow or Mass Flow Behavior.
Several indexes and concepts to assess and control relevant issues of the gravity phenomena are proposed to
characterize and evaluate the Mass Flow Behavior.

1. INTRODUCTION The nearer the draw points are the better the recovery of
the ore.
The understanding of the physical phenomena of gravity Fragmentation increases with the extraction of the ore
flow is of utmost importance for the optimization of ore (The higher the extraction finer the material).
recovery in caving methods, through a proper design of the The higher the draw column, less the total dilution to be
extraction level and of the draw practice and control. extracted (one extraction level better than two).
With the results of several experiments with a specially Interaction between two drawpoints exists if the distance
designed sand scale model, conceptual analysis of caving between them is less than 1,5 times the isolated draw
material behavior, specific scaling relations and evaluation diameter.
of data from the three underground operating mines of
Codelco, a model of gravity flow propagation in a panel If all of these concepts were possible to achieve in the
caving is proposed. design and normal operation of a cave mine, the following
The proposed model considers the basic variables that model wouldnt be of great need to understand and manage
define the stages of a cave before the flow is established: where and how to minimize the loss of ore due to dilution.
initial state and caving propagation, but does not deal with
this two processes. Fm = f (E (estraction), PM (material properties),
Initial state: The initial state of a caving column Gm (Layout Geometry))
corresponds to the "in situ" Rock Mass, that can be
characterized through several classification systems. All of
them considering IRS, FF and FC and the original stress The problem is that with primary rock cave mining, that
field. The potential for caving, the prediction of primary requires handling of big fragmentation, it has been more and
fragmentation and the design of the caving layout has to be more difficult to achieve even draw (due to secondary
assessed from this initial state. blasting, hang ups, loss of draw points due to collapses,
Caving Propagation: The propagation of the caving, etc.) and to design fully interactive layouts that have a
determined by the caving sequence and draw policy, proper geometry and ensure good interaction. The
generates a dynamic stress environment. The extraction of proposed model can contribute to the understanding of the
15 to 20 % of the in situ draw column is required to gravity flow phenomena, to the control and draw practice
propagate the cave up to the surface or "waste" limit. and for interactive design of primary rock layouts.
The proposed gravity flow model does not include the
caving propagation phenomena. It mainly deals with the 2. PROPOSED GRAVITY FLOW MODEL
gravity flow generated by extraction in a caved panel / block.
The generally accepted knowledge and fundamentals The model integrates experimental and conceptual results
regarding gravity flow during the last century, acquired both generated in two research programs that totalize more than
from models and mining practice can be summarized in the four years of investigation (CIMM Fondef 1037). It
following points : proposes relations between the control parameters of the
A draw point extracted in isolation of its neighbors, variables that define the phenomena of gravity flow, based
generates an isolated draw column. on analysis over empirical results.
The diameter of the isolated draw column is a function of The behavior of gravity flow of particulate matter seen
basically the fragmentation of the material (and of its under the perspective of mass movement, can be defined
moisture). as a function of the following variables:
In order to minimize dilution entry it is necessary to have where:
even draw of neighbor draw points. Fm :Mass Flow behavior.
The isolated draw diameter is independent of the draw E: Extraction of material can be characterized after
point width (common acceptance except Laubscher). the parameters defined in the time series of a draw

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 167

 point defined in Figure N1 and through the "Isolated Flow", "Isolated Interactive Flow", and
Uniformity Index. "Interactive Flow", that are described as follows.
Pm : The principle properties of the caved material from
the perspective of gravity flow, are the internal friction ISOLATED FLOW
angle () and moisture. The relation is that the greater
minor the Isolated Draw Diameter (Dta), and greater the The main characteristics of the first model that
moisture of the material (up to certain limit) minor the Dta, corresponds to "isolated draw" are:
where : Dta (Isolated draw diameter): A draw point that is
extracted in isolation generates a "vertical chimney
movement" of a diameter approximately constant in all
= f ( (Density of caved material), R (Rock
over its hight. This diameter is only affected by waste due
characteristics), F (Fragmentation))
to attrition as any ore shaft. This diameter defined as
"isolated draw diameter" (Dta) is defined mainly by the
with: internal friction angle () of the caved material and its
: Density of caved material, corresponds to the apparent moisture. The Dta is independent of the width of the
density of the caved column expressed in ton/m3. The extraction point and is reached at a height of 2 x Dta from
density depends mainly of the hight of the column of caved the extraction point.
material (sv), and the alteration generated by the extraction Uniform Settlement: Even if there is isolated draw when
in the production level. The higher the density, the higher . draw points are closed and time is given the caved
material "settles uniformly". This phenomena is generated
R : Characteristics associated to the rock, corresponding by a slow propagation movement within the cave due to
to rugosity, IRS (Intact Rock Strength), angularity of equalization of stresses within the cave, towards the
fragments, etc. isolated draw columns. Lateral movement is generated
towards the draw columns producing a uniform settlement
F : Fragmentation, corresponds to size of particles and in surface. This has been observed both in models and in
gradation. The greater the particle size (D80),greater . caved areas. The dynamics (time propagation) of the
Additionally the better the size graduation (all sizes present) settlement or "slow density equalization" has not been
greater . studied in detail, but is evidently much lower than the flow
in active draw.
Moisture changes the mechanical properties of the caved
material giving it cohesion, and by it diminishing the Dta, up INTERACTIVE FLOW AND ISOLATED
to certain range of moisture, over which liquefaction risk INTERACTIVE FLOW
exists, generating "mud flows" that constitute one of the
great risks of the method. It is proposed that the phenomena of gravity flow is
affected by the superposition of two states of the system
Gm: Geometry of the layout considers distance between that generates the movement: (a) Extraction point open and
extraction points and its distribution as well as the caving (b) extraction point closed:
geometry (topography, stress, pillars, etc.)
a) Extraction Point Open
Behavior of gravity flow , corresponds to the actual
Fm (caving mass flow behavior) function has at least movement of the caved material when the draw point is
three different models that characterize its behavior: open (or when the equipment loads the material). According

Figure N1 Flow Behavior

168 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

to the results of the research team1 and other publications
the propagation of the flow in granular materials would
happen through subsequent failure of "pressure arcs"
formed by caved material.
These process generates a movement that is outspread
up to the surface as a descent.
The propagation is of such nature that the zone near to
the isolated draw zone in the low part of the column are
affected generating a lateral movement towards the draw
zone when distance between the draw points are less than
1,5 times its diameter.

b) Extraction Point Closed

Continuous media behavior : This corresponds to a
physical behavior similar to a continuous media (fluid).
When the draw point is closed (open draw) the density over
the draw point is much lower than in the immediate
surroundings, thus a slow equalization of densities occurs,
where sectors of grater density tend to move towards
sectors of lower density. This generates a slow arrangement
of the material towards "litho static equilibrium" with vertical
and lateral movement towards sectors of lower density
(zones of open draw movement).
In the left the movement is preferentially vertical over the
draw point when it is open, also lateral movement happens
when draw points are located less than 1,5 times the Dta
away. Then with closed draw point (continuous behavior)
lateral movement happens due to density equalization.
Figure N3 Isolated interactive Behavior , Layout "Tipo
The limit between an isolated and interactive behavior Teniente"
exists for open flow. When draw points are located at a
distance of 1,5 times Dta or less the "threshold" of Where :
interaction is achieved during open flow, generating a vta is the isolated flow rate
superposition of the two behaviors. These is called "isolated vti is the interactive flow rate
interactive draw".
The graphic representation of "isolated" and "isolated The difference between the "isolated interactive" flow
Interactive" draw have been taken from results from the and "interactive" flow is that in the latter the material of the
CIMM physical model tests. upper part of the caving descends uniformly, thus in the
The following Figures N2 and N3 show sections of the isolated-interactive, there is difference between the flow rate
sand model with isolated flow and Isolate Interactive over the draw point and over the pillar (nti and nta) forming
behavior. small craters in the surface of the cave.
For distances between draw points of less than 1,2 Dta,
the rates over the draw point and over the pillar are equal
below the cave surface.
The differentiation and management of these two models
of behavior is very relevant due to the effect over dilution
control and the recovery of a panel cave, normally designed
to operate in the limit of interaction (D = 1,5 Dta).
Each behavior can be defined as a function of the flow
rates Vti (interactive flow rate) and Vta (isolated flow rate):

Model of Behavior Relation of Flow Rate (Velocity)

a) Isolated Flow vti=0

b) Isolated - Interactive vta > Vti > 0
c) Interactive Flow vta = Vti

The transition from one model of behavior to the other for

a given design and cave material will depend basically upon
the parameters that define the Extraction (E).
According to results of a research with sand models,
stress simulations of the beginning of the gravity flow
movement and extensive mine back analysis results gravity
flow on a caved ground behaves according to the
idealization of the following figure N4, defined as
"Interactive isolated flow :

Figure N2 - Isolated Draw Behavior

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 169

Figure N4 Interactive Isolated Flow Behavior

With the above geometry the following Gi index is In order to have interaction between the draw points the
proposed to characterize the degree of interaction that proposed 1.5 *Dta was confirmed right through results of
represents the different behaviors of Fm : several sand model tests and conceptual analysis3.
One draw point, can have only one of the three behaviors
at one instant in time, thus the function Fm (Mass flow
Model) should have the following time series:

Figure N5 Interaction Degree

Then with Gi definition :

Gi = 0 : with isolated flow

0 < Gi < 1 : with isolatinteractive flow
Gi = 1 : with completely interactive flow

This implies that the "interactive theory" proposed by DH

Laubscher is correct when Gi=1, that should be attained
with mine designs where Dpe is less than 1.2 * Dta, and Figure N6 Two draw points Mass Flow Behavior as a
there is complete uniformity of draw. function of Draw

170 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure N7 Flow Behavior Representation of Fm

The change from one kind of behavior to the other will tests with sand and observations of caving operations.
depend on the extraction practice (E), that will mainly vary The validation of the presented model has been done with
upon the uniformity with which the different draw points are empirical results as presented in following paper.
extracted.
Following Figure N7 shows the different behaviors that The intensive experimental stage with a specially
conform the proposed gravity flow model: designed sand model is an invaluable tool to observe mass
With the proposed behavior the prediction of the dilution flow behavior. Efforts to keep with these experiments should
entry point, and the way of mixing of the column is much not be abandoned, specially to measure stress dynamic
more complex than the model proposed by D.Laubscher, behavior.
even if total uniformity of draw is obtained, that for primary
rock cavings, would be rare. 4. AKNOWLEDGMENTS
The best approximation to the effective gravity flow of an
LHD operation would be an "isolated interactive" behavior. The author acknowledges the important contribution to
It is important to bear in mind that even if there is interaction the presented results, of the CIMM Gravity Flow Research
the flow rate of the area outside the isolated draw column is Program and the FONDEF 1037 Project, and that of all the
significantly slower than the isolated draw velocity. professionals that participated in the experimental stage,
According to the previous model the dilution entry as a back analysis of the Codelco data and conceptual analysis
function of extraction percentage should look as the graph developed in these Projects. Both projects were managed
of Figure N8: by Hugo Diaz, to a successful end.
Special mention to Dennis Laubscher for setting the
3. CONCLUSIONS basement, without his acid critic and our long discussions
that led to permanent review of his interpretation of gravity
The proposed Fm model integrates part of the previous flow and caving design, I wouldnt have been compelled to
gravity flow concepts (Laubscher) broadening its give an additional step.
interpretation. The model is based in the results of physical

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 171

Figure N8 Assessed dilution entry as per Fm Proposed Model

5. REFERENCES Susaeta, et all , "Modelamiento del Flujo Gravitacional",

Informe Final, CIMM, 1999. Internal Document in
Diaz, H., Susaeta,A, (2000), "Modelamiento del Flujo Spanish.
Gravitacional", Revista Minerales, in Spanish. Susaeta, A., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Kvapil, R. (1965): "Gravity flow of granular materials in Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
hoppers and bins," Int. J. Rock Mechanics and Mining Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 2.
Science, Parts I and II. Vol. 2. Internal Document in spanish.
Kvapil, R. (1982): "The mechanics and design of sublevel Tamburino, A , Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
caving system," Underground Mining Methods Handbook, Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
W. Hustrulid ed., SME, New York. Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 4.
Laubscher, D. (1994): "Cave mining-the state of the art," Internal Document in Spanish.
The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Verdugo, R., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Metallurgy. Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Mansson, A. (1995): "Development of body of motion Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 1.
under controlled gravity flow of bulk solids," Licentiate Internal Document in Spanish.
thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden.

172 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Theory of gravity flow (Part 2)
Andrs Susaeta, Mining Consultant, Professor Mining Department, University of Chile, Chile

Abstract
The objective of this paper is to introduce some control parameters for Fm (Model of Gravity Flow), and using them
prove, through empirical relations and findings from back analysis from Codelco mines, the validity of the proposed
model of gravity flow.
The uniformity Index is introduced and results of back analysis are presented to show relation between draw and
interaction, as well as a methodology to asses and evaluate interactive layout designs.
Some relevant results of the research team are applied to propose a methodology to assess Dta (Isolated draw
diameter) and evaluate layout interaction in the design stage.

1. INTRODUCTION Analysis of the equation

As it can be seen the equation is constituted by two parts:
The proposed model for gravity flow depends on three A first integer part (), that indicates the number of
principal variables. One of them is related with extraction, that inactive draw points in the vicinity, in other words draw
can be characterized with the Uniformity Index, that is a practical points without movement during the considered period of
tool to plan and evaluate the effective uniformity of draw. time. Then as grows draw is less uniform.
The relation of this variable with the proposed gravity flow The second part of equation (1) will be called Specific
model is very important for design and operation of caving index of uniformity (I.E.U.). With the normalization factor
layouts, specially in primary ore, where maintaining uniform r, the I.E.U. is a decimal number between 0 and 1, and
draw is not easy. indicates the uniformity of draw among the active draw
The layout design and its relation to the cave material points for the selected period of time.
properties is one of the other control variables of the
proposed model and a very relevant issue for a successful So with the above definition:
caving operation. A methodology to determine the isolated
draw diameter for different caving materials at different Draw characteristic Specific index of uniformity
extraction percentages is proposed, as well as a criteria to
ensure LHD layout interaction for all the ore column. Completely uniform draw 0
Completely isolated draw 1
2. UNIFORMITY INDEX

The measure of the uniformity of draw is a key issue for For example, a draw point with a configuration of 6
draw control practice. It allows both control and proper neighbors and a uniformity index of 1,009, indicates that for
planning of the call order, as well as very easy graphical the draw event analyzed, only one of its neighbors was
representation of the entire mine draw practice. inactive and the rest of the draw points were extracted in a
The proposed index is (as per Susaeta, A, Saavedra, J. - relatively good uniformity.
unpublished): A key issue regarding uniformity is to define which is
the maximum period of time that can be assumed, to
consider that there is still "movement" in the draw

I .U . = +
(t p t min )
( t max ti ) (1)
columns so as to generate interaction between them. A
period of three shifts (one day) was determined as the
2
tmax n farthest time where there is reasonable correlation
between the U.I and interaction for back analysis studies.
where: This result is on line with practical experience and stress
: Number of inactive draw points in the draw point measurements of the mayor apex.
vicinity.
r : Factor of normalization, equal to 99/89. INTERPRETATION OF THE UNIFORMITY INDEX
tp: Tonnage extracted from draw point p under analysis,
in a specific period of time. Due to the vectorial nature of the index where two
ti: Tonnage extracted from draw point i belonging to draw informations are integrated in one number it is not possible
point p vicinity in the same period of time. to categorize its results linearly. The following matrix (Figure
tmax: Maximum tonnage extracted in the vicinity of draw N1) is proposed to characterize the results, that defines
point p, in the same period of time. every draw event either as uniform, semi uniform or
tmin: Minimum tonnage extracted in the vicinity of draw isolated.
point p, in the same period of time.
n: Number of draw points belonging to the vicinity of draw
point p.

By definition the vicinity of draw point p includes that draw

point. Then as an example for a layout of a draw point with
6 neighbors cardinal n of the vicinity is 7.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 173

 Uniformity Index Characterization Teniente Mine, where vertical up holes were drilled
through the mayor apex into the caved material after it
was closed. The graph (Figure N3) where the U.I,
represented as percentage of time in isolation against
Gi (determined from lithological mapping of the ore over
the pillars) shows the relation between these two
variables.
These results were predictable from the Fm proposed
model. They confirm that draw must be uniform ideally
100% of the time. With this the maximum potential of
interaction degree (Gi) for the design can be attained. The
Gi for any LHD layout, as will be showed will be less than 1,
thus the potential of leaving part of the ore reserves over the
mayor apex is certain.

Figure N1 Uniformity Index example matrix

This matrix can be modified to adjust different design

patterns and uniformity criterias. For programming
purposes special matrix have to be defined for the cave
boundary, where the total possible number of draw points is
less than within the layout.
Each call event (one shift) will have an associated
category of the U.I. Its graphic representation (Figure N2)
for a control period (whole life of mine, one month, etc.) can
be expresed for every draw point in percentage of tonage,
or time, within a specific category. The following figure
shows an example of the representation of a sector of a
case study, where the scale shows percentage of uniformity.
The red then is isolated draw.
Figure N3 Interaction Degree versus Uniformity Index

The following table shows the results of the Dilution

Entry Point for several representative sectors. They confirm
that there is a direct dependency between U.I and Dilution
entry point, for points that have had over 70% extraction
with uniformity. The higher the percentage of time (or
tonnage) extracted with uniformity, the higher the dilution
entry point.

Sector Uniformity Index % Dilution Entry

%t = % t = Unif.
Isolation + semiuni

Inca Norte 34 66 57
Inca Central 57 43 41
Quebrada
Teniente 19 81 62
Teniente 4 34 66 54

Figure N2 - Uniformity Index Graphic Representation in The following graph (Figure N4) summarizes the
Plan behavior of all LHD draw points of Andina III Panel. This
graph looks like the proposed behavior of Isolated
3. BACK ANALYSIS RESULTS interactive flow. The Pedza (Dilution entry point of
isolated flow) was determined through a very accurate
Using the described parameters, and the Fm concepts, tracer of dilution (construction material of previous level)
the information of all the Codelco Mines was analyzed to and the Pedzi (Dilution entry point from interactive flow)
determine relations between draw practice and interaction. was determined from the change of curve slope. The
real dilution percentage is not accurate because not all
- Degree of Interaction (Gi) dilution is ryolite. The improve in the draw practice
during the last year has improved the Pedza several
A relation between the Gi (Gi = vti / vta) and the U.I points.
(Uniformity Index) was derived from a sector of El

174 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure N4 Percentage dilution versus Extraction for LHD Area A

Figure N5 Relation of Dilution entry (isolated flow) versus draw practice for grizzly 9 x 9 m layout (secondary ore)

The analysis of the Pedza (Dilution entry point of isolated interactive flow) is not and easy task because it is very
flow) for Sector A (Andina III Panel) versus percentage of difficult to encounter representative sectors with consistent
uniform and semi uniform extracted tonnage (Figure N 5) draw uniformity.
show a clear tendency (considering side dilution and other The above plus several observed results of the analyzed
practical effects) that confirms the previous results. caving operations confirm the proposed Fm model at a
The generation of a data base that relates a layout with mining scale.
fragmentation (f) and dilution entry (for isolated and

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 175

4. DESIGN PARAMETERS DESIGN INTERACTION POTENTIAL

CAVE MATERIAL AND ISOLATED DRAW Considering that the limit for interaction between two
DIAMETER ESTIMATION (DTA) neighbor draw points at a distance Dpe is :
The proposed function Fm (Model of Gravity Flow) is
controlled by the variables: Extraction, Material properties Dpe < or = 1.5 * Dta (4)
and Layout geometry. The material properties of the caved
material (Pm) depend of moisture and the internal friction Then if the following "ideal draw point spacing layout" is
angle (). Through conceptual analysis the following considered (equilateral arrangement), the critical point for
expression was derived for : interaction can be expressed as a relation between areas:

= 100 Cu / (1 + 2.332 Cu) (1)

and

Cu = D60 / D10 (material gradation or

uniformity coefficient) (2)

Where D10, D60 and D80 correspond to fragmentation size

(m) passing accumulated 10, 60 and 80 % respectively.

As defined through similarity analysis the internal

friction angle of the material (f) determines the Dta, so
these is the basic parameter to be considered during the
design stage.

For design purposes the following equations was derived

to assess the isolated draw diameter (Dta ):

(3)

Using standard size distribution for coarse, medium and

fine material for different percentages of extraction the
following table and curve (Figure N6) was computed with
the above equations: Figure N 6 Isolated draw diameter for different material
types as a function of extraction percentage
For design purposes, the layout has to be interactive at an
extraction percentage of at least 70% of the ore in the
column to obtain a minimum recovery. Ideally interaction
should be permanent, that means that the Dta for design is
near to the one calculated for a fragmentation of 90%
extraction. No detail evaluation of moisture effect was
introduced to the above calculations.

Dta as a function of material type (fragmentation) and percentage extraction

% Extraction D60 D10 D80 Cu Dta = 5*D80 * tg ()-7

(m) (m) (m) () (m)

Coarse Material - - - -
10.00 1.44 0.22 2.15 6.69 40.50 32.53
50.00 0.90 0.15 1.30 6.00 40.21 21.04
90.00 0.70 0.10 1.00 7.00 40.60 14.70
Medium Material
10.00 0.67 0.10 1.00 6.69 40.50 15.10
50.00 0.46 0.08 0.79 5.50 39.97 13.64
90.00 0.43 0.05 0.67 9.28 41.19 8.51
Fine Material
10 0,19 0,05 0,45 4,22 39,11 9,58
50 0,17 0,04 0,35 4,25 39,13 7,41
90 0,15 0,04 0,30 4,29 39,16 6,30

176 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The experimental results for a "Teniente Layout" shows
interaction over the mayor apex for distances of Dpe = 2,5
* Dta, as per Figure N8.

The only way to understand this is to assume that the two

draw columns of the trench act "as one wider draw point".
Interaction over the mayor apex will exist only if all the
following conditions are met:

a) Dpz (Distance between trench draw points) is less or

equal to 1,5 Dta => There exists a Interactive Trench
Diameter (Dzi).

The interactive trench diameter (DZI) is:

Dzi = Dpz + Dta

Figure N7 equilateral layout arrengement

According to following sketch (Figure N9):

The value is defined as the distance between the
drawpoints and the Dta (isolated draw width). b) Operational uniform draw is strictly observed
(Interactive draw)
With the interaction index (Ii) defined as active area
(isolated draw area) divided by the total area of influence: c) (Dpm + Dpz) is less or equal to 1,5 * Dzi

Aa
Ii =
At 5. CONCLUSIONS

With l = 1.5 (critical limit of interaction) the Ii critic can be The proposed gravity flow model can be presented as:
calculated for the equilateral layout:

Where UI is the uniformity index, Dta the isolated draw

Then the critical interaction limit, expressed as isolated diameter, and Id the dispersion index. Back analysis results
draw width to total area is (Ii critic) 0,403, or at least 40% show that in effective caving operations, Fm varies its
of the total area to be extracted needs to be under
isolated flow behavior in order to have total interaction.
Different geometries with the same critical limit (l = 1.5)
will have different Ii, as expected. Defining a "Dispersion
Index (Id)" for a design as the interaction index divided by
the critical interaction index, different layouts can be
compared.

li
id =
licritico

The interaction phenomena can be expressed in words,

considering the results of models and Fm conceptualization
and the critical interaction described above as follows:

The isolated draw cylinders form an "open area" (Aa).The

caved material surrounding them behaves as a solid due to
cohesion, forming "pillars" of these material (Ap Pillar
Area). These pillars will have the highest load at a height
where the isolated draw cylinders reach their maximum
width (HDta = 2 * Dta). If the stress of the static material,
plus the friction with the isolated draw column is less than
the of the caved material there will be isolated draw only
(Gi = 0). If the stress is grater than the internal friction angle
of the material the "pillar" will collapse at that location
(Interection height = 2 * Dta) contributing material towards Figure N8 Experimental result for a "Teniente" Layout
the isolated draw cylinder. with interactive Draw

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 177

 1037 Project, and of all the professionals that participated in
the experimental stage, back analysis of the Codelco data
and conceptual analysis. Both projects were managed by
Hugo Diaz, to a successful end.
Special mention to Dennis Laubscher for setting the
basement, without his acid critic and discussions that led to
permanent review of his interpretation of gravity flow and
caving design, I wouldnt have been compelled to give an
additional step.

7. REFERENCES
Figure N9 - Sketch
Diaz, H., Susaeta,A, (2000), "Modelamiento del Flujo
Gravitacional", Revista Minerales, in Spanish.
behavior through time in three modes: : "isolated", Kvapil, R. (1965): "Gravity flow of granular materials in
"interactive-isolated" and "interactive", determined by the Gi hoppers and bins," Int. J. Rock Mechanics and Mining
(degree of interaction). Science, Parts I and II. Vol. 2.
The proposed control variables of the model have been Kvapil, R. (1982): "The mechanics and design of sublevel
applied successfully, in planning and draw control caving system," Underground Mining Methods Handbook,
optimization in various mines in operation. W. Hustrulid ed., SME, New York.
The Uniformity Index has proven a very handy tool for Laubscher, D. (1994): "Cave mining-the state of the art,"
practical draw control and back analysis of historical draw The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and
practice. Metallurgy.
According to the proposed model, and results of stress Mansson, A. (1995): "Development of body of motion
monitoring in the sand model, the interaction potential of a under controlled gravity flow of bulk solids," Licentiate
layout and its relation to draw practice can be effectively thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden.
observed from the stress changes over the mayor apex Susaeta, et all , "Modelamiento del Flujo Gravitacional",
(central pillar). This methodology to evaluate interaction Informe Final, CIMM, 1999. Internal Document.
potential of different layouts should be complemented with a Susaeta, A., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
devised experiment to measure effective f of the caved Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
material over the mayor apex. Further on, it is Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 2.
recommended that the back analysis effort done by Codelco Internal Document.
mines is extended to a broader number of operations to Tamburino, A , Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
integrate additional panel caving experience into the model. Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Moisture as a control variable of f remains to be Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 4.
investigated in detail, because it has a very important Internal Document.
control over Fm that has not been evaluated in depth. Verdugo, R., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 1.
6. AKNOWLEDGMENTS Internal Document.

The author acknowledges the important contribution to

the results of the CIMM research program and the FONDEF

178 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Predictive models
for gravitational flow
Marco Alfaro, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes and Metlica Consultores S.A.
Jos Saavedra, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes

Abstract
In underground operations the planner is faced with a very complex decision problem. The complex nature of this
decision depends on the complex behavior of ore extraction from drawpoints. Up to now it have been impossible to have
good models to predict the grade of ore extracted from the drawpoints. Some attempts have been made up to now to
model this phenomena. In this work we present a Cellular Automata based model for Gravitational Flow. The model
proposed here exploits the simplicity of local rules of evolution to acquire the objective. The model was implemented and
tested with satisfactory results at El Salvador Mine. The proposed model is analyzed from a mathematical point of view
in order to characterize its behavior. Some extensions to this basic model are presented. Some observed phenomena
is explained with the aid of this model, for example interaction between drawpoints. The mathematical analysis of the
model show that the implicit stochastic process involved is diffusive and in some way equivalent to Brownian Motion
phenomena in Two-Dimensional space. Finally, the way this model behaves has motivated us to call him the bubbling
process.

I. INTRODUCTION and fast. In Martnezs model the construction tries to model

avalanche phenomenon.
In this paper we present a Cellular Automata which
models Gravitational Flow in Underground Mining. The A. Goless Model
proposed model exhibits very simple rules of evolutions. This model was presented by Eric Goles and Sebastin
This simplicity allow us to get simple implementations. Pea [2] in the context of the research developed in CIMM
The model was initially constructed for two-dimensional (Mining and Metallurgic Research Center) in 1996. This
case, the extension to three dimensional situations is model presents a first approximation to this kind of models,
straightforward. This paper focuses in the mathematical taking into account physical characteristics of material, for
aspects of the model. An important stochastic process, example density and grade of each cell. The model is
called by us bubbling process is derived from the model. defined as a Cellular Automaton, i.e., is defined on a two
The behavior of this process is equivalent to random walk dimensional space, which is subdivided into cells.
type models. The cells are defined as entities which certain grade and
certain density:
II. CELLULAR AUTOMATA THEORY

To give a light introduction to Cellular Automata theory npm

lets give first a definition adapted from [1]: (1) grade : = 100 density = npe + npm
npe + npm
Definition II.1
A Cellular Automaton is an array of cells each colored
either black or white. At every step there is the a definite Where:
rule that determines the color of a given cell from the color npe is the number of sterile particles which are contained
of that cell and its neighbors on the step before. in the cell.
npm is the number of ore particles which are contained in
The main characteristics of a Cellular Automaton are: the cell.
1. His state, which is variable for each cell.
2. His neighborhood, the set of cells which interacts with the Two kinds of neighborhoods are defined for cell (k,m),
cell. depending on transition rules:
3. The set of rules or program: gives us the changes in state
with respect the neighbors.

Usually the set of cells is IN2 or some subset of it, its

possible to use other kinds of reticules (Hexagonal for
example) to represent cells.

III. SOME PRELIMINAIRES MODELS

In the last decade, some efforts have been made. The

main results were obtained by chilean well known scientists,
Eric Goles [2] and Servet Martnez [4]. In Goless model the Transition rules are divided into two cases. When (D and
main idea is the existence of two distinct dynamics: slow , are model parameters) the cell is considered as "not fill

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 179

enough", in this case a fast evolution dynamic is used. The IV. PROPOSED MODEL
neighborhood used in this situation is the partial one, the
cell gets contributions from the three superior cells. Material This Cellular Automata uses as cells a reticulate of
contribution (sterile or ore), is determined by a parameter squares (could be rectangles too), in which cells has two
called upper neighbor probability (Pv2). The total possible states: full or empty. At the beginning all cells are
contribution is then calculated as: full. Then we extract a block (represented by a cell). The
generated void must be filled by another block, we see that
the upper blocks are in a privileged position to accomplish
this objective.
(2) (D - dij ) * Pv2 = Upper Neighbor Contribution Inspired by this idea, we define the transition rule for the
evolution of the Cellular Automata. We assign a probability
distribution for the neighbors (the upper cells), and then we
(D - dij ) * (1 Pv2) select according this distribution the block which replaces
(3) = Another Neighbors Contribution the void. The void now is in the position of the selected
2 block. This process is repeated until the void reaches the
surface (the last level of blocks). In the two dimensional
case we can see trough the next figure how look one block
Otherwise, i.e., D-dij, < the cell is considered as "almost with his neighborhood:
complete filled", in this case a slow evolution dynamic is
used. The neighborhood used is the complete one and the
contribution of the cells is distributed proportionally between
the five neighbor cells:

dij
(5) 5
= Neighbor Cells CONTRIBUTION
d
i=1 veci

In both cases material contribution comprehend sterile or

ore, the contribution in each case is proportional to his FIG. 2: Block Neighborhood. Two Dimensional Case.
content (npe y npm).
After this first void reaches surface, we generate a new
B. Martnezs Model void extracting a new block from the same position used
This model was proposed by Servet Martnez [4] in the before (the positions here represents drawpoints). The
context of the research developed in CIMM (Mining and ascending void generated by the extraction of a block is
Metallurgic Research Center) in 1996. Is based on the called by us as Bubble. The next figure show us a two
stability of the particles and how they flow when this stability dimensional example of how one bubble evolve:
is loose.

This Cellular Automaton considers and array that

guarantees strong stability for each cell. This model is
based in the following principles:
Three blocks are extracted from the base which originates
a void.
In front of any void space, the particles flow fall in vertical
way.
In other cases there is an instable equilibrium,
fundamental characteristic of the model, in these cases
the particles fall according to two priorities. First, the more
instable particles fall. Second, if we have particles with
equal instability, the one which has the older instability fall,
here is assumed that instability is increasing in time.

As an example lets look at one iteration of this model:

FIG. 3: Bubble Evolution.

V. THE BUBBLING PROCESS

The proposed Cellular Automata will be analyzed in two

dimensions. This approach simplifies calculations, the
extension to three dimensions is straightforward.

A. Some Useful Calculations

Given a block model of certain dimensions, its not hard to
see that the probability of a given bubble to reach position
FIG. 1 Instability, makes that cells 7, 8 y 9 fall, in that order, of block (i, j) is:
because cell 7 has an older instability. Then the same will
occur with cells 10,11, 12 y 13, which originates a surface (6)
crater.

180 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Where is a function defined as: particular bubble, and this probability decreases as we
move away from the central column. This result is
summarized in the next proposition.
(7)
Proposition VI.1
Denoting central column blocks as Bck (here k
This calculation is trivial using Total Probabilities Rule. We denotes height with respect to drawpoint) and denoting
will call Bubble Probability to the quantity Pr (n (i,j) = 1). bubble probability for this column as then we have the
following valid relation when :
If we consider as transition probabilities for the neighbors
(left, center, right) then we have: (9) lim p c ,k =0
k

(8) This relation guarantees that in absence of height

restrictions the final cavity will have ellipsoidal form. This
asymptotic behavior is not found in real cases, in all real
cases always there is a limitation on sector height. In these
Its very important to characterize the final cavity cases the final form of the cavity have parabolic form. This
generated by extraction of ore. We will see that empirical kind of behavior can be explained with the aid of a new
tests require an additional definition in order to study this concept introduced in the next definition:
feature of the model. As an example consider that transition
probabilities are . If we consider the blocks that obtain a Definition VI.1
positive probability of being visited by a bubble then we Given a sector of height H, which translated to blocks
have as a resultant cavity the one given by Fig. 4 (a). If we means that sector has height (in blocks). We define Cut
consider only the blocks that have bubble probability greater Probability, which is denoted by , as the quantity which
than 0.001 we have situation described if Fig. 4 (b). Finally satisfies:
cases 4 (c) and 4 (d) are for bubble probabilities greater
than 0.05 and 0.07 respectively.
(10)

Where is understood as the closest value near is

interpreted as the value such if we consider only those
blocks with bubble probability greater or equal than this
number then in the last level of the given sector (at height )
the sum of probabilities is near (Usually takes value 0.95).

Mathematical interpretation of this quantity is clear in

the sense that blocks with bubble probability greater or
equal has an 95% of probabilities to be removed by
extractive process. With this tool we can deduce that the
final cavity has paraboloidal form. This theoretical fact
has very large support from empirical experience. All
simulations made using this Cellular Automata gives final
cavities whit paraboloidal form. Almost most important,
we can deduce from definition that cut probability is a
height-dependent quantity. The distribution of bubble
probabilities is more likely uniform distribution when he
take values greater.

VII. CONTINUOUS APPROACH TO

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL
FIG. 4: Final Cavities considering distinct bubble
probabilities : (a) > 0, (b) > 0:001,(c) > 0:05 , (d) > 0:07 Our model can be seen as a random walk in one
(Labeled from top left to down right) dimension (in the two dimensional case) and a random walk
in two dimensions (in the three dimensional case).

As we can see, different probabilities give different final The way to understand this fundamental fact is to
cavities. The main question is then: Which probability we see that if we put together in one level all levels of a
need to consider to obtain a good representation of the final given sector then the system evolves in the same way
cavity? The answer to this question is given in the next as a random walk process would do. To fix ideas we
section. will analyze our model in the context of two
dimensional sectors. The general form of this random
VI. DEFINING SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL walk process could be described mathematically
denoting by X(t) to the random variable that represents
Its not hard to see that equation 8 give us a probability the walker position in time t. Consider too a one
distribution that in each level approximates a Gaussian one, dimensional reticulate (for example Z) and
i.e., the central block (the one in the same column as the discretization of time T . The rules of evolution of one
drawpoint) has a greater probability of being visited by a dimensional random walk are given by:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 181

 (11) X () =
{ X () 1
X ()
X () + 1
con probabilidad q
con probabilidad p
con probabilidad q

A. Real Space Derivation

Following B. Hughes [6], let us consider that the sites in
our reticulate will be indexed, as usual, with integer
coordinates. We denote by the probability that the walker
will be in site l after n steps. If random walk steps are i.i.d
(independents and identically distributed), with
representing the probability that walker actually in position
will reach position l in the next step, we have the following
fundamental relation:

l =
(12) Pn +1(l ) = p ( l l ) Pn(l )
l = FIG. 5: function with fixed .

this relation comes from Total Probability Theorem.

Following calculations and taking limits [5] we finally get a When we resolve the equation
Partial Differential Equation (PDE) for the function p(x; t)
(probability density starting from position x in time t):
(17)

2
(13) p ( x, t ) = v p ( x, t ) + D 2 p ( x, t ) with as a funtion of t we get that
t x x

Equation 13 is the well-known Diffusion Equation in

presence of drag velocity v. D is called diffusion constant. i.e. the final cavities are of paraboloidal form. The
extension to three dimensional case is straightforward.
B. Diffusion Equation Solution, Application
The solution of equation (13) is very well known in the
case with border conditions the solution is: VIII. APPLICATION TO A REAL CASE:
CODELCO- EL SALVADOR MINE

First we can see in Fig. 6 how the simulation tool looks.

(14)

which corresponds to Gaussian density functions with

average position vt and variance 2Dt in that position.

In our case we are in absence of drag velocity, so in this

particular case solution of equation (13) has the closed
form:

(15)

In order to find significance level in this approach we need

to resolve the following equation:

a
(16) r (a) = p ( x, t )dx = 0.95
a
FIG. 6: Simulation Tool

given some value of t. When we resolve this equation in In Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 we present examples obtained from
some particular case, for example when t = 200 and D = 1 simulations from a real sector of Salvador Mine. This
we find that . The function for this value of is plotted in simulations were made in Drawpoint 918N.
the next figure:

182 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 which we call Potential Energy. For each block we can
calculate this energy by using the usual formula , where m
represents block mass, g is gravity acceleration constant
and h is height with respect to sector floor [5]. In second
place we have another kind of energy which we call radial
Energy, this energy is related to velocity field (which
uniforms at greater heights). This energy can be measured
as where m is the block mass and v is block movement
velocity (which is height dependent) [5].

For each block we define a function that assign energy:

(19) E ( Bijk ) : = Ep ( Bijk ) + Er ( Bijk )

FIG. 7: Accumulated Variation Drawpoint 918N

we note that this expression is simple and we only need
recalculate if the block is moved [5]. The rule of transition for
our Cellular Automaton consists then in make a Stochastic
Drawing based in energy values of the neighbors blocks [5].

As the interactions between granular materials is

dissipative in nature, we can discount to the energy value of
a block certain quantity each time the block is moved, one
possible function that incorporate this factor could be:

(20) E ( Bijk ) : = Ep ( Bijk ) + Er ( Bijk ) l

where represents a little energy diminution and l the

number of times the block has been moved [5].

B. Fractional Simulation
FIG. 8: Grade Evolution from Drawpoint 918N One limitation of the presented model is that needs a
complete extraction of blocks from drawpoints. This
limitation is a very big one because of the actual dimensions
Finally in Fig. 9 we present an Error Map generated with of blocks [5].
the aid of the tool. One possible approach is to discretize one given sector in
more units. This led the problem of have a model that needs
very much memory to run [5].
Another option is to allow the model to extract fractions of
blocks. The only modification that this concept imposes on
the original model is that we have to maintain for each
drawpoint a state number that tells how much ore remain in
the last extracted block. If the actual extraction needs more
ore that the remaining one the we have to generate another
bubble and refresh the state of the drwapoint [5].

X. CONCLUSIONS

As we can see, we have a very powerful tool for

Gravitational Flow Simulation. His theoretical characteristics
and flexibility make them a very good tool that can aid to
understand mine operations.
This model could serve not only as a prediction tool, we
can use it in planning labors or to decide when to close
some drawpoint for example.
Preliminary computational experiment show us that this
FIG. 9: Grade Evolution from Drawpoint 918N model could be better implemented. In that case we hope
that simulations could take fewer completion time. This
objective really makes sense when one thinks that a model
IX. SOME POSSIBLE EXTENSIONS of this nature could be runned almost everyday.

A. Energetic Model XI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The main idea behind this extension is to modify Cellular
Automata rules of evolution. For this purpose we first need J.S. wish to acknowledge the support of FAI (Fondo de
to assign to each cell of the model an energy value [5]. First, Ayuda a la Investigacin), Proyecto Ingeniera 2004,
we can consider each block having one kind of energy Universidad de Los Andes.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 183

REFERENCES [4] Servet Martnez: Consideraciones Acerca del
Modelamiento de Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final
[1] Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science. Wolfram PB5- 10004, Apndice N3, 1996.
Media, Inc. 2002. [5] Jos Saavedra: Secuencias, Flujo Gravitacional y
[2] Eric Goles y Sebastin Pea: Modelamiento y Evolucin en Planificacin Minera. Memoria para optar
Simulacin del Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final PB5- al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil Matemtico, Universidad de
10004, Apndice N2, 1996. Chile, 2002.
[3] Gregorio Gonzlez: Estudio del Comportamiento de un [6] Barry D. Hughes: Random Walks and Random
Material Granular Mediante Modelos Computacionales. Environments, Volume 1: Random Walks, Clarendon
Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil Press, Oxford, 1995.
Matemtico, 1999.

184 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Computational model for simulation
and Visualization of gravitational flow
Carlos Caldern, Facultad de Ciencias Fsicas y Matemticas,
Departamento de Ciencias de la Computacin, Universidad de Chile
Marco Alfaro, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes and Metalica Consultores S.A
Jos Saavedra, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad de los Andes

Abstract
Some models have appeared in he last time to modeling the Gravitational Flow from drawpoints. Having a theoretical
model for a phenomena is only a part of the task. Another important task is the implementation and validation of the
model by means of software techniques. In this paper we explore the considerations, techniques and complexity of
algorithms needed for implementing one of such models. We present some results obtained with the implementation
and show how this computational model can be integrated with other tools. The graphical aspect have received special
attention, powerful libraries such as OPENGL are in the kernel of our implementation. Some examples of the utilization
of this model in real type applications are provided. The main advantage of this approach is that simulations are
executed in real-time. Conclusions and extensions are presented.

I. INTRODUCTION when we work with block models.

Related with the last point is the native support of
In underground mining operations there are many factors specialized algorithms that act on these kinds of data
that influence decision making process. One of the most structures.
important factor is the inevitable stochastic behavior of C++ is Object Oriented. This allow us an easy
Granular Flow from drawpoints. implementation and a desirable extensibility for future
As underground operations arent selective (in contrast versions. This is mainly related to modularity
with open pit operations), the planner must be careful about characteristics of Object Oriented languages (Another OO
quality of extracted ore from drawpoints. languages are: Java, Object Pascal, etc).
Its fundamental to have models for gravitational flow. This Another important feature of C++ is the ability to work with
is the first task. In the past some attempts have been made pointers. This feature makes faster algorithms, because
to modeling this phenomenon. Remarkable works are the thanks to pointer techniques we dont need copy and
references [2], [4], [3]. All of these works have in common manage the whole object, instead of that we only give the
the technique used: Cellular Automata. The most recent memory direction and this feature can be used to simulate
work is the one by Marco Alfaro and Jos Saavedra [1]. the spatial movement of blocks.
This last model was implemented and validated and some
practical issues related to implementation were noted in the C++ is a standard programming language. One of the
development process. In this paper we present the main main features is that OPENGL could be used in conjunction
characteristics of such a system and some visualizations of with C++. As we need to develop a powerful graphics
the system in action. software this consideration is essential.
The implemented software allows the analysis and
visualization of gravitational flow simulations, this can be III. DATA STRUCTURES
done trough a suitable discretization of ore material, this
model is called block model. It has some mathematical Any implementation of an algorithm, is intimately related
properties which are reviewed in the work [5]. with data structures used by the algorithm, thus the
The main idea behind the algorithm is to generate a description of that structure is very important to understand
bubble (by means of extracting a block from the floor of a how the algorithm works. The restriction that our simulation
given sector), then with the aid of a probabilities matrix must work in real time carry us to design a three-
(rules of evolution of Cellular Automaton) we evolve this dimensional matrix of pointers (or memory directions),
bubble until it reaches the surface [1]. where the real data of each block were resident in other
The simplicity of the model and the efficiency of the distinct memory place without need of moving these data.
implementation allow us to make real time simulations, The location of a block in certain spatial position is made up
which is extremely useful in terms of visualization and as with the aid of pointers. In simple terms we can say that the
a consequence a better understanding of the underlying block in position (i, j, k) is referenced by Pi,j,k. For example, if
physical phenomenon. we want to describe the vertical movement of a certain block,
i.e., move the block from position (i, j, k) to position (i, j, k1),
II. IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGY then we have to do the following pointer operation:

C++ was the chosen language for implementing the Pi,j,k = Pi,j,k1
model. The reasons for this decision are:
This language has many desirable characteristics that Bubble movement is made by using permutation of two
facilitate the development process, especially, C++ has pointers, in particular the one who has the initial position of
native support of vector classes which are very useful the bubble and the one ho has the final position.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 185

 A void in space is represented by a special kind of pointer: The total cost Ct is then
the null pointer. When we make a permutation in this
situation there isnt lose in information. The transition
probabilities matrix is a cube of size 3.
The bubble is in the central position in the first level of the
cube. This matrix is designed to manage several physical If we use asymptotic notation then the cost of extracting
phenomena, for example relative movement or avalanche all the possible material from a given drawpoint would be O
phenomenon, nevertheless to incorporate successfully (h3).
these phenomena we need the physical information to fill
the matrix. VI. CALIBRATION OF CELLULAR AUTOMATON MODEL

IV. TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS As we saw in a past section we have a probability cube

that keeps the transition probabilities. We need calibrate
We call processing capacity to the quantity of material that those probabilities if we want to use properly the model.
can be simulated per second, i.e., the quantity of blocks that One way to calibrate our model is trough a quantity called
the simulator extracts per second. Using an example where Isolated Extraction Diameter(IED), which is characteristic in
we fill the block model at the top (i.e. the bubble must travel each kind of material. This physical parameter is related
the whole height of the block model), the processing with the paraboloid parameter p (of geometrical nature) in
capacity is about 4.000 blocks per second when the sector the following way:
has 240 blocks height.
The memory space that uses one block is about 20 Bytes IEH
taking into account his pointer, this means that in a sector = 2p
with dimensions 100 length by 100 width by 240 height EID
needs 48 Mb in memory. If we double the number of blocks
in each dimension then we need about 400 Mb of memory Where IEH : Isolated Extraction Heigth and IED: Isolated
(note that we will be moving about 20 millions of blocks in Extraction Diameter. When we have the information needed
each simulation). to calibrate our probabilities, we use an algorithm designed
for this purpose. The algorithm is as follow:
Some characteristics of the implementation in terms of
flexibility are the following: Initialize-Prob-Matrix
1. We can fill the block model at the top in the block model. Find(IED)
2. We can orientate the blocks according each possible pair If Height(IED) > IEH then
of linear independent vectors. Give More Weight to the borders
3. We can locate the drawpoints everywhere in the base of Else If Height(IED) < IEH then
the blocks model. Give More Weight to the center
4. We can establish sample frequency according to user Else
needs. Return Calibrated Matrix
5. We can give specific seeds to make simulations, this is End If
important when we want to make comparisons.
This procedure is justified by the fact that if Height(IED) >
V. BASIC ANALISYS OF ALGORITHMS IEH then paraboloid is very closed so we need to open it.
The another case is analogous. This procedure exhibits
This little analysis consist in determine the cost of good convergence and the maximum error is bounded by
bubbling function, this function carry a bubble from the 5%. In figures 1 and 2 we can see two snapshots of the
drawpoint to surface. Bubbling function its a recursive software in action in the calibration procedure.
function that executes while the bubble doesnt reach
surface, if we call c the cost of bubbling function without
recursion. We can see that c depends on the cost of the
instructions related with up-to-date bringing of probabilities
matrix.
To calculate the average cost that takes the algorithmin
extract all the possible material from a given drawpoint,
assuming that the final cavity has paraboloidal form [1], we
sum the cost of extract every block inside this paraboloid.
Its not hard to see that the extraction of block has a cost ,
because is analogous to get a bubble into position (i, j ,k).
If we have a paraboloid, then at height z we will have N(z)
blocks to be extracted. From elementary calculus we know
that N (z) = , where r2z is paraboloid radius at height z. Let
C(z) the computational cost of extracting all blocks at height
z then we have:

If our paraboloid have focus = (0; 0; p) and directrix

equation z = -p then we have:

FIG. 1: Results obtained from simulation to calibrate model

when Height(IED) > IEH.

186 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Te choice of graphics support libraries in three dimensions
was OPENGL, because of his efficiency and the ability to
work in several platforms (Windows or Linux/Unix).
In graphics terms, blocks grades can be differentiated by
they colors, its possible to visualize a specific zone of the
model that we want to analyze, in particular we can see cuts
in the three canonic directions. In figures 4,5 and 6 we can
see visualizations while Cellular Automaton is running.

FIG. 2: Results obtained from simulation to calibrate model

when Height(IED) < IEH.

VII. MODEL VALIDATION

Its important that the implemented model behaves as FIG. 4: Model Visualization 1.
theory predicts. In order to acquire this objective, one test
was designed to show blocks movement. If one block is
moved his color is darker than the ones with none or little
movement. We can see that high probabilities zones are
darker than low probabilities zones. A snapshot of this test
could be appreciated in figure 3.

FIG. 5: Model Visualization 2.

FIG. 3: Validation of the Model.

VIII. VISUALIZATION

Cellular Automaton visualization if essential for studying

his behavior, for this reason visualization windows were
implemented, these windows can be accessed at any time. FIG. 6: Model Visualization 3.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 187

 As we saw, the number of blocks needed to run the model
IX. NUMERICAL EXPERIENCES grow a lot when we double the number of blocks in each
dimension, to be more accurate we have to multiply the
In order to test the model we carry out a numerical number of blocks by a constant factor of .
experiment. We dispose blocks in a box in such a way that Data structure is designed to be small in terms of size. If
5 layers were formed. Each layer has his own we want to consider a block model with many blocks we will
characteristics constant grade. Simulation was made in a need more RAM memory if we want to run simulations
box of dimensions: quickly. But as we saw, when we move about 20 millions
Width = 1.00 mts. blocks in one simulation the memory needs are about 400
Length = 1.00 mts. Mb. This imposes a natural limitation in our implementation.
Height = 2.40 mts. As the times goes on, this memory limitation would
disappear and then the model could be runned very quickly.
The box was filled by blocks of 1.00 cm. by 1.00 cm. by The benefits of our implementation are clear: real time
1.00 cm. And the layers were defined as: simulation with good visualization is a very powerful aid for
Material 1 : 3167 [particles per million] mining industry.
Material 2 : 1213 [particles per million] For the future, there is a clear line of development. This
Material 3 : 2690 [particles per million] model could be extended to consider distinct block sizes. At
Material 4 : 7610 [particles per million] the moment the software only allow the use of a
Material 5 : 2570 [particles per million] dimensional homogeneous kind of block. If we can conduct
research that allow us to implement this feature we will be
If we divide the number of particles per million by 1000000 able to have more realistic simulations.
then we obtain the grade of the layer. Some drawpoint were At the other hand, more efficient classes could be
placed in the base of the sector. As an example we will show developed. The actual model could be refined and the
the graph from results obtained in our simulations (see algorithms could be optimized. As an example of this last
figures 7 and 8). asseveration we can for example modify bubbling algorithm.
Now this algorithm allows one bubble to travel from floor to
surface. We can modify this implementation allowing
several bubbles to be generated (for the same drawpoint).
This can be done because if one bubble is in level k then
another bubble in level k-2 will dont touch this bubble.
The calibration algorithm could be useful when research
about Isolated Extraction Diameter will be complete. At the
moment there is only a little knowledge of this phenomenon
and in the future we expect more work in this area.
Finally our computational model could be useful for many
reasons:
Planning tasks: If we have good simulations then we can
reduce uncertainty about grades values. This tool is the
one that gives good results with little time effort.
Visualization: The model can be stopped in every step.
This allow us to see how blocks movements have
developed.
Good execution times.
FIG. 7: Numerical Experience 1. Real time interface.

XII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

J.S. wish to acknowledge the support of FAI (Fondo de

Ayuda a la Investigacin), Proyecto Ingeniera 2004,
Universidad de Los Andes.

REFERENCES

[1] Marco Alfaro, Jos Saavedra: Predictive Models for

Gravitational Flow. To be presented in MassMin 2004.
[2] Eric Goles y Sebastin Pea: Modelamiento y
Simulacin del Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final PB5-
10004, Apndice N2, 1996.
[3] Gregorio Gonzlez: Estudio del Comportamiento de un
Material Granular Mediante Modelos Computacionales.
Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil
FIG. 8: Numerical Experience 2. Matemtico, 1999.
[4] Servet Martnez: Consideraciones Acerca del
X. CONCLUSIONS, DETECTED Modelamiento de Flujo Gravitacional. Informe Final
PROBLEMS AND EXTENSIONS PB5- 10004, Apndice N3, 1996.
[5] Jos Saavedra: Secuencias, Flujo Gravitacional y
The most biggest detected problem in our implementation Evolucin en Planificacin Minera. Memoria para optar
is that needs very much resources if we want to carry out al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil Matemtico, Universidad de
good simulations. Chile, 2002.

188 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Simulating gravity flow in sub-level
caving with cellular automata
Glenn Sharrock, Senior Geotechnical Engineer - AMC Consultants
David Beck, Mining Engineer - Beck Mining Engineering
Geoff Booth, Senior Mine Geologist - WMC - Leinster Nickel Operations
Mike Sandy, Principal Geotechnical Engineer - AMC Consultants

Abstract
Block caves and sub-level caving mines are now operating at greater depths and in stronger rocks than ever before. The
rules of thumb and tools for design and layout of these mines were not developed for these environments and the
resulting cave designs are often in conflict with the operational and geotechnical requirements for large caving
operations in moderately to highly stressed environments.
In this paper, a new particle flow code - CAVE-SIM ( Sharrock 2003) is described for assessing the economic impact
of the changes to cave flow caused by different SLC layouts designed to ensure uninterrupted production. The modelling
package enables full integration of economic parameters and geological models into a three dimensional flow model of
an operating cave. In CAVE-SIM the user has full control over draw rates from individual drawpoints and there is full
tracking of the instantaneous grade and particle size distribution through each drawpoint.

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent times, a growing interest has emerged in the

simulation of granular flows in block caves (BC) and sub-
level caves (SLC). In particular, efforts are presently focused
on the development of computer simulation techniques for
predicting rock breakage or progressive growth of a caving
front and the associated granular flows in the cave void.
One promising technique is the recently-developed "Caving
Simulator" known as CAVE-SIM.
The key motivation for the development of CAVE-SIM is to
properly simulate the effects that alternative extraction
geometries and draw strategies would have on the
economic performance of BC and SLC operations. The
analytical engine of CAVE-SIM is based on the cellular
automaton (CA) concept first developed by John Von
Neumann in 1947. CA can efficently simulate granular flows
in an interacting, three-dimensional system of drawpoints.
However, before CAVE-SIM is described, a review of
existing simulation methods is required. 2 EXISTING METHODS

Prior to the development of CAVE-SIM, there were two

simulation methods used to study granular flows in SLC,
namely stochastic methods (SM) and discrete element
methods (DEM). The main difficulty with these methods is
the incapability to properly represent realistic geometry and
problem size within computational constraints. In contrast,
owing to the efficency of the CA concept, CAVE-SIM can
currently be applied to problems involving in excess of 30
million particles.

2.1. Stochastic Methods

Stochastic Methods assume that gravity flow is a
stochastic process; that is, "a process that can be described
by a random variable that depends on some stochastic
parameter which may be discrete or continuous" (Borowski
and Borwein 1991). The stochastic parameter in SLC
problems is typically: "the probability of downwards
propagation of a particle" or, "upwards propagation of
voids". Examples include Nilsson 1988, Bergmark 1975,
Heden 1976 and Power 2003.
It is important to understand that the physics of granular
Figure 1: 3D Mine Scale simulations of SLC in CAVE-SIM flow are almost completely ignored in SM (Nedderman
coupled with MAP3D: n = 30e6 Particles. 1992). For example, fundamental physical laws such as

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 189

Newton's Laws and cohesive-frictional behavior (Coulomb
1776, Rankine 1857) are not necessarily a hard constraint
in SM simulations and particle contacts do not exist. This
means that the effects of stress and frictional behavior are
not considered. For example, lateral or sideways movement
of particles in an SM model are often constrained to a fixed
direction and governed by simple kinematic rules, when in
reality or in a CA model the material behaviour and the
forces acting on the particle can result in complex flow.
Complex flow phenomena such as arching, slow-infilling of
voids, inrushes and piping cannot be forecast or re-created
in an SM model.
For these reasons SM cannot offer the best possible Figure 2: Calibration curves for inter-particle contact friction
solution to SLC type problems; indeed SM have been all but angle vs material internal friction angle; axi-symmetric
discarded in the field for which they were originally created biaxial test; undertaken with the 3D DEM code, FLOW3D;
- bulk solids handling. using cluster particles (Sharrock 2003a).

2.2. Discrete Element Method 2.3. Conclusion

The Discrete Element Method is by far the most promising It is proposed that neither SM nor DEM are ideally suited
and widely used simulation method in granular science. to "mine scale" SLC simulations. SM does not include the
While SM sacrifices physics in favour of computational physics of granular flow, while DEM will continue to be
efficiency, the DEM provides a detailed treatment of the limited by the requirements for numerical stability for the
micro-mechanics of granular media. The DEM, as first forseeable future. In contrast, cellular automata are well
proposed by Cundall and Strack (1979) involves computing suited to extremely large and complex problems in discrete
the contact forces and resulting Newtonian dynamics of systems. CA permits very large systems to be studied
individual particles in an assembly. As a result, the while including conventional physics. For this reason, CA
distribution of shear and normal force, rotation, velocity and has gained wide acceptance in science and engineering
displacement are determined for each particle. In recent fields concerned with discrete mechanics.
times the original two-dimensional scheme introduced by
Cundall and Strack (1979) has been extended to three 3 CELLULAR AUTOMATA
dimensions for six sided solids (Ghaboussi 1990), ellipsoids
(Lin and Ng 1997) and super-quadratics (Williams and The Cellular Automata (CA) concept was first developed by
Pentland 1989). DEM is well suited to modelling the effects John Von Neumann in 1947. Von Neumann reasoned that a
of particle shape on granular flow (Sharrock 2003a; Figure conceptual machine, or automaton, could be constructed by
2). dividing the physical space of a problem into a large number of
While DEM is without doubt the most popular discrete "cells" that interact according to partial differential equations
method in granular science, currently it cannot be applied describing the physics of a system (Von Neumann 1966). In this
to solving mine scale SLC problems, largely because of approach, cells contain discrete objects that are categorised by
computational limitations. This is due in part to a individual "state" parameters that evolve dynamically according
requirement for numerical stability in the central difference to the partial differential equations.
approximation to Newtons second law. In addition, this CA has been used in a number of contexts; in quantitative
method also requires computationally intensive near inquiries such as the investigation of physical materials,
neighbour searches to determine particle contacts within engineering problems, mathematics and the traditionally
the assembly. With existing computing hardware, DEM is "qualitative" fields such as the social sciences. Examples
most commonly used for assemblies of 104 or 105 particles from engineering include computational fluid dynamics
for short model time durations. Well known DEM codes (Cattaneo and Jocher 2002), particle physics (Fox et.al.
include PFC3D, REBOP, FASTDISC and FLOW3D. 1994), gas dynamics (Frisch 1986), stress in granular media
Because of the accuracy of DEM, it is well suited for (Hemmingson et.al 1997, Sharrock 2003a) and gravity flow
detailed gravity flow studies on factors affecting complex of granular media (Baxter and Behringer 1990).
flow phenomena in SLC and BC mines. Some excellent CAVE-SIM is designed using CA techniques and
work has been undertaken in the International Caving Study models particle friction, particle size distributions and stress
on this topic (Brown 2003). For this reason, CAVE-SIM for a three-dimensional SLC model, governed by a series
results have been tested against DEM simulations from of sequencing and draw-rule options .
FLOW3D, a three dimensional particle flow code for sphere
clusters (Sharrock 2003a).

Figure 3: 3D stress and segregation in a binary mixture:

CAVE-SIM (Sharrock 2003).

190 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

4 CAVESIM 1993, Duplancic 2002). Unfortunately, many of the existing
simulations techniques and scaled physical modelling
CAVE-SIM can efficiently simulate the physics of very results are two-dimensional and therefore, are generally
large numbers of particles (ie >30e6 particles), for long unsuited to practical three-dimensional problems in SLC
simulation times, over short computational periods (i.e. and BC, or are simply "snapshots" of a three-dimensnional
<24hrs). In cave draw this is particularly important, since the cave, unable to produce reliably the phenomena that most
draw history and parameters such as tonnes and grade affect cave performance.
require extremely complex, long duration simulations. For There are also mining engineering complexities that must
example, CAVE-SIM has been used to simulate life of mine be accounted for, so that meaningful and practical solutions
recoveries of an entire SLC operation, at a ring-by-ring can be computed. These include the formulation of mining
resolution. sequences, draw rules, and interpolation of grade block
The ability to quickly model long simulation times means models into the CAVE-SIM lattice. These issues are
that parametric studies on critical economic parameters discussed in the next sections.
such as drawpoint spacing, drawpoint width, and sub-level
interval are possible in three-dimensions and a dollar value 4.3. Draw Rules and Draw Sequences
can be produced for each of the different options. This is an To facilitate the modelling of practical SLC mining
important advantage in comparison to other techniques. The geometries and sequences, there are three material types in
various technological developments, and associated CAVE-SIM. These are Firing Blocks, Draw Envelopes and
difficulties considered in CAVE-SIM are described in the Gravity Flow Regions (Figure 5).
next five sections. Firing blocks are polygonal solids defining blasted ring
material ie. regions of the rockmass turned from solids to
4.1. Physics particles at a particular mining step.
Over 200 years of research on gravity flow of granular Draw envelopes are three-dimensional draw volumes,
media indicates that particle shape, dilation, size which simulate mucking. These envelopes control counting
distribution, friction, cohesion and stress all significantly of particles, deletion of particles, computation of cumulative
influence the behaviour of a granular material (Coulomb tonnes and grade for a particular drawzone and shut-off of
1776, Rankine 1857, Atkinson and Bransby 1978). drawzone. There are three draw rules namely;
In addition, practical observations of SLC draw-behaviour Draw Rule 1: Volume Shut-off - Stop drawing when the
suggests that fragmentation and flow characteristics total volume of material at that drawpoint exceeds a
occurring with choke blasting, conflict significantly with particular percentage of the insitu ring volume.
assumptions of regular loose flow of uniform fine grained Draw Rule 2: Shut-off Grade - Stop drawing when
material (Bull and Page 2000). In BC, comminution in the instantaneous grade (gi), drops below shut-off grade (gs).
cave muckpile is an important mechanism. These are only Draw Rule 3: Maximum Draw Percentage - In conjunction
two examples of a wide range of physical mechanisms with rule 1 and 2 it is useful to have a maximum threshold to
observed in actual caving operations that need to be control the maximum amount drawn.
accounted for in a simulation.

Figure 4: Cellular Automata: Segregation in a vibrated bed

(Sharrock 2003). Figure 5: Firing Blocks and Draw Envelopes

The CA method allows flexibility in calibrating site-specific Solids are rockmass regions that behave as a continuum,
mechanisms into the simulations, through calibration of size either rigid body, elastically or elasto-plastically. CAVE-SIM
distributions, particle shape and friction. Conversely PC- integrates with Map3D allowing for coupled studies on
BC, or purely stochastic techniques do not explicitly drawpoint stability, caveability and particle flow.
simulate the physics of these effects and consequently, are
unsuited to complex three-dimensional simulations. 4.4. Grade Block Model Interpolation
Methods have been developed to interpolate actual block
4.2. Problem Complexity model grades into CAVE-SIM simulations, providing a
Since all practical problems in BC and SLC are three- realistic spatial distribution of grade as an initial simulation
dimensional, simulation techniques should also be three- condition. At the commencement of each simulation, every
dimensional. It has been noted by other authors that particle is assigned a grade, which is then integrated at the
practical problems in BC and SLC cannot be represented by instant of drawing to generate an estimate of dilution and
two-dimensional approaches relying on axi-symmetric, grade at each drawpoint. Additional routines have been
plane strain or plane stress assumptions (Brady and Brown written to translate and rotate the block model to minimise

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 191

lattice space, thus maximising the number of particles that
can be simulated in CAVE-SIM.

Figure 6: 3D grade block interpolation, including block Figure 7 (b) Verifications of Just and Free 1972; effect of
model rotation (Block Size: 10m*10m*10m). drawzone width on drawzone eccentricity.

4.5. Problem Size Parallel Computing 5 DEMONSTRATION CASE STUDY

A simulation must run in "reasonable" computational time,
so that alternative strategies or sensitivity studies can be Consider now a mine feasibility study undertaken with
performed. Existing techniques relying on DEM are severely CAVE-SIM at Mine X. Mine
restricted in terms of the problem size and complexity that X is an SLC operation that will extend from 500m to
can be investigated (Sawley and Cleary 1999). 1000m below the surface, with a strike length of 500m and
For example, relatively simple three-dimensional SLC and orebody width of 80m. Mine X would like to undertake a
BC problems require at least 30 million particles and sensitivity study on the effect of varying sub-level interval
relatively long simulation times, which remain and drawpoint spacing on level recovery and dilution.
computationally impractical with DEM. However, simulations In this study the objective is to simulate the flow of
of this magnitude can be undertaken with CAVE-SIM granular material in an SLC with the aim of finding the "best"
through parallel computing. Parallel computing greatly drawpoint spacing (d), sub-level interval (s) and draw
increases the problem size and duration that can be strategy f(r) that provides the best recovery (r) of the
attempted with CAVE-SIM. Current CAVE-SIM versions resource with minimisation of dilution (e). In this problem
operate using distributed computing techniques through the there is a grade distribution model (block model), a cut-off
Message Passing Interface Interface (MPI), with grade (gc), a shut-off grade (gs)and three draw rules which
decomposition logic comparable to Hustrulid and Brown determine the volume (vd) of material drawn from a
(1997). particular drawpoint relative to the total ring volume fired
(vr). The grade at the brow pile is called the instantaneous
4.6. Verifications grade (gi), while the instantaneous volume is (vi). The
Verification studies have been undertaken to compare sequential steps taken in this problem are as follows:
CAVE-SIM models with scaled physical models (eg Janelid
and Kvapil 1966 etc) and recovery and marker trial data Stage 1: Drawpoint Stability Study
from actual mining operations. These studies indicate that
CAVE-SIM recovers accurate estimates of drawzone Prior to particle flow simulation, a sensitivity study is
eccentricity as a function of drawpoint width and depth. undertaken to determine the range of stable drawpoint
Further verifications and applications of the code are dimensions, cross-cut orientations and sequences
presently underway at three mining operations within applicable to this rockmass, over the specified operating
Australia and the initial results indicate that with minor depth and pre-mining stress conditions.
calibration, excellent estimates of recovery and dilution
curves are possible.

Figure 7 (a) Verifications of Kvapil (1965)a&b isolated draw Figure 8: 45 degree en-echelon SLC front. Colours denote
experiments using scaled physical models. mining sequence.

192 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In this particular study, a non-linear stress analysis
indicates that a minimum drawpoint spacing of 15m is
required for stable drawpoints at the full operating depth of
the mine. Because there are indications of stress related
problems at this mine, a 45 degree en-echelon mining front
is desirable (Figure 8), which constrains the mining
sequence. In this example, the sub-level interval must be
less than 30m because of drilling equipment constraints.
The next stage is simulation of the isolated draw-zone, which
is calibrated to observed and recorded recovery and dilution
curves from other mines in similar conditions. A database of
such curves is maintained by AMC Consultants Pty Ltd.

Stage 2: Simulation of Isolated Draw

In this stage the particle assembly properties are Figure 10a: Waste ingress (red) depends on size contrast
calibration to the measured or inferred behaviour of the between blasted ring material and naturally fragmented
granular assembly. These parameters include size cave material. Long-sectional view; n =10e6 particles
distributions of the blasted and naturally fragmented (Sharrock 2003b).
material, inter-particle friction angle, material friction angle,
cohesion and particle shape factor.
Size distribution curves for the blasted ring material are loads or draw increments, resulting in the formation of the well-
well known from numerous studies. The principal difficulty known draw-ellipse at each drawpoint. Numerous authors have
arises when estimating the size distribution of naturally studied this mechanism using scaled physical models and
fragmented material in the cave void. CAVE-SIM have observed that the nature of the draw ellipse is
simulations have shown that smaller dilution particles in the fundamental to good cave management (Kvapil 1965a, Just
void result in faster ingress of waste at the drawpoint, hence and Free 1971, Power 2003).
reduced recovery and increased dilution. In this stage a section of the SLC geometry is typically
selected over the entire operating height of the cave for a
detailed parametric study of the pre-specified drawpoint
spacings and sublevel intervals. A series of simulations are
then undertaken for these parameters, resulting in graphs of
height of interactive draw as a function of drawpoint spacing
and sub-level interval. This study guides the selection of
parameters for the full mine-scale simulations of the
operating SLC, which include grade.

Figure 9: Primary recovery curves from CAVE-SIM

simulations of blasted and naturally fragemented particle
assemblies, calibrated against numerically determined
inter-particle friction from DEM biaxial tests (Figure 2). Figure 10b: The height of interactive draw (hc) depends on
size contrast between blasted ring material, the stresses
Each simulation has two particle assemblies that induced in the granular medium, and the spacing between
represent the upper and lower bounds in the size drawpoints. Long-sectional view; n =10e6 particles.
distribution models for the naturally fragmented material. In
selecting the particle friction and cohesion a numerical
biaxial test (Figure 2) is sometimes used, or if site data is
available, the interparticle friction is altered until the
appropriate recovery curve is calibrated. In this stage the
cellular automata model is often calibrated against a
detailed DEM biaxial test.
The Firing Block geometry in this example is as indicated
in Figure 5 and Figure 10. Rings are dumped 10 degree
forward. Figure 10 shows the dilated state of the ring
material after 20% draw.

Stage 3: Simulation of Interactive Draw

Two example simulations of interactive draw are presented

in Figures 10a and 10b. In Figure 10b, an SLC is constructed
that consists of solid rock and blasted ore and waste (red). The Figure 11: The height of interactive draw (hc) versus
blasted ore is removed from each drawpoint in small bucket- drawpoint spacing, mean values for 200 drawzones.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 193

 Stage 4: Simulation of Entire SLC Extraction Cattaneo, G and Jocher, U, 2002. Cellular automata for 2D
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discontinuum-continuum code in which elements of a hoppers and bins in mines - I, Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining
rockmass can be converted into particles subject to certain Sci: 35-41.
structural and strength data. In such an approach, induced Kvapil, R, 1965b. Gravity flow of granular materials in
rockmass damage in the continuum surrounding the cave is hoppers and bins in mines - II Coarse Material, Int. J.
used to initiate and drive cave propagation, while the flow of Rock Mech. Mining Sci: 277-304.
particles is managed by the cellular automaton method. Lin, X. and Ng, T.T., 1997 A three-dimensional discrete
element model using arrays of ellispoids, Geotechnique,
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 47, (2), pp. 319-329.
Nedderman, R M, 1992. Statics and kinematics of
The authors of this paper would like to thank Dr Duncan granular materials. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Tyler for his reviews of this paper and his contributions to Press.
the ideas presented. Nilsson, L, 1988, A Theoretical Model of Gravity Flow in
Sublevel Caving, Report nr. 88-740, LKAB, 981 61,
8 REFERENCES Kiruna, Sweden, (in Swedish)
Power, G, 2003. Stochastic Methods for modelling draw
Atkinson, J H and Bransby, P L, 1978. The mechanics of behaviour. Personal communication, G. Sharrock. Perth.
soils. MrGraw Hill, London: 4. Rankine, W, 1857. On the stability of loose earth. London.
Baxter, G W and Behringer, R P, 1990. Cellular automata Phil. Trans.
models of granular flow. Physical Review A 42(2): 1017-1020. Sawley, M L. and Cleary, P.W. 1999. A parallel discrete
Bergmark, J, 1975. The Calculation of Drift Spacing and element method for industrial granular flow simulations.
Ring Burden for Sublevel Caving, Report nr. RU 75-16, EPFL Supercomputing Review(Nov. 1999): 23-29.
LKAB, 981 61, Kiruna, Sweden, (in Swedish) Sharrock, G B, 2003a. Tool Shearing of Granular Media,
Borowski, E J and Borwein, J M, 1991. The Harper Collins PhD. Thesis, University of Queensland
dictionary of Mathematics, 563 p. Harper Collins: New York. Sharrock, G B, 2003b. Cellular automata and the
Brady, B G H and Brown, E T, 1993. Rock Mechanics for simulation of cave-draw, Australian Mining Magazine
Underground Mining. Melbourne, Chapman & Hall. (November Edition), pp 62- 63.
Brown, E T, 2003. Block Caving Geomechanics. JKMRC Von Neumann, J, 1966. Theory of self reproducing
Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral Processing 3, automata. Urbana, University of Illinois Press.
515 p. Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The Williams, J.R. and Pentland, A.P., 1989, Superquadratics
University of Queensland: Brisbane. and modal dynamics for discrete elements in concurrent
Bull, G and Page C H, 2000. Sublevel caving- today's design, Proc. 1st U.S. Conf on Discrete Element
dependable low cost ore factory. Massmin 2000, Methods, Eds. G.G.W. Mustoe, M. Henriksen, H.P.
Brisbane, Queensland. Huttelmaier, CSM Press , Colorado.

194 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Geotechnical analysis of gravity
flow during block caving
Ramn Verdugo, Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, University of Chile, Chile
Javier Ubilla, Graduate Student, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Abstract
Block Caving is a mining operation method where taking advantage of the gravity forces, the ore is fragmented into
particles and extracted from different draw points. The actual phenomenon, usually called gravity flow that takes place
in the mine is complex, being still at the present the operation and design mainly empirical. In this paper the gravity flow
is analyzed using the computer code Flac 3D, modeling the fractured ore as a granular material with a Mohr-Coulomb
failure criteria and with a modulus of deformation as function of both the minor principal stress and stress path. The
computed results are in good agreement with empirical evidences observed in the block caving. The obvious question
of how a flow can be modeled with a computer code for a continuum media is also explained in the paper.

1 INTRODUCTION 1984; Mansson, 1995). This fact somehow shows that more
studies are still needed to assess the actual behavior of the
The mining industry is continuously growing and gravity flow associated to block caving.
developing new designs, equipment and procedures to A rigorous analysis of the phenomenon that takes place
efficiently extract the ore from the mother rock. This is a during the gravity flow in the mining operation by block
permanent duty since the international prices of the metals caving should consider the following field conditions:
are decreasing in the long-term perspective, forcing the The initial intact rock that is caved by the mining operation
mining industry to reduce all the operational costs. In this very seldom is homogeneous and continuos. On the
context, the analysis and better understanding of one of the contrary, different geological structures and lithological
most economically attractive method of extraction used in heterogeneities are normally encountered, which govern
underground mines, the block caving, is important for the fragmentation, the principal stress directions and
optimizing and improve the scenario of mine production in stress relaxation. Additionally, the presence of water
long-term bases. significantly affects the rock crashability and the
In all those natural ground conditions where the orebodies resistance of the finer particles that result from the
are close to the surface, the extraction throughout the open fractured rock.
pit technique is usually adopted. Whereas, when the The boundary that separates the intact body and the
mineralized body is deeper, depending upon the rock fragmented rock is a diffuse and movable zone, which
quality, shape and dimensions, the so-called Cave Mining affects the dimensions and stress field of the crashed
procedures usually provide the lowest cost. rock.
Cave Mining are called all those mining operations where It is recognized that gravity flow associated to isolated
the orebody caves naturally after undercutting and then it is draw points corresponds to a continuous flow of particles
retrieved through a grill of drawpoints (Kvapil, 1982). Under that is concentrated only in a certain region of the granular
this denomination is possible to include, block caving, panel mass, the so-called drawzone, while the remainder
caving, inclined-drawpoint caving, and front caving particles essentially do not move. Therefore, this
(Laubscher, 1994). This mining operation works due to the phenomenon generates a clear discontinuity that
fact that the hanging wall of rock caves when the excavation encloses the region under flow (drawzone).
goes forth. In block caving, a thick block of ore is undercut As the fractured rock is moving toward the draw points, it
by removing a slice of ore, so the unsupported block is is possible to expect a continuous secondary crashing of
allowed to collapse due to its own weight. Then, the broken the larger particles due to the high level of pressure
ore is drawn off from below as the fractured rock falls driven involved. Hence, the grain size of the material in the
by the gravity forces. drawzone is modified during the process of flow.
Although in the last decades a tremendous effort has
been done in order to understand and predict the Any mathematical model for predicting the block caving
phenomenon that control the cave mining, the actual results that attempts to incorporate all the considerations indicated
are still rather insufficient. Consequently, a study oriented to above definitely will be very complex and in addition, it will
obtain new analytical insights has been undertaken and a have serious problems to obtain the input parameters.
part of these results are presented below. Consequently, instead of going into new more refined
models, the authors have opted for the appropriate
2 MODELING OF THE GRAVITY FLOW implementation of already well established analytical tools
that may permit to clarify fundamental characteristics of the
In spite of the significant advances in computer hardware, gravity flow.
numerical modeling and development of new analytical First it is important to realize that after the block caving
approaches dealing with gravity flow, the actual designs of method of mining breaks the original massive rock, the
block caving are mainly based on both empirical procedures resulting fractured material resembles a coarse particulate
and engineering judgement (Kvapil, 1965; 1982; Douglas, media. Therefore, the use of the mechanical laws of coarse

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 195

granular materials is totally pertinent. It is postulated that the Where, tf corresponds to the shear strength, sn
fundamental feature of gravity flow phenomenon is strictly represents the normal stress to the plane that contains tf,
related to the particulate nature of the body of crashed rock and f is the angle of internal friction of the granular material.
and its mechanical response is capture by its modeling as a The right side of this relationship may have an additional
granular material. From a practical point of view, the term named cohesion that accounts for those states of a
modeling of the fragmented rock as a single granular granular material that mobilize strength although the
material imply that all the process of secondary particle confining pressure is zero. However, the granular materials
crashing that likely occurs in the drawzones is not generated from the blasted rock definitely correspond to
considered. Additionally, the phenomenon associated to the cohesionless materials. Only in those situations of fine
phase transformation from solid rock to particulate material material (clay and silt sizes) and under a condition of partial
is not incorporated in the present analysis either. These two saturation, a small level of cohesion may be observed, but
simplifications can be considered limitations of the present these stages are out of the scope of this study.
analysis. On the other hand, to take into account the effect of
On the other hand, it is important to realize that the mining confining pressure on the stiffness of a granular material,
process of extraction of the crashed material that has the following expression for the deformation modulus as
passed throughout the draw points is rather slow. Typically, been used (Jambu, 1963):
the loader equipment can take 6 to 8 ton of fragmented ore
each time, retrieving the material and coming back again for
the next load. Each of these cycles is ordinarily done in a (2)
time interval of approximately 10 minutes. This non-
continuous operation of ore extraction together with the
rather large period of time involved in each cycle implies that Where, Eo and n are material constants, s3 is the minor
the inertial forces are small enough, so they can be principal stress, and Pa represents the atmospheric
neglected. Thus, the whole phenomenon can be considered pressure and its use in this expression is only for having non
essentially static, and therefore, the classical set of dimensional values of the constants Eo and n.
differential equations for static equilibrium of a continuum Experimental evidence suggests that n = 0.5 is a
media holds valid. reasonable value for coarse materials, so it has been
Furthermore, although the operation of extraction is slow, adopted in this study (Duncan et al. 1980).
still it generates the flow of the granular material, which The third important feature of granular materials is related
creates a discontinuity around the drawzone. The to the sharp change in rigidity that is observed when
emergence of a discontinuity makes this state to diverge unloading processes take place. A typical result of a load
from a continuum media. However, just before the plate test carried out in a coarse granular material is shown
development of the failure of the granular material with the in Fig. 1, where a significant increase of stiffness during
generation of the drawzone, which actually means the unloading can be seen.
initiation of the flow, the granular material can be treated as
a continuum. Therefore, just until the starting of the flow, the
whole body of fractured rock would satisfy the set of
differential equations of a continuous medium. Accordingly,
the applicability of the equations of geometric compatibility
associated to a continuum holds also valid until the gravity
flow throughout the draw points is initiated.

3 GEOMECHANICAL MODEL
OF THE FRACTURED ROCK

At the present a significant number of mathematical

models that use different constitutive laws for representing
the mechanical response of coarse granular materials are
available. It is possible to indicate that the constitutive law
provided by the elasto-plastic stress-strain relationship has
shown to be the simplest and mathematically fully
consistent. Beside, the main features of coarse particulate
materials as the dependency of shear strength and stiffness
with the level of normal stresses and the increment of
stiffness during unloading processes can be easily
incorporated in the elasto-plastic stress-strain relationship.
The perfect plastic response occurs when the shear Figure 1: Typical load plate test with loading and unloading
strength is achieved, which is a function of the level of performed on coarse soils.
normal stresses. The dependence of shear strength with the
normal stresses is incorporated by most of the failure According to the available information in the Institute for
criteria, as for example, Mohr-Coulomb, extended Von Research and Testing of Materials, IDIEM, of University of
Mises, Lade-Duncan and Matsuoka-Nakai, among others Chile, the resulting stiffness during unloading is in the order
(Chen and Mizuno, 1990; Matsuoka and Nakai, 1974). of 4 to 10 times greater than the stiffness developed during
Considering that the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is well loading. This phenomenon is well-recognized in granular
known and it reproduces the ultimate state of stresses to a materials and it is associated to the generation of a sort of
great extend, it has been adopted in the present analysis. elastic region by the loading process. Therefore, any
This criteria is expressed as: change in the state of stresses has to be analyzed in order
to identify whether it corresponds to a step of unloading that
would need a change in the modulus of deformation. To
(1) accomplish this, a simple procedure analyzing the stress
path increment in the q-p plane is proposed as shown in Fig.

196 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

2. In this stress path plot, p represents the mean stress (s1 where are also indicated the material properties used in the
+ s2 + s3)/3 and q corresponds to the maximum shear analysis. It can be seen that the typical ellipsoidal shapes of
stress ((s1 - s3 )/2 the drawzone of extraction observed in boxes filled with
sandy soils are quite well reproduced by the present
analysis.
Another interesting result is related with the distribution of
vertical stresses at the bottom of the granular material that
are shown in Fig. 4. The computed results indicate that
there is an important concentration of vertical stresses
around the draw point, which magnitude and locations are
mainly controlled by the friction angle of the material. These
results are show in Figs. 5 and 6, where it is observed that
the greater the angle of internal friction the greater the peak
of the concentrated vertical stress and the closer its location
to the opening. These results also show that as the angle of
internal friction increases the total zone where exists a
stress concentration becomes clearly smaller. Besides,
when the friction angle increases the smaller the drawzone
created by the flow. From these results, it is also interesting
to observe that if the frictional strength is high enough, the
peak vertical stress around the draw point can duplicated its
Figure 2: Regions of loading and unloading value respect to the initial geostatic value.

In Fig. 2, the point (po, qo) represents an initial state of (Eo = 2000 kg/cm2, Ko= 0.5, Density = 2.3 t/m3, = 35)
stress, which will be modified to a new state. When the
stress-path moves toward the failure envelope (EF), it is
possible to visualize a condition of loading, which is defined
by region 1. On the contrary, when the stress path is moving
away from the failure envelope it is possible to recognize a
process of unloading.
In addition, it is important to bear in mind that the modulus of
deformation has been considered explicitly as a function of the
minor principal stress. Thus, all those stress paths in the region
3 will automatically increase the soil stiffness because in this
region always there is an increase in the minor principal stress.
However, in the unloading region 2, the minor principal stress
decrease, being necessary to externally modify and to increase
the deformation modulus. When the stress paths go into this
region, the deformation modulus has been considered to
increase four-time respect to its previous value during loading.
This ratio of four between the stiffness in loading and unloading
has been adopted considering the minimum ratio observed in
coarse materials.

4 DESCRIPTION OF THE NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Considering that the classical equations of a continuum

can be applied, the geotechnical model indicated above was Figure 3: Ellipsoidal shape of the drawzone.
implemented in the computer code Flac 3D. To analyze of
the gravity flow in a fractured rock mass a medium of 100 m
in length, with heights between 50 and 150 m were
simulated. A square mesh of nodes of 1 m per 1m was used.
To reduce the time of CPU, the analysis was basically done
for a plane strain condition.
The adopted procedure of loading, that is compatible with
the generation of a gravity flow, consisted in the definition of
the draw points via a set of nodes where external loads
could be applied. Initially, in these nodes an upward vertical
load equivalent to the vertical dead weight of the material
was applied. Thereafter, these loads were incrementally
decreased until the failure of the granular material took
place and the deformations become too large to be
managed by the computer code that was basically working
for the static analysis of a continuum. The previous load
step to this collapse was considered the initiation of the
gravity flow and its analysis is presented below.

5 ANALYSIS OF THE NUMERICAL RESULTS

For a single draw point, the deformation contours that are Figure 4: Distribution of vertical stresses along the bottom of
generated at the initiation of the flow are shown in Fig. 3, the granular material.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 197

 Figure 7: Rotation of principal stresses around the opening

Figure 5: Distribution of vertical stresses at the bottom, for

different friction angles of the materials.

Figure 8: Typical results of the drawzone shape in a medium

of 50 m high and small opening size.

On the other hand, it is possible to realize that if the

Figure 6: Distance from the opening at which occurs the opening size is large enough, no arch effect would emerge
peak vertical stress as a function of the friction angle. and the granular material simply will move down generating
a cylindrical drawzone with identical diameter of the
opening. It is postulated that the minimum size of the
On the other hand, from a practical viewpoint it is relevant opening that is associated with this type of failure it would
to estimate both the width of the drawzones, and the critical coincide with the maximum width of the drawzone where
distance between draw points at which the interaction arch effect is manifested. This concept comes from the fact
between drawzones becomes important. that the column failure is related with those sizes where the
To evaluate the maximum width of the drawzone, a arch effect is not developed. Similarly, the maximum width
single draw point with different opening sizes has been of the drawzone is the critical distance until the arch effect
analyzed. The initiation of the gravity flow has been can act. It is important to point out that in this context arch
established for this series of different opening sizes effect is related with a tendency of stress rotation and it
considering a medium of 50 m high. The analysis has does not correspond with the arch that stop the flow.
been performed until the flow changes its mode of failure The computed results for the critical opening associated
and the whole material above the opening fails forming a to the column failure is shown Fig. 9, being possible to
sort of vertical column. confirm the hypothesis of the existence of two different
When the opening has a size such that the arch effect failure mechanisms that control the movements of the
tends to show up, there is an important stress rotation close granular material.
to the opening that is reproduced by the computed results
presented in Fig. 7. These results also define the mode of
failure of the granular material, inducing the shape of the
drawzone indicated in Fig. 8 for the simulation of a 50 m
high fractured rock mass.

198 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Furthermore, the critical distance at which there is
interaction between draw points was estimated through the
computations of a series of two consecutive draw points
located at different distance and subjected simultaneously
to the loading process that reproduces the gravity flow. The
results are shown in Fig. 11, and they suggest that the
actual interaction starts at a distance equal to 1.2 times the
width of the isolated drawzone. This result is practically
similar to the empirical value of 1.5 used in the block caving
(kvapil, 1992; Laubscher, 1994).

Figure 9:

Following the explained methodology, the numerical

analysis of the drawzone widths was carried out for different
values of the angle of internal friction of the simulated
crashed rock, considering a medium of 50 m high. The
computed results are shown in Fig. 10. It is interesting to
observe that these results indicate that the higher the
frictional strength the narrower the drawzone, which agrees
with what has been observed in experiments with coarse
soils of different frictional strength. A normal value for the
angle of internal friction of a fragmented rock is around 43,
which according to these results it means a drawzone width
of 22 m, what is compatible with the general experience in
block caving mining operation.

Figure 11: Isolated draw point and level of interaction at

different distance of the draw points.

6 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 10: Variation of the drawzone width with the angle of
internal friction of the fractured rock: The well-established theory for a continuum in
conjunction with a simple model for coarse granular
materials have been implemented in the computer code
Flac 3D. The numerical model is able to work until the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 199

initiation of the flow. A simple load procedure to generate the finite element analysis of stresses and movements in soil
gravity flow has been implemented, so the initiation of the masses," Report No. UCB/GT /80-01. University of
granular flow can be reproduced. The obtained results are California, Berkeley.
in agreements with experimental evidences and field Douglas, P. (1984): "Physical modeling of the draw
observations. behavior of broken rock in caving," Colorado School of
It has been shown that the vertical stresses are Mines Quarterly, USA. Vol. 79, No. 1.
concentrated around the draw points, reaching values as Jambu, N. (1963): "Soil compressibility as determined by
high as two times the initial geostatic vertical stress. oedometer and triaxial tests," European Conference on
The numerical results indicate that the width of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Wiesbaden,
drawzone (zone of flow) is strongly affected by the frictional Vol. 1, pp. 19-25.
strength of the fragmented rock and it decreases as the Kvapil, R. (1965): "Gravity flow of granular materials in
friction strength increases. hoppers and bins," Int. J. Rock Mechanics and Mining
Beside, the results suggest that the critical distance, at Science, Parts I and II. Vol. 2.
which the interaction between two adjacent draw points is Kvapil, R. (1982): "The mechanics and design of sublevel
developed, can be approximated to 1.2 times the width of caving system," Underground Mining Methods Handbook,
the drawzone generated by a single draw point. W. Hustrulid ed., SME, New York.
Laubscher, D. (1994): "Cave mining-the state of the art,"
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy.
The authors want to thank the financial support provided Mansson, A. (1995): "Development of body of motion
by FONDEF under the grant No. 1037 that made this under controlled gravity flow of bulk solids," Licentiate
research possible. thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden.
Matsuoka, H. and Nakai, T. (1974): "Stress-deformation
REFERENCES and strength characteristics of soils under three different
principal stresses," Proceedings Japan Society of Civil
Chen, W. and Mizuno, E. (1990): "Nonlinear analysis in Engineers, No. 232, pp. 5970.
soil mechanics. Theory and implementation," Elsevier.
Duncan, J., Byrne, P., Wong, K. and Mabry, P. (1980):
"Strength, stress-strain and bulk modulus parameters for

200 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 PFC3D modelling of flow
behaviour in sublevel caving
Hkan Selldn, LKAB, Matthew Pierce, Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.

Abstract
The behavior of sublevel caving is commonly evaluated with a dilution entry curve, where the proportions of ore and
waste rock are shown against extraction ratio. Such curves are obtained from both field and models. There is however
normally a large discrepancy between field and model curves. This is believed to be caused by the uniform mechanical
properties of the model material and the non-uniform properties of the actual rock.
Field dilution entry curves and observations have inspired a number of hypotheses on flow behavior. One hypothesis
has been modeled numerically using PFC3D. Three different uniform materials have been used, one waste and two ore
materials. The material around and between blast holes is believed to be highly fragmented and is modeled with particles
that have smaller size and lower friction than the ore between the ring plane and waste and remaining ore from earlier
rings. This second type of ore is believed to be fragmented but has not been allowed to move apart due to the limited
swell volume. It is modeled by coarser particles with higher friction and bonding between them to mimic the interlocking
among the not separated pieces. The bonding is zero next to the brow and increases to the top of the ring.
After partial draw from the model ring, a void between coarse ore and the still solid ore is observed in the model. The
dilution entry curve from the model displays a "pulsation" from alternating draw of ore and waste. Two types of hang-ups
are observed: 1. The coarse ore remains in its original position and arches over the sides of the ring. 2. Assemblies of
bonded coarse ore detach from the main assembly and hangs up at the brow. The first type of hang-up results in the
formation of voids behind the coarse ore. Both types of hang-ups allow waste to come to the draw point.
The model dilution entry curve resembles those obtained from the field. Particularly interesting is the characteristic
pulsation. The formation of "boulders" in the model looks like what can be observed in the field. The hypothesis is not
proven, but has been reinforced.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1: Key data for the curves in Figure 1.

Sub level caving (SLC) is a mining method that causes Dilution entry Dilution at 110 %
extensive mixing of ore and waste rock. The dilution of at % extraction extraction
waste rock into the ore resulting in a crude ore with
considerably lower and fluctuating grade is one of the
Poor 42 44
challenges when employing this method. When the dilution
becomes excessively high at the end of the drawing of a Acceptable 48 36
ring, it is no longer profitable to mine this ore and the still Good 51 27
remaining ore has to be left as an ore loss.
A means of describing and evaluating SLC is to draw a
Dilution Entrycurve, which typically shows cumulative
dilution as a function of extraction. The extraction at which
the first waste rock appears in the draw point is the Dilution
Entry Point. This point is a measure of the amount of
undiluted ore that has been drawn. In a case of different
types of ore, the degree of mixing between these may also
be inferred.
The final dilution, when draw is terminated, is of more
interest since it is commonly used as cut-off together with
extraction ratio and has economical implications.
Dilution, recovery and extraction are mathematically tied
together and can not be used individually to evaluate
performance.
In the rather sparse literature on SLC, there are a few
dilution entry curves published. Kvapil (1982) gives a set of
curves exemplifying good, acceptable and poor extraction
(see Figure 1). It is not stated whether the curves are based
on model or field data. However, an abundance of physical
model data was available at the time when the graph was
first published, while field data was minimal.
The dilution entry points are interpreted to be at the values
given in Table 1. Figure 1: Dilution entry curve interpreted from Kvapil (1982).

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 201

 Both 36% and 44% dilution appears to be high for a long hang up. Figure 6 indicates where this picture was taken
term average, but individual rings can reach those numbers. from.
Today, large amounts of field dilution entry curves are Quite unexpectedly, it shows a gap between the blast hole
available from dilution estimation by bucket weighing. line at the brow and the ore. This ore does reportedly
At Kiruna Mine, an on board weighing system records the appear to be solid, but it is believed to unravel into rather
weight of each bucket. Since the density of magnetite ore is well fragmented rock if and when it is brought into motion.
4.6 ton/m3 and 2.7 ton/m3 for waste, the mix of waste and There are other observations of a gap made from above, but
ore will influence the total weight. Thus the dilution can be pictures showing this are not available.
estimated.
The relevance of this estimate has been evaluated by
comparison with sampling data and has shown good
agreement according to Quinteiro et al. (2001).
The variation from bucket to bucket is however so large
that trends cannot be easily detected. Apart from dilution,
the weight of the bucket contents is influenced by filling,
packing and water. It is believed that these factors have a
more random nature, while there is a trend of increasing
dilution from beginning to end of ring draw.
For presentation a 10-bucket moving average is used and
an example of such a curve is shown in Figure 2. This
particular curve shows dilution in the first 10 buckets, which
is not common but the dilution entry rarely occurs later than
20%.
In Figure 2 a large variation can still be seen despite the
moving average. Since rushes of waste or ore are normally
observed during the draw of a ring, it is believed that these
are reflected in the curve. This phenomenon is commonly
called pulsation.

Figure 3: Illustration of Larssons hypothesis for the

pulsation phenomenon from Hustrulid (2000).

Figure 2: Field dilution entry curve.

Hustrulid has described this phenomenon and a

hypothesis for its causes in Hustrulid (2000).
According to Larsson, the reason for pulsation is the poor
mobility of the blasted ore, which is a result of the insufficient
swell volume. The only swell volume considered is that of
the cross cut, which only gives a swell volume of 5% of the
blasted ring (see Figures 3 and4). It is stated that: "A small
amount may be available through compaction of the caved
rock and in flow channels. For the purpose of this
discussion, this potential source of additional swell volume
will be neglected."
An attempt to model this pulsation is the scope of this
paper. There are however no observations reported
showing the situation in Figure 3, since the presence of
broken rock in the drawpoint normally makes it impossible
to see. In the case of a large hang up it is possible to see Figure 4: Difference in available swell volume and swell in
what is hung up. The picture in Figure 5 is taken of such a large scale and small scale sub level caving.

202 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 5: Picture taken from below showing an open gap
between the blast hole plane and a combination of frozen
ore and compacted waste in previous gaps. The (broken)
brow is the brighter material in the far right of the picture.

Figure 7: Interpretation of observations in the field.

2 MODEL DESIGN

The Particle Flow Code in 3 Dimensions (PFC3D)

developed by Itasca Consulting Group Inc. Itasca (2003)
has been used for the numerical modeling.
Four different models with a similar basic geometry have
been run in this study. The dimensions of the sub level
caving used during the SLC 2000 research project,
Quinteiro et al. (2001), at Kiruna mine were modeled
because of the wealth of records available. Thus the sub
level height was 27.5 m, the x-cut pacing was 24.75 m and
the x-cut size was 7 by 5 m, reduced to 6.28 by 4.25 due to
the ring geometry. The side holes were inclined 60o from
horizontal. The ring is tilted 80o from horizontal to the
hanging wall.
In the model there are three materials present: Fine ore,
coarse ore and waste rock. In order to create disturbed flow
as observed, the ore to be "frozen" was first modeled with
larger size particles and higher surface friction according to
Table 2.

Figure 6: Vertical cross section showing x-cut and Table 2: Basic model particle properties.
incompletely blasted rings. Long arrow indicates camera
direction in Figure 5 Fine ore Coarse ore Waste

Eq. Radius (m) 0,25 0,5 0,4

It was decided to also try to model this gap together with Friction coeff. 0,4 2,0 0,4
a temporarily frozen ore ring as shown in Figure 7. Density (ton/m3) 4,5 4,5 2,7
Gravity flow of a free flowing material has been
modeled in physical models by a number of researchers Zone thickn. (m) 1,0 2,0 -
since the late 1950s. This is believed to be the first
attempt to model disturbed flow numerically using a The relative positions of the different particle types are
mechanistic approach. shown in an overview in Figure 8 and in detail in Figure 9.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 203

 The particles are two-ball clumps where two spheres
are solidly connected so that they obtain an aspect ratio
of 1.5:1. This is done in order to achieve a more realistic
bulk friction then is obtained with only spheres.
Furthermore, a number of different, more elaborate
clump configurations were tested, without any significant
change in bulk friction.
The radius of the two balls is adjusted so that the clump
volume is equal to that of a single ball with the given
radius. In order to control total number of particles in the
models, no size distribution within each material type has
been used.
All walls were originally made of single balls with radius
0.3 m and with the same properties as waste rock. In the
two last model runs the ball wall at the ring face was
replaced by a planar wall with a friction coefficient of 0.4. As
will be described and discussed in detail later, all models
showed a pulsation behavior but only the last model
displayed "frozen" ore. This resulted from the introduction of
the planar wall as well as the bonding between coarse
particles.

Figure 9: A close up of Figure 8.

The characteristics of the four model runs are given in

Table 3 below. The Larsson hypothesis assumes good
mobility in the lower part of the ring while the swell volume
is insufficient in the upper part of the ring causing the
"freezing". Therefore it was decided to use a variable bond
strength starting with zero at the brow and increasing it to a
maximum at the top of the ring.
As reference, a model run with free, undisturbed flow was
made with only one size of ore with the same surface friction
and no bond strength, called "single size" in Table 3.

Table 3: Differences in key parameters

between the four model runs.

Parameter/ Fine/ Coarse ore Max. bond

Model coarse size friction strength (MPa)
Single size 0,4 0,4 0
Two size 0,25/0,4 2,0 0
Low bond 0,25/0,4 2,0 3,0
High bond 0,25/0,4 2,0 6,0

Before a run can start, the model has to be built and

allowed to come to rest. First the walls are created and the
model is filled with balls. Then the balls are brought to rest
with gravity and surface friction. The balls are then
converted to the two-ball clumps described above and
allowed to come to rest again.
Before draw can start, first the waste is allowed to rill out
while the ore is kept in place by a horizontal wall. Then this
last wall is removed and the ore can rill out on top of the
waste.
Figure 8: Cross section of PFC3D model. The two different Draw is done with the aid of an invisible, vertical wall 1 m
types of ore, coarse and fine, are seen next to the blast hole outside the brow. Every particle center that passes this wall
plane. All other particles in the model are waste rock. is deleted and added to a list according to its type and

204 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

volume. After trying to model the actual digging this method colors to emphasize certain aspects. Unfortunately, they
was tested and was found to give no significantly different had to be converted to gray scale for this paper. As shown
result, but gives definite computational advantages. in the figures the waste is colored in layers with the
Each run was ended when a volume larger than 120% of thickness of one third of the sub level height. The top of the
the total volume of ore particles initially placed in the model third layer from the bottom is at the sub level above the one
had been drawn. 120 % extraction of volume is less when being modelled. The face of the next ring to be fired is a ball
applied to the heavy iron ore (4.5 ton/m3) and calculated per wall and looks like a string of balls inclined 80o from
volume. horizontal.
A special scheme was developed to take care of hang- In Figure 10 there is a horizontal line 20 m above the sub
ups, which did occur quite frequently during the runs. The level. This is also the height at which the side holes from two
maximum velocity of all particles was checked every one adjacent cross cuts meet. The top views in Figure 14 -
thousand calculation steps and when it was below 10-10 Figure 17 are looking down through this plane. The left hand
m/s, the model was regarded as hung up. side of these plots represents a plane of symmetry.
In order to mimic reality an extra dig was made by The extraction zone was divided into four sub zones
temporarily moving the invisible dig limit wall in steps of 0.5 containing 25% of the extracted rock as indicated in Figures
m starting 0.5 m inside the brow. The draw height was also 10-13.
limited to steps of 2.0 m. Clumps extracted in a hang up dig
were also recorded in separate list.
During the execution of a run 6 different views were saved
as JPEG files. These were a longitudinal, a transversal and
a perspective view together with a magnified version of
each. This save was done every 3000 calculation steps.
The saved images could be viewed in a sequence with
just a short delay between them thus giving the impression
of a movie. Sequences of images were converted into a
movie in AVI format and GIF movie format.
One important method for evaluation of the performance
of gravity flow is to find the shape of the extraction zone,
also known as ellipsoid of extraction or draw ellipse. This is
the imaginary body obtained when the original positions of
the extracted particles are mapped. The extraction zone is
of interest both to see the origin of the waste drawn and
what part of the ore is left behind.
Here the positions prior to "blasting" are used as the
original positions. The extracted particles are recolored
according to the interval of draw percentage in which it was
extracted. A sample of a resulting extraction zone is shown
in Figure 10.
Since every particle is recorded when it is drawn and in
the order they are drawn, it is possible to present dilution
entry curves similar to those obtained from bucket weighing.
Such curves have been produced showing a 10 bucket
moving average (100 particles) and cumulative dilution
together with vertical hang up indicator lines, all as a
function of extraction.
The models are all assuming pure, iron free waste behind
the blasted ore in the ring. That would normally be an
exception, as this ring is leaving a remainder, it is to be
expected that there is also a remainder from the previous
ring. Compared to a real ring, the results from the PFC3D
runs would exhibit excessive dilution.
It is possible to take the remainder from the immediately
previous ring into consideration under certain assumptions.
The coordinates of the remaining ore particles after
completed draw are put in a separate file. Then they are
moved horizontally 3 m (=burden) and combined with a file
containing the original particle positions. The waste particles
closest to the new positions are reassigned as ore and a
new list containing more ore particles was obtained.
This new list containing recovered remainder was used to
draw new dilution entry curves.

3 RESULTS

In the following pages the extraction of the four models

are show. First the vertical sections showing the height and Figure 10: Vertical section of extraction zone at center of a
depth of draw are given in Figure 10 - Figure 13. All images ring. Single size model. The horizontal line is showing the
originating from the PFC3D program were created using height of the top view planes in Figure 14-Figure 17.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 205

Figure 11: Vertical section of extraction zone at center of a Figure 12: Vertical section of extraction zone at center of a
ring. Two size model. ring. Low bond model.

206 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 14: Top view of extraction zone 20 m above sub level.
Single size model. The center symmetry line is at the left
hand side and the face of next ring is at the bottom. The
draw point is at the lower left and the remaining ore is at the
lower right.

Figure 13: Vertical section of extraction zone at center of a

ring. High bond model.

Figure 15: Top view of extraction zone 20 m above sub level.

Two size model.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 207

 Figure 18: Single size model Dilution entry curve.

Figure 16: Top view of extraction zone 20 m above sub level.

Low bond model.

Figure 19: Two size model Dilution entry curve.

Figure 17: Top view of extraction zone 20 m above sub level.

High bond model.

208 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 20: Low bond model Dilution entry curve. Figure 22: Single size model Dilution entry curve including
remainder from previous ring.

Figure 21: High bond model Dilution entry curve. Figure 23: Two size model Dilution entry curve including
remainder from previous ring.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 209

Figure 24: Low bond model Dilution entry curve including
remainder from previous ring.

Figure 26: Vertical section of ore remainder at center of a

ring. Single size model.

Figure 25: High bond model Dilution entry curve including

remainder from previous ring.

210 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 27: Vertical section of ore remainder at center of a Figure 28: Vertical section of ore remainder at center of a
ring. Two size model. ring. Low bond model.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 211

Figure 29: Vertical section of ore remainder at center of a Figure 30: Vertical section of high bond model. The section
ring. High bond model. thickness is just over one coarse ore particle size thick. A
gap within the fine ore is visible between the sub level above
and the lower end of the "frozen" ore.

212 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The gap between frozen ore and the hypothetical fine,
mobile ore near the blast hole plane has been successfully
The validity of a model with clumped spherical particles is modeled in the high bond model. It is however only visible in
obviously a subject for discussions. The real world has a thin vertical section, as shown in Figure 30. There the gap
however proven to be very difficult to measure. In addition, is quite obvious. In the picture from a hung up draw point in
the sparse field results available commonly deviate Figure 5, the gap is visible because the ore is "frozen" over
considerably from free flow model results. a number of rings. A large void makes it possible (but not
This scope of the work presented here was to shed some safe) to enter and observe the gap from below. In the model
light on disturbed flow. There is however some observations only one ring is "frozen" and the waste can flow in and
from these model runs that do resemble results from the prevent a void from being formed.
field. In the model, the fine, mobile ore from the side of the ring
It was decided to use the particle positions prior to can be seen flowing towards the center and the draw point.
blasting as the basis for extraction zone analysis. This is This will help keep the volume directly beneath the "frozen"
close to the situation at field marker tests, but slightly ore more or less filled with rock and to some extent support
different from a physical model. "frozen" ore.
When looking at the vertical sections and top views of the This is not evidence for the existence of such a gap and
extraction zones from the different models, obvious the means for creating a "frozen" ore by bonding is hard to
differences are seen. The trend is a lower, wider but connect to experience from blasting research. However, it
shallower zone for the first three steps of increasing has been possible to obtain simulation results that resemble
disturbance. The most disturbed high bond model zone field observations.
follows this trend, except for depth where it is by far the A situation where there is only pure waste, as in the
deepest. The loss of height has to be compensated by depth models reported here, is very rare. In order to study the
in this case. influence of an ore remainder a procedure described at the
The dilution entry curves also exhibit significant end of Section 2 was used.
differences between the models. It is however not obvious In Figure 26 - Figure 29 the remainder is seen at the
how to connect the curves to the features of the different center of the ring. The undrawn ore seen above the
models. The curves do bear a resemblance with the sample extraction zone in Figure 10 - Figure 13 has moved
field curve in Figure 2. downwards and is spread thinly along the face.
The curves presented by Kvapil and reinterpreted in The new dilution entry curves in Figure 22 - Figure 25 also
Figure 1 are very different form both the field and model resemble the field curve in Figure 2, but the dilution appears
curves. If these originate from physical model tests, one to be generally lower than when remainder is disregarded.
reason could be poor resolution due to widely spaced Any other result would have been surprising.
markers. Another possible explanation would be a fine The surprise comes when studying Table 5. There is no
material, not as prone to hang-ups as the rather coarse significant difference between the four different models. The
PFC3D material. first conclusion could have been that it does not matter how
When summarizing dilution entries in Table 4, it may at disturbed the flow is, the final result is still the same, dilution
first be surprising to see the more disturbed models yield a around 20% and 80% recovery.
slightly lower dilution entry than the less disturbed. An
explanation for this could be that the less mobile coarse ore
allows the more mobile fine ore to flow more freely, thus Table 5: Key parameter values from model runs
delaying waste entry. including the effect of an identical remainder.

at 25% dil.
Extraction
Parameter/
Dilution at

Recovery
100% extr

at 100%
Table 4: Key parameter values from model runs. Model
Dilution at

at 25% dil.
Extraction
100% extr

Recovery

Hang ups

Parameter/
at 100%

Dilution
entry

Model Single size 23 77 >100

Two size 22 78 >100
Low bond 19 81 >100
Single size 34 66 1,3 61 25
High bond 19 81 >100
Two size34 66 1,1 62 32
Low bond 32 68 3,4 69 34
High bond 47 53 6,1 55 40 The inherent assumption made that the remaining
"frozen" ore becomes as mobile and free flowing as the
Pulsation is clearly seen in all dilution entry curves and at waste rock after blasting the next ring must however be kept
the beginning of draw they appear to be connected to the in mind. The picture in Figure 5 explained in Figure 6 shows
release of hang-ups. As draw progresses this cannot be that this assumption was not valid in that case.
seen anymore. No obvious differences in pulsation can be The results do raise that question of how to assess the
seen between undisturbed and different degrees of success of a certain blast from dilution and extraction of that
disturbed flow. The conclusion would be that the pulsation is ring. The final result of drawing a very disturbed ring after an
not solely caused by the release of ore by caving from the equally disturbed ring, where the remainder had turned free
"frozen" ore. This occurrence may however be detected in a flowing, appeared to be as good as that from drawing a two
dilution entry curve and is possibly seen in Figure 21 as a free flowing rings in succession.
dramatic drop in dilution from over 40% down to 0% around The conclusions from this work were:
25% extraction. Different degrees of disturbed flow could be modeled
Due to the fact that pulsation is observed even in models numerically using PFC3D.
with no difference in mobility between the ore and waste, the Dilution entry curves obtained from these numerical
Larsson hypothesis for the pulsation phenomenon as models resemble those from field, while curves presented
described by Hustrulid in Figure 3 is not fully supported by in literature are quite different.
the model runs reported here. Pulsation was modeled successfully.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 213

 Pulsation is not solely caused by insufficiently fragmented Caving. Underground Mining Methods: Engineering
ore that caves slower than the draw rate. Fundamentals and International Case Studies, (Ed: W A
A gap between the ring plane and the "frozen" ore, as Hustrulid and R L Bullock), 381-384. SME: Littleton, CO.
observed in the field, could be modeled using a high level Kvapil, R, 1982. The Mechanics and Design of Sublevel
of bonding. Caving Systems. Underground Mining Methods
A simplified approach to incorporating the effect of Handbook (Ed: W A Hustrulid), 880-897. SME: New York.
remaining ore from the previous ring showed no Itasca Consulting Group, 2003. PFC3D, Particle Flow
difference in the final extraction and recovery between a Code in 3 Dimensions. Users Guide. Itasca Consulting
disturbed and a free flowing ring, when modeled. Group: Minneapolis, MN
Hustrulid, W A, 2000. Method Selection for Large-Scale
REFERENCES Underground Mining. Proceedings MassMin 2000, 29-56.
AusIMM: Brisbane, Qld
Quinteiro, C R, Larsson, L, and Hustrulid, W A., 2001.
Theory and Practice of Very-Large-Scale Sublevel

214 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Investigation of swell factor
in a block cave draw column
Gabriel S. Esterhuizen, SRK Consulting, Denver, Colorado, USA
Lufi Rachmad, P.T. Freeport Indonesia, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Alexander V. Potapov, Lawrence K. Nordell, Conveyor Dynamics Inc., Bellingham, Washington, USA

Abstract
Knowledge of the swell factor in a block cave mine draw column is important to predict the height of caving for a given
amount of material drawn. The swell factor depends on several parameters including the rock block geometry, the rate
of breakage of blocks in the draw column and the size distribution of the blocks. This paper presents the results of
numerical model analyses using discrete element method (DEM) software to investigate the initial and ultimate swell
factor values in a draw column. Three rock types with different block geometries and rock strengths are considered. The
results show how the height of the draw column, the rock strength and the tons drawn affect the swell factor. The DEM
method is shown to be highly appropriate for modeling the breakage and draw of irregular fragments in a draw column.

1 INTRODUCTION composite particles are brittle-elastic and are able to fail

according to the principles of fracture mechanics. It was
Block caving is currently practiced in one major orebody shown that composite particles constructed this way have
at P.T. Freeport Indonesia while open pit operations are in predictable elastic and breakage properties that depend on
progress in a second. Planning is currently underway to the properties of the microscopic particle contacts. The
extend both underground and surface operations. The code has been widely used to simulate the failure processes
potential for interaction between underground caving, in milling and crushing applications, such as AG and SAG
surface operations and surface infrastructure is recognized. mills and crushers (Nordell and Potapov (2001)). The code
The height of caving above an operating block cave is a powerful tool to improve our understanding of the
depends on the amount of material withdrawn and the swell complex processes in a block caving draw column.
factor of the broken rock. Caving is inhibited when the void The 2D-DEM models were set up to simulate rocks in a
space created by drawpoint production is occupied by single draw bell and the overlying draw column, shown in
broken rock. Knowledge of the swell factor of the rock in a Figure 1. Appropriate input parameters were selected for the
draw column is necessary to predict the likely height of DEM software to model the rock strengths of the three
caving. selected rock types.
This paper presents the results of a study that was carried
out using a Discrete Element Method (DEM) program
developed by Conveyor Dynamics Inc. (CDI). The objective
was to gain a better understanding of the changes in the
swell factor in a draw column for three different rock types
that occur in the Deep Ore Zone block cave of PT Freeport
Indonesia (Barber, Thomas and Casten, 2000). The project
also had the objective to evaluate the applicability of the
DEM program as a tool for block cave analysis.

2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The recent development of advanced DEM codes has

made it possible to model the breakage and flow processes
of large numbers of particles in a draw column, allowing
changes in the swell factor to be studied.
The analyses were carried out by first calculating the rock
fragment sizes from the rock mass data using the BCF
program (Esterhuizen, 2003). This program makes use of
the rock strength, rock joint orientation and spacing and the
rock stress to calculate the size and shape of rock blocks in Figure 1. Vertical section showing blocks at start of draw
a rock mass. About 5,000 fully three-dimensional blocks of and addition of block to top of draw column
each rock type were used to provide input dimensions to the
DEM simulations. The figure shows a single draw bell model. The two
The University of Southern California and CDI developed vertical boundaries of the model are periodic boundaries,
DEM code (Potapov, Hopkins and Campbell (1995), Nordell effectively simulating infinite numbers of identical draw
and Potapov (2000)) allows up to one million particles to be columns positioned next to each other. The resultant is that
simulated. The particles to be simulated are composed of "mass draw" of the rock particles occur, rather than isolated
elementary DEM particles that are "glued" together. The draw. One consequence of mass draw is that all the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 215

particles move downwards at approximately the same assumed to contain similar joint sets as observed in the
velocity. Under mass draw conditions, less breakage will skarn.
occur because there is little differential movement and
interaction between the rock particles. The rock mass properties were based on cell mapping,
Initially the model simulates the broken rock just after core logging and laboratory test results which formed part of
completion of the undercut. After the rock is drawn down by the routine mine design activities.
5m an additional 10m of broken rock is added to the top of
the draw column to simulate caving, also shown in Figure 1. 5 CALCULATION OF PRIMARY BLOCK DIMENSIONS
This procedure was repeated until the column height
reached 150m. The effect of the increased height of draw The dimensions of the rock fragments at the top of a draw
column is to increase the pressure in the column, which column were calculated using BCF. The BCF runs were set
enhances breakage of the rock in the column and reduces up to simulate the DOZ cave and the stresses that may be
the void ratio of the broken rock. expected to exist in the horizontal cave back. The 3D blocks
During draw of the rocks, the model also experienced generated by BCF were converted to 2D blocks by writing
hangups at the drawpoint, just as one would expect in the dimensions of each face of the blocks to a file, the block
reality. An algorithm was developed to bring down the face with the smallest area which also contains the longest
hangups in the model by "blasting" the three largest blocks block edge was selected as representing the block in two
in the drawpoint area. The algorithm worked successfully dimensions. This face was selected because it would
and the model was able to run without manual interruption. represent the least resistance to breakage in the draw
Statistics of the void ratio in the draw column, the size column (it is the most slender face of the block). The
distribution of extracted rocks and number of hangups were cumulative size distributions of the blocks generated by
obtained at different stages of the model. BCF are shown in Figure 2.

3 DEFINITIONS OF QUANTITIES

This paper refers to the following quantities:

Vv
Swell Factor = (1)
Vv

Vv
Solid Fraction = (2)
Vv + Vv

Where Vv is the volume of voids and Vr is the volume of

rock. The swell factor is expressed as a percentage. A swell
factor of 30% implies that 1m3 of intact rock, when broken
into smaller fragments, will swell to fill a volume of 1.3m3.
Since the results were obtained using two-dimensional
models, the 3D swell factor was calculated from the 2D Figure 2: Cumulative size distribution by volume of diorite
swell factor, by assuming the solid fraction will be the same and skarn/breccia primary rock fragments created by the
in all directions. The 3D solid fraction F3D was calculated as BCF program.
follows:

6 DEM MODEL RESULTS

F3D = F2D x F2D (3)
Figure 3 shows plots of the 150m high draw column at the
end of the draw sequence for the diorite, breccia and skarn
respectively. The obvious difference between the weak
Where F2D is the 2D solid fraction. breccia rocks and the stronger diorite and skarn is clearly
seen. In the breccia plot it can be seen that the blocks are
4 ROCK MASS PROPERTIES relatively finely broken right up to the top of the draw
column. This breakage mainly occurs on impact when the
The properties of the three rock types selected for fragments are dropped onto the top of the draw column. The
analysis were as follows: diorite and skarn rocks also fractured on impact, but to a far
Diorite: a strong rock type and is expected to fragment lesser extent.
into larger blocks than the remainder of the ore-body. The During the analyses it was found that large gaps might
average Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) is 111 exist in the draw column near the draw points, owing to
MPa. Three joint sets were identified in the diorite with differential movement of the rock fragments. To exclude
joint spacings varying between 0.45m and 0.54m these gaps from the results, the solid fraction was only
Skarn: represents the Forsterite and Magnetite rock types calculated above a point that is 30m above the floor of the
in the ore body has an average UCS of 77 MPa. These draw bell. Gaps in the unconsolidated rocks near the top of
rocks are weaker than the Diorite and contain more the draw column were also excluded from the results.
frequent joints. Three joint sets were identified within the The swell factor results for diorite at different stages of
skarn rocks with average spacings of 0.32m to 1.16m. draw are presented in Figure 4. It can be seen that at the
Breccia, a weak rock found in irregular shapes within the start of draw the swell factor is relatively large, and remains
skarn portion of the DOZ orebody with an average UCS of at a relatively high value near the draw bell. As the tonnage
22 MPa. Since the breccia lies within the skarn, it was drawn increases, the swell factor decreases in the central

216 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

part of the draw column, but remains relatively high near the factor then decreases as the tonnage drawn increases, and
top of the column. The changes in the swell factor are the the column becomes taller.
result of breakage in the column and improved packing of For ease of interpretation, the swell factor results were
the fragments as they move down the column. further grouped according to the position in the draw
The smoothed swell factor results, as at the end of the column, as follows:
draw simulations, is shown in Figure 5 for all three rock a) Bell zone: The swell factor is averaged between 30m and
types. The swell factor is seen to be related to the rock 50m above the draw bell to provide an average value for
strength, with the stronger diorite having a higher swell the higher swell factors in this area.
factor than the skarn and the weak breccia. The existence b) Main zone: Average swell factor in the densely packed
of a densely packed "main zone" in the draw columns can central part of the draw column.
also be seen. c) Upper zone: The average swell factor in the upper 30 to
The average swell factor in the draw column at different 50m of the draw column, associated with loosely packed
stages of draw is shown in Figure 6. This chart shows how and less broken rock fragments.
the swell factor is initially large, owing to the effect of the
draw point and the absence of cave pressure on the shorter The results of this zoning of the swell factors is presented
draw column at the early stages of draw. The average swell in Figure 7, where it can be seen that three distinct swell

Figure 3: Plots of the draw columns at the end of the draw sequence when the column height is 150m, showing diorite,
breccia and skarn rock types from left to right.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 217

factor values are applicable in a draw column. The height of breccia. In a mature draw column, the swell factor remains
the upper zone seems to be related to the strength of the relatively high in the drawpoint area and towards the top of
rocks. For example, the diorite swell factor starts to increase the column, where limited breakage has taken place.
from approximately the 80m mark, while the skarn and
breccia swell factors start increasing at the 100m mark.
These results are useful for calculating the swell factor
and estimating the height of caving for the different rock
types. One aspect that must be noted is that the draw in
these models represents a "mass draw" condition, in which
an array of drawpoints are all drawing at the same rate. The
effects of differential rates of draw, which will promote
breakage in the column, were not simulated. Other effects,
related to the two-dimensional models may also influence
the results. However, these results provide a unique insight
into the flow, breakage and swell factor of a block cave draw
column.

Figure 6: Average swell factor in the draw column at different

stages of draw

Figure 4: Swell factor variation for diorite rocks at different

stages of draw

Figure 7: Average swell factor in different zones of the draw

column

The results indicate that the draw column may be divided

in three zones:
The drawpoint zone, with swell factors in the region of 28-
30% for stronger rock types and 24% for the low strength
breccia. This zone extends from the floor of the drawpoint to
a height of about 50m.
The main zone where the swell factor remains constant at
25-26% for the stronger rock types and 21% for the weak
Figure 5: Smoothed swell factor at end of simulation for breccia.
three rock types The upper zone where the swell factor increases to 28-
29% because of a lack of breakage. The height of the upper
zone is not well defined in the models but appears to be
7 CONCLUSIONS about 30m-50m high.
The study has shown that the discrete element method
The DEM model results show that the swell factor of (DEM) is capable of producing realistic simulations of the
caved rocks at the top of a draw column may initially be breakage processes in a block cave draw column. The
high, in the order of 40%. When secondary breakage occurs simulation outputs are very useful for gaining a better insight
in the draw column, the swell factor gradually decreases. into the processes of breakage and comminution in a draw
Swell factors in the draw column reduce to about 25-26% for column. Further analysis and testing will be required to
the stronger rocks and may be as low as 21% for the weaker further exploit this tool for block cave mine design.

218 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

8 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS Nordell, L.K., and Potapov, A.V., 2001. Comminution
Simulation Using Discrete Element Method (DEM)
The authors wish to acknowledge the management of P.T. Approach - From Single Particle Breakage to Full-Scale
Freeport Indonesia for permission to publish these results. SAG Mill Operation. SAG Annual Convention, Vancouver,
BC September-October, 2001.
REFERENCES Potapov, A.V., Hopkins, M.A. & Campbell, C.S., 1995. A
two-dimensional dynamic simulation of solid fracture. Part
Barber, J., Thomas L., and Casten T., 2000. Freeport I: description of the model. Int. J. Mod. Phys. C, 6, 371-
Indonesias Deep Ore Zone Mine. Proceedings Massmin 398.
2000, Aust. Inst. Mining & Metallurgy, 289-294.
Esterhuizen G.S., Block Cave Fragmentation (BCF),
Users Manual, 2003.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 219

 Study of interaction between ellipses
of extraction in a physical model
of granular material in 2-D
Vctor Encina, Claudio Fuentes, Matas Palma
Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A., IM2, Santiago Chile

Abstract
Interaction between draw points is one of the keys for Caving Methods performance due to its direct relation with ore
recovery. Many studies and experimental observations have been performed to describe it, but few of them have
intended to explain the physical mechanism governing it.
This paper presents a hypothesis to explain the mechanism of interaction based on experiments made in a 2D-sand
model. Interaction is the movement of columns generated between draw zones due to gravity flow of granular material.
Experimental work confirmed that there is a critical draw point distance to get interaction and shows the ellipsoidal shape
of isolate draw zone during the initial steps of draw.
Movement in the column occurs simultaneously as a compression effect in the bottom and a vertical displacement in the
top, also, the upper part both over the draw zones and column, moves as a "stretch" of the material that causes a junction
of draw zones.

1 INTRODUCTION to a series of tests carried out at a fixed distance between

drawpoints.
Several authors have described the fact that some ore The 2-D physical model consists of three parts as follows:
coming from the columns of material between draw zones Part I: Vertical frame with two transparent glasses of
can be drawn trough drawpoints when its distance is less 30x70 cm, acting as a container of sand material and as an
than 1.5 times the isolated draw zone diameter, which is observation window. Container thickness is 1 cm.
called drawpoints interaction. This research looks for an Part II: Consist of a set of 29 vertical chambers or tubes
explanation about the physical mechanism governing such 0.5 cm diameter and 7 cm long. With two valves each, one
phenomenon. in the upper part and the other in the bottom part. The
A 2-D sand physical model was prepared to perform function of these chambers is receive a constant batch
several tests focused in record particles movement in volume of sand coming from Part I when the upper valve is
columns between draw zones. Many observations were open while the bottom one is closed, and in the opposite
registered and analyzed in order to get a detailed position of valves to stop the flow and to drain the material
description of the shape of sand particles displacement from to Part III.
the column to the draw zone. Part III: Similar as Part I, except that glasses are 30x50cm
The physical model is a thin frame with glassed flanks full 0.5 cm, in this case acting as a container to collect the
of colored sand. Sand was arranged with markers to allow material drained from Part II.
direct observation and to record digital images of the sand Granular material properties of sand used for the
particles at different steps of drawing under distinct experiments are as table 1.
experimental conditions.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the main results
of the research and its analysis to outline a hypothesis for Table 1: Material properties
the physical mechanism of interaction between drawpoints.
Testing of this hypothesis is no matter of this presentation Physical property Valvue
because it is part of following steps of this research.
Bulk density gr/cm3 1,5
Results suggest that material movement in the column
occurs simultaneously as a compression effect in the bottom Mass density gr/cm3 2,5
and a vertical displacement in the top, also, the upper part Refraction index 1,5 1,52
both over the draw zones and column, moves as a "stretch"
Compression resistence psi 14.000 a 36.000
of the material that causes a fusion of draw zones. Two or
more jointed draw zones continue joining among them until Hardness MOH 5_6
a unique central channel of flowing material is created. This Hardness Knoop 100g load 515 kg/mm
effect was named "Broom Effect" due to its appearance.
Static friction coefficient 0,9 - 1,0
2 EXPERIMENT SETUP

The experiment consists of a series of tests at different Particle size distribution was as Figure 1, so
conditions to study the behavior of sand located over and intermolecular forces were discarded since 80% of material
between five drawpoints. Following description corresponds is larger than 120 microns.

220 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Considering the drain chambers diameter, a large relation The extraction procedure consists of filling the draw
of draw opening versus particle size is obtained. chambers beginning from the central drawpoint towards the
extreme ones. When all of five draw chambers are full, a
opening _ size static image is taken to record the resultant movement of
= 40 particles.
particle _ size Then, draw chambers are emptied and the procedure is
repeated until the ellipses of movement get the surface.
Later, the evolution of the phenomenon is obtained from
To perform the experiment Part I was filled with sand analysis of images.
bands of different colors with the purpose of produce
enough contrast to facilitate the acquisition of digital images
as can be observed in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Experiment condition sketch.

The experiment stops when movement ellipsoids get the

surface because at that moment drastic change of local
Figure 1: Sand grains size distribution. conditions takes place. In effect, the new force distribution
causes a completely different shape of movement zones,
where ellipses become parabolic shape.

Figure 4: Variables description.

Following measures are got from image analysis as

showed in Figure 4:

Ellipse width: Movement zone width

Column width: Distance between adjacent movement
zones.
Displacement: Vertical displacement of layer markers
Compression: Vertical distance representing the layer
thickness
Figure 2: Part I, Sand and markers.
3 RESULTS
Experiment arrangement, as presented in Figure 3, was
set to draw five drawpoints spaced at 2 cm with extremes The batch extraction of all five drawpoints presents three
drawpoints 13cm apart from the edge of the frame as a way phases clearly distinguished as it is shown in the images of
to avoid any edge effect. Figure 6.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 221

 At the beginning (extraction 1 to 13), the movement zones Second phase, is the fusion phenomenon, where two or
are controlled by their own dynamic without interaction. more ellipsoids are jointed in their upper part as it is
Ellipse width grows with the extraction until it gets a described in Table 2.
maximum diameter as it is presented in Figure 5, where
each curve corresponds to a different high of measurement.
Also, it is observed that most of the ellipses get Table 2: Phenomenon Occurrence
approximately 1.6 cm width when they get the high of fusion
after extraction 13 to 15. So, considering that in this High Extraction
experiment drawpoints spacing is 2 cm, it can be said that cm Number
spacing is 1.25 times the maximum ellipse width.
Ellipses fusion First (1-2) 31 13
Second (3-4) 35 14
Third (3-4-5) 36 15
Broom Effect 46 16

During the fusion of two or more ellipses, a piston flow like

is observed in the upper part of the junction, where the
particles both over the ellipse and in the column move down
as a compact layer.
In this experiment, first fusion, of ellipses 1 and 2 was
observed at extraction 13, second fusion took place at
extraction 14 joining ellipses 3 and 4 and the third fusion
joined ellipse 5 with the already joined 3 and 4 after
extraction 15.
Third phase is the junction of first and third fusions that took
place at extraction 16, after which, a unique flow channel is
created in the center of the movement zone. This effect was
Figure 5: Graph, Behavior of ellipsoids widths. Measures baptized "Broom Effect" because their appearance as it can be
took at height 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm. seen in the right picture of Figure 6.

Figure 6, Images of 7th, 15th and 20th extraction.

222 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 After measure both the width of ellipses and columns at a From graphs of displacement presented in figures 8 and
high near the fusion zone as it is showed in Figure 7, it is seen 9, it can be set that at bottom part of columns no
that columns width are stable in a range of 0.4 to 0.6 cm after displacement occurs until extraction 12, while in the upper
the 14th extraction, this width remains in the same range even part, displacement begun at extraction 8. Also in the upper
after 16th extraction when all ellipses have been joined in part, displacement is near twice than bottom part and the
presence of Broom effect. This means that there are not lateral greater displacements occur in columns 1 and 3 when the
movements of column particles going to draw zones. fusion of ellipsoids 1-2 and 3-4 respectively took place.
Compression measure is referred to layers thickness
decrease, in this experiment original thickness of both upper
and bottom controlled layers were 5 cm. Actual layer
thickness after each extraction are plotted in Figure 10
referred to bottom part and Figure 11 referred to upper part.
Since second to sixth extraction, compression progress
at bottom part of column is very clear, then, compression
remain quite stable until fusion starts to occur, specially after
broom effect (16th to 19th extraction) when layers thickness
decreases drastically.
On the contrary, at the upper part there is not
compression at all until 8th extraction. From then on, just
light compression can be observed before fusion process.
During extractions 12 to 14, fusions took place and light
layer "expansion" occurs until Broom effect appears at
extraction 16 when light compression is stable again.
Also it can be set from graphs of figures 9 and 10, that
there is not displacement at upper part of column until
Figure 7: Evolution of ellipsoids and columns width at 15 cm extraction 8 despite compression at bottom part reached 0.5
high. cm at extraction 5. After extraction 8, displacement in upper
part grows slowly until at extraction 12, its magnitude is
Displacement and compression were measured at upper equal to the compression magnitude at the bottom of the
and bottom part of columns at a high of 20 and 5 cm from column.
the base of the container respectively.

Figure 10: Columns compression measured at 0-5 cm

Figure 8: Graph, displacement of the columns vs. extraction interval of height.
measured at a height of 5 cm.

Figure 9: Graph, displacement of the columns vs. extraction Figure 11: Columns compression measured at 15-20 cm
measured at a height of 20 cm. interval of height.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 223

 From those observations, it can be set that on upper part 5 REFERENCES
of columns there are not lateral displacements of particles
and at bottom part takes place a compression process that R. Castro. 2001. Escalamiento para modelo fsico de flujo
move some particles from the column to the flow zone gravitacional. Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero
causing the so called interaction. Civil en Minas Universidad de Chile.
J. Ubilla. 2002. Flujo Gravitacional en medio granulares.
4 CONCLUSIONS Memoria para optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Civil en Minas
Universidad de Chile.
Results can be summarized as follows: Susaeta y H Daz. 2000. Estado del arte del
a) Columns are created between ellipses of movement in modelamiento de flujo gravitacional en minera por
the first step of drawing when they grow up. hundimiento por bloque. Revista minerales
b) At a certain critical high, ellipses fusion occurs joining Septiembre/Octubre. pg. 17-26.
their upper apexes. Rustan. 2000. Gravity flor of broken rock. What is known
c) When fusion process takes place, notable compression at and unknown, MassMin, The Australasian Institute of
column bottom occurs, while at column top, important Mining and Metallurgy, pg. 557-567.
displacement of the whole layer is observed without Mark E.Kuchta, 2002. A revised form the Bergmark-Roos
compression both in the column and ellipses. equation for describing the gravity flow of broken rock.
d) A process of fusion of already joined ellipses continues Mineral Resources Engineering. Vol. 11 pg. 349-360
until a unique flow channel is created in the center of the Imperial College Press.
movement zone to connect it to surface (Broom Effect). A.J. Waters and A. Drescher. 2000. Modeling plug flow in
bins/hoppers. Powder Technology 113 pg. 168-175.
Those results are presented in the sketch of Figure 12 H.M. Jaeger and Sidney R. Nagel. 1992. Physics of
that also represents the following hypothesis of interaction Granular State. 20 March Science, Vol. 255.
mechanism. Proposed block cave international test using the large
Interaction occurs when a fusion of ellipses occurs. In scale JKMRC Physical Model submitted to the ICS II.
such situation, column between ellipses looses its upper Executive Committee 17 April 2003.
part and some lateral forces stop its work of supporting the Dietmar Schulze. Fundamentals of bulk solids mechanics.
column. So, column bottom is compressed due its own http:www.dietmar-schulze.de/grdle1.html.
weight and material is pushed to the flow zone. Anders Mansson. 1995. Development of body of motion
under controlled gravity flow of bulk solids. Licentiate
thesis Lulea University Of Technology.
Tomas Karlsson. Finite Element simulation of flow in
granular materials. Research Report, Lulea University Of
Technology.
Li. Yeng. 1981. Analysis of bulk flow of material under
gravity caving process. Colorado School of Mines.
Hide Sakaguchi & Hans-Bernd Muhlhaus. 2002.
Simulation assisted evaluation of physical model test for
ore flow. Institute for Innovation in Mining & Metallurgy.
IM2.
T. William Lambe, R. V. Whitman, 1989. Mecnica de
suelos. Instituto Tecnolgico de Massachussets Editorial
Limusa.
R. Kvapil Sublevel caving, SME Minig Engineering
Handbook, Ed. H. L. Hartman, Chap 20,2, 1992, pp 1789-
1844, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
R. Sepulveda, J Rudloff. 1987. Anlisis del flujo
gravitacional y dilucin para el rea LHD de Teniente 4
Central. Memoria para optar al titulo de Ingeniero Civil de
Minas Universidad de Santiago de Chile.

Figure 12: Sketch of hypothesis of interaction in bottom

zone of the column.

224 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Full scale SLC draw trials
at Ridgeway Gold Mine
Gavin Power, Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Business Improvement, Newcrest Mining Ltd

Abstract
More than 30 full scale draw trials have been carried out at Ridgeway Gold Mine between 2001 and the present. These
draw trials, intended to improve business performance through an increased understanding of granular flow, have
yielded significant new information on behaviour of the SLC system at Ridgeway. This understanding has enabled the
mine to better forecast grade recovery, develop improved ring designs, and significantly cut the cost of mining.

1 INTRODUCTION

Ridgeway Gold Mine (Ridgeway), a part of Newcrest

Mining Limiteds Cadia Valley Operations, is located
approximately 20km south of Orange, some 250km west
of Sydney, Australia (Figure 1). The Ridgeway deposit is
a copper/gold porphyry, located at depths of between
600m and 1,300m. Current reserves at the mine are
38Mt at 2.32g/tAu and 0.72%Cu. It is mined using
sublevel caving (SLC), producing at 15,000 tpd. A
targeted success factor is maximizing ore recovery and
minimizing dilution. Feasibility predictions for life of mine
resource conversion were 102% tonnes for 94% metal at
a grade factor of 92%.

Figure 2: Section looking north showing ring geometry used

at Ridgeway

moving to adjacent drawpoints. The cycle is repeated until

the designated extraction is reached.
To assess the recovery effectiveness at Ridgeway, a
series of full scale field experiments commenced in 2001.
The aims of these experiments were:
Development of an understanding of the granular flow
mechanisms controlling dilution entry;
Assessment of the effectiveness of interactive draw
procedures;
Quantification of recovery and dilution in order to allow
better grade forecasting; and
Figure 1: Location of Cadia Valley Operations Development of improved ring design parameters.

Figure 2 shows the shape of a typical blast ring used at This paper reports the current findings from these
the mine. In order to promote interaction between draw experiments.
envelopes, pillar widths are designed to be as small as
possible without creating geotechnical difficulties (8m). 2 TRIAL PROCEDURES
Ring burdens of 2.6m are used and are dumped forward
by 10 to improve drawpoint and ring stability. The mine The design of the Ridgeway marker trials is based on
layout was established from the principles of interactive similar experiments carried out at Grngesberg and Kiruna
draw (Janelid 1974; Bull and Page, 2000). The aim is to Mines in Sweden. (Janelid, 1972; Gustafsson, 1998)
achieve interaction of the individual draw envelopes to allow Marker drill fans are drilled within the burden of an unfired
material at the sides of the ring to move more freely, reduce ring, and loaded with uniquely coded markers made of steel
hang-ups and increase width of the draw envelope. pipe. The markers are 250mm long to approximate the
Drawpoints on individual levels are retreated in a flat front. mean particle size of blasted rock (previously established by
Small tonnage cycles (typically approximately 15% per a fragmentation measurement program). Markers, filled
cycle) are extracted from individual drawpoints before with cement to increase durability, are installed using the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 225

mines production charging vehicle and grouted into place to Total recovery (% volume);
ensure that they do not move when nearby rings are fired. Recovery of each marker plane (% area);
Maximum width of draw;
Maximum depth of draw; and
Back-break (% volume).

Ring recoveries were interpreted by wire framing the

recovered marker plane sections and calculating the
resultant three-dimensional volumes.

3 TRIAL RESULTS

3.1 Primary recovery and dilution entry

The first trial, using a single marker ring, indicated that
material was flowing to the drawpoint through a narrower and
shallower zone than had been expected. After 120% draw, the
draw envelope was 11.9m at its widest point, and approximately
1.8m at its deepest (shallower than the 2.6m fired burden).
This first experiment indicated dilution was arriving at
the drawpoint after less than 20% draw of the design ring
tonnage. Interpretations indicated that volume of the draw
Figure 3: Marker being installed from production charging envelope was too small to have delivered the tonnages
vehicle. drawn from the drawpoint without dilution being present.
The origin of the dilution was identified as from the depleted
For the majority of the experiments each 2.6m burden drawpoint above. This interpretation was also supported by
contained three evenly spaced marker fans of 6 or 7 holes. the evidence of recovered shotcrete encased mesh and bell
The marker fan planes were spaced 650mm apart to allow wire used in the level above.
estimates of depth of the draw and back-break to be made. While early dilution entry had been recorded previously
Figure 4 shows a typical marker fan. Markers were placed elsewhere (Gustafsson, 1998; Hustrulid, 2000), it was
at one metre intervals along each hole in the fan allowing for hypothesized that this diluting material originated from in
redundancy. A total of approximately 300 markers were front of the fired ring rather than above it.
present in each of the marker rings fired. The initial trial results stimulated interest in further experiments.
Additional marker rings were installed and a number of drill and
blast parameters were varied in these trials, with the aims of
reducing drill and blast costs and increasing recovery. Whilst
these trials successfully validated reducing drill and blast costs
by 20%, they provided limited leverage on improving recovery
and dilution. Primary recovery (the percentage of the fired ring
recovered from the level on which it was fired) continued at 60%.
While this was lower than originally expected (based on empirical
dilution entry curves), the effect of ore recovery on lower levels
had not yet been quantified.
Figure 5 shows typical primary recovery results from a
draw marker trial. For this trial (as for the majority), two
marker rings were monitored side by side, and drawn
interactively as part of a panel of four adjacent rings.
Adjacent rings are staggered and this section represents a
plane 0.65m forward of the blast ring on the left (in XC0),
and 1.3m forward of the blast ring on the right (in XC2).

Figure 4: Section looking north showing typical marker fan

After each ring was fired, the broken ore (with the
markers) was loaded from the drawpoint and tipped into the
orepass. The markers traveled down the orepass to the
crusher feed level, through the crusher onto the
underground conveyor system, where they were extracted
using the tramp steel electro-magnets. Tests indicated that
100% of markers tipped into the orepass and ore handling
system were recovered.
Analysis of marker collection timing relative to ring
extraction was used to assess incremental ring recovery
and dilution. A full description of the experimental method is
covered elsewhere (Power 2003a).
For each of draw trials, a number of different parameters Figure 5: Typical results from a marker trial (section looking
were collected. These included: north)

226 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The experimental findings show the widths of the draw they were fired, even though production from that ring may
envelopes to be narrower than the width of the fired rings. have long since ceased. Figure 7 shows that in addition to
To date, no evidence of interaction between two adjacent the material recovered as primary recovery, a significant
draw envelopes has been found. Comparisons from portion of the fired ring is also regularly recovered as
isolated experiments also indicate interactive draw secondary recovery.
procedures do not significantly widen draw envelopes at
Ridgeway.
The episodic nature of flow is also apparent from the
experimental measurements. Rather than showing the
even flow profiles it can be seen that flow proceeds in
stages from different parts of the ring.
Dilution entry from above is shown where material from
the top of the ring is being recovered in XC0, at low draw
quantities. At less than 1m forward of the blast ring, ore is
flowing from an area in contact with a depleted drawpoint
above.
Ore from a depth of 1.3m in XC2 also reaches the
drawpoint at a much later stage than the ore closer to the
solid face in XC0. Figure 6 shows a section through the
centre of XC0 (two consecutive rings were monitored in this
trial).

Figure 7: Typical secondary recovery results

As the primary draw envelopes reach the top of the fired

ring at less than 20% draw, they have the opportunity to
draw up into previously unrecovered material from the sides
of the rings above, increasing total recovery for these rings.
While the behaviour of primary recovery draw envelopes
can be predicted to some degree, secondary recovery
behaviour is more variable.

3.3 Tertiary recovery

Material recovered from two or more levels below that
from which it was fired is classified as tertiary recovery at
Ridgeway. Production below the Ridgeway marker trials
has not progressed to the extent that conclusive tertiary
recovery results can be recorded. However reconciliation
and modeling work discussed in Section 4 indicate that a
value of approximately 85% at 100% draw is currently being
achieved. This does not take into account the additional
recovery that will be gained if a low cost overdraw option is
taken at the end of the mine life.

3.4 Experimental findings summary

While individual experiments show the draw process to be
a rather chaotic, analysis of the collected results shows a
system that can be characterized relatively accurately. Both
primary and secondary recovery show a 95% confidence
interval of little more than 5% This is to some degree a
Figure 6: Typical trial section looking west function of the favourable sample size.
Table 1 summarises the primary and secondary results of
This is typical of most of the experiments, where the draw the Ridgeway marker trials to date.
envelope consistently developed up the solid face of the
ring, and then subsequently deepened. The late arrival of Table 1: Summary of results
the ore at the top of the ring suggests this material may be
coarser than most of the ring, and may have been pre- Primary Primary +
empted by the flow of dilution from one of the cross cuts recovery (%) Secondary
above. recovery (%)

3.2 Secondary recovery

Average 59.1 75.0
While primary recovery results are of value, it is unrealistic
to expect that all material is recovered on the level from Standard deviation 10.2 10.0
which it is fired. Ore which is recovered on the level 95% confidence interval 5.4 5.6
immediately below is classified at Ridgeway as secondary Upper limit 53.7 69.4
recovery. Because each marker was uniquely coded, all
Lower limit 64.5 80.6
recovered markers were associated with the ring from which

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 227

 When Tertiary recovery is accounted for, this indicates The scale at the bottom of the photograph in Figure 9 is
that as applied at Ridgeway, the SLC mining method can 900mm long, indicating that the width of the opening is
yield recoveries and grade factors approaching those approximately 1.5m. This is similar to the depth of many of
achieved at open stoping mines, at significantly higher the draw envelopes measured in the marker trials. Note
production rates, and lower costs. that the rock mass on the right side of the photo appears to
be relatively solid. In some cases similar seemingly solid
3.5 Discussion walls collapsed as draw from the level below progressed.
While knowledge of ring recovery is important, it is an Figure 10 shows a photograph of another ring taken from
understanding of the underlying flow and blasting the same drive. Note in this figure the arch of rock, a
mechanisms that enables business improvements. remnant of the initial rock mass structure.
From one perspective, the relatively narrow draw
envelopes seen in the Ridgeway experiments were
expected. Results of full scale experiments carried out
previously in Sweden (Janelid 1972; Gustafsson, 1998) and
discussions with personnel from Kiruna Mine (Sellden,
2001) indicated that the draw envelope might be expected
to diverge from the edge of the drawpoint at approximately
70. While interactive draw has been considered as a
means of widening the draw envelope, evidence from these
trials indicates that this may be valid for physical modeling
experiments only (Janelid, 1974).
The finding that the draw envelope was shallower than the
fired burden was an unexpected outcome of these
experiments. Before the experiments, it was believed that
dilution entry was from in front of the fired ring, and full depth
(the ring burden) of draw was achieved. This dilution entry
from the front of the ring hypothesis had also been
postulated by others (Gustafsson, 1998).

3.6 Visual Observations Figure 9: Photograph taken from observation drive.

It has been considered a possibility that the marker
experiments themselves had affected the behaviour of the
rings being fired, and subsequently the flow of the broken
ore. While changing the system is likely to have some affect
on the blast performance, the magnitude of such an effect is
unknown, and draw markers are the best means of
quantifying draw performance currently available.
Observations made visually in rings without markers
indicate that the shallow draw phenomenon is also apparent
when marker trials are not present.
These observations were made possible through changes
in Ridgeways geological model which rendered a crosscut
developed at the edge of the orebody sub-economic. This
cross cut was therefore used as an observation drive, from
which the behaviour of rings fired on the level below could
be observed. Figure 8 shows the location from which these
observations were made.

Figure 10: Photograph taken from observation drive

Many similar observations led to the development of a

hypothesis similar in some ways to that of Hustrulid (2000),
suggesting that the space available for the broken rock in a
fired SLC ring was inadequate to allow swell to occur
effectively.
While the rockmass closer to the blast appeared to be
more heavily affected, and flowed preferentially, the
rockmass further away from the blast was less heavily
affected. Often individual rock fragments in this region were
not disassociated from their neighbouring fragments.
Therefore when draw from the level below began creating
space, only the material closest to the blast was sufficiently
broken to move, while the material forward of the blast plane
was conditioned but could not be always be mobilized.
Figure 8: Observation drive at Ridgeway Obviously under such circumstances, dilution entry from
the waste side of the ring would be impossible and draw
From this drive, mechanisms controlling the shallow draw would naturally progress vertically. Note that the
envelope could be observed independently in rings which photograph in Figure 10 was taken at 25% draw, indicating
were not monitored using markers. Photographs taken from that early dilution entry from above was likely to have
this drive can be seen in Figures 9 and 10. occurred. It is also interesting to point out that in most

228 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

cases, the LHD operator on the level below had little generally a mixture of material from many different sources
indication that this effect was taking place in the fired ring (i.e. secondary, tertiary and external).
above. Occasionally a drawpoint opened up completely, but
until before the draw marker program, this was seen purely
as the effect of a hang-up, rather than the result of a regular Table 2: Ridgeway boundary conditions
pattern of fired ring behaviour.
These results indicated that a drill and blast issue may Recovery Known Known Dilution
have been a driving factor behind the shallow draw Class recovery stage of entry
behaviour. A subsequent intense focus on this aspect of the (%) draw (%) point (%)
operation did indicate some drill and blast issues which
were addressed. This produced a general reduction in Primary 60 120 20
hang-up frequency from 25% to 15%, and a reduction of Secondary 75 120 20
approximately 20% in drill and blast costs. To date however,
Tertiary 85.3 100 20
no significant changes in draw behaviour or recovery have
been seen in marker experiments.

4 FLOW MODELLING Primary recovery:

x = t, 0 20,
Advances have also been made in the field of flow x = 20 + 100 (1-e-kt),
modelling. Until quite recently, validated flow modelling where k = 1/80 loge (80/40), t > 20 (2)
could not be carried out for caving mines (Rustan, 2000).
However with the recent development of detailed validation Secondary recovery:
information (Power, 2003a), and advances in numerical x = t, 0 20,
modeling techniques (Pierce, 2003, Sharrock et. al. 2004, x = 20 + 120(1-e-kt),
Romer 2004) realistic numerical simulations will soon be where k =1/100 loge (120/65), t > 20 (3)
achievable.
To augment these, a relatively simple preliminary Tertiary recovery:
technique for the construction of recovery curves under the x = t, 0 20,
SLC system has been developed (Power, 2003b). This x = 20 + 325.2 (1-e-kt), where
technique for construction of recovery curves was k =1/80 loge (325.2/258.9), t >20 (4)
developed through the application of Wilhemys Law to the
problem of ring depletion. Wilhemys law states that the Figure 11 shows a plot of the resulting recovery curves.
velocity of a chemical reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the reacting substance, where:

a = the initial concentration of the reagent;

x = the amount transformed; and
t = time.

This law is described by the relationship:

dx / dt = k (a-x), 0 x a. (1)

This situation can be seen as analogous to draw from a

SLC ring in that the amount of material from a certain
recovery class, which can be drawn from a fired ring (e.g.
Primary recovery) is proportional to how much of the ring
remains to be drawn. Curves were developed for the four
recovery classes: primary, secondary, tertiary and external
(material from outside the mining limits).

The following parameters were substituted for those listed

above: Figure 11: Ridgeway ring recovery curves

a = the percentage of the ring initially available for For the practical purposes, these equations can be
recovery; simplified according to the following:
x = the amount of ore recovered at any stage of draw; Primary recovery:
t = the stage of draw at which this occurs. x = t, 0 t <20;
x = 20 + 0.5(t-20), 21 t <50;
x = 35 + 0.4(t-50), 51 t <80;
The boundary conditions listed in Table 2 were then used x = 47 + 0.35(t-80), 81 t <110;
in conjunction with this equation to create the recovery class x = 57.5 + 0.3(t-110), 111 t <140. (5)
specific equations shown in equations 2, 3 and 4. The
boundary conditions used for tertiary recovery were based Secondary recovery:
on analysis of copper and gold recoveries on the upper x = t, 0 t <20;
levels of the mine with respect to concentration of these x = 20 + 0.65(t-20), 21 t <50;
metals in the sub-economic mineralized halo above the x = 39.5 + 0.55(t-50), 51 t <80;
orebody. (Power 2003b). A dilution entry point of 20% was x = 56 + 0.5(t-80), 81 t <110;
used for all curves as material entering as dilution is x = 70.95 + 0.45(t-110), 111 t <140. (6)

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 229

 Tertiary recovery: Current efforts at Ridgeway center on creating a modified
x = t, 0 t <20; SLC geometry which produces the optimal combination of
x = 20 + 0.9(t-20), 21 t <50; three important inter-dependant factors: drill and blast
x = 47 + 0.8(t-50), 51 t <80; design, granular flow behaviour and geotechnical response
x = 71 + 0.75(t-80), 81 t <110; of the rock mass.
x = 93.2 + 0.7(t-110), 111 t <140. (7) It is expected that the results of marker trials at Ridgeway
and other mines in the near future will result in further
Note that equations 2 - 7 are valid only for the current set significant improvements in the understanding of granular
of Ridgeway boundary conditions (Table 2). If a new set of flow in SLC mines.
boundary conditions is used it is necessary to reassess the
equations using the general law as a starting point. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table 3 shows evaluations of mine performance using
different methods: feasibility data, values predicted using The author is grateful to all of the people at Cadia Valley
the new recovery curves, and reconciled values. This Operations who took part in this program and helped
indicates that the new recovery curves are relatively produce the results presented here. The author also wishes
accurate. Over the life of the mine, it is estimated that the to acknowledge the permission given by Newcrest Mining
grade factor will be approximately 7% lower than predicted Limited to publish this technical paper.
at feasibility.
REFERENCES

Table 3: Comparison of feasibility, Bull, G and Page C H, 2000. Sublevel Caving Todays
predicted and reconciled metal recoveries Dependable Low Cost Ore Factory, in MassMin 2000
Conference Proceedings, Ed. Chitombo G., ISBN 1
Tonnes Metal Grade 875776 76 9, AusIMM, Melbourne.
Drawn (%) Recovered Factor Gustafsson, P, 1998. Waste Rock Content Variations
(%) (%) During Gravity Flow in Sublevel Caving: Analysis of full
scale experiments and numerical simulations, PhD thesis,
Performance to date Department of Civil and Mining Engineering, Lulea
University of Technology, Sweden
Feasibility 82 81 99
Hustrulid, W, 2000. Method Selection for Large Scale
Predicted 82 73 88 Underground Mining, in MassMin 2000 Conference
Reconciled 82 71 87 Proceedings, Ed. Chitombo G., ISBN 1 875776 76 9,
AusIMM, Melbourne.
Predicted life of mine
Janelid, I, 1972. Study of the Gravity Flow Process in
Feasibility 102 94 92 Sublevel Caving, in International Sublevel Caving
Predicted 102 86 85 Symposium, Atlas Copco, Stockholm.
Janelid, I, 1974. Rasbrytning, STU-rapport 73-3885
Pierce, M. 2003. Flow Simulation Progress, Internal report
Given any set of boundary conditions, this method allows to the International Caving Study
realistic recovery curves to be generated for the analysis of Power, G R, 2003a. Modelling Granular Flow in Caving
modified SLC designs before mining begins. Additional Mines: Large Scale Physical Modelling and Full Scale
confidence is gained from knowledge that the curves are Experiments, PhD Thesis, University of Queensland.
based on a proven scientific relationship and have been Power, G R, 2003b. Calculation of Ridgeway Ring
validated against full scale experiments in a real mining Recovery Curves, internal Newcrest memorandum.
environment. Rustan, A, 2000. Gravity Flow of Broken Rock What is
Known and Unknown, in MassMin 2000 Conference
5 CONCLUSIONS Proceedings, Ed. Chitombo G., ISBN 1 875776 76 9,
AusIMM, Melbourne.
The ongoing draw marker program in place at Ridgeway Romer, W, 2004. Caving/Dilution Simulation System
has allowed significant steps to be made in understanding Progress Report, report to Newcrest Mining Limited
the fundamental relationship between blasting and flow in Sharrock, G et. al., Simulating Gravity Flow in Sublevel
SLC mining and has contributed to a significant reduction in Caving, Massmin 2004
drill and blast costs. Newcrest considers the ongoing Sellden, H. 2001. Personal communication
operational use of draw marker tests is an important
business tool to enable successful application of SLC.

230 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Understanding gravity flow for mix and
dilution modeling at Henderson Mine
G. Carlson, D. Tyler, C. DeWolfe, Climax Molybdenum Company, Henderson Mine Empire, CO USA
L. Lorig, Itasca S.A., Santiago, Chile

Abstract
The original dilution model for Henderson was derived from ore recovery data and visual observations made by the
geologists and engineers at the Climax Mine. Henderson successfully used this simplistic model for ore reserves and
grade prediction through the late 1990s until it became apparent that it was deficient for the 7700 level drawpoint grade
prediction under the pre-existing 8100 level cave. Initial efforts to explain this disparity utilized visual dilutant records and
analysis of all exhausted drawpoints on the 7700 production level. A statistical, linear-program solution, predicting block
grades and dilutant amounts, was developed to approximate Henderson actual production data. At the same time a
mathematical model for drawpoint flow based on physical parameters was in development and was tested with
Henderson data. The resulting model mimicked the historical data, generated a matrix for block grade mixing, and
corroborated the statistical work. Today, Henderson has developed several matrices for its reserves based on these
models, drift/drawpoint spacing, geology, and column height, and has had significantly better success at predicting grade
and dilution than in the past. This paper will chronicle the events leading up to this change and the results to date.

1. BACKGROUND This study was also statistical in nature. A comparison

was made between the in-place grade and the actual grade
In an underground mine using a block or panel caving as a function of column height. It was found that for ore
mining method, it is important to recognize that the broken drawn from the lower half of the ore column there was no
rock in the ore column moves laterally as well as vertically dilution and in the top half there was. Interestingly, for the
and mixes as it works its way down to the drawpoints for column as a whole the recovery and dilution results were
final extraction. This movement causes mixing with a small very close to the Climax dilution model estimate. As a result,
amount of waste material, thus changing the grade of the the following model was used for forecasting grades for
ore from the original in-place grade estimate in the model. production planning. For the bottom half of the ore columns
Size of the fragmented waste and ore material has some no dilution was estimated. For the top half of the ore
impact on the amount of waste mixed during the caving columns, 85 percent recovery of the top half in place
process. The challenge for engineers is to try to quantify reserves was combined with a dilution quantity equal to 30
this change in grade as they develop ore reserve estimates percent of the top half in-place reserves.
and long and short range grade forecasts. To do this, This dilution model was used successfully for the first 100
historically, the reserve has been multiplied by a factor or a million tons drawn from the 8100 level (the first level) at
dilution model is used. Henderson. From this level, 97 percent of the estimated
The historical dilution model used at Henderson had its diluted tonnage and 98 percent of the estimated diluted
roots at the Climax Mine. With very few caving operations to molybdenum was recovered. On this level, the molybdenum
benchmark, this model was accepted in view of its apparent grade was relatively homogeneous trending from high grade
success at Climax. As new data became available, this at the bottom of the ore columns to low grade at the top.
model was updated and improved, but not changed There was also no existing cave area above this level as it
dramatically. was the first mining level at Henderson. When Henderson
The original dilution model looked at the undiluted, in- moved to the second production level, or 7700 level, the
place, ore column from the ore reserve model for each conditions and nature of the ore body changed. With this
estimation block. These blocks were 80 feet by 80 feet by 50 change the nature of the way dilution occurred also changed
feet high. The dilution equation stated that to get 92.5 requiring additional studies leading to the development of
percent recovery of the undiluted in- place reserve, it would new dilution models.
be necessary to accept a quantity equal to 15 percent of the
undiluted in-place reserve of sub-cutoff material that was not 2. CAUSE FOR CHANGE
in the reserve or "dilution". The grade of the diluting material
was set at .09% Mo, which represented the grade of the As caving and production advanced on the second
waste rock nearest the ore column for a cutoff of .12% Mo. production level (7700 level) through the mid to late 1990s,
This model was primarily statistical in nature, derived from the grade predictions from simulations became significantly
years of data from the Climax Mine. While the exact nature higher than the actual grades reporting to the mill. Since
of how dilution occurred was only inferred, this model annual tonnage and final product amounts are budgeted
adjusted the ore grade effectively for large production areas based on these simulations, increased throughputs were
in which the ore columns were at various stages of maturity. needed to meet targets and increased blending of high
In the first years of production at Henderson, it was grade portions of the cave were required to make up the
noticed that there was no indication that grades were any shortfalls. This, however, was not taken into account in the
lower than the in-place estimates. However, in year three, simulations which meant the higher grade portions of the
the grade began to drop below the in-place estimates as the mine were being exhausted faster than predicted.
ore columns began to mature. This prompted a study in In late 2000, the high grade panel of the 7700 level
1979 to improve Hendersons understanding of when and exhausted leaving the remaining lower grade panel to
how the dilution was occurring. support all production. This lower grade panel was also

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 231

exhibiting significantly poorer grade performance than drawpoints imitated the model used to predict grades.
simulations predicted. The initial attempt to quantify these These trends were assigned names and plotted for spatial
discrepancies was to analyze the ore block grade analysis. The only conclusion which could be drawn from
performances in percent of predicted grade. Each this plot was that dilution was increasing as the cave
drawpoint that had produced on 7700 was analyzed by progressed northward.
plotting the block performances versus the model grades in Having identified these basic trends, the same analysis
plan. Color codes were assigned based on percents above was performed for all the 8100 level drawpoints. Again, a
or below predicted grade, warmer colors indicating higher few basic trends were apparent and very few of the 800+
than predicted grades and colder colors indicating less than drawpoints on this level mimicked the prediction model.
predicted grades. Sections of the ore columns were then What was noticed, which differed from the 7700 level, was
developed to examine the vertical variations between model that the lower third of the column tended to under- perform
and actual grades. These plots helped give visual insight while the top half of the columns would over-perform (Fig.
into actual performance which allowed general concepts to 4).
be developed. Figures (1 and 2) This was opposite of what was observed on the 7700
level but could be explained as the same curve for differing
grade distributions. 8100 level was placed in the middle of
the high grade zone of the Henderson ore body so the
highest grades were at the bottom of the columns.
Conversely, 7700 level had the highest grades at the tops of
its columns, thus the graphed curves represent how top of
column grades appear to report earlier than previously
believed (Fig. 3).

Figure 1 - Plan of total column grade performance 7700

Level, Mar. 2000

First, as shown in figure 2, it was readily apparent that the

bottom third of the columns was consistently over-
performing. Secondly, the apparent dilution of the upper
half of the column was significantly more than what the
reserve model was using. The third observation was the
consistent over-performance of those drawpoints outside of Figure 3 - Typical grade curve Henderson 7700 level.
the 8100 cave boundary.

Figure 2 - Typical N-S drawpoint column section looking

west.

This visual aid, although giving insight into the magnitude Figure 4 - Typical grade curve Henderson 8100 level
of the problem, was crude and could not be used to quantify
a dilution effect, much less give the engineers a predictive
tool. 3. DILUTION STUDY
In early 2001, an attempt was made to refine the
performance analysis. This entailed graphing predicted, Armed with this new information, a study was initiated in
diluted, and actual grade by ore block. This study an attempt to better define what was perceived to be strictly
demonstrated that the 7700 drawpoints were behaving an excessive dilution problem stemming from working under
according to only a few basic trends (Fig. 3). Only a few an existing and exhausted caved level.

232 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Visual dilution examinations were being tracked on a dilution model. The main component of this mixing model
systematic basis by Henderson geologists but the data was was the matrix developed for quantifying the percentage of
not being incorporated into any databases. Early each block which reported at various intervals in order to
investigations into this data suggested a wide range of conserve mass. Table 2 is a representation of the matrix for
dilution variations which could not be correlated with the the Henderson 7700 level in 2000.
existing dilution model. Understanding that the visual A further statistical study was invoked to determine the
observations are qualitative rather than quantitative, only differences between the grades reporting from the
limited information could be gleaned from this approach and drawpoints located under the exhausted 8100 cave as
another avenue was required to explain the discrepancies. opposed to those drawpoints located outside of the 8100
A statistical approached was deemed to be a first step level shadow. This showed a significant increase of dilution
since Henderson does have an extensive database of all reporting under an existing cave, which was anticipated,
draw by drawpoint. To this end, Barnes Engineering was however, the mix-model parameters were essentially the
contracted to perform an evaluation of the 7700 level same in both cases indicating that the same mechanisms
drawpoints for which there was draw data. were at work.
Statistics calculated for the level that had been drawn to- In March, 2001 Dr. William Hustrulid visited the mine to
date showed a reasonably good overall correlation of the examine the data and mine operations and give his insight
predicted grade to the grade received at the mill, after the into the problems. Of note were his observations that the
metal balance was calculated. Perhaps by coincidence, the fragmentation of the production ore was extremely fine and
over-performance on the south boundary and the under- his conclusion that the draw columns were probably "rat-
performance to the north balanced out, however, the under- holing" to the 8100 level very early in their production life
performing area was where the production was active. A causing the dilution effect.
closer examination by linear regression of each block, by During this timeframe, Loren Lorig of Itasca presented to
level, demonstrated that the grade correlations became Henderson the REBOP program which was being
increasingly worse as draw reached higher in the columns. developed based on particle flow code. The REBOP code
A simple dilution model, with variable dilutant grades, was embodies rules based on mechanisms observed in PFC3D
developed to back-calculate how much diluting material simulations (Pierce et al, 2003) and simulates the evolution
would be required to make the kriged grade match the of Isolated Draw Zones (IDZs) and the interaction of
actual grade by block. This model showed, in the lower individual IDZs. In REBOP, the material above each
blocks of the columns, the dilution to be negative since the drawpoint is divided in many horizontal layers. The layers
actual grades were higher than the kriged grades which is are scanned repeatedly, from the bottom upwards,
impossible by the model of ore movement held at the time. conserving mass flow rate
This model also demonstrated a significantly larger amount Table 2 - Mix and dilution matrix showing percent of the
of dilution required to force the match in the upper blocks of block recovered during the mining of any particular block.
the columns than the Henderson dilution model was (after Barnes, 2000)
assuming (Table 1). between layers. Each layer either passes on the flow
rate dictated by the layer below, or passes part of it, with the
Table 1 Kriged versus actual grade comparison, balance being made up by contributions from expansion of
7700 Level (after Barnes, 2000). the IDZ of that layer. If the layer intersects the free surface
of the caved material, flow rate contributions also derive
Block Dilutant Grade from the change in shape of the free surface.
Block # Grade 0.00 0.05 0.10 Visually, particle flow code demonstrates how different
layers of granulated material would mix in a column as it is
(Elev. Range) Diff. % Dilutant Added (Removed)
extracted from a point of influence (Fig. 5).

1 (7700-7750) 9% -9% -11% -15%

2 (7750-7800) 11% -11% -14% -18%
3 (7800-7850) 1% -1% -2% -2%
4 (7850-7900) -9% 9% 10% 13%
5 (7900-7950) -19% 19% 22% 26%
6 (7950-8000) -26% 26% 30% 35%
7 (8000-8050) -31% 31% 35% 42%
8 (8050-8100) -32% 32% 37% 44%
Average -11% 11% 13% 16%

It was recognized that this model was unable to account

for the increase in ore grades in the lower parts of the
column. It was felt that during the mining of lower blocks, a
portion of the blocks higher in the column were being
recovered. With this in mind, a mixing model was built such
that there was a conservation of mass in the column with
reasonable mixing and dilution. The model was setup and
optimized using the MSExcel solver function with the Figure 5 - Flow and mixing from a physical modeling
objective of matching the pounds of molybdenum actually perspective (after Itasca, 2001)
produced.
Results from this revised mixing model eliminated the
negative dilutant tonnages in the lower portions of the draw As noted earlier, Henderson Mine was achieving lower
columns by allowing various amounts of other blocks to grades at the drawpoints on the 7700 level than predicted by
report. The dilution amounts in the upper portions of the the empirical draw model. This under-performance resulted
columns did not change dramatically from the simple in a disruption to the extraction planning process. The

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 233

 Table 2 - Mix and dilution matrix showing percent of the block
recovered during the mining of any particular block. (after Barnes, 2000)

Block (Elevation) Block being Mined

Reporting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 (7700-7750) 53.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

2 (7750-7800) 24.5% 43.0% 16.1% 9.7% 5.8% 0.6% 0.2% 0.1%
3 (7800-7850) 15.1% 26.6% 39.7% 16.3% 1.0% 0.6% 0.4& 0.2%
4 (7850-7900) 9.6% 17.0% 25.3% 38.9% 5.3% 2.0% 1.2% 0.5%
5 (7900-7950) 1.4% 11.1% 16.6% 21.5% 43.5% 2.9% 1.7% 1.0%
6 (7950-8000) 0.2% 7.4% 2.5% 5.8% 22.5% 50.6% 7.3% 3.6%
7 (8000-8050) 0.0% 1.4% 0.5% 1.3% 4.8% 16.7% 51.1% 13.4%
8 (8050-8100) 0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 1.0% 3.1% 9.4% 39.5%

Dilution 0.0% 0.0% 3.3% 7.6% 17.6% 25.0% 29.7% 31.9%

Total Percent Mined 104.0% 106.4% 104.1% 101.4% 101.5% 101.6% 101.2% 30.1%

empirical draw model was developed based on experience Information regarding kriged and actual grades for four
from the Climax mine, which did not have any overlying drawbells
waste layer. Statistical modeling had shed some light on the Draw rate (one foot per day or 160 tons/day per
subject but had not explained a method of prediction. Almost drawpoint)
immediately, Henderson engineers recognized the similarity
between the Barnes Engineering statistical model and Information regarding kriged and actual recovered grades
particle flow code. Numerical modeling was considered as for 4 drawbells included:
another method to understand this under-performance. The Kriged grades for eight ore layers for the 7700 level
numerical model selected for use was REBOP (Rapid models
Emulator Based On PFC3D; Itasca, 2000). Kriged grades for eleven ore layers for the 8100 level
Superficially, REBOP appears similar (at least in its model
objectives) to PC-BC (Gemcom, 1999; Diering, 2000), which is Nugget effect would account for a +or- 20% variation in
a code used for draw control in some block-cave mining kriged grade
operations. However, PC-BC takes as its starting point the Layers are 50 feet thick with base 25 feet above
assumption that each IDZ has a certain shape, called its draw production level invert
cone. The code uses empirical rules to estimate how material Waste layer for the 7700 level model assumed to be
is withdrawn from a draw cone and how material mixes 0.05% Mo (no waste layer for 8100 level model)
between adjacent draw cones. REBOP makes no
assumptions about the shape of the IDZs; it contains "micro" The results for drawbells 638310, 664608 and 256209 are
rules that govern how material flows from one layer to the next shown in Figures 6 through 8, respectively. Each figure
and how much material derives from mechanisms such as shows the following:
erosion and mass exchanges between adjacent IDZ catchment Actual results from the two drawpoints that make up the
volumes. The shape of each IDZ evolves continuously (in drawbell
contrast to the fixed draw cone of PC-BC), and emerges REBOP results assuming a 20% nugget effect in kriged
"automatically" as the micro-rules are applied repeatedly. grades
Potentially, this lower-level approach is closer to reality and Kriged grades for the ore "blocks" overlying the drawbell
allows local mechanisms and interactions to be reproduced.
However, at the time REBOP was used at Henderson the
approach was new and, as yet, untested, apart from the simple
examples. Therefore it was unclear at the start whether or not
REBOP would provide meaningful results.
Itasca was contracted to model some of the Henderson
drawpoints with the REBOP program to see if it would
correlate with actual Henderson data. Results were
requested in a matrix format which would allow comparison
with the statistical model. Four drawpoints were selected for
the initial study, three from the 7700 level and one from the
8100 level. All four drawpoints had identical drift and
drawpoint spacings.
Initial studies focused on simulating the flow to a limited
number of drawbells (nine) and comparing the grades
recovered in the center drawbell of the REBOP model with
the actual grades recovered in the mine. The drawbells
studied initially were 638310, 664608, 646607 and 256209.
The general information available for the initial studies
included:
Production level layout Figure 6 - Comparison of REBOP grades with actual grades
Intact rock density (unit weight of rock) for Drawbell 664608

234 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 demonstrated a strong preference for geologic and/or
structural relationships to drawpoint performance. Of the
four test drawpoints given to Itasca for REBOP modeling,
the three which correlated best were all located in the Urad
Porphyry (2 from the 7700 level, one from the 8100 level).
The one drawpoint which did not correlate was located in
the Primos Interior porphyry of the 7700 level. In order to
determine variations between the new model and actual
performance, histograms were developed of the percent of
variation of actual to "expected" grades. The means of these
performances by block were then plotted for visual
correlation. Figure 10 shows this plot of all 7700 level
drawpoints based on location and/or geology against a
REBOP based draw matrix.
As was seen in the plan plots, three very distinct
performance trends were evident, indicating different
populations. The drawpoints located in the Urad Porphyry
Figure 7 - Comparison of REBOP grades with actual grades showed the best correlation to the new REBOP based
for Drawbell 638310 model.

Figure 8 - Comparison of REBOP grades with actual grades

for Drawbell 256209

4. MODEL VERIFICATIONS

Three of the four drawpoints modeled in REBOP (2 from

7700 and the one from 8100) behaved very similarly to the
actual data. A key difference between REBOP and the
Barnes Engineering model was the dominance of the major
block tonnage reporting. Comparing both methods against Figure 9 - (Expected Versus Actual Grade with Intrusive
a variety of other drawpoints demonstrated the REBOP Contacts)
model in closer approximation to actual production history
overall and thus the first matrix developed into the newly The Primos Interior drawpoints displayed a radically
programmed production system was based on REBOP different curve in which the new model severely over-
results (Table 3). predicted, and finally the zone outside of the 8100 shadow
Since the kriged grade model is no longer considered a to the south where the model consistently under predicted.
valid model to track production against, Henderson has A second attempt to modify the under-performing drawbell
coined the term "EXPECTED" grade as the model from in REBOP, namely the 646607 bell, showed that by severely
matrix generation. All production data are measured decreasing one parameter, the erosion coefficient, would
against this expected grade factor. The one drawbell, bring results into line with the actual data. This parameter
646607, which did not perform according to the initial decrease reduced the IDZ of the drawbell. Reducing the
REBOP runs was retested and is discussed later. IDZ diameter would in effect cause the "rat-holing"
In an attempt to quantify the validity of the model, plan postulated by Dr. Hustrulid. Further correlation for this
views of "expected" vs. actual grade by block were geologic control was the area examined by Dr. Hustrulid
developed to see if there were any spatial relationships. A which was all in the same under-performing rock type, the
distinctive under-performance zone became evident as well Primos Interior.
as a distinctive over-performance zone. Correlation Realizing that REBOP uses a point of influence for draw,
for the under-performing zone was found to match based on the geometry of the drifts and drawpoints, and
geology. Placing the geologic contacts of the intrusive develops an isolated draw zone (IDZ) or "cylinder of
complexes over the performance maps (Fig. 9) influence" from which it calculates the ore flow (opposed to

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 235

 Table 3 - Mix and dilution matrix showing percent of the
block recovered during the mining of any particular block. (after Lorig, 2001)

Block Mined
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 % Recovered

1 39% 3% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 43%
2 46% 17% 6% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 71%
3 15% 42% 15% 9% 5% 2% 0% 0% 88%
% Block Reporting

4 0% 33% 28% 13% 9% 5% 2% 1% 90%

5 0% 5% 37% 21% 12% 10% 4% 2% 90%
6 0% 0% 13% 33% 17% 11% 9% 4% 89%
7 0% 0% 0% 21% 28% 15% 11% 9% 85%
8 0% 0% 0% 2% 24% 25% 14% 11% 76%
Dilution 0% 0% 0% 0% 4% 33% 59% 73%
Total Pct 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Figure 10 - Mean of Actual block grades to Expected Grade

the previous method of assigning square blocks for the Fig. 11 - New drawpoint area of influence, based on REBOP
drawpoint influence), an additional change was to modeling
reconfigure the area of influence of a drawpoint (and it
associated block tonnage and grade) from the simple
square block reference with the drift/drawpoint geographic After the introduction of the matrix flow, Henderson has
center, to one based on the "point of extraction". In the case been tracking model production head grades to mill
of Henderson, this extraction point has been set at one corrected head grades on a monthly basis. Model
meter inside the drawpoint brow. From this, cylinders are prediction is based on daily extraction from all production
developed until they intersect points with adjacent drawpoint drawpoints. To date, with all the production and model
cylinders. This results in a honeycomb shape for the variations, the model predicted mine head grade based on
drawpoint influence as shown in Figure 11. As drift and actual production draw is the most accurate predictor of
drawpoint geometry change, the associated area polygon grade reporting to the mill, averaging within 3% of actual mill
also changes. Kriged grades are weight averaged into a head grade after recovery calculations. This does not mean
new in-place grade prior to applying the appropriate mix that all drawpoints are reporting exactly to model
matrix. The results of all these changes give new block parameters, rather that the model overall is a good predictor
tonnages and grade estimates into what Henderson now even with variations within.
calls "EXPECTED" grade.
Continuing to check actual mean grade deviations from 5. CONCLUSIONS
the model demonstrated the persistent under-performance
in the middle of the columns. Realizing that fines from the Henderson now calculates and bases its ore inventory on
exhausted cave above could migrate downward into the the REBOP mixing models provided by Itasca. These
columns and that REBOP was not designed to take this into models take into account drift and drawpoint spacing and
account at this stage of development, a trial and error geometry, geologic zones, effects of previously exhausted
approach was utilized in the matrix in an attempt to account levels, and column heights. Model verification and fine
for these discrepancies. The Henderson Production System tuning continues but the flow concept has been verified. Not
is an excellent platform for this methodology since it allows all of the geologic and structural influences to the flow model
for very fast computations of changes to the ore inventory. are understood. More research is needed to be able to
These changes can then be statistically compared to actual correlate the rock mass properties, such as a rock mass
data to verify if the changes were beneficial. rating, for example, to the cavability parameters used in

236 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

REBOP to be able to predict mixing and dilution. Several Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., 2000. "REBOP (Rapid
other areas to be explored include cave boundary effects, Emulator Based On PFC3D) Formulation and Users
flow at the cave front, and the limits of draw influence when Guide, Version 1.0". Itasca Consulting Group, Inc:
draw is curtailed on adjacent drawpoints. Minneapolis.
Hustrulid, W., 2001. "Review of Panel Caving The
6. REFERENCES Henderson Mine", William Hustrulid Report,
(unpublished), 57 pgs.
Barnes, T., 2000. "Examination of Henderson Draw Data", Lorig, L., 2002. "Modeling of Drawpoint Flows and
Barnes Engineering Report, (unpublished), 32 pgs. Dilution at Henderson Mine" Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC (2000): A block cave design and Report (unpublished), 55 pgs.
draw control system. Proceedings MassMin 2000, pgs Pierce, M. E., P. A. Cundall, G. J. van Hout and L. Lorig,
469-484. 2003. "PFC3D Modeling of Caved Rock Under Draw," in
Gemcom Software International Inc, 1999. PC-BC User Numerical Modeling in Micromechanics via Particle
Manual and Tutorial, Version 98.02. Gemcom Software Methods (Proceedings of the 1st International PFC
International Inc., 580 Hornby Street, Suite 901: Symposium, Gelsenkirchen, Germany, November 2002),
Vancouver, BC, Canada V6C 3B6. pp. 211-217. H. Konietzky, Ed. Lisse: Balkema.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 237

Behaviour of caved ore mass in sublevel
caving and its effect on ore dilution
Guojian Zhang, Anshan University of Science and Technology, China

Abstract
With respect to the problems associated with the sublevel caving mining method, this paper analyzed the behavior of
the blasted caved ore mass and its effect on the ore dilution during the mining and excavation process. Through the
analysis of the sublevel caving mining process from the blasting to the ore discharge, the study includes theoretical
analysis and, pilot tests. The paper developed the concept of the blasted caved ore mass, determined the shape and
characteristic of the blasted caved ore mass, studied the relationship between the discharged ore mass, loose volume,
and the blasted caved mass. The paper pointed out that in order to solve the ore dilution problem associated with the
ore discharge process we should treat the blast and ore discharge process as integral. Through proper design of the
blast parameters the paper demonstrated that we can control the shape and characteristics of the blasted caved ore
mass and the potential loose volume in accordance with the shape of the discharged ore mass. With such technique we
can reduce the ore dilution and achieve maximum extraction of valuable resources.

1 INTRODUCTION fragments will be reduced and consequently over squeezed

muck tightening may occur and prevent a favorable shape
In order to solve the problem of dilution and loss of ore for discharging broken ore body from forming. This could
associated with sublevel caving mining method, researchers lead to dilution or lose when discharging the broken ore. On
and engineers have conducted a lot of work to solve the the other hand, if the blast overburden is small the advance
problem. Such work has formed a firm foundation to reduce rate is reduced and at the same time a favorable shape for
ore dilution. Since sublevel caving uses buffer blasts of fan discharging broken ore body cannot be formed. Therefore,
blast holes with middle depth to break ore in order to control a too small or too big blast overburden can cause dilution or
of the ore discharge to reduce dilution and loss of the ore for ore loss.
improving the mine economics it is of significant importance The vertical middle depth fan holes inherently provides
to understand the spatial shape of the fragmented rock and poor explosive distribution and yields coarse fragments on
its effect on the ore discharge. the top of the caved broken ore file and uneven size
distribution. A careful design of the borehole distribution may
2 MAJOR FACTORS XONTROLLING THE improve the energy distribution. Furthermore, using proper
SHAPE STATE AND ITS EFFECT ON delay time can also improve the blast results and produce
ORE DILUTION OF BROKEN ORE an ideal caved broken ore body shape for discharge to
reduce ore dilution and loss.
The shape state and its effect on ore dilution of broken ore
refer to the spatial shape and its size of the broken ore, Effects of physical property of the coverage rock layer
which includes the fragment size, looseness coefficient, and and discharge procedure on the shape and state of the
flow-ability, etc. caved broken rock
The material to be discharged is the fragmented ore. It is It is well known that the loss coverage rock around the
fundamental to study the shape and state of the broken ore. blasted ore material is loosened body and compressed
To understand the shape and the state of the broken ore is region (prior loosened part) under certain discharge
vital importance to determine the discharge method and procedure.
optimize the discharge design. The state of the coverage rock mass is the external
constrain to the formation of the caving broken rock. It
Effect of blast design parameters on muckpile shape affects the state of the caved broken rock mass. While the
and state of the blast caved ore discharge procedure also plays an important part to the
Different blast design parameters result in different muck formation and the state of the caved broken rock mass.
pile shapes, displacement, fragment size, and looseness of According to the ore discharge theory the loosened body is
the broken rock. In other words, we can alter the blast caved a elliptical shape. The porosity within this ellipsoid body is
ore fragment volume shape and state by changing the blast much larger than the outside compressed zone. This
design parameters. The blast design parameters refer to causes the ore to be blasted exerts uneven pushing upon
thickness (burden) of the blasted ore, hole spacing, degree the surrounding covering waster during blasting and
of the fan hole inclination, the total open angle of the fan, fragmented. Generally speaking, the structure change
hole spacing of the hole bottom, explosive type and mainly occurs inside the blasted rock mass, which is the
property, charge configuration, initiation sequence and compensation space. The state of the loosened body is the
timing, etc. These blast design parameters affect the main factor determines the state of the caved fragment
amount, fragment size, muckpile looseness, and the body mass.
shape of the broken ore. The blast design parameters Different discharge procedure methods (e.g. way of
cannot be neglected in order to solve the ore discharge shoveling, depth of shoveling, discharge protocol, etc.)
problem. affect differently formation of the discharged body and
Under the same condition, increasing in the one time blast loosened body. Consequently, the discharge procedure
overburden can result in increased broken ore volume. dictates the state of the blasted caved ore fragments body.
However, relative free space obtained from the loose The loosened region from the previous discharge will affect

238 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the state of the blasted caved ore fragments body. Whereas, Model blast experiment
the blasted caved ore fragments body affects the formation After the models were cured and dry, the blasts were
of the discharge body. If the state of the blasted caved ore conducted separately with each model. Before the blast,
fragments body is not properly formed, the discharge and models were placed on the top of a prepared flat rock
loosened bodies will be unfavorably affected for the down surface. A piece of detonating cord was used as explosive
stream process. In summary, the discharge procedure for each small borehole and a small detonator from a noel
affects the formation of the discharge and loosened bodies. tube as initiator. Before the blast, crushed rock gravels were
The blasted caved ore fragments body and loosened region used to cover the model. The thickness of the gravels was
affect the caved body. The property of the caved body over 0.8m. The setup was covered with hay mats, as shown
affects the properties of the discharge body and loosened in Figure 2.
body. Therefore, the discharge body, loosened body, and
caved body are interrelated integral part. In order to reduce
dilution and ore loss it is important to study the interaction of
these three bodies for optimizing the controlling parameters.

Effect of the physical mechanical property of the ore

body to be blasted on the state of the blasted caved ore
fragments body
The ore body is to be blasted target. Its property directly
affects the state of the blasted caved ore fragments body.
Under the same condition, blasting the ore body with
different properties will result in different states of the
blasted caved ore fragments body. Therefore, it is important
to understand the property of the ore body to be blasted,
such as blast ability, swell factors, etc. in order to achieve a
favorable state of the blasted caved ore fragments body.
In summary, there are many factors affecting the state of
the blasted caved ore fragments body. The major ones are
blast design parameters, the physical and mechanical Figure 2: Powder charge and detonator coupling.
property of the coverage waster, the property of the ore
body to be blasted, and the discharge protocol, etc. From In order to test the effects of the covering rock layer on the
the analysis above, after blast the blasted caved ore blasted caved fragment body, the models I, and II were
fragments body is similar to the loosened body and is a blasted with full hole-length loading. The models were
body with complex surface smaller in volume than the covered with pouring crushed rock. While the models III,
loosened body. The fragment size distribution, porosity, and and IV were blasted with part hole-length loading and
flow-ability within the body are determined from blast, ore covered with compressed crushed rock. The unloaded
body and surrounding rock material properties. length at the hole-bottom was expressed as percentage of
the charge length. 11% was used as unloaded length for
3 MODEL STUDY OF BLAST IN CEMENT MODELS each borehole for the model III and IV.
After blast, the covering layer was manually striped
In order to confirm the analysis in the above section, we horizontally layer by layer from the top to bottom. The caved
conducted blasts within cement models. These tests were to fragmented ore was sized by color. In order to determine the
simulate the sublevel caving blasts to understand the space state of caved ore mass, the profile of caved ore
blasted caved ore fragments body and blast design effects. mass was measured in each 4cm from the top of caved ore
mass to the flat rock, as shown in Figure 3.
Model construction and design
According to the real mining configuration, with sublevel
height 10m, route distance 10m, caving distance 3m four
models were constructed in ratio of 1:50. The models have the
same material: cement mixed with sand in weight ratio of 1:4.
The cement was #400 cement. The models were marked with
three colors, red, black, and green, respectively from floor of
the drift upwards. Two rows of blast holes were made 7.5mm
in diameter while the cement was wet, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 3: Measurement and statistics of blast caved ore

mass.

Experiment result statistics

Caved fragment ore was sized and weighted by color. Its
k50, k80 and mean block were calculated and are shown in
Table 1 and Figure 4. The characteristic of blasting caved
Figure 1: Cement and sand model specification. ore mass according to the experiment is shown in Figure 5.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 239

 Table 1: Model Blast Result Statistics The experiment demonstrated that the caved ore mass is
similar to the loosened body and is a body with complex
zone K5 K80 mean large surface smaller in volume than the loosened body. The
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%) fragment size distribution within the body is increasing from
bottom to top, and on the top of the caved ore body near the
1 52.43 89.32 59.23 42.09 ore body there is a subsided area. The height, length, and
2 40.41 81.65 51.58 21.61 width of the caved ore body are larger than the height of
sublevel, the length of stope route distance and the width of
3 28.88 55.26 41.27 20.53
caved ore-bed, respectively. The caved ore body is
total 44.40 78.16 52.09 27.57 composed of two segments, one is the pure caved ore area,
1 42.13 69.49 49.05 17.91 the other is the ore and rock area near the caved ore body
2 44.74 70.91 50.83 16.39 boundary, as shown in Figure 6.
3 32.45 60.69 40.85 16.00
total 41.45 68.42 48.58 16.77
1 32.87 57.62 44.45 28.00
2 27.78 49.30 36.80 10.38
3 28.60 53.41 37.41 12.50
total 30.80 57.71 38.77 15.01
1 29.11 46.22 32.80 0
2 28.39 48.77 34.29 5.93
3 24.01 45.54 31.40 0
total 27.29 46.45 33.27 3.06

Figure 6: Ore and rock area of blast caved ore mass.

The maximum width of ore and rock area was nearly

17mm in the experiment. The fragment ore piled into
coverage rock mass by explosive force and smaller
coverage rock permeated the caved ore body by gravity
formed the ore and rock area. By explosive force, the extent
of the caved ore piled into coverage ore mass was bound up
with the explosive force, looseness of coverage ore mass
and the black size near the contact zones of caved ore body
and coverage rock mass. The smaller the block is, the
stronger the explosive force is and the looser the coverage
rock is, the wider the ore and rock area is. The coverage
rock size of model IV is smaller than others, so its ore and
rock area is the widest. By gravity, smaller coverage rock
permeates caved ore. We saw this clearly during ore
drawing process.
The mixed up of ore and rock by explosive force is called
explosive dilution. It shows that its important to research the
characteristics of the coverage rock mass and the blast
Figure 4: Fragment ore curve of blast caved ore mass caved ore mass.
After the coverage rock mass shaped, decreasing the
difference between the coverage rock size and caved ore
size, only can be got through changing the fragment size on
the top of the blast caved ore mass. Because model I
covered with rock naturally and model III with compressed
rock manually, the former is looser. The blast caved ore
bodies of the 2 models are similar, but the former is larger in
volume, the former subsided area is clearer and the former
fragment size distribution is not as even as the latter.
The experiment also demonstrated that the blast caved
ore mass from hole-bottom air deck blast is different from
the continuous loading. The fragment size distribution of the
former is very uniform. Especially the fragment size of
bottom is smaller and subsided area is smaller in volume.
This can be proved in model IV.
The state of blast caved ore mass is uneven. The fluidity
of the blast caved ore mass near the explosive face is
better, for the direction of explosive force is along the route
Figure 5: State of blast caved ore mass tunnel. And the fluidity of both sides perpendicular the route

240 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

tunnel is better. The larger the subsided area is, the clearer
the uneven is. During ore drawing, the uneven of blast
caved ore mass causes the rock flow to ore removal mouth,
which lead to ore drawing ceased and ore loss increased.
We call this rock short circuit. The rock short circuit should
be avoided.
The space state of blast caved ore mass is the foundation
of ore drawing, the work above advanced new question of
ore drawing, optimization of structure parameters and
dilution decreasing.

4 RESEARCH OF THE CHARACTERISTIC

OF BLAST CAVED ORE MASSS
INFLUENCE ON ORE LOSS AND DILUTION

At present, in mines adopting sublevel caving, with the

increasing of working depth, the coverage rock mass
Figure 7: Ore drawing experiment equipment.
formed at the beginning descends continually. During this
process the fragment rock of coverage rock is graded
naturally, its size decreases from top to bottom. And in buff Table 2: Ore drawing filler
blasts of vertical fan blast holes with middle depth, the
distribution of blast is uneven, which makes blast ore is Model zone Filler weight_g_ Q
uneven and decrease from top to bottom. All the above
changes the connection of blast caved ore and coverage 1_2 mm 2-4mm 4-6mm 6-8mm 8-10mm (g)
rock.
For the better of expounding the influence of the state of up 26.68 28.90 67.84 118.61 93.95 336
blast caved ore mass on the loss and dilution of ore, we middle 9.33 47.65 101.98 142.89 34.98 337
developed the study of contrast ore drawing models down 25.34 70.87 102.72 96.31 42.09 337
experiment on the basis of the cement models test and the
natural grading in coverage rock mass. In ore drawing total 1010
model, the ore is of high-grade magnetic iron ore and the up 18.72 90.10 112.04 149.11 0 370
coverage rock is baiyunyan. In order to make the middle 23.98 55.32 112.85 155.84 21.98 370
experiment credible, we did the experiment two times and
got the same result, as shown in Figure 7 and Table 2, 3. down 13.84 80.88 148.67 126.54 0 370
Through the results of the experiment, we can conclude total 1010
that when the ore drawing adopting the result of continuous
loading blast model, after 1~2 times of ore removal, the the blast caved ore mass, and make the body muckpile
coverage rock passed through the ore pile and reached the loose, and make the blast caved ore and the remain ore
ore removal work face, for the fragment ore size is larger. body in proper portion with each other, and get the best
The pure ore recovery is little. And the flow of ore is often benefits of ore drawing. The results from this study can help
prevented, which reduced the efficient of ore removal. The the research of ore drawing theory and optimization of
recovery is 82.57%, and dilution rate is 35.05%. When structure parameters from now on.
adopting the result of hole bottom air deck blast model, the Through the contrast experiment of ore drawing, we can
fluidity of ore got better and pure ore recovery increased, see the influence of the state of caved ore on the loss and
because the size difference between ore and rock reduces, dilution of ore.
which slows down the pace that the coverage rock passes Adopting hole bottom air deck blast, reducing thickness
through the ore and reaches the ore removal work face. Its of blast ore can improve the characteristic of blast caved ore
recovery is 84.50%, and dilution rate is 34.35%. The mass, and decrease the loss and dilution of ore.
recovery increases 1.93% and dilution decreases 0.70%.
The experiment proved that the result of blast is the main REFERENCES
factor influenced ore drawing, only to connect blast with ore
drawing, can we decrease the loss and dilution of ore. Liu X G. 1988. Foundation of Ore Drawing Theory.
Metallurgy Industry Press. Beijing.
5 CONCLUSIONS Xiong G H. 1988. Sublevel Caving Method. Metallurgy
Industry Press. Beijing.
This paper analyzed the state of blast caved ore in Wang C H. 1982. Theory of Ore Drawing. Metallurgy
sublevel caving theoretically, made pilot test, advanced the Industry Press. Beijing.
definition of the blast caved ore mass, pointed out that the Ren F Y. 1984. Equations of Ore and Rock Moving in
discharged ore mass, loose body and the blast caved ore Caving Ore Drawing and its Application. Northeast
mass should be treated as integral. In order to optimize Institute of Industry. Shenyang.
structure parameters and decrease ore dilution, the ore Janelid I 1968. Sublevel caving: how to use It what are the
drawing and blast should be studied together. advantages problems. World Mining. September 76~78.
The caved ore mass is similar to the loosened body and Kvapil R 1982. The mechanics and design of sublevel
is a body with complex surface smaller in volume than the caving systems. Underground Mining Methods
loosened body. The fragment size distribution within the Handbook(Ed: W A Hustrulid) pp880~897(SME).
body is increasing from bottom to top, and on the top of the Kvapil R 1992. Sublevel caving. SME Mining Engineers
caved ore body near the ore body there is a subsided area. Handbook 2nd Edition(Ed: H L Hartman) Chapter 20.2
The height, length, and width of the caved ore body are pp1798~1814(SME).
larger than the height of sub-level, the length of stope route Cox,J A 1967. Latest developments and draw control in
distance and the width of caved ore-bed one respectively. sub-level caving. Trans IMM,Sect A, vol 76,
Adjusting blast parameters can change the characteristic of ppA149~A159.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 241

 Table 3: Ore drawing contrast experiment result

model interval times 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 recovery Dilution rate

weight

1 T 27 28 32 24 27 27 29 24 218 72.77 32.57

Wy 0 4 8 5 9 10 15 20 71
Wk 27 24 24 19 18 17 14 4 147
2 T 26 21 30 35 25 31 27 38 32 265 81.68 37.74
Wy 0 0 7 9 10 19 16 17 22 100
Wk 26 21 23 26 15 12 11 21 10 165
3 T 26 26 33 36 36 31 28 216 65.35 38.89
Wy 0 6 10 12 15 21 20 84
Wk 26 20 23 24 21 10 8 132
4 T 19 21 35 30 32 35 35 51 30 288 92.57 35.07
Wy 0 0 8 10 9 11 18 24 21 101
Wk 19 21 27 20 23 24 17 27 9 187
5 T 26 24 37 50 44 34 45 37 297 100.50 31.65
Wy 0 0 8 10 11 16 19 30 94
Wk 26 24 29 40 33 18 26 7 203

total Q_1010gWy_450_Wk = 834_T = 1284 82.57 35.05

1 T 22 25 23 36 28 30 28 24 22 238 75.23 29.83

Wy 0 0 0 9 8 11 15 12 16 71
Wk 22 25 23 27 20 19 13 12 6 167
2 T 26 20 22 24 27 32 26 25 25 22 26 275 78.38 36.73
Wy 0 0 0 0 10 15 11 13 15 15 22 101
Wk 26 20 22 24 17 17 15 12 10 7 4 174
3 T 28 29 30 19 35 37 29 29 30 24 290 87.39 33.10
Wy 0 0 0 0 15 15 12 14 20 20 96
Wk 28 29 30 19 20 22 17 15 10 4 194
4 T 26 29 21 26 29 30 26 27 22 234 72.07 32.48
Wy 0 0 0 8 10 11 15 16 16 76
Wk 26 29 21 18 19 19 11 11 6 160
5 T 29 29 26 31 39 43 44 30 50 26 43 390 109.46 37.69
Wy 0 0 0 0 12 20 24 11 33 15 32 147
Wk 29 29 26 31 27 23 20 19 17 11 11 243

total Q=1010g, Wy=491, Wk = 938, T = 1429 84.50 34.35

T - Weight of the total removed.

Wy - Weight of the removed rock.
Wk - Weight of the removed ore.

Ren F Y. Qiao D P. Tao G Q. 2002. Mathematical model of JUST.G.D. and FREEG.D. The Gravity Flow of Material in
air flow caused by failing rock[A]. The Proceedings of the the sub-level Caving Mining System Proc.ist Australia-
2nd International Conference New Development in Rock New Zealand Conference On Geomechanics Vol.1 1971,
Mechanics and Rock Engineerig[C]. New York. Rinton 88~97.
Press. Pp572~577.

242 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 6
Geomechanics
244 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 ALCODER: A new method for
evaluating stability of rock excavation
Guillermo Krstulovic L., Consultant, Geomecnica Ltd

Abstract
Rock excavations are evaluated in geomechanics by procedures including: (1) zonation of the rock by quality indices,
such as RQD, RMR, Q, GSI, Stability Number N, all having associated engineering recommendations for the design to
be excavated; (2) modeling by Simulator Algorithm, with outputs in terms of stress-strain of the excavated rock. Stress-
strain results given by the Simulator are usually interpreted by means of a rupture criterion. Stress-strain outputs,
however, do not correlate directly with engineering recommendations. To overcome this limitation ALCODER (Computer
Algorithm for the Design of Rock Excavations) yields outputs of the changes occurring in the deformation modulus upon
changing the confinement of the excavated rock, all according to the laws of classical mechanics. The new modulus
figures provided by ALCODER can be related with RQD, RMR, Q and GSI indices and Stability Number N through use
of empirical formulae available in the literature. The results enable useful engineering recommendations to be derived
for each design to be excavated. Examples are included of applications to mining designs of open-pit and panel-caving
geometry, yielding results that explain slope failures, abutment stress and collapses of underground production levels
by caving.

INTRODUCTION the rock in terms of deformation modulus, and tectonic

and gravitational forces associated with the area to be
The methods used in geomechanics to address the mined.
design of rock excavations have evolved along two The deformation modulus (E) is directly or
completely differentiated trends of development insofar as indirectly a mandatory input for all Simulators now in
the approach to the problem is concerned. These trends use. As discussed below, its value is normally
are. derived from empirical correlations between (E) and
RQD or RMR.
Empirical Approach. In the first step of this approach, The output is invariably expressed as stress and strain
the quality of the in-situ rock is evaluated by means of a experienced by the rocks remaining after excavation. All of
"quality index," and the resulting index is then associated these results are usually presented as drawings of the
with a practical recommendation for the mine design. The excavation geometry in sequence. The drawings make use
rock quality zonation indices most frequently used in mining of a nomenclature keyed to a color code to better represent
are: RQD (Deere, 1966), Q (Barton, 1974), RMR stresses and strains.
(Laubscher, 1977), GSI (Hoek et al., 1997) and Stability Contrary to the situation with the input, the output stress
Number N (Potvin & Nickson, 1992). and strain results bear no correlation with the empirical
The empirical approaches are in a continual state of indices that provide useful recommendations for the mine
review, yielding new uses for mine design. In the future, rock design. Instead, these outputs are incorporated into a
quality indices may increasingly acquire a direct association theoretical (Mohr-Coulomb) or empirical (Hoek & Brown)
with the mining method used, thus facilitating the obtaining breakage criterion with results that must be interpreted by
of inputs and/or requiring specific responses from the the user.
approach. This association has already been made between In summary:
RMR and mining by caving, between GSI and open-pit
mining, between N and sub-level stoping, and between Q "Currently, the empirical and analytical approaches do
and tunnel design. not yield a common output for both procedures and
must be interpreted separately."
Analytical Approach. In this approach, a computer
algorithm is used as a mine design Simulator. In the ALCODER (Computer Algorithm for the Design of
beginning, these algorithms were intended to make more Rock Excavations) is an analytical method that outputs
efficient the storage of geotechnical information required by results for the stresses and strains in the remaining rock
the Simulator , and to increase the speed of solving systems after excavation. However, it avoids associating this
of equations run on the computer. Efficiency in memory output to breakage criteria. Instead, ALCODER provides
capacity and equation-solving speed was particularly critical outputs containing the changes that occur in the
when dealing with simulations of complex geometries in deformation moduli (E) of these materials, i.e., changes
three dimensions. due to the changes in confinement that occur in the rock
With the advent of computers of greater capacity during the excavation process. The new modulus figures
and processing speed, these limitations were are transformed directly into rock quality indices: RQD or
overcome. Simulators now available are not RMR, or indirectly into GSI, Q or N by means of
substantially different in terms of their input empirical formulae drawn from the literature. In this
requirements and output results. manner, the results of ALCODER can be associated with
Invariably the input required by these Simulators is: engineering recommendations that are of use for mine
geometric description of the mine design, zonation of design work.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 245

BRIEF THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

Rock mechanics describes the stress-strain relationship

in its most elemental form by means of the following
expression:

(i) = E x e(i)

(i) = Stress applied in direction (i)

(i=1,2,3) = Stress (greatest, intermediate, least)
(i) = Unit strain resulting in (i)
E = Deformation modulus

This equation will be reiterated for gravitational or tectonic

stress, , as many times as there are rock elements that can
be made discrete in terms of the value of their modulus (E),
thus giving as a result many e values that must be made
compatible in order to maintain the integrity of the rock.
In a first approach, (E) is considered an intrinsic
parameter of the rock and in a simple form ,can be assumed
to be constant and of linear and elastic characteristics.
Laboratory and in-situ tests have shown that (E) does not
have elastic behavior. Notwithstanding this, other plastic
and/or elasto-plastic assumptions are not sufficiently Figure 2: Variation of (E) in Rock under Increasing
convincing to be taken for use to represent this parameter of Confinement (Deere et al. 1966)
the rock.
These same laboratory and in-situ tests have
demonstrated that the non-linear deviation of (E) can be
irrelevant for purposes of calculating stresses and strains.
In summary:

"The most frequently used analytical methods in rock

mechanics assume that the modulus (E) is constant
and of linear and elastic characteristics."

In this paper the constant nature of the modulus (E) is

questioned. The laboratory tests reported by various
authors, e.g., Jaeger & Cook (1969), Deere et al.(1966),
have demonstrated that the modulus (E) under conditions
of confinement varies in accordance with the magnitude
of the confining stress, 3. This variation is not minor
and, according to Yaez & Moreno (1993), can be greater
than 200%. Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate this
phenomenon.

Figure 3: Modulus (E) in Rocks under Different Degrees of

Confinement(Ynez & Moreno 1993)

Besides the axial strain that gives rise to (E), another

strain radial to the major stress originates a second modulus
(u) whose constant and unchanging nature when under
changing conditions of confinement is also questionable.
Notwithstanding the scant amount of existing information in
the literature, Kulhawy (1973) suggests that in igneous
rocks such variations are insignificant.

CHANGES IN MODULUS (E) WITH CHANGING

CONFINEMENT

Changes in (E) in response to confinement, s 3, are

conventionally expressed by means of the formula
proposed by Jambu (1963):

(E) = K x Pa (3 / Pa) n
3 = Least confining stress
Figure 1: Variation of Axial Strain at Different Magnitudes of Pa = Atmospheric pressure
Confinement (Jaeger & Cook 1969) K, n = Experimental constants

246 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The values of K and n can be obtained by means of Figure 6 shows a reduction factor for the modulus
laboratory testing through the determination of the modulus obtained in the laboratory as compared with the modulus
(E) at different magnitudes of 3. Calculations are facilitated obtained in the field, as reported by other authors. The
after approximating a straight line in the relationship of (E) reduction factor is expressed in terms of RQD
versus 3 in a graph plotted on a log-log scale.
Typical results of K and n for igneous, metamorphic and Correlation of (E)/RMR
sedimentary rocks were compiled by Kulhawi (1973) and are Figure 7 shows the empirical correlation between (E) in
reproduced here in Table 1. Additionally, typical results for rocks situ and RMR, as proposed by Serafim & Pereira (1983) and
encountered by Chilean mining are presented in Figure 4. Bieniawski (1978). This correlation takes on different
analytical expressions depending on the range of RMR
involved.

Correlation of (E)/GSI, (E)/Q and (E)/N

This author is unaware of any reports or proposals of
direct relationships between these indices and modulus (E).
However, procedures are given in the literature to associate
RMR with Q, GSI and N, which would make it possible to
overcome this limitation.

Figure 4: Increased Rigidity of the Modulus (E) with

Confinement (Krstulovic)

CORRELATIONS OF (E) WITH ROCK QUALITY INDICES

The literature on geomechanics contains formulae for

relating the modulus (E) with rock quality indices.

Correlation of (E)/RQD
Figure 5 shows an indirect correlation proposed by Sjogren
et al. (1979) to associate compressional velocity, Vp, with RQD.
The conversion of Vp to (E) is given by Figure 2.

Figure 6: Reduction Ratio for Modulus (E) in the Laboratory

(El) and in the Field (Em) as a Function of RQD.

Figura N5: Relacin entre Vp, Fracturas por Metro y

RQDPara Rocas Intrusivas, (Sjorgren)

Table 1
Summary of the Parameters K, n under Conditions of Confinement for Different Types of Rock
(Average values according to Kulhawi 1973)
Rock Type
Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary
Plutonic Volcanic Unfolded Folded Clastic Chemical
K 683900 181400 398600 134900 62200 186400
N 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.19 0.20 0.17

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 247

 this figure, a color code is used in the results to show rocks
that have undergone degradation in their modulus value,
others that have not undergone any significant change, and
yet others that have had their rigidity strongly increased.
The degradation limits adopted are comparable to rocks
with an RQD of less than 25% or equivalent in-situ Vp, as
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 7: Empirical Correlation of (E)/RMR

SUGGESTIONS FOR ENGINEERING DESIGN WORK

ACCORDING TO ROCK QUALITY INDICES

In the opinion of this author, the rock quality indices now Figure 8: ALCODER Simulator Output with Variations in (E)
in use can make partial contributions to mine designs in the Resulting from Open-pit Excavation
conceptual, basic and detailed engineering stages.
Predictably, geomechanics professionals in the field make In the upper horizontal plan section of the ALCODER
use of one or another index depending on their availabilities Simulator, the output describes the
and requirements in order to derive relationships for direct location of materials in mine waste piles (RQD of less
use in their activities. than 25%) near the perimeter of the slope. In vertical profile,
By way of example , the "Cavability Number" index the occurrences of degraded zones under the rock subsoil
suggested by McMahond & Kendrik (1969) for the Climax, adjoining the upper topography are identified on the open-
Urad and Henderson mines, and by Krstulovic (1978) for the pit slope.
El Salvador mine, associates RQD with the additional The degraded rock in the subslope configuration was
explosives required for secondary blasting in mining by successfully verified in situ by means of an extensive
block caving. RQD is also used by Deere et al. (1969) and seismic profiling campaign. Figure 9 describes the seismic
Merrit (1972) as an index for estimating reinforcing required interpretation of these slopes.
for rock support.
The Q and N indices have been extensively used by
Hutchinson & Diederechs (1996) to estimate cable bolting
support requirements in tunnels and large underground
openings.
Laubscher (1977) has proposed numerous RMR relations
,and the modified MRMR to establish the geometric
configuration (hydraulic radius) of openings to be caved by
block caving. These indices have also been used to propose
a varied assortment of recommendations for the design
block caving mining infrastructure.
The practical use of all of these empirical suggestions in
mining is sufficient justification for an effort to be made to
associate the outputs of the analytical simulator with the
rock quality indices referred to above.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS TO UNDERGROUND

AND OPEN-PIT MINING

The results of ALCODER applications to mining deposits

of complex geometrical configurations are described below,
with an emphasis on determining slope failures in open-pit
mines, and abutment stress and collapses in underground
workings.

a) Slope Stability Conditions

Yaez & Moreno (1993) describe the use of ALCODER to Figure 9: Seismic Profile Outputs in an Open-pit Mine (Bhen
evaluate slope stability in large size deposits. RQD is the 1990)
quality index of reference.
Figure 8 shows a three-dimensional version of The subslope configuration for degraded rocks provides
ALCODER. The excavation process starts from an early assurances of the safety of the mine because the only slope
stage of the mine and extends until the date of the study. In failures that can arise under this configuration of

248 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

deteriorated rock can be retained by the berms used in geometry of the "hanging" wall. Figure 11 shows the results
these designs. obtained for different configurations of the back in a typical
tectonic environment. This figure leads to the following
b) Stability Conditions in Panel Caving underneath an conclusion:
Open Pit
METALICA Ing. (2001) evaluated stability conditions in "Abutment stress can be reduced by means of ore
projects calling for panel caving underneath existing open extraction policies that enhance the vertical geometry
pits. In this case, MRMR was used as a reference. of the hanging wall in the panel caving face."
Figure 10 shows an instant in the ALCODER sequence for
mining the advancing face in panel caving. The results are
shown as: (a) an upper plan section that includes the pit rim;
(b) a vertical profile that includes the pit slopes and the
panel caving face; (c) a horizontal plan section that includes
the level under caving.

Figure 11: Distribution of Abutment Stress. Tectonic

Figure 10: ALCODER for the Complex Plan Section Environment: Vertical 25 Mpa/Horizontal 30 Mpa
(a)/Profile (b)/ Plant Section (c) Output Example in the
Caving Sequence, 160 m height. The ALCODER Simulator also confirms the occurrence of
cracks in hanging wall rock. These cracks facilitate the
The rocks most affected have been degraded to a range separation of large volumes of rock that upon bearing down
of 20 or less in terms of MRMR index. At this quality they are on the back of production level openings bring about their
assumed to be suitable for caving from the back or the collapse.
hanging wall of the caving scheme. Figure 12 shows a schematic presentation of the
In the caving sequence given by ALCODER, the rocks in ALCODER results for panel caving with "hanging" geometry
the upper horizontal plan section (a) located near the pit rim in a mine that has experienced problems of collapse. This
do not undergo deterioration. The profile (b) shows the figure leads to the following conclusion:
caving wall with "hanging" geometry. This profile also
implies the formation of cracks in the rocks of the back of the "The events leading to damage by collapse can be
opening. These rocks, upon loosening, give rise to large reduced by means of an ore extraction policy that
blocks that cause the production level infrastructure to minimizes the horizontal projection of the hanging wall.
collapse. In plan section (c), which includes the production
level, the rocks show the effects of stress on the panel
caving face.
The "abutment stress," which gives rise to damage in front
of the face and the "collapse" that causes damage behind
the face, are the two major forms of undesired damage that
occur when using the panel caving method.
Panel caving mining practices combat the effects of
abutment stress by means of costly rock reinforcement.
Also, complicated mining sequences termed "prior caving"
have been used recently in an attempt to reduce such
damage.
For the problem of collapsing, established mining
practices do not have an established solution. The literature
cites cases of collapsing on production levels is such a way
as to necessitate the abandonment of large amounts of
mining reserves.
ALCODER, when used in this case, yields modifications Figure 12: Records of Collapses in a Mine Worked by Panel
of the confinement brought about in accordance with the Caving

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 249

 On account of all of the above, it is recommendable for When required, the ALCODER outputs make it possible to
panel caving operations to investigate the spontaneous construct a computer "animation" of the caving
progress of caving in their mines to determine the geometry phenomenon. Figure 14 shows a view of an instantaneous
of the hanging wall at the mining face. An effective follow-up portion of the entire output sequence.
of the progress of caving is very difficult to perform in situ, The Simulator is assertive when it describes the formation
but as an alternative it may be investigated through use of of cracks in the mountainous topography of the surface. The
ALCODER as discussed below. fact that these cracks have been verified in situ conclusively
supports the reliability of the results obtained.
c) Simulation of Progress of Caving (Computer These results illustrate the following major points:
Animation) ALCODER makes it possible to verify the start and
METALICA Ing. (2002) studied the development of the progress of caving in accordance with the RMR/hydraulic
caving process for panel caving planned for mining on deep radius relation suggested by Laubscher.
levels near mine areas already caved. Figure 13 provides ALCODER is a good alternative for use in formulating ore
an isometric view of the volume of rock studied. In this case, extraction policies.
the rock quality index used was RMR Using this methodology, the mine operator, who until now
was unaware of what was occurring in the cavity
undergoing caving, can now anticipate the required
geometry for the undercut in order to avoid "arching" on
the back or "hanging" walls.

CONCLUSIONS

ALCODER is an appropriate method to bring together for

use in one single interpretive effort the empirical and
analytical trends currently in use for the design of rock
excavations. Theoretically, ALCODER is based on making
use of the alteration that the deformation modulus (E) of
rocks undergoes under different states of confinement, a
subject that has been treated with sufficient backing in the
specialized literature. The development of large open pit
and underground excavations alter the confinement
conditions of rocks, thereby degrading the associated
deformation modulus or increasing its rigidity. The new
values of (E) obtained by ALCODER are associated directly
with the empirical rock quality indices. These same indices
Figure 13: Isometric View of the Volume of Rock Used for can then be employed to suggest useful engineering
study by Animation of Caving. practices for mine designs.

In principle, the mine plan included the development of a ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

tentative undercut to initiate caving. The ALCODER
Simulator then automatically deduces the rocks with The author expresses his thanks for the facilities granted
degraded (E) values comparable to an RMR range of 0-20. by METALICA Ing. to reproduce practical results of
The degraded rocks in this range that are located around ALCODER in this paper.
the perimeter of the back or hanging wall are assumed to
have caved and are removed from further consideration by REFERENCES
the Simulator.
As a result of this new condition, caving progresses in a Barton N. et al. (1974). Engineering Classification of Rock
sequence in real time until it causes the collapse of the rock Masses for the Design of Tunnel Support. Rock Mech.,
on the surface. Vol. 10.
Bhen G. (1990). Caracterizacin Geossmica de Rocas
en Taludes y Tneles. Revista Minerales. Inst. Ing. Minas
de Chile, Vol. 45 N 191
Deere D.U. et al. (1966). Engineering Classification and
Index Properties for Intact Rock. University of Illinois.
Contract AF 29(601)-6319
Hoek E. et al. (1997). Practical Estimates of Rock Mass
Strength. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Science.
Hutchinson D.J. et al. (1996). Cablebolting in
Underground Mines. BiTech Publishers Ltd.
Jaeger J.C. et al. (1969). Fundamentals of Rock
Mechanics. Methuen & Co. Ltd. London.
Jambu N. (1963). Soil Compressibility as Determined by
Oedometer and Triaxial Test. Proceeding. European
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Eng. Vol.
1 Weisbaden.
Krstulovic G. (1978). Relacin RQD y Tronadura
Secundaria en El Salvador. 2 Encuentro Nacional de
Mecnica de Rocas y Geomecnica. CIMM Stgo. Chile.
Figure 14: Instantaneous View Produced by ALCODER in a
Caving Animation Sequence

250 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Kulhawy F.H. (1973). Analysis of Underground Openings Serafin J. & Pereira J.P. (1983). Consideration on the
in Rock by Finite Element Methods. Syracuse University Geomechanical Classification of Bieniawski. Proc. Int.
Contract H010023. Symp. On Engineering Geology and Underground
Laubscher D.H. (1977). Geomechanics Classification of Construction. Lisbon.
Jointed Rock Masses. Mining Applications. Trans. Inst. Potvin & Nickson (1992). Database of Unsupported
Min. Metall. 86. Stopes. Cablebolting in Underground Mines. BiTech
McMahon B.K. et al (1969). Predicting the Block Caving Publishers Ltd.
Behavior of Ore Bodies. AIME 69-AU-51. Sjogren et al. (1979). Seismic Classification of Rock
Metalica Ing. (2001). Geomecnica para el Diseo de Mass. Geophysical Prospecting. 27.Yaez H.V. et al.
Explotacin Subterrnea en Panel Sur-Sur. CODELCO (1993). Metodologa de Anlisis para Evaluar Estabilidad
Andina. de Taludes de Gran Dimensin. Depto. Ing. Minas U. de
Metalica Ing. (2002). Anlisis Geomecnico Sector A- Chile. Degree Thesis.
Norte. CODELCO El Salvador.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 251

 Modelling the progression of back and
wall caving in deep blasthole stope
failures at Kidd Mine using FLAC3D
Richard K Brummer, Christopher P. OConnor, Itasca Consulting Canada Inc., Canada
Graham Swan, Falconbridge Limited, Sudbury Mines/Mill Business Unit, Canada
Alex Henderson, Falconbridge Limited, Kidd Mine, Canada

Abstract
The Kidd Mine in Timmins, Ontario, operates the deepest blasthole stopes in the world, in an area of relatively high
horizontal stress. During 2003, back and hangingwall failures of several deep stopes started to occur. The back and
hangingwall failures appeared to be related to elevated levels of horizontal stress that initiated failure in locally weaker
wall rock units, and then caused post-failure displacements large enough to "push" the failed material into the stopes,
resulting in undesirable falls of ground and dilution. A field programme was undertaken to identify characteristics that
accentuated the failures, and in parallel a FLAC3D model was developed to mimic the observed failures. This FLAC3D
model is unique in that the geometry changes - following the evolution of failure and the progression of caved material
up into the back. Several innovative algorithms (using FLAC3Ds built-in FISH language) were developed to allow the
model to behave in the same way as the observed failures. After the model was calibrated, it was then used to
investigate the most important controlling factors that govern the back stability problem. This calibration and forward
prediction exercise allowed the mine to make the most cost-effective changes to the planned stope layouts to ensure
that subsequent stopes could be extracted in a controlled fashion.

1 INTRODUCTION decided that a FLAC3D model would in fact be capable

of fulfilling this objective, provided a reasonably
Falconbridges Kidd Mine currently produces from some complete structural, geological and geometrical
of the deepest blasthole stopes in the world, where little or description of the stable and failing stopes could be
no empirical geomechanical design data exist. In this obtained to calibrate the model.
technically challenging situation, a reliable stope design
methodology with the capability to mitigate risk and 2 DESCRIPTION OF FAILURES
exposure to ground control related production interruptions
is highly desirable. Such a methodology should be capable Kidd Mine began blasthole stoping operations in the
of considering, on a stope-by-stope basis, all of the mining block below the 6000ft level in early 2001 with
following: 20m wide stopes and 35m sub-levels (back to floor),
Spatial variability of rock mass strength in proximity to see Figure 1. By mid-2002, while still in the primary
stope backs and walls; mining phase and 2 or 3 lifts away from sill break-
Intersecting and adjacent faults; through, the back of 63-745 stope began caving in the
Overstressing effects caused by proximity to sill pillars back and hangingwall, see Figure 2. Over the following
and abutments; 18 months five more primary stopes caved extensively
The general depth effect of increasing stress; up through several levels, while others experienced a
Stope sequencing, with single and multiple lead stopes; degree of local overbreak and spalling. While some of
Effectiveness of secondary ground support systems such these caving events were accompanied by flurries of
as cablebolts; microseismic activity, indicting the influence of high
Stope excavation geometry effects relating to stress and fault-slip type mechanisms, it was generally
primary/secondary stope width, panel length, sub-level agreed that rockbursting alone could not explain the
height; large-scale extent of these failures.
Undercut hangingwalls associated with blasthole slotting; A systematic summary of the stoping performance logic
Time-dependency of stope back/wall stability with 3- for the entire block was compiled, Table 1. This shows
6month mining cycles; that, out of a total of 20 mined stopes between 6200ft and
The stabilizing effect of backfill. 6800ft levels, 6 hangingwall panels caved extensively in
both back and hangingwall, 4 hangingwall panels caved
At the feasibility stage, the Kidd Mine lower stope locally in back or hangingwall and only 1 footwall panel
walls and backs were substantially designed using a caved locally in the back. Other information available to
variation of the Stability Graph method, justified on the the calibration process included extensive stope Cavity
basis of the limited data available at the time (Tannant Monitoring Survey (CMS) data and diamond drill core
and Dieterichs, 1997). With development access and logs, the latter examined for poor RQD values and fault
production now underway and the ability to observe intersections and plotted in the 3-D space of the planned
actual stoping conditions, including the unexpected stoping layouts. An example of this exercise is shown in
caving of a number of primary stopes, a more powerful Figure 3 where the coincidence of low contours of RQD
tool was sought to account for the factors noted above and faulting with the occurrence of stope hangingwall
and to explain the mechanism(s) driving failures. It was failure was not without significance.

252 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 3: RQD contour and fault map +/- 5m on the 6400ft
level showing the affected hangingwall panels.

Table 1: Logic associated with caving/stability

in the primary stopes of the mining block.

Stope Panel back H/W Panel Cave

# RQD Zone x Width Back H/W

64-785 H/W Good No 20x20 No No

64-901 H/W Poor No 12x20 No No
64-786 F/W Good No 25x20 No No
64-822 F/W Good No 25x20 No No
64-822 F/W Good No 25x20 No No
68-841 H/W Good No 40x20 No No
68-845 F/W Good No 25x20 No No
Figure 1: Longitudinal view of Kidd Lower Mine, with caving 68-881 H/W Good No 35x20 No No
stopes outlined (above); plan view of 6700L showing 64-746 F/W Good No 20x20 Yes No
planned stope outline and mapped faults (below). 64-805 H/W Good Yes 30x20 No 5m corner
64-821 H/W Good No 25x20 No 5m corner
67-841 H/W Good No 25x20 No 5m corner
64-745 H/W Good Yes 25x20 No 5m corner
63-822 H/W Good No 40x20 Yes 5m corner
68-765 H/W Good Yes 35x20 3m 5m corner
dome
67-765 H/W Good Yes 30x20 5m Upper
dome 20 m
67-805 H/W Poor Yes 25x20 Yes Upper
20 m
63-785 H/W Good Yes 20x20 5m Upper
dome 20 m
63-745 H/W Good Yes 25x20 5m Upper
dome 20 m
66-765 H/W Poor No 20x20 ? ?

3 FLAC3D MODEL DEVELOPMENT

A FLAC3D model was built to characterise the behaviour

of the caving mechanism at Kidd Mine. To reproduce
discontinuous behaviour (caving) in a continuum model
(FLAC3D), a significant effort is first required to establish a
set of failure criteria that will adequately describe the caving
Figure 2: Section through 67-805 stope showing the process itself, followed by the development of customized
characteristic failure into the upper hangingwall back and FISH routines to replicate this behaviour (FISH is a the
the hangingwall. programming language used by the Itasca codes). There

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 253

were four key criteria that were used in this study to define
the shape and extent of the caving:
Strain in a block;
Vertical displacement of a block;
Minimum principal stress component in the block;
A free path into which a block can fall.

The Kidd Mine models geometry was designed to include

sill conditions such as exist above 6400ft and 6000ft levels,
as well as the abutments of the mining block itself. A large
region discretized into 2mx2mx2m blocks was used to
provide sufficient resolution in the area of interest. These
blocks were all angled to match the dip of the orebody. In
addition to ore geometry, the model also distinguished
between the two orebodies at Kidd: the Massive Sulphide
and the Copper Zone, each with its unique set of rock
properties.
In running the model, an overall loop function was used to
determine if a block should be removed (i.e. cave) or not. At
the beginning of each step, this loop checked to see if the
strain, displacement, and stress criteria were met (all three
must be met to proceed). If the block met these three
criteria, the model then checked to see if in fact the block
had a free path to fall. When all four criteria were met, the
model automatically deleted the block, removing it from
further calculation steps. As the number of steps increased,
the number of blocks deleted also increased (assuming the
model predicted caving), resulting in the formation of a
caving front.
To "fine tune" this modelling process, an extensive
calibration exercise was conducted in order to find the best
set of parameters giving the strongest correlation to the
available CMS data. Eventually, after this exercise
produced reasonable agreement with Table 1 for a small Figure 4: Cross-section of 63-745 stope, with the caved
sample of stopes, it was expanded to include all of the region noted by the hatching in the hangingwall.
stopes in the entire mining block. Examples taken from
some of these calibration stopes will now be examined in
some detail.

3.1 Example results from calibrated models

The 63-745 stope falls within the massive sulphide region
of the orebody. The rock properties in the modelling are
taken directly from previous modelling conducted for the
mine (Andrieux, Brummer & Zhu, 2003). Figure 4 shows 63-
745 stope and the shape of the caved zone based upon
CMS data. In this particular stope, a weak shear zone in the
hangingwall was of special interest and was treated
explicitly in the FLAC model to account for the depth of
caving into the hangingwall itself. Note that the failure in the
back of the stope was limited to the corner along the
hangingwall contact.
Figure 5 shows the same stope as modelled in FLAC3D.
The caved shape closely matches the CMS data with the
shear zone being the focal point of the failure. Additionally,
part of the hangingwall has failed and the failure in the back
of the stope is mainly limited to the corner adjacent to the
hangingwall contact.
In a second example, Figure 6 shows a CMS section of
63-822 stope (which is in the Copper Zone of the orebody).
The failure in this stope had a very different shape with a
dome being formed that advanced vertically from the back.
Figure 7 shows the same stope as modelled in FLAC3D.
The only difference in the model for this stope is a change
in rock properties to reflect the contrast of the Copper Zone
rock behaviour compared to the Massive Sulphides, and the
lack of a shear zone on the hangingwall. It is interesting to Figure 5: Half-section of the FLAC3D model of 63-745
note that none of the criteria for caving in this model were stope after running through the customized caving model.
altered to reproduce this result despite the significant
difference in the caving shape.

254 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 be the most important in controlling stope wall and back
behaviour. These controlling factors were:
Stress Level (3 levels)
Weak H/W Shear (Yes/No)
Rock Quality of Stope Back (3 levels)
Stope Width (10m, 15m, 20m or 25m)
Panel Length (15m, 20m or 30m)
Ground Support Level (3 levels)
Ore Type (4 types)
Stope Time Open (<60d, 100d, 180d)
Depth (4000, 6000, 6800 or 7400ft)
Stope Type (FW Panel or HW Panel)

Even though there are relatively few possibilities for each

factor, the total number of potentially different stope types or
combinations of factors is very large (since
3234334342 = 62,208). For this reason, and
because each simulation took several hours of computer
time, a limited number of FLAC3D simulations were carried
out to match the actual stopes that had been mined, and for
which data was available (Table 1). These analyses were
augmented with additional hypothetical situations of
interest. This resulted in a pool of 53 different cases of stope
geometry and condition that were used to build a predictor
of stope performance. The parameter used for assessing
stope performance was the number of tonnes of caved
material, either through measurement or prediction using
the calibrated model.
Figure 6: Cross-section of 63-822 stope, with the caved
region again shown in the hatched region. It was postulated that there exists a relationship between
the individual factors and the tonnes of caved material as
follows:

Tonnes Caved = C [aiFi]

where:
C is some constant;
Fi are risk factors that can be taken by each parameter;
ai are unknown measures of the relative importance of
each parameter;
P is the function of the various factors.

In order to determine the relationship between the

individual controlling factors and the tonnes of caved
material measured or predicted, one simply plots the value
of the proposed function against the caved tonnes. But one
can take this relationship one step further - if the factors ai
are regarded as unknowns, one can find the values of ai that
minimise the sum of the squares of the error between the
predicted and actual caved tonnes. This procedure
amounts to an n-dimensional potential minimisation
problem, where the ai are co-ordinate variables in an n-
dimensional space.
Values of the relative importance of each of the controlling
parameters (penalty factors), based on best estimates of
actual stope behaviour are shown in Table 2.
The relationship between the failure predictor and the
Figure 7: Half-section of the FLAC3D model for 63-822 tonnes of caved material (after sum of squares error
stope showing the same progressive dome shape minimisation) is shown in Figure 8. Also shown in this figure
geometry to the cave as from the CMS. are two best-fit lines, one for short-term stope behaviour
and one for the long-term (6 month) stope behaviour. This
was simulated by adjusting the cycle time of the FLAC3D
4 PARAMETRIC STUDY - IDENTIFICATION model, it being noted in practice, that stopes standing open
OF CONTROLLING FACTORS for long time periods continue to cave. The FLAC3D model
also continues to cave if it is allowed to continue running,
After the FLAC3D model showed a satisfactory degree of enabling us to establish an approximate relationship
calibration against the known behaviour of stopes with failed between a FLAC3D step and a real time step.
and stable walls and backs, it was then used to investigate
the significance of each controlling factor. This was done 5 RISK ASSESSMENT OF REMAINING STOPES
using the measured stope behaviour, as well as stope
behaviour predicted by the model. The first stage in the After the above procedure was carried out, the sum of
process was to identify the factors that were considered to squares minimisation automatically indicated the most

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 255

 Table 2: Relative importance of the controlling changed. Ore type, rock quality, and depth for example
factors, after sum of squares minimisation cannot easily be adjusted, whereas the stope geometry
(width, panel size) and support are under mining control.
Mining Stress H/W Fault Back Quality From Table 2 it is apparent that the most important factors
capable of being changed are panel length (757%), stope
1 100% NO 100% 50% 240% width (314%) and stope support (293%). The importance of
panel length was unexpected, but very welcome, since it
2 177 YES 174% 70% 170%
was relatively easy to change panel length, but more difficult
3 255% 90% 100% to make the required changes to the level layout to
accommodate different stope widths. It was also
255% 174% 240%
appreciated that supporting the stope backs using cable
bolts would have an important positive effect on stope back
Time Open (days) Panel Length (m) Ground Support stability. These two factors were therefore adopted as the
most critical factors to change in order to mitigate the stope
<60 100% 15 100% 1 293%
back and wall stability problems in the deep production
100 125% 20 428% 2 197% levels at Kidd Mine.
180 150% 30 757% 3 100% Also arising from the analyses was a "Black Box" predictive
model, capable of making a best estimate prediction using all
150% 757% 293% available data of the likely performance of future stopes. In
order to use the predictive model, it is simply necessary to
Ore Type Stope Width (m) Depth input the controlling factors for the stope in question, and the
"Black Box" predictor will indicate the number of tonnes of
GW 38% 10 100% 4000 69% caved material to be expected. If this caved material predicted
MS 100% 15 157% 6000 100% is less than 2,000 tonnes, this is regarded as "zero caved
material" because it is supportable with typical stope back
SO 38% 20 188% 6800 187% support (rebars). If however the prediction of caved material
38% 314% 2553% is unacceptable, it is possible to investigate the effect of
actions such as panelling with shorter panel lengths or
installing stope back cable bolts.
Stope Type Work is currently in progress to use this predictor to
FW 100% develop hazard numbers for future planned stopes, in order
to ensure that future mining delays are correctly planned for,
HW 359% and that sufficient productive stopes are available to prevent
359% production shortfalls.

6 CONCLUSIONS

As production at Falconbridges Kidd Mine has derived

increasingly from depths greater than 6000 ft (1800m), the
old empirical stope design methodologies have been found
wanting: little or no data exist and the many potential
variables contributing to failure cannot be "weighed". This is
in the face of ever demanding mining business economics,
where the adequacy and confidence of a stope design to
achieve budget with well-stated risk factors is necessary for
survival. In this paper a new, more rigorous approach to
blasthole stope design using FLAC3D has been described
that addresses these design limitations, providing a means
to derive confidence in a better reasoned stope risk
assessment.
In examining the general failure mechanisms associated
with a number of caving blasthole stopes at Kidd Mine, the
evidence pointed to a combination of weak hangingwall and
back ground conditions, exploited by increased stress due
to depth. Contributing design factors in order of importance
were found to be:
Excessive panel lengths of up to 30m
Excessive stope width of 20m
Inadequate ground support
Time to cycle stope

Of these, all but stope width are capable of being changed

Figure 8: Relationship between short-term and long-term within the existing mine design, leading to an expectation
failure predictors after sum of squares error minimisation. that the mines current instability problems can be mitigated
with depth.
important controlling parameters, since these have the
highest numerical values. This was of great importance to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the mine, since the stope back caving problem had to be
addressed in the most effective and economical way. The The authors would like to acknowledge the following Kidd
controlling parameters in Table 2 are not all capable of being Mine staff who all made significant contributions to the

256 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

development of the model reported in this paper: Dave REFERENCES
Counter, Wayne David, Norm Disley, Damian Duff, Doug
MacPhee, Arie Moerman, Bill Mracek, Ed Pietersee, Jerry Tannant, A.A. and Dieterichs, M.S. (1997). Cablebolt
Ran, Dave Richardson, Paul Roos, Shawn Seldon, Mike Optimization in #3 Mine. G.R.C./Laurentian University
Thompson, Chris Wright and to Alex Henderson for initiating Report to Kidd Mine, Sudbury, Sept., 55p.
the project. Ken Liu of Noranda/Falconbridge also provided Andrieux, P.P., R. K. Brummer & H. Zhu (2003). Numerical
valuable input on stope caving data at the start of the Stress Analyses of Various Mining Sequences and
project. Geomechanics Considerations at the Falconbridge Kidd
#3 Mine - Phase II and Mine D, Itasca Consulting Canada,
Inc. Report to Falconbridge Limited, Kidd Mining Division,
August, 2003.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 257

 Operational geotechnics in sub-level
caving in high stress regimes
John T. Keogh, Keogh Geotechnical Consulting Pty Ltd, Perth, WA, Australia
Peter R. OBryan, Peter O'Bryan & Associates, Perth, WA, Australia

Abstract
Three case histories are used to examine the geotechnical issues related to development and operation of sub-level
caves in naturally occurring and mining-induced high rock stress regimes. Understanding the responses of the ore zone
and the adjacent rock mass to caving is crucial to successful sub-level caving. The studies show that predicting likely
changes in responses with time and cave advance is equally crucial to maintaining continuous ore production. Design
of ground reinforcement and support schemes must be based on the expected maximum loading conditions. The
support schemes must be compatible with future ground movement and be of sufficient capacity to maintain the integrity
of the opening for safe access. The timing of development and installation of support can also be critical to the
effectiveness of this caving method. Reduced resource availability and production interruptions can significantly increase
costs. Thus development to ensure efficient, continuous production may require use of high-cost support schemes to
minimise needs for rehabilitation. Experiences with numerous reinforcement and support methods in different ground
and stress conditions are discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION The initial new development, based on 15m sub-level

intervals, was between ~375m (1145 Level) and 500m
The effectiveness of sub-level caving (SLC) relies highly (1030 Level) below surface. The previous mine owner had
on uninterrupted production. Failure to make adequate partially extracted the higher grade (>2% Ni) ore located at
allowance for the potentially adverse influence of high rock the northern end of this block of the disseminated orebody.
stresses, whether due to high ambient stresses or induced Development in the upper levels (1145, 1130, and 1115
by mining, can lead to delays, high rehabilitation costs and Levels) was thus concentrated at the southern end of the
ore loss. deposit. Transverse production drifts were used for these
It is important to understand how the stress regime will be sub-levels.
changed by proposed mining, and how mine openings will The mine plan required 4.5m wide by 4.5m high
respond to these changes. In particular it is crucial that SLC cross-cuts to be developed from the hangingwall drive
production drifts are reinforced and supported to a level to the orebody footwall position. Footwall drives would
which is commensurate with maintaining stability adequate then be developed to connect the cross-cuts and enable
for mining under the expected ultimate loading conditions. future establishment of production slots between sub-
Data pertaining to local rock stresses and structural levels.
geological and geotechnical conditions are thus essential to As cross-cuts were advanced by electric hydraulic
SLC operations. jumbos, weld mesh (5mm diameter wires at 100mm
The timing and sequencing of development and SLC spacings) and friction stabiliser bolts (2.4m long) were
production also need to account for expected rock stress installed across the backs and half way down the sidewalls.
conditions and should be based around reducing the time of Sprayed concrete (shotcrete) support which had been used
exposure to adverse conditions and achieving maximum during previous mining in the adjacent development was
effectiveness from ground control schemes. considered to be too costly.
Costs disbursed in rehabilitation of damaged SLC drifts Ground control issues that arose early during the second
and brows can be expected to exceed those incurred in phase of stoping consisted of:
installing the required comprehensive support during
development. Extensive unravelling of the rock mass within the
hangingwall contact zone
2 CASE STUDIES The hangingwall contact between felsic volcanic
hangingwall rocks and the dunite ultramafics comprised a
The following case studies clearly demonstrate the need major shear zone up to ~15m wide. The felsic volcanic rock
to recognise and accommodate ultimate loading conditions mass was intensely fractured and contained thick seams of
in order to maintain continuous production in an SLC clay gouge. The ultramafic contained numerous mylonitic
operation. The fundamental details of the case study shears up to ~1m wide.
orebodies and mines are listed in Table 1 and Table 2. Unravelling would commence immediately after each
development cut. During installation of the friction bolts and
2.1 Case Study A mesh, rock mass unravelling was exacerbated by the
Mine A, exploiting a large disseminated ultramafic (dunite) effects of drilling and hammering of the bolts into the rock
hosted nickel sulphide orebody, was initially operated from mass. Due to the inability to tightly pin the mesh against the
1977 to 1986, at which time it was placed on care and rock mass, unravelling would continue until the mesh was
maintenance. Mining was recommenced in 1990. filled with loose rocks.
The newly planned productive mining was based on an The very poor rock mass conditions encountered at the
SLC system. The following sections describe key aspects of southern end of the orebody prompted a change in drift
the evolution of development and ground support methods layout from transverse to longitudinal in an effort to avoid the
used from recommencement of stoping to late 1997. hangingwall shear.

258 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: Case Study Orebody & Mine characteristics

Orebody Characteristics Mine A Mine B Mine C

Host Rock Ultramafic Mafic Sediment Schist
Strike Length 200m 300m 300m 500m 700m
(~ north-south) (~ north-south) (~ north-south)
Width 100m 30m 35m
Dip 75 75 75
Production Layout Transverse Longitudinal Longitudinal
(some transverse)
Sub-level Interval 15m 22m 25m 25m
Cross-cut/Drive Spacing 14m - 17.5m 11m 12.5m
Cross-cut/Drive Sizes 4.8m x 4.8m 5.0m x 5.0m 4.5m x 4.5m

Table 2: Rock stress regimes at Case Study Mines

Mine Principal Stresses Magnitude (MPa) Plunge () Azimuth ()

Mine A (770m depth) Major 111 49 166

Intermediate 83 19 278
Minor 65 35 022
Mine B(600m depth) Major 44 0 050
Intermediate 27 0 140
Minor 18 90
Mine C (600m depth) Major 86 10 266
Intermediate 38 29 170
Minor 31 59 014

Large wedge failures from the backs of the development All earlier development had to be rehabilitated as best
Away from the hangingwall contact, large block/wedge as practicably possible to the new ground support
failures occurred from the backs of production drifts. The standard. The majority of this development had
blocks were defined by the intersections of persistent fibrecrete sprayed directly over the installed mesh and
geological structures which had been exposed by formation down to floor level. The lower sidewalls had fibrecrete
of the openings. applied directly onto the rock surface. Cablebolts were
Large spans formed at the intersection of the cross-cuts also installed through the fibrecrete using the above
and footwall drives were particularly prone to block failure described scheme.
during development. Due to the time lag between initial development and the
upgrade in the level of ground support and reinforcement,
Time dependent rock mass deterioration ground control issues still occurred in this rehabilitated
Relatively shortly after developing the three upper sub- development. These included:
levels it was clearly apparent that the rock mass was
deteriorating with time. Friction bolts were being ruptured Large scale failure in cross-cuts
close behind the rock surface. Some of the cross-cuts experienced large scale back
SLC development at this stage was characterised by and/or wall failures (up to several metres deep) even when
excessive overbreak, particularly from the backs of the rehabilitated. These crosscuts were deemed to be
cross-cuts. Loosening within the rock mass was deemed to unsuitable for SLC drill and blast and/or draw control and
be excessive. were abandoned and backfilled.
Approximately four years following resumption of
operations, with mining still taking place in the upper levels, Poor SLC brow conditions
there was a fundamental change in the approach to the Due to the high yield capacity of the friction bolts and the
mining and support of SLC development. It was concluded limited confinement provided by the weld mesh, the rock
that the previous approach would not provide sufficiently mass around the drift opening deformed readily.
stable cross-cuts, in particular production brows, to allow a Rehabilitation was thus often installed after large
sustainable high SLC production rate. deformations had occurred. The main problems
The level and intensity of support installed in the SLC experienced in these situations were dislocation and
development was significantly increased. Later blockage of blastholes and loss of brows.
development openings were systematically supported floor The required rehabilitation works were extensive, and
to floor with mesh-reinforced fibrecrete (shotcrete reinforced were undertaken simultaneously with an increase in
with steel fibres), and reinforced with 5m long 250kN production rate; hence the program was very difficult to
cablebolts installed in rings containing 13 to 15 cablebolts, manage.
spaced either 1.2m or 2.5m apart, depending on local rock During 1997 a decision was made to establish a new SLC
mass conditions. This ground control scheme significantly mining area at a lower level, commencing at ~600m (920
reduced overbreak and improved SLC brow conditions for Level) below surface. SLC mining of the upper block would
continuous production. be completed at ~500m (1000 Level) below surface. The

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 259

920 Level required development of 19 cross-cuts up to Greater difficulties were experienced in installing the rock
100m long. A hangingwall drive had been established reinforcement (rock bolts and cablebolts) due to holes
several years before, thereby allowing multiple face cross- becoming blocked/dislocated following movement of the
cut development. Stoping was planned to retreat from the rock mass.
southernmost cross-cuts. Installation problems almost invariably increased if rock
The major geotechnical issue with establishment of the reinforcement was not installed progressively with drilling
lower caving area was the adverse influence of (i.e. rock and cablebolts had to be installed immediately
(unexpected) very high rock stresses on the new after completion of drilling individual holes).
development. Even with the new ground support regime,
significant damage was experienced, and the rate and 2.2 Case Study B
extent of damage to the cross-cuts increased with time. Underground mining at Mine B commenced in late 1989
Cross-cuts experienced rapid sidewall closure due to the after completion of an ~80m deep open pit. Gold
highly fractured rock mass dilating (bulking up) behind the mineralisation was contained in a mafic conglomerate
mesh reinforced fibrecrete layer. The competence of the between an ultramafic hangingwall and a meta-sediment
cross-cut backs also decreased with degradation of the drift footwall. Underground mining at Mine B was completed in
pillars. It became clear that the intensive ground support 2002 at a final depth of ~700m below surface.
could not prevent the cross-cuts being damaged SLC was chosen to extract the Mine B orebody
extensively. A number of factors must be recognised and predominantly due to its width, relatively low grade (<4g/t)
accounted for in such a situation: and a weak hangingwall rock mass consisting of an
ultramafic conglomerate and talc-carbonate altered
Prioritisation of sub-level development and reducing sub- ultramafic flow units.
level service life During the life of the mine longitudinal sub-level layouts
The initial stages of development on the 920 Level were predominant, with ~5m square drives developed from
focused more on developing the entire level rather than only a central cross-cut. The width of the orebody usually
in the southern area that was to come into production first. required 2 or 3 longitudinal drives to be developed on each
The complexity of the development and ground support was sub-level, with drives separated by 5m to 6m wide pillars.
such that it was easier to manage if spread out, rather than Transverse production drifts were used on three sub-levels.
concentrated in a particular area. As a consequence, many The vertical interval between sub-levels was 25m.
of the cross-cuts had to remain open for extended periods Generally ground conditions in the upper mine (to ~200m
of time while adjacent cross-cuts were completed, and the below surface) were very favourable for SLC mining,
initial cross-cuts had to be rehabilitated several times. One probably due to the inherently good rock mass quality of the
cross-cut had to be abandoned due to extreme wall closure. mafic conglomerate. Friction bolting of backs and walls was
As a result a just in time approach was adopted when the major form of rock reinforcement installed within the ore
developing cross-cuts. development in the upper levels. Some intersection spans
were cablebolted.
Importance of immediate remediation As mining approached ~200m below surface, mining-
During mining of the 920 Level several of the cross-cuts induced rock mass deterioration became apparent,
experienced major back failures. Rather than immediately particularly along the walls of the longitudinal drives during
rehabilitating, or attempting to recover a cross-cut, there the final stages of SLC retreat to the central accesses. It
was a tendency to delay action for several weeks or months. therefore became a standard ground support practice to
At the same time, the adjacent cross-cuts were being install mesh over the backs and down the walls in these
advanced, leaving the affected cross-cut lagging by up to areas.
tens of metres. Production could not commence until all In the intermediate levels of the mine (200m to 500m
cross-cuts were completed; hence the cross-cuts completed below surface) friction bolting and meshing became the
earlier would have to remain open for an extended period of minimum ground support standard for all ore development
time, giving rise to the possibility of disturbance and backs and sidewalls. Expansion shell anchor bolts were
damage. also installed in some development. Overall, ground
It was therefore imperative that high priority was given to conditions remained favourable for SLC.
rehabilitation of cross-cuts which had experienced major At ~500m below surface (910 Level) mining-induced
failure. stresses concentrated under the caving zone were causing
significant damage to ore development, including intense
Timing of the installation of rock reinforcement and fracturing of the development backs and shearing and
support buckling of sidewalls. Development was being
The objective of the ground support scheme was to systematically friction bolted (2.4m long) and meshed over
control the rate and extent of rock mass deformation the backs and down the walls to within ~1.5m to 2m of the
within the cross-cut development sufficiently to allow floor. The friction bolts were being full-column cement
production to be completed (i.e. consumption of the drive grouted to increase their load transfer capacity.
by the SLC). Increases in mining-induced changes to rock mass
Delaying installation of ground support and reinforcement conditions with increased mining depth were making
frequently led to ground support and reinforcement not management of SLC progressively more difficult:
being installed to the minimum standard, simply due to An excessive amount of time was required to unblock
sections of development being overlooked and/or poor blastholes. Some sections of drive backs had to be
allocation of resources. stripped to remove up to 3m of broken rock, so that the
Generally, as the quantity of development that had not blastholes could be located.
been completed to standard increased, so did the difficulty Rockfalls were occurring due to failure of some of the
in managing the work force and equipment to undertake the cement grouted friction bolts, which typically ruptured
work and "catch up" to the schedule. within close proximity to the collar.
At some stage all new development had to be stopped Slashing rings were frequently required to remove rock
and resources re-allocated in order that a "catch up" phase bridges and to re-establish brows.
of ground support and reinforcement could be undertaken The rock mass exposed in sidewalls tended to unravel
on the older development. from behind the mesh, typically commencing below the

260 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 mesh level and propagating upwards. Locally mesh also mesh against the irregular rock surface, and the fact that the
ruptured due to bulking up of the rock mass. lower part of the sidewalls were not meshed. This was
because mesh installed along the lower half of the sidewalls
Rehabilitation of drives was required continuously. was progressively torn away during production bogging,
The increasing level of damage clearly indicated the need especially when operating tele-remote LHDs.
for change in ground support and reinforcement methods Due to the lack of confinement provided by the ground
and procedures to enable uninterrupted SLC production. support, the lower wall rock mass would unravel,
The major changes implemented included installation of 3m undercutting and destabilising the upper section of the wall.
long full-column cement grouted thread bars into drive Pillar corners, such as those formed at the intersection of
backs and sidewalls requiring rehabilitation. The thread bars cross-cuts and ore drives, were also highly susceptible to
installed in sidewalls were partially de-bonded. progressive damage during production bogging. In this
Some of the new development that was planned to be situation the only action taken was to halt the production
used to perform extended cave draw (to muck ore "lost" on cycle to allow installation of new mesh, which almost
upper sub-levels) was supported with mesh reinforced invariably would have to be replaced at a later stage.
fibrecrete followed by rock bolting with thread bars. In Based on experience at Mines A and B, it was decided to
addition to maintaining the integrity of the development the fibrecrete the lower sections of drive sidewalls, including
fibrecrete was particularly important for preventing pillar corners at several locations, on the remaining sub-
excessive brow erosion and protecting cross-cut pillar levels at the mine. Prior to applying fibrecrete the lower
corners from damage commonly inflicted by LHDs. walls were re-meshed with a lighter gauge mesh (5mm
By upgrading the level of rock reinforcement and support, diameter wires at 100mm spacings) which could be tightly
it was possible to reduce the level of rehabilitation required pinned against the rock mass with friction bolts. After the
in the ore drives prior to and during production. Later sub- mesh was encapsulated by the fibrecrete, cone bolts were
level development which incorporated the use of fibrecrete installed. The toughness of the mesh-reinforced fibrecrete
performed exceptionally well. made it less susceptible to LHD-inflicted damage and
significantly reduced the amount of rehabilitation required
2.3 Case Study C during production.
The final phase of underground mining at Mine C
commenced in 1994 with establishment of a decline from 3 CONCLUSIONS
within an open pit that had been mined between 1988 and
1995. The major conclusions drawn from the three SLC case
A core and shell stoping method was used initially; studies are:
however, the method was changed to longitudinal SLC Knowledge of the pre-mining stress regime and
relatively early in the life of the underground (which was geological and geotechnical conditions, and hence
inferred to be due to excessive stress damage in pillars). ground response to mining, is critical to developing a
Due to the long strike length (>800m) and relatively narrow sound SLC strategy.
width (>30m) of the orebody, a longitudinal layout with 1 or When SLC mining progresses into a high rock stress
2 ore drives was used. On each level the ore drives were environment, established ground support schemes,
generally accessed via several cross-cuts developed from a typically based on mesh and rock bolts, cannot be relied
footwall haulage drive. upon to prevent the rock mass from deteriorating to the
Even at relatively shallow depths below surface (<500m) extent that systematic (uninterrupted) SLC production
it became evident that mining was being carried out in a becomes very difficult and considerably more costly.
very high stress environment. This was evidenced by Delay in and/or resistance to implementing an increase in
extensive damage to drives and high levels of seismic installed ground support capacity will increase the drive
activity. Ground support and reinforcement schemes used in length requiring rehabilitation and place a greater strain
the mine varied considerably up until the occurrence of on available mine resources.
several large magnitude seismic events. The seismicity The unforgiving nature of high rock stress environments
hazard was managed by: dictates that development be undertaken in a timely
Installing (inferred) seismic-resistant ground support and manner as no amount of ground support can prevent the
reinforcement within the ore drives and in access deterioration of drive conditions. In a worst case scenario,
development to within a pre-determined distance of the development can become unusable if left open too long.
orebody. All development would be friction bolted, Thus, sub-level drives must be developed on an as-
meshed (7mm diameter wires at 100mm spacings) and required, "just in time" basis. Development of drives in
cone bolted (1.8m and 3m bolt lengths) to within ~1.5m of advance of requirements must be avoided.
the floor. Ground control problems within production drives/cross-
Implementation of "Exclusion Zones" whereby production cuts must be dealt with as soon as is practicable (ideally
areas would be designated "No Entry" for a set period of immediately), otherwise operations will almost inevitably
time after production blasts. To enable production to be be delayed.
undertaken during periods of exclusion, the mine relied SLC difficulties will tend to increase drastically with time
heavily on the use of tele-remote LHDs. delays. The longer it takes to complete production, the
more developed drives will be subject to high stresses;
Even though large quantities of rock reinforcement and potentially resulting in higher levels of damage, leading to
support were installed, SLC conditions continued to be very increased requirements for rehabilitation.
poor up until conclusion of mining in 2003. The relatively high cost of fibrecrete, compared to mesh
Prior to the mine closure, a major change to the ground and bolts, generally meant that Mine Management
support regime was made in an effort to better manage considered it as the "last resort" for controlling
deformation of drive walls and hence reduce rehabilitation deteriorating ground conditions. Mesh alone cannot
costs and delays. The following sections describe the provide adequate support where rock mass conditions will
change and the results achieved. continue to deteriorate with time. It is easily damaged by
The effectiveness of the mesh in preventing excessive the rock mass deformation and from LHD impacts.
loosening and unravelling of the rock mass was limited due Rehabilitation of mesh installations can add significantly
to inherent difficulties in tightly pinning the stiff heavy gauge to the cost of mining.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 261

 To achieve optimal effectiveness, ground reinforcement The timing and sequencing of development and SLC
and support should be installed as soon as practical. In production must also be considered carefully to minimise
the case of grouted rockbolts, installation problems exposure to adverse conditions and achieve maximum
arising due to hole blockages will tend increase with time. effectiveness from installed ground support. Costs can be
controlled by installation of comprehensive ground control
Changes to the rock stress regime as the SLC extends during development.
typically increase the demand on rock reinforcement and
support elements. While it may not be possible to identify ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the exact nature of the changes in ground response, it is
essential to recognise that conditions will deteriorate with The writers are grateful to the mining companies at whose
increased depth and time. operations the works were performed and to the many
The writers consider that it is possible, by analysis of colleagues involved in the work on which the case studies
appropriate geotechnical data and close observation of are based.
performance, to maintain uninterrupted production by
applying progressively higher capacity support schemes as
mining depth increases.

262 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Geotechnical events leading to closure
of an underground crusher chamber
Husni Arman Sahupala, Geotechnical Engineer, Tad Szwedzicki, Superintendent,
Underground Geotechnical Engineering, PT Freeport Indonesia

Abstract
Propagation of the zone of caving influence over the Deep Ore body Zone (DOZ) Mine affected ground conditions on
the conveyor level of the Intermediate Ore Zone (IOZ) Mine. A number of mining structures including a large North
Crusher chamber were affected by change in mining induced stress.
About three years before a decision was made to close and decommission the crusher the first warning signs of the
oncoming instability were noticed in a form of convergence. This was followed by damage to support, fall of ground,
acoustic emissions and ground deterioration on the whole conveyor level. Geotechnical events were accelerating in time
and in severity. As a result, based on risk analysis, a decision was made to decommission the crusher by ceasing
production and initiating salvage of the crushing equipment.
The increasing scale of geotechnical events resulted in suspension of salvage but subsequently, as geotechnical events
subsided, a decision was made to re-commence the salvage operation. Geotechnical analysis, monitoring, inspections
and supervision allowed for safe and successful completion of the salvage operation.

1. INTRODUCTION 3. Fall of ground / ground collapse,

4. Seismic events / acoustic emissions,
The Intermediate Ore Zone (IOZ) Mine was the PT 5. Change in water inflow.
Freeport Indonesias third underground block caving mine in A geotechnical study was carried out on causes of ground
West Papua. The IOZ Mine block caving started production deterioration and on the future stability of the crusher. This
in 1994, at elevation 3,474 meters caving to the surface at was accompanied by geotechnical risk assessment,
3,626 meters (Hubert at al, 2000). In 2003 the mine was implementation of a geotechnical monitoring program and
closed with total production of over 50 million tonnes ore at provisions for decommissioning of the crusher and the
a grade of 1.07 copper and 0.35 ppm gold. Almost 50% of conveyer level.
ore was produced from north side of the IOZ orebody and
was crushed underground in the North Crusher. The crusher 2. GEOTECHNICAL EVENTS LEADING TO
together with ore feeders, conveyer drifts and accesses CLOSURE OF THE CRUSHER
were located on the conveyor level 30 m below the
production level. First signs of ground movement on the conveyor level
The North Crusher chamber was excavated in 1993 as were noticed in the crusher chamber almost three years
12.5 m wide, 11 m long and 17 m high. During the before a decision to close the crusher. In a period of twelve
construction the crusher was supported with friction to six months before the closure sporadic events such as an
stabilizers and chain link mesh at the back and at the acoustic emission, a fall of ground and some ground
sidewall. The west wall was also supported with W-straps deteriorations were noticed. The acceleration in number of
and cable bolts (Rachmad and Sahupala, 2003). events and their severity was noted during the last six
After construction, the North Crusher and the whole months. Locations of the geotechnical events at the
conveyor level were in a stable condition and no signs of Conveyor level in six months prior to closure are given in
mining induced stress or ground deterioration were Fig. 1.
detected. About three years before the closure, it was Figure. 2 shows the sequence of geotechnical events vs.
observed that ground conditions started to deteriorate convergence monitored across the chamber for one year.
slightly around the crusher chamber and sporadically in An analysis of the progression in number and severity of
other excavations in the vicinity of the crusher. After geotechnical events indicated that rock mass suffered from
horizontal convergence was detected a year before stress induced by approaching caving from the DOZ mine.
closure, additional cable bolts were installed in the east Geotechnical risk of instability of the walls of the crusher
wall and the whole chamber was shotcreted. The was carried out and it was recommended that the crusher
deterioration was caused by the progression of the zone ceased production. The management approved the
of caving influence of the Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) Mine recommendations and salvage of the equipment and
(Barber at al, 2000). The DOZ mine was operating at decommissioning of the crusher chamber and the whole
elevation 3126 m, in proximity (about 350 m away) of the conveyer level started. Some of the major recorded and
IOZ Mine and its caving zone was progressing to the monitored events during the six months preceding the
surface effecting the stress distribution around the North closure are described below:
Crusher chamber. Damage to a horizontal beam installed across the crusher
For the purpose of geotechnical risk assessment chamber. A steel beam stabilizing the crusher hopper and
geotechnical events were classified as: overhead crane started to buckle, Fig. 3, about three years
1. Ground deterioration (spalling, unraveling, fracturing, before the crusher closure. After the initial deflection was
crack formation, shear movement etc.), noted, several convergence stations were installed. For the
2. Damage to ground support / mining structures, last year convergence monitoring showed steadily increase

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 263

Figure 1: Locations of the geotechnical events that took place at the Conveyor level in six months prior to closure.

Figure. 2: Geotechnical events on the conveyor level vs. cumulative convergence in the North Crusher.

264 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

convergence reaching up to 0.30 mm/day. Total cumulative off and the ground was unraveling, Fig. 5. Just two weeks
displacement measured for that year was about 0.25 m. before closure, a fall of ground occurred immediately above
Damage to steel arch support in a ventilation drift. the crusher and a few pillars in the area were yielding.
Substantial deformation that led to collapse of steel arch
support took place gradually over a period of almost 18
months prior to the crusher closure.

Figure 5: Ground deterioration on the extraction level above

the crusher

Figure 3: Bending of a steel beam due to horizontal Ground deterioration in the crusher. Support in the North
convergence. Crusher showed signs of deterioration. About three
months before the closure, shotcrete started to crack on
The collapse took place where a fault zone intersected the both sides of the entry to the crusher and on the west wall
drift. The volume of the fall of ground was in excess of 150 at a nearby feeder. The construction steel buckled on the
m3. With time, the collapse extended along the drift another east side of the hopper chute. The cracks were vertical or
10 m towards the crusher, Fig. 4. almost vertical indicating that the shotcrete failed in
Damage to a conveyor drift. About six months before extension due to vertical principal stress. It was observed
closure, it was noticed that ground started to deteriorate at that cracks, once initiated did not extend, except a crack at
an intersection between the tail of the conveyor drift and the the North side of the entrance, which was propagating and
north crusher. The intersection was situated in marble, widening. At the time of closure it was about 3 m high and
which was considered weaker than the surrounding rock 150 mm wide, Fig. 6.
mass. Damage to the intersection of service and drainage
drifts. The intersection between these two drifts was
heavily supported with concrete walls and steel support.
Two months before the closure, a crack was found in the
concrete sidewall beside a steel set. A month before the
closure, ground deterioration accelerated with new
cracks developing at the shoulder height. Within a week
prior the closure, welding on the steel caps were
sheared and steel posts moved from their place pushed
by ground behind the steel set. Steel cap elements were
bent and twisted.

Figure 4: Collapse of steel arch support

At the beginning vertical cracks were noticed and, within

a month, the rock mass between floor and grade line started
to spall and move. Despite installation of friction stabilizers,
mesh and W-straps support, about 5 months before the
closure a rock fall took place. The volume of the fall was
about 7 m3.
Ground deterioration on the extraction level. Ground and
support deterioration was noticed on the extraction level,
above the North Crusher. Around six months before closure
it was observed that the shotcrete was cracking and spalling Figure 6: A large crack at the west wall of the North Crusher

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 265

 Rock fall at a feeder. Three months before the closure, a < 1 mm/day no hazard of uncontrolled ground
large fall of ground took place about 4 m away from the movement; work can continue.
chute of a feeder. The highly fragmented ground (about 150 between 1.0 to 2.0 mm/day a limited hazard of
m3) buried a part of the tail of the conveyor and a part of the uncontrolled ground movement, short time activities,
take-up tower. The rock mass consisted of weak marble and under supervision,
sandstone and was supported with black friction stabilizers >2 mm/day hazard of uncontrolled ground movement;
and wire mesh. An inspection and investigations after the work to be suspended till further notice
event revealed that the support was heavily corroded. After
the rock fall, water seepage was noticed through fractures. Convergence in the North Crusher. Two convergence
Geotechnical monitoring of convergence stations prior to stations were installed across the crusher in the east-west
the fall showed that convergence increased to 0.35 mm/day. direction. A distinct change in daily convergence across the
After the rock fall, ground deterioration propagated along crusher were observed in three periods:
the conveyor drift and was progressively accelerating prior For the period of three months before the closure the daily
to the closure. Cracking, spalling and slabbing took place at changes in convergence varied moderately from 0.22 to
the shoulders, ribs and backs along the drift. A conveyor 1.08 mm/day with an average daily increase in
crossbeam was bent indicating that the drift was highly convergence of 0.50 mm.
converging. At the time of closure, water started to seep During the period for six weeks from the time of closure to
along the whole drift. suspension of salvage, changes highly varied between 0
Squeezing of draw points on the production level. A day to 2.62 mm/day with an average being 0.9 mm/day. The
before the closure of the crusher, draw points on the trend line showed gradual increase in average
extraction level 30 m above the crusher quickly deteriorated convergence growing from 0.8 to 1 mm/day.
and collapsed. Concrete supported ribs and floors of two After suspension of salvage daily change in convergence
draw points moved inwards resulting in abandonment of the varied from -0.3 to 1.4 mm with a trend line decreasing
area. Steel support at the brows of the draw points was from 0.8 to 0.5 mm/day.
damaged and the rock mass heavily fractured. The
convergence and damage was followed by inflow of water Changes in daily convergence in the crusher are shown in
through cracks. Fig. 7.
Seismic events and acceleration in damage to the conveyor
level. In the morning on the day of the crusher closure, a Convergence in the drainage drift. Convergence stations
seismic event in a form of a large acoustic emission was heard in the drainage drift were installed in the same direction
in the vicinity of the crusher. An immediate geotechnical (parallel) to the convergence stations in the crusher and
inspection revealed quickly progressing damage to at least six monitoring results showed similar behaviour.
areas on the conveyer level. The most evident were: new For the period of three months before the closure, the
cracks in the walls of the crusher, further ground deterioration daily convergence varied between 0.13 to 0.74 mm with
along the conveyor drifts (fracturing, spalling, small falls of an average daily increase in convergence of 0.45 mm.
ground and convergence), increased damage to shotcrete and The trend of velocity averaged 0.4 - 0.5 mm/day.
steel support and also to the structural elements of the During the period from the time of closure to suspension
conveyer system. In a few hours additional damage to of salvage, varied between 0.0 0.96 mm/day with an
excavations and a rock fall were recorded. average being 0.5 mm/day. The trend line showed a
gradual increase in convergence from 0.45 to 0.55
3. GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING mm/day.
After suspension of salvage activities the daily
To conduct salvage in safe working conditions, the whole convergence varied from 0.21 to 1.68 mm with a trend
level was inspected and geotechnical monitoring was line decreasing from 0.6 to 0.15 mm/day.
carried out twice a day with the result being analyzed
providing immediate feedback to decommissioning crews. Changes in daily convergence in the drainage drift are
To monitor ground movement, a year before the closure two shown in Figure. 8.
convergence stations were installed across the crusher
chamber and six months before the closure, twelve stations Convergence in the conveyer drift. In general the velocity
were installed on the conveyor level. The location of of convergence in this drift did not show significant changes
convergence stations is shown in Fig 1. At the beginning and that could be due to the orientation of the convergence
measurement were taken every second day, during the station with measuring pins parallel to the crusher (installed
event leading to closure (three months before closure) once in north-south direction).
a day and during the period of salvage even twice a day.
After analyzing changes in convergence, working permits 4. ROCK MASS BEHAVIOUR LEADING TO
were issued to salvaging crews. The permits were issued SUSPENSION OF SALVAGE OPERATIONS
based on empirical criteria established on the value of daily
change in convergence (Rachmad and Widijanto, 2003): The sequence of geotechnical events indicated that the
< 0.5 mm/day no hazard of uncontrolled ground rock mass around the conveyer level was undergoing high
movement; work may continue. mining induced stress and was progressively failing,
between 0.5 to 1.4 mm/day a limited hazard of (Szwedzicki 2004). Deterioration in ground conditions was
uncontrolled ground movement, short time activities accelerating in time and severity, and could result in rock
permitted under supervision, mass instability around the crusher and other places on the
>1.4 mm/day hazard of uncontrolled ground movement; conveyor level. Analysis of the sequence of the geotechnical
work to be suspended till further notice. events and subsequently conducted risk analysis resulted in
With time, it was found that with convergence varying a decision to suspended of salvage operation and to
from 0.8 to 1.4 mm/day there was no visible damage to withdraw crews from the crusher. Six weeks after the
the rock mass. The criteria were founded to be too decision to close crushing operations, the rate of
stringent often resulting in withdrawal of working convergence in the crusher increased to 4.91 mm/day and
personnel where there was no hazard of uncontrolled seismic activities were recorded. At that time, a decision to
ground movement. As a result the criteria were modified: stop salvage operations was made.

266 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 7: Daily change in convergence in the North Crusher

Figure 8: Daily change in convergence in an access drainage drift

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 267

 During the salvage operations the following geotechnical crusher operations was made when the curve displayed a
events were noticed: transgressive trend (Szwedzicki, 2003) i.e. daily changes in
Rock falls in an exhaust drift. The exhaust drift was convergence were increasing. The decision to re-
situated 56 m below the crusher and 200 m to the west of commence salvage operations was made when the curve
the DOZ caving zone. The first signs of deterioration were started to display a regressive trend i.e. daily changes in
noticed about six months before closure. About a month convergence were decreasing. Operational decisions based
before closure, more than 30 m of the drift subsided for on geotechnical monitoring and risk management allowed
about 0.2 0.3 m. Acceleration in deterioration was visible for timely closure of the crusher chamber and for safe and
after closure. Loose rocks detaching from the back were successful salvage of equipment.
found in many places with two major rock falls occurring.
A long fracture in the floor of an incline. A fracture was 6. CONCLUSIONS
found in the floor of the incline from the conveyor level to the
undercut level. The cracks become visible after the closure Propagation of the zone of caving influence of the Deep
and continued to extend and open for the next few weeks Ore body Zone Mine (DOZ) resulted in changes in ground
(the total length of the fracture was about 80 m and the conditions at the conveyor level at the Intermediate Ore
width of the crack was up to 2.5 mm). A few more cracks body Zone (IOZ) Mine. Early warning signs and the rock
developed parallel to that main fracture. mass precursory behavior indicated that rock mass was
Rock fall at the intersection of a feeder and a conveyor under high mining induced stress.
drift. A fall of ground (10 m3) took place at a brow between Analysis of geotechnical events proved that:
the conveyor drift and a feeder about 4 m from a chute. In a The first geotechnical warning signs leading to major
few days water started to seep out through cracks at the ground deterioration in the crusher and the whole
back. Bolts and mesh were highly corroded and provided conveyor level were detected three years prior to the
very little (if any) support. The water seepage increased in decision of closure.
time and spread to adjacent ribs and shoulder of the feeder. Geotechnical events such as ground deterioration, rock
Change in water inflow pattern. Rock mass fracturing falls, support damage, convergence and seismic events
caused by mining extraction and caving resulted in change increased in time and severity. Large scale ground
in the water inflow pattern. In drifts on undercut and instability was preceded by small scale events.
extraction levels, where water used to accumulate due to The recorded geotechnical events were noticed where the
uneven floor, water disappeared during the period of about rock mass had the lowest mechanical properties, there
six to three months before closure. Conversely in a number were geological structures, mining excavations had large
of areas water started to appear. The west wall of the North open span, and ground support was corroded.
Crusher started to be moist about three months before Damage to the structure of the rock mass was followed by
closure. After the closure, water was seeping and at the time a change in water inflow pattern.
of suspension of salvage the whole west wall was wet and
some seepage started to appear at the back of the crusher Warning signs and the sequence of geotechnical events
and along conveyor drift and feeders. At the same time it with their acceleration in time and severity formed base for
was noticed that water inflow to draw points increased. risk management analysis. As a result the following
Seismic activities. A decision to suspend salvage subsequent decisions were made to:
operations was made after recording three large, and a Stop the crushing operations, close crusher chamber and
number of small, seismic events in six hours. All events that start salvage of the crushing equipment
took place, except for the last one, were felt for a short Suspend salvage of the equipment
period of time about 10 15 seconds. The last event lasted Re-commence salvage.
for about 15 minutes with "progressive banging" heard in the Geotechnical inspections, monitoring, analysis and
roof of the crusher. The last event was accompanied by supervision allowed for timely decisions to close the
liberation of large quantities of rock dust in the crusher. An crusher operations and to salvage crusher equipment
immediate geotechnical inspection and results of safely and successfully.
geotechnical instrumentation did not show any substantial
changes in damage in the vicinity of the crusher. The events REFERENCES
appeared to be caused by merging of the IOZ and DOZ
zones of caving influence. There were also a number of Barber J, Thomas L, Casten T, 2000, Freeport Indonesias
reports that earth tremors were felt at distance varying from Deep Ore Zone Mine. Proceedings Mass Min 2000, pp
5 to 10 km. Within the next few days it was noticed that in 289-300, Brisbane.
the vicinity of the crusher there was acceleration in damage Hubert G, Dirdjosuwondo S, Plaisance R, Thomas L,
such as small detachment of rocks, spalling, slabbing, crack 2000, Tele-Operations at Freeport to Reduce Wet Muck
propagation and also floor heave. Hazard. Proceedings Mass Min 2000, pp 173 - 180,
Brisbane.
5. CONTINUATION OF SALVAGE OPERATIONS Rachmad L, Sahupala A H, 2003, Update on North
Crusher Condition. Internal Report, PT. Freeport
After seismic activities subsided, daily changes in Indonesia.
convergence were reduced to 0.8 mm or less. It was also Rachmad L, Widijanto E, 2003, Application of
noticed that ground deterioration ceased. After eight days of Convergence Monitoring at PT Freeport Indonesia Deep
monitoring, it was concluded that mining induced stress had Ore Zone Mine. Proc NARMS-TAC, (editors Hammah at
re-distributed and that it was safe to continue salvage al.) pp. 181 189.
operations. Salvage was carried out under close Szwedzicki T, 2004, Warning Signs to Geotechnical
geotechnical supervision. With time the number of Failure of Mining Structures. Int J. Surface Mining, June,
geotechnical events subsided, convergence reduced and Vol 18.2.
there was very little progressive damage. Szwedzicki T, 2003, Behaviour of Rock Mass Prior to
In retrospection, looking at the cumulative convergence Failure, Int. J. Rock Mechanics, Vol 40. pp 565 572.
curve, Fig. 2, it can be seen that the decision to close the

268 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Application of convergence monitoring
to manage induced stress by mining
activities at PT Freeport Indonesia
deep ore zone mine
Indra Febrian, Chief Engineer of Geotechnical Engineering,
Widyo Yudanto, Engineer of Geotechnical Engineering, PT Freeport Indonesia, Tembagapura, Indonesia
Enrique Rubio, Consultant Mining Engineer, Gemcom Software International, Vancouver, Canada

Abstract
Freeport Indonesias Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) mine is located in the East Ertsberg Skarn System deposit. DOZ uses
mechanized advanced panel caving method to produce 38,000 tpd with a grade of 0.60% copper equivalent. Currently
the mine operates 15 production drifts which run across the economic layout. It is planned that the number of production
panels will increase up to 27 by the end of the West extension, reaching productions of 50,000 tpd. One of the main
concepts learned from the passed experiences at IOZ and GBT mines was that block cave needs to be fairly
instrumented in order to assess rock mass behavior due to mining activities. One of the instrumentation used at DOZ
is the convergence monitoring system which consists of measuring the deformation of the production tunnels and
undercut tunnels. The convergence system is considered fundamental to understand the rock mass behavior as a
response of mining activities such as undercutting and production stage, providing information to mine planning and
mine operation sections to maintain ground stability. The average spacing between convergence stations on the
undercut level is between 5.0 10m apart and on the extraction level is between 15 to 18 m depending on draw point
spacing. The results of convergence monitoring have been used as guideline for the undercutting and mucking
strategies to manage induced stress. This paper describes the usage of convergence monitoring in understanding rock
mass behavior induced by mining activities and its application in DOZ mine.

1 INTRODUCTION 2. CONVERGENCE MONITORING

The Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) is the underground block cave Freeport started implementing intensive ground
mine at Freeport Indonesia. It is located about 300 meters monitoring by the middle of 90s following large
below the last active mine IOZ (Intermediate Ore Zone) and displacements occurred at IOZ production drifts.
about 1,200 meters below surface. The IOZ mine, started Convergence Monitoring was chosen because of its
production in 1983 and finished production by 2001. IOZ simplicity, repeatability, and easy operation.
operation experienced complex problems such as The main purpose of convergence monitoring at the DOZ
considerable displacements leading to the collapse of the Mine was to ensure safety during production, and provide
production drifts. Several lessons were learned in the an early warning on the event of excessive movement at the
operation of IOZ , probably one of the most important ones undercut and production level. Another benefit related to
is related to geomechanic instrumentation and its usage to the convergence monitoring system is to provide
manage caving activity. The intensive instrumentation information to assess the status of the induced stresses
program consisted of convergence monitoring system, and rock behavior during undercutting and production
multipoint borehole extensometer, and three different types stage, providing proper information to mine planning and the
of relative stress monitoring devices. This paper mine operation section to maintain ground stability. Tape
concentrates the discussion about the convergence Extensometer is used for a convergence measuring system
monitoring system. developed by Kovari et al (1974). The displacement gauge
In general, monitoring is carried out for two main reasons has a least count of 0.01 mm and a range of 100 mm. The
[1]: overall accuracy of the convergence measurement is 0.02
Ensure safety during construction and operation by mm. Three pins are installed in the wall at each station
assessing on ground deformation, ground water pressure, using 1.0m threadbar and grouting cement, as shown in
load in support elements. Figure 1.
Assess abutment stress zones at the undercut level and Measurements are taken every week for each station
production level ensuring construction is carried on and almost everyday in areas that may have reported
outside the abutment stress zones Calibrate initial high displacements until the station stopped showing
assumptions regarding rock mass properties used in continuous movement then the rate is gradually
planning and design of the DOZ mine decreased.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 269

o The main areas in which monitoring is performed regularly
are as follows:
1. Undercut level: Convergence Monitoring stations are 5.0
- 10m apart.
2. Extraction level: Convergence Monitoring station are
located every two draw points.

The main purpose of the stations located on the

undercut level stations is to register the deformation of
the undercut drifts occurred due to the abutment stress
zones produced by the mining method. The deformation
data is analyzed providing the extension and magnitude
of the induced stress zones. Ones the abutment stress
zone is identified guidelines can be design for safety and
blasting design.
The stations located on the production level register the
deformation of the drifts due to static and dynamic loads
transferred throughout the broken muck pile to the Fig.2. Historical Case Convergence Monitoring
production level. The origin of these loads has been fully
studied however it is widely agreed that these loads are the Stress distribution due to draw pattern. In Figure 3 peak
result of different draw patterns, no. 4 shows an abnormal displacement in the active
production area. Normally, there should not be much
movement on the production area since the area is within
the stress shadow. However high displacements have
been observed due to differential draw and its effect on
the overlying broken muck pile. It is believe that when a
draw point is not continuously drawn the broken muck pile
begins to compact and transfers stresses to the major and
minor apex pillars. Using the contour map, the engineer
recognizes the anomaly and makes a plan to approach
the problem modifying the draw pattern on the daily draw
order.

Figure 1 Convergence Installation at DOZ

3. DATA VISUALIZATION

For analysis and visualization, the deformation from

convergence monitoring is converted into velocity (mm/day).
The velocity of each station is then plotted on a
displacement velocity contour map using Surfer program.
The contour map gives easy-to-read data presentation and
valuable information to the mine operation. Below are
historical examples of the usage of convergence monitoring
data in DOZ mine.
High stress location at the perimeter of undercut
boundary. As shown in Figure 2, there are four Fig.3. Historical Case Convergence Monitoring
contour peaks (no.1 to no.4) of high displacement
velocity located at the undercut boundary (grey line).
This fact proves the theoretical assumption that the 4. BLASTING ACTIVITIES
concentration of stress will be the most at the
undercut boundary due to the abutment stress. As undercutting advances, the stress will be transferred and
Moreover, from the convergence readings and the distributed around the perimeter of the undercutting area. The
damage observation in the field, it has been found time of area influenced by the abutment stress is important for
that the velocity of 0.5 mm/day being a cutoff value of planning and scheduling purpose. The area of the abutment
need attention displacement. In this case, when the zone has been estimated to be 20 to 30 meters from cave front,
peak shows a 0.5 mm/day or above, the caving based on the convergence measurements.
operation will be warned to move the cave face In Figure 4, the convergence stations show decreasing of
immediately with the blasting progress by geotech horizontal velocity due to continuous undercut blasting and
recommendations.

270 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

increasing of horizontal velocity due to suspension of convergence or displacement. A few conclusions can be drawn
blasting. It has been found that horizontal displacement studding the behavior of the displacement versus different draw
increases if the cave front is not blasted for more than one patterns, the following points summarize the observations
week. As the mucking rate increases, the displacement
decreases
At a consistent mucking rate a consistent convergence is
observed
Differential draw induces, high convergence

Fig 4. Decreasing of horizontal velocity due to progressive

blasting

Based on this fact, it is concluded that the magnitude and

shape of the abutment stress zone is influenced by blasting
activities. Therefore a few guidelines have been designed Fig.5. Mucking effect on Convergence Rate
in order to avoid high stresses on the undercut level that
could eventually induce damage and collapse of the Based on the above points can be concluded that there
undercut level. Examples of these guidelines are shown as are stresses acting on the production drifts induced by the
follows: draw patterns. Therefore it would be worthwhile to find
relationships that better explain this phenomenon and
Convergence (mm/day) Blasting eventually could be embedded in a production planning
0.5-1.0 1 ring blasted system to measure the impact of stresses given different
production strategies.
> 1.0 More than 1 ring blasted
6. CONCLUSIONS
5. DISPLACEMENT VERSUS DRAW
RATE DUE TO MUCKING PLAN The results of Convergence monitoring are used as
guidelines to manage the mining induced stress.
From previous mine experience, it has been observed Geotechnical Recommendation are given as soon as any
that there is a relationship between displacement rate of one of condition are met:
production drifts and draw rate. The convergence rate is in the range of 0.5 mm/day
The previous observations have been confirmed at DOZ and 1.00mm/day
it is shown in the data collected in the past 1 year, Figure 5, that Cumulative displacement of convergence is more than
there is an inverse relationship between draw rate and 30mm.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 271

 Even though the system is simple, the data produced is REFERENCES
very useful. The application of convergence is not limited to
what is presented in this paper and ongoing investigation is Brady, B.H.G. and Brown, E.T. 1993. Monitoring rock
required, providing further challenges to the underground mass performance. In Rock Mechanics for Underground
geotechnical engineer. This simple device has proven to be Mining. 2nd ed, 491-496.
useful to ensure safety during development and operation, Butcher, R.J. 2000. Block Cave Undercutting Aims,
and to check the validity of the assumptions relating to rock Strategies, Methods, and Management. In Proceedings of
behavior in the block caving mining method. Mass Min 2000 Conference, Brisbane, 29 Oct-2 Nov
2000, 406-410.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Butcher, R.J. 2000. The Role of Mass Concrete in Soft
Rock Block Cave Mines. In Proceedings of Mass Min
The author would like to thank the management of PT. 2000 Conference, Brisbane, 29 Oct-2 Nov 2000, 423.
Freeport Indonesia for permission to publish this paper. The Laubscher, D. H. 1994. Cave mining: state of the art, J.
contribution made by underground personnel involved in Sth Afr Inst Min Met. 94:279-293.
block caving mining at DOZ mine, especially Szwedzicki,
Tadeusz and M. Stawski, to this paper are gratefully
acknowledged.

272 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Optimization of the mining
business through geomechanics:
Two Case Histories
Carlos Soto, Head, Rock Mechanics Division, Juan C. Cereceda, Specialist Enginee;
Francisco Orcaistegui, Geomechanics Engineer, Arcadis Geotcnica, Santiago, Chile

Abstract
The economic optimisation of the mining business is illustrated through two case histories, for surface and underground
mining: the Mantoverde copper mine (Anglo American Chile); and Navo limestone mine (Lafarge Cement Chile),
respectively.
In the Mantoverde case, extensive characterisation and analytical studies were conducted to formulate rock slope
design guidelines for a main pit wall. Final recommendations reflected an increased final pit slope angle, with the
favourable consequences of greater ore recovery, reduced stripping ratio, and obvious production cost reduction. These
were not obtained at the expense of overall pit safety, but through a more realistic, reliable assessment of events which
actually control pit slope behaviour, as opposed to the adoption of excessively theoretical formulations.
For the Navo mine case, two crucial objectives were achieved: technical optimisation of its underground mining method,
and maximisation of economic ore recovery for the remainder of its operating life, in an adverse geomechanical
environment. A cost-efficient numerical modelling methodology was adopted for all further mining method design,
combining two-dimensional and three-dimensional formulations. Modelling results were validated by a displacement
monitoring program. In addition to a safe refinement of stope and pillar dimensions, this allowed the formulation of a
mining sequence capable of yielding the complex, precise ore-blending requirements of the nearby cement-
manufacturing plant. Central conclusions are that mine design optimisation, with moderately increased ore recovery, is
feasible and already underway, and that the extraction ratio is now said to be close to a geomechanical optimum.
The central aim in these two applications has been one of demonstrating the potential of geomechanics not just as a
mere instrument in sophisticated mine design, but as an effective aid in the pursuit of long term mine planning objectives;
and ultimately, in the economic optimisation of the mining business.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 DESIGN REFINEMENT OF EAST

WALL OF MANTOVERDE OPEN PIT
Some fundamentals of economic optimization of the mining
business through geomechanics are presented in this paper Economic optimization of this operation called for slope
through two case histories: the Mantoverde open pit copper mine, design refinement for the east wall. This has been the
and the Navo underground caliza mine. In the first case, Empresa subject of detailed geotechnical studies carried out in recent
Minera de Mantos Blancos (Anglo American Chile) operates its years, conclusions from which are summarized below.
Mantoverde open pit copper mine in Northern Chile, some 40 km
South of Chaaral city, or 1,020 km North of the capital city of Geological Setting
Santiago (see Figure 1), whereas Cemento Meln (Lafarge Regional conditions include intense tectonic activity
Cement Chile) operates its Navo underground limestone mine at associated to the Atacama fault, the principal structural
approximately 140 km north of Santiago (Figure 2). feature. Extensive outcrops of andesitic rocks, intruded by

Figure 1: Mantoverde Open Pit. Figure 2: Navo underground, Sub-Level Stoping mine.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 273

dykes, are present in the area, as well as smaller tabular
bodies of granitic composition. Locally, the Mantoverde fault
is the predominant feature, also related to mineralization,
and along which various hydrothermal and tectonic breccia
formations are found. As shown in Figure 3, the
geologic/structural sequence in the East wall comprises,
East to West: chloritic andesites, transition zone (parallel to
the Mantoverde fault), hydrothermal breccias, gouge zone,
"green" breccias, and intrusive rocks.

Figura 4: Dips output for joints in Andesites and "green"

Breccia combined.

Figure 3: Geological cross-section.

Design Methodologies
Extensive characterisation and analytical studies were
conducted to arrive at the recommended slope design. This
included the adoption of broadly accepted methodologies of
geotechnical characterization for various rock types (including
laboratory testing of representative specimens); statistical
analyses of geological structure, by means of Dips software
(see Figure 4); kinematic feasibility analyses for discernible
failure modes of pit slopes (mainly wedge and circular failures);
and stability assessments by limit equilibrium analytical
techniques (Bishops simplified method; Figure 5). Figura 5: Bishops simplified analysis for full slope height.

Slope Design Recommendations

As a result of the above analytical work, two versions of a
complete "Slope Design Curve" were formulated, for two
different values of the main design criterion: the Safety
Factor (SF). Each of these displays, graphically, the
complete slope angle / slope height relationship for the full
range of slope heights to be encountered in the pits
operational life.
Figure 6 shows these two slope design curves,
designated as recommended design (SF= 1.30), and
optimistic design (SF= 1.15). Obviously, the main difference
between both curves is that, in the optimistic design, a
discernible slope steepening is achieved for similar slope
heights, thus generating the significant economic benefits
which normally arise from a lower stripping ratio.

274 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 6: Recommended and Optimistic slope design
curves for East wall.

Adoption of (at least) the recommended design guidelines

is adequately supported by the available information, and
reflects a so-called "standard" degree of certainty or
reliability of pit slope design. Furthermore, adoption of the Figure 7: Iso-contours for horizontal and vertical
optimistic design guidelines is greatly encouraged provided displacements in 350m-high East slope.
that an efficient, reliable slope monitoring system is
rigorously implemented throughout the entire operational life
of the pit.

In this particular project, the latter recommendation is

based on the positive outcome of broad sensitivity analyses
performed between the "extremes" represented by both
design curves. Such outcome indicated that:
significant operational savings are realized as we move
from recommended to optimistic design (impact on
stripping ratio); and
such economic benefit far outweighs the combined cost
of: cleaning up occasional rock failures which may thus
take place in individual benches or steeper working
slopes, and implementing the required slope monitoring
system which would feed back hypothetical warnings into
the slope design process.

Finally, for added assurance, the design of the highest

(350 m), final pit slope obtained above was verified through
numerical modelling, by means of the Flac2d software.
Typical results are shown in Figure 7, in terms of iso-
contours of horizontal and vertical displacements (as FS
evolves from 1.1 to 1.2), in which an overall, approximately
circular failure surface clearly emerges. Furthermore, as
illustrated in Figure 8, the overall failure surface dictating
final pit design by numerical modelling very closely
approaches that previously identified by analytical, limit
equilibrium techniques.

Figure 8: Overall failure surface comparison, analytical and

numerical methods.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 275

3 OPTIMISATION OF UNDERGROUND
MINING METHOD AT NAVIO MINE

Navo mine is the prime limestone supplier for Lafarge

Cements manufacturing plant in Central Chile. Overall
economic optimization calls for more massive operations, in
order to remain competitive with surface operations in the
same region. Thus, the mining method at Navo has evolved
from earlier forms of Room & Pillar decades ago, to the
current version of a more massive Sublevel Open Stoping
operation. This mining method optimisation is more acutely
needed as mining progresses into deeper geological
horizons, with their ensuing problems of high in situ and
induced stresses, complex tectonics resulting in severe
dislocation of the two main sub-parallel seams which
comprise the orebody, and accompanying intense
fracturing.
A series of geomechanics studies have been carried out
in support of mine plannings two main objectives: technical
optimisation of its mining method, and maximisation of
economic ore recovery for the remainder of its operating life.
Both would be achieved by the latest modification to the
mining method, i.e. Sublevel Stoping with a vertical distance
between drill drifts increased from 20m to 40m. Figure 9: Mining sequences analysed.

Geological Setting. Subsequently, any particular sequence from the above

The Navio orebody occurs within a marine sedimentary figure would be further analysed for deeper sectors
sequence, the La Calera formation, of Jurasic age. Over its designated for future mining, as early geomechanics
430m thickness, this sequence comprises alternating support to mine planning.
sandstones, lutites, limestones, and fine conglomerates, Typical results from theses preliminary analyses are
flanked at floor and roof by lavas, tuffs, and volcanic displayed in Figures 10a and 10b for the radial and longitudinal
breccias. The limestones of economic interest are disposed "sampling" directions, respectively. A figure 10a show that, as a
in two sub-parallel limestone seams, designated as Upper convention, the radial sampling of results is only displayed for
and Lower Seams or Mantos, both with an average the hanging wall of the latest stope, in a given excavation
thickness of about 12 to 15m, and a dip increasing to about sequence. Additionally, it obviously shows the expected
45 at the greater depths to be mined in the future. A 65m decrease in the safety factor as extraction ratio increases. The
thick inter-seam stratum separates both seams, and plays a minimum value of FS = 1.0 is reached in the last stage, and
key role in the geomechanics interaction between stopes remains below an acceptable design criterion of say, FS = 1.25,
being mined simultaneously. for about 5m into the hanging wall. However, irregularities in the
This general arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2 actual excavation may modify this trend. It is important to point
(already introduced), which also depicts a "typical" stope; out that modelling results were validated by a displacement
i.e., one which mines up to full manto thickness, and monitoring program.
extends about 45m down dip, and 60 to 80m along strike.
The required refinement of the mining method is to be
pursued through the optimisation of dimensions for the
various pillars involved.

Mining sequence optimisation by two-dimensional

numerical modelling
Design optimisation of the current Sublevel Open Stoping
mining method has proceeded in two stages, which are only
briefly outlined here. Firstly, a broad series of "generic"
designs has been developed, via two-dimensional
modelling (Phase2 finite element code), in an attempt to
explore the geomechanical impact of simultaneously mining
stopes from both seams, for a large number of scenarios or
configurations compatible with ore blending requirements.
The essential result from this stage, dealt with in the present
section, is a limited number of "promising" mining
sequences warranting further consideration.

Modelled mining sequences

Through close interaction with Mine Planning, an
extensive search of promising mining sequences was
conducted, so as to select a limited number of
configurations, satisfying economic and ore-blending
requirements, for initial geomechanics feasibility
assessment. Figure 9 summarises the best configurations
finally analysed by numerical modelling, where the
correlation numbers indicate the actual mining sequence
adopted in each case. Figure 10: Safety Factor sampled results.

276 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Mining Method Design Refinement by Three-
Dimensional Modelling
This second stage undertakes the optimisation or
refinement of the previously selected configurations.
Through a limited number of more detailed, three-
dimensional modelling applications, it seeks the
satisfactory balance of two central requirements:
assurance of local and global stability, and maximisation
of ore extraction ratio via minimisation of pillar
dimensions
Examine 3D, v.4.0 (Rocscience, Toronto) was adopted for
this design refinement stage. This is an engineering
analysis program to essentially perform stress and
displacement analysis for underground excavations in rock,
by means of the direct boundary element method. However,
its powerful data visualisation tools make it amenable for
application to a much wider range of mining and civil
engineering problems.
The first mining sequence configuration included in
Figure 9 has been selected to illustrate this design
refinement process, because of its broad
representativeness of the Sublevel Open Stoping mining Figure 12: Central Block visualisation.
method, and its more complex geomechanics
interaction. To generate this three-dimensional model,
the original (2-d) model has been expanded along the
seams strike to incorporate up to three stopes and two
"rib pillars" in that direction. As illustrated in the general
arrangement of Figure 11, this results in a total of 15
stopes and 10 pillars distributed in both seams.
Additional modelling dimensions are spans of 45m
down-dip and 60m along-strike, and a 10m pillar
thickness.

Figure 13: Safety factor distribution at central stope walls.

This last representation allows the analysis of the

geomechanical behaviour of stope walls down-dip and
along-strike. Specific results captured within this volume are
displayed in terms of Safety Factor iso-surfaces inside this
volume, but having "put out" all stopes in front of the central
block (as well as the block itself), for ease of observation.
Total and "zoom" view are included in the above figure.
The depth of safety factors below limit equilibrium (FS <
1.0) extends to a maximum of 1.4m into the walls, and
laterally for some 4m down-dip and 6.5m along-strike. The
most unfavourable safety factor distribution regarding our
Figure 11: Three-dimensional sub-level stoping model design criterion (minimum Safety Factor of 1.25)
geometry. corresponds to an iso-surface which extends some 2.7m
into the walls, and laterally for 4.5m down-dip and 13m
Various visualization modes are available with this along-strike. If these design dimensions are to be adopted,
software, as follows. Making use of the "on plane" and appropriate support would be designed and installed to
"within volumetric grid" visualisation tools, modelling results stabilise these volumes.
are briefly outlined below according to three sampling
modes, which may termed: "Central Block", "Rib Pillar", and Rib pillar visualisation is also available. This makes use
"Pillar & Adjacent Stopes". of the "on plane" result display, which captures all results on
This geometry for the first mode is illustrated in Figure 12, a cutting plane passing through the middle of a given rib
as a central sampling block or plate that intersects the global pillar, thus permitting an assessment of conditions in the
15-stope, 10-pillar model. For this configuration, the actual pillar core, to either confirm or modify its dimensions. The
Factor of Safety ("strength factor") results as sampled within total distribution of Safety Factor iso-contours for this case
that block volume are shown in Figure 13. is shown in Figure 14a, whereas Figure 14b affords better

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 277

visualisation of the same distribution, where the portion based on pillar/stope interaction, are best conducted in
(half) of the model in front of the cutting plane has been this mode.
removed.

Figure 16: Safety Factor iso-surfaces inside pillar/stope

sampling volume.

RESULTS

Typically, rib pillars exhibit acceptable iso-surfaces of

Safety Factor values in excess of 1.4 at very shallow
depths into them. In turn, main pillars (orthogonal to rib
pillars) show marginal instability in some sectors.
These findings raise the interesting potential for an
Figure 14: Safety Factor iso-contours through rib pillars. optimised dimensioning of pillars, whereby the thickness
of rib pillars may be moderately reduced, and that of main
Detailed analysis of above results yields a more than pillars modestly increased.
adequate range of Safety Factors from 1.8 to 2.0, with the The above implies a discernible increase in the extraction
marginally lower values distributed in the central pillar. ratio or overall recovery for this orebody, through a
Rib pillar and adjacent stopes. This visualisation mode generalised reduction of rib pillar thickness from 10m to
captures all results within a vertical plate volume 7m. (In some sectors, this may require the
incorporating the sampled rib pillars and about one third of "compensation" of increasing main pillar thickness from
the volume of stopes adjacent to either side, as depicted in 15m to 17m to avoid the onset of limit equilibrium
Figure 15. conditions).
Alternatively, rib pillar thickness may be left unchanged,
with this "surplus" invested in a moderate increase of the
along-strike dimension of the stope.
Sensitivity analyses for a broad range of mining
sequences show a clear trend towards marginal stability
with a further increase in extraction ratio, which suggests
that the current mining method is economically efficient.
Thus, extraction ratio is said to be close to a
"geomechanical optimum".
Two optimised mining sequences emerge from this study.
In sectors where the presence and effects of geological
structures are more pronounced, the optimum sequence
calls for more advanced mining of the lower seam, where
the scatter of safety factor distribution is reduced (lower
dilution is an added bonus). In sectors without such
marked structural influence, the optimum sequence is one
of similar and simultaneous advance in both seams, in
which mining of the next stope alternates between them.
The results from these studies have important
implications for the global stability conditions at Navo
mine, as well as for its eventual closure plans.
Figure 15: Sampling volume for pillar/stope interaction.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The full potential of this visualisation capability is
displayed in Figure 16, with a three-dimensional view of all The two case histories presented in this paper
Safety Factor iso-surfaces contained within this sampling demonstrate the significant potential of geomechanics as an
volume, but having removed that portion of the model effective tool in the pursuit of long term mine planning
located immediately in front of such volume, in order to objectives, and ultimately, in the economic optimisation of
"see through". Sensitivity analyses of pillar dimensioning, the mining business.

278 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In the open pit application, final recommendations REFERENCES
reflected increased slope angles for both, working slopes
and final pit, with the favourable consequences of: greater Brady, B.H.G. & E.T. Brown 1993. Rock Mechanics for
ore recovery, reduced stripping ratio, and the obvious Underground Mining (Second Edition), 141-158,
reduction in production unit costs. These were not obtained Chapman & Hall:London.
at the expense of overall pit safety, but through a more Brown, E.T. and Hoek, E. 1978. Trends in Relationships
realistic, reliable assessment of events which actually between Measured Rock In-Situ Stresses and Depth. Int.
control pit slope behaviour (as opposed to the adoption of J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 15, 211-215.
excessively theoretical formulations), and supported by Hoek, E, 1994. Strength of rock and rock masses. ISRM
practically oriented sensitivity analyses and the News J, 2(2): 4-16.
implementation of a monitoring system. Hoek, E, 2002. Rock engineering. Course notes available
For the underground mining case, geomechanics allowed on line at http://www.rocscience.com.
the formulation of: an overall mine design optimisation, Hoek, E., and Bray, J.W. 1981. Rock Slope Engineering
through a safe refinement of stope and pillar dimensions; a (Revised Third Edition), The Institution of Mining and
mining sequence capable of yielding the complex ore- Metallurgy: London.
blending requirements of the plant; and a moderately Navarrete, S.A. 1995. Evaluacin Tcnico- Econmica
increased ore recovery, such that the extraction ratio is now del Mtodo de Explotacin Modificado "Sublevel Stoping"
said to be close to a geomechanical optimum. para Mina Navo (Internal report).
Soto, C.A., J.C. Cereceda & F.J. Orcaistegui 1999.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Estudio Geotcnico de Refinamiento del Mtodo de
Explotacin de Mina Navo. Report to Empresas Melon
The authors gratefully acknowledge ANGLO AMERICAN S.A.(Blue Circle Cement).
(Chile), through Mr. Manuel Schellman, Sr. Geotechnical Soto, C.A., Cereceda, J.C., Orcaistegui, F.J., and Hartley,
Engineer of the Mining Vice-Presidency, as well as S. 2000. Estudio de Estabilidad de Taludes Pared Este
LAFARGE CEMENT (Chile), through Mr. Sergio Navarrete, Rajo Mantoverde. Report to Empresa Minera de Mantos
Manager of Mineral Resources Planning, for their kind Blancos S.A. (Anglo American Chile).
permission to use information from their various Soto, C.A. & F.J. Orcaistegui 1993. Estudio Diseo
geotechnical studies as required to prepare this paper. Geomecnico Mina Navo, Etapa I. Report to Cemento
Melon S.A.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 279

 "Extension" in large open pit
slopes and possible consequences
T. R. Stacey, School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
Yu Xianbin, Kunming University of Science and Technology, China and School of Mining Engineering,
University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Abstract
Research has recently been carried out into the occurrence of zones of extension strain in open pit slopes. This showed
that very large zones of extension can occur, and this finding represents a significant new aspect in slope stability that
has not been considered before. The greatest magnitudes of extension strain occur near the toe of the slope, either in
the slope itself, or in the floor of the pit. Results of the research will be presented for different slope heights, slope angles
and horizontal to vertical in situ stress ratios.
The magnitudes of the strains are considered to be large enough to result in fracturing of intact rock, and the fracture
orientations predicted are adverse for slope stability. Fracturing that is extension in nature is common in competent,
brittle rocks and often develops with some violence and little or no warning, producing easily measurable seismicity. In
the slope situation, the expected physical manifestation of this behaviour would be popping off of rock slabs and plates
of rock from slope surfaces and popping up of the pit floor, as well as the formation of new fractures within the rock
mass. Such behaviour may cause overall slope failure, or may initiate failure, which may then be driven to overall slope
failure by other influencing factors or combinations of factors. In addition to instability resulting from the fracture surfaces
themselves, all induced fracture surfaces could interact with natural geological structures to facilitate formation of a
significant failure surface.

1. INTRODUCTION approaches using these techniques. The lack of

development in slope stability evaluation is further
Many open pit mines are now being mined at depths in surprising since, as pointed out by Stacey (1993), many of
excess of 500m and many are being planned for much the pits designed in the 1960s and 1970s were reaching
greater depths than these. Many existing pits were not their full depths after about 20 to 30 years. In such cases
originally planned to be mined to such depths, but this the stress levels around the pit could induce failure of the
mining has been facilitated by developments that have rock, and it is therefore appropriate that attention should
taken place in the capabilities of mining equipment. In be paid to the effects of stresses on the stability of the
addition to the depth factor, open pit mining is taking place slopes of these mines.
in areas in which the horizontal to vertical stress ratio is In this paper, a brief review of the application of stress
significantly in excess of unity. An example of this is and numerical analysis techniques to slope stability is
Western Australia, where the horizontal to vertical stress presented. This is followed by research results from a
ratio is commonly quoted to be about 3. Consequently, a programme of stress analyses of two-dimensional and
300m deep pit in this environment might well be axisymmetric open pit slopes, that are relevant to a new
considered equivalent to a 1000m deep pit in a "normal" mechanism of behaviour of open pit slopes in hard and
stress environment. The result is that many current pits, brittle rock. Such behaviour is potentially associated with
and the future very deep pits, are being and will be mined the development of stress induced failure surfaces in
in a high stress environment, which means that they might which significant seismic activity might be involved.
be in "new territory" as far as slope design is concerned.
In such situations, it is important to consider the influence 2. REVIEW OF THE APPLICATION OF NUMERICAL
of the high stresses, and to assess whether new STRESS ANALYSES IN EVALUATING SLOPE
mechanisms of slope behaviour need to be considered. In STABILITY
the 1960s and 1970s considerable research was carried
out into the stability of rock slopes in open pit mines. It After the development of the finite element method of
was also during this period that early development of stress analysis in the 1960s, there were early applications
numerical analysis methods took place, but there was of the method to slopes, (for example Duncan and
relatively little application of them to the evaluation of Goodman, 1968; Gates, 1968; Mahtab and Goodman,
slope stability. Most of the work carried out concentrated 1970). Extensive investigations into the elastic stress
on the use of limit equilibrium techniques, and there has distributions in two and three dimensional slopes were
been surprisingly little development in the technology of carried out by Stacey (1970, 1972, 1973). Factors taken
stability evaluation of open pit mine slopes in the 30 years into account in these investigations were the angle of
since this period. There has been substantial inclination of the slopes, the floor width of the open pit, the
development in the capabilities of numerical modelling horizontal in situ stress field, and the value of Poissons
packages, making them suitable for analysis of the stability ratio. One of the important findings of this work was that a
of slopes, but there has been disappointingly little large horizontal in situ stress field has a major influence on
development in the understanding of the behaviour of rock the stress distributions in slopes.
slopes. The result is that, although numerical techniques A further important observation from early stress analyses
are now commonly used in the evaluation of the stability of of slopes was the correspondence between failure zones
rock slopes, there are no recognized robust, standardized and the presence of tensile stresses (Kalkani, 1976; Kalkani

280 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

and Piteau, 1976; Lee, 1978; Valliappan and Evans, 1980; 3. RECENT MODELLING OF OPEN PIT MINE SLOPES
and Brown et al, 1980).
Common application of numerical methods in the A programme of two dimensional (plane strain) and
evaluation of the stability of rock slopes in recent times is axisymmetric stress analyses of various slope geometries
apparent from numerous papers in a recent specialized has recently been carried out using finite element analysis.
publication (Hustrulid et al, 2000). A paper by Board et al The interpretation of the results concentrated on the strain
(1996) represents a significant development in the in the slopes, and this has identified a new and potentially
application of stress analysis techniques to the evaluation of very significant factor in the consideration of rock slope
slope stability. In this paper, use is made of measured stability in open pit mines the occurrence of zones of
deformations to calibrate models prior to their use for extension strain. In this context, the extension strain is
prediction of slope behaviour into the future. Use was made defined as the minimum principal strain _3 (in a
of both continuum and discontinuum numerical analyses. It compression positive convention) and can be calculated
was found that the continuum approach could model the from the principal stresses using the three dimensional
discontinuous rock mass successfully, and it was the elastic equation:
preferred approach for computational reasons. The steps
involved in the approach were: 3 = [3 _(1 + 2)]/E
a) development of a conceptual model of the slope taking
into account the geological structure and structural where 1, 2, 3 are the three principal
regions, the observed deformation behaviour, the stresses
measured deformations, failures that have occurred, etc;
b) determination of the appropriate constitutive model of is Poissons ratio
rock mass behaviour;
c) determination of rock mass properties using rock mass E is the modulus of elasticity
classification; calibration of models confirmation of the
boundary and initial conditions, sensitivity studies to 3 depends on all three principal stresses and can be
establish appropriate material properties, comparison of extension in nature, even in a triaxially compressive stress
model results with observations and measurements, and field. It is clear therefore that it will depend on the
modifications if necessary; magnitude of the out-of-plane stress used in the two
d) application of the "final" model to determine behaviour as dimensional stress analysis. The results for the two
a result of future mining. dimensional analyses presented in this paper have all
assumed that the out-of-plane stress corresponds with a
The use of a calibration approach as summarized in the plane strain condition.
points above is considered to be a good engineering The occurrence of a zone of extension strain around an
approach provided that extrapolation is not significantly into open pit implies that the rock mass has "expanded" in at
"new territory". However, satisfactory absolute prediction of least one direction in that zone. It is clear from the above
behaviour is unlikely to be successful if the following are not equation that, the smaller the value of E, and the larger the
used: the correct mechanisms, or combinations of different value of Poissons ratio, the greater will be the magnitude of
mechanisms, of behaviour; the correct strength parameters; extension strain.
the correct deformation parameters; and the correct failure In the programme of analyses, only elastic analyses were
criteria. Steps b) and c) above are unlikely to lead to carried out, and the following parameters were taken into
successful prediction except in particular cases. As account:
indicated by Stacey (2000), the use of a rock mass Pit depths: pit depths of 400m, 800m and 1200m were
classification approach, which, as indicated above, is considered. Pit geometries, at an intermediate stage of
commonly used to estimate such parameters, is unlikely to mining, were modelled to determine their influence on the
be satisfactory for absolute prediction since all correlations stress and strain distributions. The pit geometries and the
are based on empirical data. Such correlations are "smear" excavation steps are illustrated in Figure 1 for one of the
correlations and cannot hope to provide data for successful slope angles modelled.
absolute prediction. If successful predictions are obtained, Pit slope angles: slope angles of 30o, 40o, 45o, 50o, 55o,
they are likely to be by luck rather than by confident 60o, 70o and 75o were analysed in most cases.
engineering. Absolute prediction of behaviour, which is very Horizontal to vertical in situ stress ratios (k ratios): values
significantly involved in the analysis and design of new open of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 were used in most cases.
pit mine slopes, requires a very thorough understanding of A value of 0.17 for Poissons ratio, and a modulus of
the mechanisms of deformation and behaviour of the elasticity of 80 GPa, were used for all analyses presented
slopes. in this paper. For elastic analyses, the stress results are
In more recent application of numerical stress analysis independent of the modulus of elasticity used, but the
methods to slope stability, Lorig (1999) and Zettler et al strain results are directly proportional to the value of the
(1999) investigated numerically the effect of three modulus.
dimensions on slope stability. Eberhardt et al (2004)
modelled the progressive development of failure in a rock The results of this programme of analyses have been
slope using a hybrid finite/discrete element code. dealt with in detail by Stacey et al (2003) and therefore only
From the above it may be concluded that development in selected results will be presented here.
the understanding of the behaviour of rock slopes has been Although, as indicated in the Section above, stresses in
very disappointing. Recognising the importance of slopes have been considered over the years, it does not
deformations in rock slopes, it is perhaps surprising that no appear that any consideration has previously been given to
attention appears to have been given to strains in slopes, as the occurrence of strains in slopes.
opposed to stresses.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 281

 significant zones of extension occur in the crest of the
slope only for higher k ratios there is no significant zone
of extension strain for k values of 0.5 and 1.0.

The sizes of the zones of extension can be very

substantial, of the order of many hundreds of metres behind
the slope face and beneath the pit floor, depending mainly
on the k ratio and the pit slope geometry, and have been
quantified by their horizontal and vertical extents (in m/100m
of slope height). The horizontal extent is represented by the
horizontal distance between the toe of the slope and the
boundary of the zone.
The vertical extent is represented by the vertical distance
between the floor of the pit and the boundary of the zone,
measured along the vertical axis of symmetry. The results are
shown in Figures 3 and 4, illustrating the effects of both the k
ratio and the slope angle. In fact the extents of the zones in
Figure 1 Pit geometries and stages of excavation these figures are measured to where the extension strain
exceeds a value of 0.00001, since this is better defined than
The results reported below, dealing in particular with the point of zero extension strain. The actual zones of
extension strains, therefore represents a new development extension are therefore slightly greater than indicated. It can
in the consideration of open pit mine slope stability. be seen from these figures that the zones of extension can be
very large, of the order of many hundreds of metres behind the
Extension strains around two dimensional slopes slope face and beneath the pit floor, depending mainly on the
The results of the analyses show that substantial zones of k ratio and the pit slope geometry.
extension strain occur around the open pit for all in situ
stress conditions and for all slope angles. Figure 2 Extension strains around axisymmetric slopes
illustrates the extent of the extension strain zones for a two For the axisymmetric analyses, the result corresponding
dimensional slope with an angle of 60o, a height of 800m, with Figure 2 for the plane slope is shown in Figure 5. It can
under a k ratio of 2.0. be seen that the strains are not as concentrated at the toe
From this figure it can be seen that the maximum as in the two dimensional plane case. The extents of the
magnitudes of extension strain occur at the toe of the slope, zones are slightly smaller than those for the plane slopes,
either in the slope or in the floor of the pit. From the but are still very substantial.
programme of analyses, the following were found: As for the plane slopes, the sizes of the zones of
the magnitudes of extension strain are greater for higher extension strain can be very substantial. The quantified
values of k; extents of the extension zones for axisymmetric slopes,
the zones of extension strain are larger around the corresponding with Figures 3 and 4 above for two
bowl of the pit for flatter slope angles and higher k dimensional slopes, illustrating the effects of k ratio and
ratios; slope angle, are given in Figures 6 & 7.

Figure 2 Extension strain distribution for a two dimensional slope, k = 2.0

282 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 3 Horizontal extents of extension strain zones for Figure 4 Vertical extents of extension strain zones for two
two dimensional slopes dimensional slopes

Implications of the occurrence of extension strains on correspondingly, the magnitudes of the extension strains
the behaviour of open pit rock slopes will also increase. For a 400m deep pit, the maximum
These results of the analyses have shown that very large extension strain magnitudes calculated vary from about
extension strain zones will develop around the slopes and 0.00001 for k of 0.5 to about 0.0001 for a k of 2.0. For a
floors of open pits. It is to be noted that the geometry of the 1200m deep pit the corresponding strain values are about
pit in plan (such as the occurrence of convex slopes, 0.0001 and about 0.0003. In terms of the extension strain
resulting in "noses" in the pit) will have a significant criterion for fracture of brittle rock (Stacey, 1981), critical
influence on the occurrence of extension strains. extension strain levels at which fracturing can occur are in
the 0.0001 to 0.0003 range, in particular for hard, brittle
Magnitudes of extension strains rock. The stress conditions are therefore conducive for the
The magnitude of the extension strain calculated is development of extension fracturing around and adjacent
directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity used in the to the toes of slopes (in the pit floor and in the slope face
analysis. The results presented above are for a modulus of area). From the analyses carried out, these conditions
elasticity of 80 GPa. If the modulus of elasticity was 40 GPa could apply for 400m high slopes when the k ratio is about
instead of 80 GPa, for example, these strains would double. 2 or greater. They would apply for 1200m high slopes
Note, however, that the extents of the zones of extension under any k ratio. It can therefore be concluded that
are not influenced by the modulus. failure of the rock material and rock mass will occur, and
As the height of the slope increases, and as the k ratio that this might have a significant negative effect on stability
increases, the stress levels will increase and, of the slope.

Figure 5 Extension strain distribution for an axisymmetric slope, k = 2.0

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 283

 Figure 8 Probable fracture orientations
Figure 6 Horizontal extents of extension strain zones for
axisymmetric slopes
loosening effects of blasting. The further implications are that
there may be limits to the depths to which open pit operations
can progress without the occurrence of stress induced
instability.
It is to be noted that the type of fracturing likely to develop
will be in a brittle rock environment in which "stiff" rock
conditions exist. The analyses described above have made
use of an elastic modulus of 80 GPa and a Poissons ratio
of 0.17. These might be considered as high and low
respectively for a rock mass. Lower modulus values and
higher Poissons ratio values will result in greater extension
strain magnitudes. Hence the interpretation of the results
above probably represents a conservative approach.

Mode of fracture and failure

It is likely that, at greater mining depths, rocks will be more
competent and less weathered. Fracturing that is extension in
nature is more common in more competent, brittle rocks and
Figure 7 Vertical extents of extension strain zones for often develops with some violence and little or no warning. The
axisymmetric slopes mechanism involved would be a form of "strain bursting" which
produces easily measurable seismicity, events often being
audible as well. In the slope situation, the expected physical
Orientations of potential fracture surfaces manifestation of this behaviour would be popping off of rock
The orientations of extension fractures will be normal to the slabs and plates of rock from slope surfaces and popping up of
minimum principal stress. In the proximity of excavation the pit floor, as well as the formation of new fractures within the
surfaces, the direction of the minimum principal stress is normal rock mass. There is likely to be some time dependency in the
to the surface and hence extension fractures will be sub- development of fractures. Since the size of the open pit
parallel to the excavation surface. In Figure 8, an interpretation increases slowly, there is an abundance of time for the stresses
is given of the probable orientations of fractures in the toe and around the pit to readjust and to interact with the rock material
slope face regions. Therefore inclined fractures are likely to and rock mass, promoting the development of fractures. Such
develop in any toe region and slope face parallel fractures are behaviour may cause overall slope failure, or may initiate
likely to develop behind the face, away from the toe. These failure, which may then be driven to overall slope failure by
orientations are likely to be adverse for stability of the slope other influencing factors or combinations of factors.
the inclined surfaces will facilitate sliding out from the face and In addition to instability resulting from the fracture surfaces
the face parallel surfaces will promote the formation of themselves, all induced fracture surfaces could interact with
"columns" or plates. These could be involved in slope failure natural geological structures (joints, bedding planes, faults, etc)
due to sliding out, or buckling out. to facilitate formation of a significant failure surface and to
From the analyses carried out, the extent of the zone of reduce the stability of the slope. Extension strains are likely to
potential fracturing is very substantial. For example, for an manifest themselves in the opening up of adversely orientated
800m high, axisymmetric 60o slope (k ratio of 2.0), fracturing natural structures and hence in the loosening of the rock mass
could occur to a horizontal depth of about 50m into the rock in a preferential orientation.
mass behind the toe region and over a height of between 50m
and 100m up the slope face. In comparison, for a 1200m pit, Influence on groundwater conditions
fracturing could occur to a horizontal depth of more than 100m The presence of zones of extension will lead to expansion of
behind the toe of the slope, and over a height of about 400m up the rock mass in a preferred direction. This, the formation of
the slope face. Similar extents apply, for example, for a 45o new extension fracture surfaces, the opening up of adversely
slope, 1200m high. This illustrates the influence of the depth of orientated natural structures, and the interaction of these effects
the open pit. The implication from this is that adversely with other natural geological structures, will express itself as a
orientated fracture planes can develop in the tightly confined zone of relaxation, in a preferential direction, around the pit.
rock mass beyond the surficial zone of blast damage, and the This is likely to have a significant influence on the permeability
potential for fracturing damage is unlikely to be inhibited by the of the rock mass. This may facilitate the entry of groundwater

284 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

into the rock mass, may allow channelling of water flow in Kalkani, E C, 1976. Stability analysis of rock slopes,
particular directions, and may inhibit flow in other directions. Water Power & Dam Construction, September:47-49.
Since groundwater pressures are a very important contributor to Kalkani, E C and Piteau, D R, 1976. Finite element
the instability of slopes, some of these effects may be analysis of toppling failure at Hells Gate Bluffs, British
detrimental to stability of the slopes. Columbia, Bull. Ass. Engng Geol., 13(4):315-327.
Lee, C F, 1978. Stress relief and cliff stability at a power
4. CONCLUSIONS station near Niagara Falls, Engng Geol., 12:193-204.
Lorig, L 1999. Lessons learned from slope stability
From the research programme of stress analyses and the studies, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
observations from the case studies, the following Geomechanics, Detournay & Hart (eds), Balkema,
conclusions can be drawn: Rotterdam, pp 17-21.
relatively limited zones of tensile stress occur behind the Mahtab, M A and Goodman, R E, 1970. Three-
crest of slopes for in situ stress conditions with k ratios dimensional finite element analysis of jointed rock slopes,
greater than 1.0, and in the pit floor for low k values; Proc. 2nd Int. Cong. Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Belgrade,
in contrast with the limited occurrence of tensile stresses, 3(Theme 7). Paper No 12.
very large zones of extension strain can develop around Stacey, P F, 1993. Pit slope designs for the 21st century,
the slopes. The occurrence of extension strains in open in Innovative Mine Design for the 21st Century, (Ed
pit slopes represents a new, and potentially very Bawden and Archibald), Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 3-11.
important, consideration with regard to slope stability; Stacey, T R, 1970. The stresses surrounding open pit
the probable orientations of fracture surfaces, adversely mine slopes, in Planning Open Pit Mines, (Ed P W J van
inclined out of the slope near the toe and parallel to the Rensburg), A A Balkema, pp 199-207.
slope face away from the toe, are such that they could Stacey, T R, 1972. Three-dimensional finite element
have a significantly negative influence on the stability of stress analysis applied to two problems in rock
slopes. The geometry of the fracturing could lead to the mechanics, Jl S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 72(10):251-256.
formation of slabs parallel to the slope face; Stacey T R, 1973. A three-dimensional consideration of
the fracture surfaces will probably also provide surfaces that the stresses surrounding open pit mine slopes, Int. J.
can interact with, or combine with, natural geological Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 10:523-533.
structures to form potential failure surfaces within the slope; Stacey, T R, 1981. A simple extension strain criterion for
fracturing that is extension in nature usually occurs with fracture of brittle rock, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.,
some violence and suddenness, with little or no warning. 18:469-474.
There is usually easily measurable seismicity associated Stacey, T R, 2000. Reservations regarding the use of
with these "strain burst" type of events; rock mass classifications in rock engineering, Proc.
the zones of extension in the slopes represent possible Bergmekanikdag 2000, SveBeFo, Swedish Rock
locations of changed rock mass permeability and Engineering Research and National Group ISRM, pp 1-
preferential groundwater flow. 18.
Stacey, T R, Yu Xianbin, Armstrong, R and Keyter, G J,
REFERENCES 2003. New slope stability considerations for deep open pit
mines, Jl S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 103(6):373-389.
Board, M, Chacon, E, Varona, P and Lorig, L, 1996. Valliappan, S and Evans, R S, 1980. Finite element
Comparative analysis of toppling behaviour at analysis of a slope at Illawarra Escarpment, Proc. 3rd
Chuquicamata open-pit mine, Chile, Trans. Instn Min. Australia-New Zealand Conf. On Geomechanics,
Metall. (Section A: Min. Industry), 105:A1-A21. Wellington, 2: 241-246.
Brown, I, Hittinger, M and Goodman, R, 1980. Finite Zettler, A H, Poisel, R, Roth, W and Preh, A 1999. Slope
element analysis of the Nevis Bluff (New Zealand) rock stability analysis based on the shear reduction technique
slope failure, Rock Mech., 12:231-245. in 3D, in FLAC and Numerical Modeling in
Duncan, J M and Goodman, R E, 1968. Finite element Geomechanics, Detournay & Hart (eds), Balkema,
analysis of slopes in jointed rock, Contract Report, U S Rotterdam, pp 11-16.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Amadei, B and Stephansson, O, 1997. Rock Stress and
Engineers, No S-68-3:274p. its Measurement, 515 p. Kluwer: Dordrecht.
Eberhardt, E, Stead, D and Coggan, J S, 2004, Numerical Bandis, S, 1990. Mechanical properties of rock joints.
analysis of initiation and progressive failure in natural rock Proceedings International Symposium on Rock Joints,
slopes the 1991 Randa rockslide, Int. J. Rock Mech. Len, Norway, (Ed: N Barton and O Stephansson), 125-
Min. Sci., 41, pp 69-87. 140. Balkema: Rotterdam.
Gates, R H, 1968. Inelastic analysis of slopes by the finite Bandis, S, 1993. Engineering properties and characterization
element method, PhD Thesis (unpublished), University of of rock discontinuities. Comprehensive Rock Engineering,
Illinois, 123p. (Ed: J A Hudson, E T Brown, C Fairhurst and E Hoek), 1:
Hustrulid, W A, McCarter, M K and Van Zyl, D J A (eds), 155-183. Pergamon Press: Oxford.
2000. Slope Stability in Surface Mining, SME, Colorado,
442p.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 285

 Visual estimation of
fragment size distributions
in the DOZ block cave
A. Srikant, Rock Mechanics Engineer, David E. Nicholas, President, Call & Nicholas, Inc., Tucson, Arizona, USA
Lufi Rachmad, Staff Geotechnical Engineer, P.T. Freeport Indonesia, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

Abstract
Predicting fragmentation distributions before the start of block caving is an important planning exercise that helps in the
production scheduling and in the selection of equipment for the ore handling system. Though several methods have
been developed for the assessment of fragment size distribution in block cave operations, limited efforts have been
made for developing correlations between the predicted and observed fragmentation.
At P.T. Freeport Indonesias DOZ block cave operation, a procedure was developed for assessing the fragmentation at
the drawpoints. The observed fragmentation was tabulated along with the estimated height of draw, and the fragment
size distributions were then compared with the predicted fragmentation at different draw heights. The results show that
while the median fragment size for the predicted and observed fragmentation were similar, the fragmentation measured
at the drawpoint included more fines and fewer large blocks.
This paper presents the methodology used for assessing the observed fragmentation and shows the results of the
correlation studies.

1 INTRODUCTION benefits from the previous experience gained while mining

the GBT and the IOZ in the same skarn system.
The mines of the Ertsberg District, in the province of West Four major rock types are mined in the DOZ:
Papua in Indonesia, are operated by P.T. Freeport Indonesia 1. Ertsberg Diorite
(PTFI) under contract to the Republic of Indonesia. The 2. Forsterite Skarn
Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) mine is a part of the Ertsberg District 3. Magnetite Skarn
of Papua, Indonesia. 4. DOZ Breccia

Fragmentation characteristics for these rock types vary

from fine (in the DOZ Breccia) to coarse (in the Diorite). In
order to help select the most appropriate production and
ore-flow equipment and to assess the productivity from the
mine, fragmentation estimates were developed using
different available methods. A drawpoint fragmentation
mapping scheme was developed to assess the current
fragmentation and to correlate between the observed and
predicted fragmentation.
This paper discusses the development of the
fragmentation estimates in the different rock types, the
process and results of drawpoint fragmentation mapping,
and the correlations between the observed and predicted
fragmentation distributions.

2 CHALLENGES IN ESTIMATING
FRAGMENTATION IN THE DOZ
Figure 1. Location of PTFIs Mining Operations
At the time of the feasibility study and preparation of the
The DOZ is a copper-gold deposit found on the northeast report, very few excavations were available in the DOZ
flank of the Ertsberg diorite. It comprises the lower undercut and extraction levels for the collection of the
elevations of the East Ertsberg Skarn System (EESS). geotechnical information required for development of
The DOZ mine is an LHD block cave mine using eight- fragmentation estimates. Three panel drifts at the extraction
cubic-yard loaders at the extraction level from where the level and three drill drifts at the undercut level were mapped
broken rock is transferred through ore passes feeding 55- for estimating the rock-mass and joint-set characteristics in
ton trucks, which then dump directly into a 54-inch gyratory the four major rock types expected in the DOZ. The Block
crusher (Barber et al, 2000). Cave Fragmentation (BCF) program was used to develop
The DOZ is essentially the third lift of the block cave mine primary and secondary fragmentation estimates for the DOZ
that has exploited the East Ertsberg Skarn complex, and mine.

286 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The different rock types in the DOZ exhibit vastly different
fragmentation characteristics, from the fine fragmentation in the
DOZ Breccia and Magnetite Skarn to the coarse fragmentation
in the Diorite. Based on an examination of the drill-core piece
lengths from different areas of the DOZ, the fragment size
distributions were expected to show a significant variation
along strike and by elevation, even within the same rock type.
In the absence of joint-set characteristics from all areas of the
DOZ, the variation of fragmentation could not be simulated
using the available estimation tools like BCF.
Since the drill-core data from the DOZ showed significant
variation in piece lengths in different parts of the deposit,
Call & Nicholas, Inc. (CNI) and PTFI concluded that the drill-
core data should be used to help differentiate between the
fragmentation characteristics in the different areas of the
DOZ. CNI developed a program (Core2Frag) for estimating
the primary fragment size distributions based on the core Figure 3. Primary and Secondary Fragmentation Estimates
piece length data collected by PTFI from the drill holes in the for Diorite in Panels 12-15
DOZ. The BCF program was used for the development of
secondary fragmentation estimates. The fragmentation estimates developed for the DOZ
showed that some areas of the DOZ would have
3 FRAGMENTATION ESTIMATES IN THE DOZ significantly coarse fragmentation. Since the fragment size
distribution would have an impact on the operations in the
The Core2Frag program developed by CNI uses the core DOZ mine, PTFI initiated a program for monitoring the
piece length information and the joint-set characteristics for fragmentation at the drawpoint. This program helped to
estimating the primary fragmentation (Srikant et al, 2004). calibrate the fragmentation estimates developed by CNI and
The drill-hole data, sorted into domains of three panels each develop more accurate estimates for areas that will be
along strike, and the joint-set characteristics of four rock undercut at a later stage in the mining of the DOZ block
types (Forsterite Skarn, Forsterite-Magnetite Skarn, cave.
Magnetite Skarn, Diorite) were used to estimate the primary
fragmentation. Table 1 shows the structural data used for 4 DRAWPOINT MAPPING
the Diorite and the Mixed Skarns. (There was little
difference in the joint-set information for the different skarns, The development of digital imaging methods has
so the data for all the skarns was combined). introduced the possibility of correlating some of the
Secondary fragmentation estimates and hang-up fragmentation estimates with direct observations in the field
frequencies were determined using the BCF program (Girdner et al, 1996). However, the measurement of
(Esterhuizen, 1999). The BCF program uses the primary fragmentation at the drawpoint gives information regarding
blocks generated by the Core2Frag program and the caving the secondary fragmentation only. It is also very difficult to
geometry to estimate the breakage of the primary blocks as take photographs in the wet and dusty areas in the
they travel through the draw column. underground and the photographs thus taken are often not
The primary and secondary fragmentation estimates for the suitable for fragmentation analyses using digital imaging
Forsterite Skarn for Panels 12-15 in the DOZ are shown on methods. Efforts are underway to develop systems for the
Figure 2 (Pratt et al, 2002). The estimates show that about 57 field assessment of fragmentation at the drawpoints using
percent of the tons in the first 60 meters of the draw in Panels photographs as well as visual size distribution assessments.
12-15 would be larger than two cubic meters. As the draw A procedure for the DOZ fragmentation visual data
height increases, the percentage of tons that require secondary collection, called drawpoint mapping, was developed to
breakage reduces, with 20 percent of the tons being larger than assess the actual fragmentation size distribution and to
two cubic meters at a draw height of 240 meters. provide feedback for the fragmentation prediction tools.
In the Diorite, the fragmentation estimates show that about This procedure satisfied the following requirements: it is
80 percent of the tons in the first 60 meters of the draw in simple, repeatable, and creates no significant interruption to
Panels 12-15 would be larger than two cubic meters, and about the production. The qualitative information was collected by
68 percent of the tons would be larger than two cubic meters at developing a rating system while the quantitative
a draw height of 240 meters (Figure 3). information was collected by estimating the percentages of
particular material sizes in the drawpoint.
Mapping of fragmentation at the drawpoints in the DOZ
was undertaken from mid-2002. The available data were
provided to CNI for analysis up to November 2002. CNI
developed correlations to help assess the fragmentation in
the unmined areas of the DOZ and the ESZ block caves.
The rating system (Figure 4) was based on three
categories: (1) drawpoint productivity, (2) hang-up condition,
and (3) general block sizes. This qualitative information
would provide a general overview of fragmentation
condition. In addition, this information could be used for
supporting the quantitative information.
The quantitative information regarding the material size
distribution was collected using the categories shown on
Figure 5. The material size distribution was divided into five
categories: fines, small block, intermediate block, large
Figure 2. Primary and Secondary Fragmentation Estimates block, and oversize.
for Forsterite Skarn in Panels 12-15

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 287

 appropriate. The oversize and fines were estimated, and the
small blocks category was calculated to make up the rest.
The draw height information for each drawpoint, which was
important for the analysis, was collected through the Cave
Management System (CMS). Rock type information was
collected through geological mapping at the drawpoints.
Currently, there are ten production panels and about 120
active drawpoints in the DOZ. Drawpoint mapping is
conducted at least once every two weeks.
Table 1 shows the number of observations for each
fragmentation domain by rock type and height of draw. The
table shows that there is limited data for the Diorite and the
Forsterite. Since the fragmentation characteristics of the
Forsterite and the Forsterite-Magnetite are similar, these
data were combined to provide a greater database for
comparison and correlation. Also, though PTFI geologists
had classified the DOZ breccia as HALO-1, HALO-2, or
HALO-4, during the mapping of the drawpoint muck piles,
CNI estimated the fragmentation characteristics for all types
of DOZ Breccia as one unit.

Table 1. Number of Drawpoint Mapping

Observations in the DOZ

Rock type Forsterite Forsterite-Magnetite Magnetite Diorite DOZ Breccia

Height of Draw 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180

Panels 12-15 16 21 7 125 87 5 38 29 0 7 0 0 9 101 22

Panels 15-18 12 4 0 64 27 0 18 12 0 0 0 0 4 19 2
Panels 18-21 1 0 0 26 2 0 8 1 0 0 0 0 5 3 0
All Panels 29 25 7 215 116 5 64 42 0 7 0 0 18 123 24

Figure 4. Freeports DOZ Drawpoint Rating System The observations showed variations due to rock type, and
are discussed herein.

Forsterite:
The first three size categories represent the material that The fragmentation distributions observed in the Forsterite do
could pass through the ore pass grizzly. The "large blocks" not show any definite pattern. In panels 12-15, the
category represents the material that could be handled by fragmentation was similar for heights of draw of 0-60 meters and
LHDs without any material size reduction required. The 60-120 meters, with 50 percent of the total volume having a
"oversize" category represents the material that requires fragment size greater than eight cubic meters. However, the
either secondary blasting at the draw point or hang-up fragmentation for heights of draw of 120-180 meters showed
blasting. In addition, the length and width of the largest some larger blocks, which made the fragmentation coarser, with
block was recorded. 50 percent of the volume having fragment size greater than 100
cubic meters. In panels 15-18, the fragmentation for 0-60
meters of draw is slightly coarser than that for 60-120 meter
draw. In panels 18-21, there were no data for draw heights
greater than 60 meters. The distribution showed a maximum
fragment size of 0.1 cubic meters. The percentage of volume
that has blocks greater than two cubic meters for different
heights of draw is shown in Table 2.
Forsterite-Magnetite:
The fragmentation distributions for the Forsterite-
Magnetite show that the blocks undergo size reduction as
the height of draw increases. The maximum size reduction
takes place after 120 meters of draw. Again, the percentage
of volume that has blocks greater than two cubic meters for
different heights of draw is shown in Table 2.

Figure 5. DOZ Drawpoint Fragmentation Log Magnetite:

The observed fragmentation in the Magnetite shows
The main concern for the mine was the large or coarse some size reduction for the 0-60 and 60-120 meters of
blocks; however, fines information was also important for height-of-draw (HOD). However, the extent of size
understanding the compaction issue inside the transfer reduction is significantly greater in panels 18-21. In panels
raise and for analyzing the effectiveness of the secondary 12-15, the magnetite was observed to be coarser than in the
ore handling system. other panels. Table 2 shows the percentage of volume that
In the original version of the drawpoint log, the observer has blocks greater than two cubic meters.
was required to estimate the percentage of each category.
In the later version, counting the numbers of intermediate DOZ Breccia:
and large blocks and multiplying those by proportional area- Observations in the DOZ Breccia show that the material
based percentages was found to be easier and more undergoes major size reduction after 60 meters of draw and

288 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

does not break down significantly beyond 120 meters of
draw. The percentage of volume that has blocks greater
than two cubic meters is shown in Table 2.

Diorite:
There was very little fragmentation mapping data
available from the drawpoints in the Diorite because few
drawpoints were opened in the Diorite at the time of this
analysis. However, the data collected by PTFI since
November 2002 will help better calibrate the fragmentation
estimates in this rock type.

Table 2. Percentage Volume Greater Than 2 Cubic

Meters by Rock Type and Draw Height

Rock type Forsterite Forsterite-Magnetite Magnetite DOZ Breccia

Height of Draw 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180 0-60 60-120 120-180

Panels 12-15 28 27 26 78 84 99 41 46 - 72 94 95
Panels 15-18 72 76 - 74 77 99 87 85 - 87 93 95
Figure 6. Predicted and Observed Fragment Size
Panels 18-21 100 - - 65 71 - 80 100 - 90 88 -
Distributions for Forsterite/Forsterite-Magnetite Skarn in
Panels 12-15.

5 CALIBRATING THE RESULTS OF CORE2FRAG Calibration of the fragmentation estimates in the Diorite
USING DRAWPOINT MAPPING could not be performed in a similar way because of the
limited number of observations. Furthermore, the predicted
The observations at the drawpoints at the DOZ provided fragmentation within the Diorite was observed to be about
a unique opportunity to compare the predicted and an order of magnitude greater than that in the Forsterite and
observed fragmentation for the different rock types for Forsterite-Magnetite Skarns. A methodology was therefore
several heights of draw. Drawpoint fragmentation developed for calibrating the estimates in the Diorite based
information for a particular "fragmentation domain" was on the observations in the Forsterite and Forsterite-
compared to the predicted fragmentation for the same Magnetite Skarns by correlating the observed percentages
fragmentation domain, for the same rock type and height of and the percentages predicted by Core2Frag for the
draw. Observed and predicted fragmentation distributions different draw heights. This methodology will be refined as
were compared only for those drawpoints that had at least more observations are collected in the drawpoints in the
80 percent of one rock type. Diorite.
The observed and predicted fragmentation distributions in
Panels 12-15, 15-18, and 18-21 were compared for the 6 CONCLUSIONS
Forsterite/Forsterite-Magnetite, Magnetite, and DOZ
Breccia for HOD of 0-60 meters, 60-120 meters, and 120- Based on this study, the following conclusions are made
180 meters. The data were plotted in several ways to regarding the correlations between
understand the relationships between the two distributions. the predicted and observed fragment size distributions:
The details of the comparison and the inferences therefrom 1. In general, the percent of the total volume greater than 1-
are discussed in this section. 2 cubic meters is similar in both the observed and
The data collection procedure for drawpoint mapping was predicted fragmentation. The 80th percentile block
designed so that the PTFI geotech engineers could make a volumes in the predicted and observed fragment size
quick assessment of the block sizes and estimate the distributions are similar.
percentage in each of the categories. The procedure was 2. The procedures for estimating fragmentation
based on block side lengths, because it is easier for the underestimate the size fragments below 0.1 cubic meters
engineers to estimate lengths rather than areas or volumes. in volume.
However, the fragmentation distributions from Core2Frag 3. The observed and predicted fragment size distributions
are based on block volumes. In order to compare the two show similar relationships to the height of draw. As the
sets of information, CNI converted the linear fragment size draw height increases, more of the smaller blocks are
distributions to volumetric distributions assuming that the created.
blocks had broken down to a stable aspect ratio of 1:1.2:1.2. 4. The correlation between the two distributions appears to
The dimensions of the largest block observed in the draw be related to rock type and may be dependent on rock
point were used to estimate its volume. The fragment size properties.
distribution was then adjusted accordingly. 5. Additional data is required for generating the correlation
The height of draw for each draw point was recorded for the Diorite.
based on the month-end HOD computed from the tons
drawn from the drawpoint as reported by the PTFI Cave The process of calibration carried out in the DOZ is limited
Management System. These data were then sorted into the in its extent and applicability because of the small number
HOD Sectors used by CNI for comparison to the predicted of observations in the database. Ideally, it would have been
fragmentation. more effective to have several observations in different rock
The fragmentation distributions observed at the various types, in different draw height categories, so that a rationale
drawpoints were sorted by rock type and domain. The for calibration could be developed. It is therefore important
predicted and observed fragmentation distributions in the that the process of data collection be continued so that more
Forsterite/Forsterite-Magnetite Skarn are plotted on Figure reliable correlations can be developed between the
6. The observed fragmentation distribution represents the predicted and observed fragment size distributions. The
fragmentation at the surface of the muck pile in the draw following problems were noted in the data collection and
points (Srikant and Nicholas, 2003). correlation process:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 289

1. The observations are biased towards the fines as the 4. Assess other operational parameters that are affected by
boulders may be covered with fine gained material and the changing fragmentation so that correlations between
may not be visible during mapping of the muck pile Core2Frag results and parameters such as secondary
surface. blasting requirements, loader productivity, etc. can be
2. The mapping of the drawpoints does not include volumes developed.
of the broken material, thus necessitating the 5. Perform similar analyses in other block caves and other
assumptions regarding the aspect ratio and shape of the mining operations to evaluate the Core2Frag program
blocks. and the process of calibration.
3. Adequate data were not available in all rock types for all
draw heights. The applicability of the correlation is thus 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
limited to the draw heights and rock types in which
sufficient data are available. However, the method-ology The authors thank PTFI for permission to publish this
for the breaking of the blocks in the draw column can be paper. The assistance of geotech engineers at PTFI in the
developed based on the observations. collection of the fragmentation data from the DOZ mine is
4. The drawpoint fragmentation mapping was done on a also gratefully acknowledged.
daily basis. However, it is a well documented fact that
unless the material is known to be well graded, the 8 REFERENCES
distribution of fragment sizes within the muck pile at the
drawpoint is best assessed by taking several Barber, J., Thomas, L., and Casten, T., "Freeport
measurements while the muck is being drawn out of the Indonesias Deep Ore Zone Mine", Proc. MassMin 2000,
drawpoint. As a result, the observed fragmentation is an AusIMM, Brisbane, November 2000.
instantaneous measurement and may not be Esterhuizen, G.S., BCF Version 3.0 A Program to
representative of the fragmentation at that height of draw. Predict Block Cave Fragmentation - Technical Reference
and Users Guide, Littleton, Colorado, 1999.
In order to improve the results of the Core2Frag program Girdner, K.K., Kemeny, J.M., Srikant, A., and McGill, R.,
and provide better estimates of the expected fragmentation, "The Split system for analyzing the size distribution of
the authors suggest that the following future work be fragmented rock", Measurement of Blast Fragmentation
undertaken: (eds. John Franklin et al), A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
1. Continue data collection in the different rock types so that 1996.
an adequate database of observations is created for Pratt, R.W., Srikant, A., Nicholas, D.E. and Flint, D.C.,
correlation to the predicted fragment size distributions. Analysis of DOZ Fragmentation, CNI Report, May 2002.
2. Improve the data collection process through digital Srikant, A. and Nicholas, D.E., Calibration of
photography of the muck pile at the drawpoints. Fragmentation in the DOZ Block Cave, CNI Report,
3. Compare observed fragmentation at the drawpoint with September 2003.
fragmentation measured by sieving to establish Srikant, A. and Nicholas, D.E., "Assessment of Primary
correlations between observed 2D and measured 3D Fragmentation from Drill Core Data", Proc. MassMin
volumetric fragment size distributions. 2004, Santiago, August 2004.

290 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 7
Ore Pass Design
292 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Experiments regarding
grain pressure in silos
H.A. Janssen, Engineer in Bremen (Translated from German by William Hustrulid, University of Utah,
Salt Lake City, Utah and Norbert Krauland, Consultant, Boliden, Sweden)

Abstract
Translators Note:
One of the "classic" papers referred to in many subsequent papers dealing with the flow of granular materials is the paper
by H.A. Janssen published in 1895 (Janssen, 1895). The paper was one of the first, if not the first, to recognize that the
full weight of the contents of a bin/ore pass are not carried on the bottom of the bin but much of the weight is actually
transferred to the walls. The paper included the development of the governing equations as well as the experiments
performed. Use of the hydraulic radius concept in bin/ore pass design most certainly originated based on some of the
contained ideas. In spite of the importance of the paper, the translators were unable to find a published or even an
unpublished version in English. This would suggest that those citing the reference were either fluent in German or, more
likely, simply included it for completeness sake. It is felt that this paper might be of interest to others trying to understand
and explain granular flow associated with mass mining systems.The division of the paper into sections was done by the
authors to conform to the present publication style

1 INTRODUCTION friction of the individual grains against each other. In

addition, the formulas for the calculation of earth pressure
In the past decades, the grain production (export) from the against retaining walls are also not applicable because
grain-producing countries of the earth to Europes civilized these formulas, in general, have been developed for straight
countries has made sensational advances. Considering the walls. For a bin, the content is completely surrounded by
lengths of the required transport paths, this development vertical walls.
could only be achieved by keeping production costs low.
These are due to low wages, the extensive use of machines 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
both for the preparation of the soil and for gathering the
harvest as well as the means for grain storage and To my knowledge, the only publication about tests
transportation. With respect to low costs, in the United regarding the measurement of grain pressure in bins/silos
States of America the development of large-scale grain (and then only about the floor pressure) is found in
elevators (storage bins) has been essential (Arndt, 1892). Engineering (Roberts, 1882). These tests demonstrate that
The purpose of these grain storage facilities is to store the the pressure of the grain in a silo against the foundation
grain arriving in rail cars until it is reloaded onto ships for increase with increasing height until a certain height is
river or sea transport. The extensive handling facilities for reached. Beyond that critical height there is no further
weighing, storing and reloading the grain onto ships have increase of the bottom pressure. The largest pressure
very high capacities. In some instances, the handling developed on the bottom is dependent upon the cross-
capacity exceeds several hundreds of tons per hour. The section of the bin. It should be approximately proportional to
interior of such silos (in North America called "elevators") the diameter of the largest circle inscribed in the cross-
consists of a number of vertical tube-like compartments that section.
extend from ground level to the roof. Earlier, the basic shape As it appeared valuable to obtain information on the
of these compartments (in plan) was exclusively increase of pressure in the silo from the surface down to any
rectangular. The common walls were constructed in a given depth, I performed a series of thorough (systematic)
wooden framework covered by thick boards. Recently, the tests, the results of which are presented here. Four wooden
walls of the bins have been constructed of masonry with test cells of square cross section with side lengths of 20, 30,
steel reinforcing as well. In plan section the compartments 40 and 60 cm were constructed. For all of the tests, these
have hexagonal shapes like honeycombs (Arndt, 1892). The cells were mounted on four adjustable screw supports
grain is dumped into the upper end of the bin through a denoted by S in Figures 1 and 2. The lower end of each cell
small opening. The grain is removed from the bin through consists of a well-fitting sliding floor.
closable openings in the floor. The sizes of the bins are very This cell floor rests on a decimal balance. At the start of
diverse. The largest have a capacity of up to about 250t. In the tests, the system is brought into balance by adjusting the
this case, the height of the grain in the elevator is about counter balance weight G so that the weight of the bin
25m. It is clear that the large bin content must exert bottom is cancelled out. In this balance position, a support
considerable pressure against the side walls and the floor. is placed below the counter weight scale G and an
In the different construction textbooks, mention is actually additional weight is added. Before the start of the test, the
made about the necessity of providing enough support to grain to be poured into the apparatus and its containers are
the bin walls. However, no guidance is provided regarding weighed. Grain is now poured into the cell until the counter
the determination of the grain pressure against the weight scale G starts moving upward. By weighing the
enclosing bin walls. The formulas for the pressure exerted pouring container once again, the amount of grain
by liquids are not applicable for grain because, in the latter remaining in the container can be obtained. Hence, the
case, the pressure transfer is greatly influenced by the amount of grain in the bin generating

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 293

 Figure 3. System of adding weights to the board placed on
top of the grain to simulate greater column heights.

3 RESULTS

Figure 1. Front view of the model bin. The test results summarized in Table 1 are graphically
presented in Figures 4 through 7. The smooth pressure
curves obtained in tests 2 through 6 suggest that significant
observational errors were not present. Observational errors
for Test No. 1 are proportionally higher since it was the first
one performed. With continued use of the apparatus, the
procedures were improved and hence observational errors
reduced. If the content of the bin consists of a fluid, the
bottom pressure (Translator: more correctly the measured
force on the bottom) is exactly equal to the weight of the bin
contents. The tests with grain, however, reveal a substantial
reduction in the bottom pressure due to the frictional
resistance between the bin walls and the grain. This
frictional resistance becomes so large with increasing depth
that the pressure increase is no longer noticeable.
Therefore the friction between the grain and the bin wall
must be equal to the weight of the enclosed grain layers.

4 BIN WALL PRESSURE

The magnitude of the largest grain pressure against the

surrounding walls in this case, and obviously the highest
value achieved, is calculated in the following manner:

Psmax = maximum pressure of the grain against the

bin wall
f = friction coefficient between the grain and the bin wall
s = side length of the square bin cross-section
Figure 2. Side view of the model bin. dh = height of the grain layer
= density of the grain
the floor pressure can be known exactly. After placing
addition weights on the counter weight scale G, the bin is
lifted by means of the support screws S until the scale is From Figure 8 one finds that:
brought back into balance. Now the apparatus is once again
ready for use and the test is continued. In this way, it was Psmax f 4s dh = s2 dh
possible with a single filling of the bin to determine the floor
pressures corresponding to various filling heights. or

Psmax = s/4f (1)

Under the assumption that the friction coefficient f

remains constant even for varying grain pressures against

294 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 4. The measured bin floor force as a function of the amount of grain for Test 1.

the bin walls, the maximum pressure for different bins of

square cross-section is proportional to the side length.

5 DETERMINATION OF WALL FRICTION

The value of f can be determined by the following

experiment.
The flat vessel shown in Figure 9 was filled with wheat and
then a wooden board was placed on top of the wheat. By a string
attached to the middle of the board and connected to a spring
balance F, the board could be pulled over the grain. By placing
weights on the upper surface, the pressure (Translators Note: A
dimension problem enters again here since "pressure" between
the board and the grain is in reality a force.) between the wooden
board and the grain could be precisely controlled. The results of
these tests are presented in Tables 2a-2f. Tests 10 and 11 were Figure 7. The measured bin floor force as a function of the
performed in exactly the same way on different days. The amount of grain for Tests 5 and 6.
difference in the ascertained friction coefficients is about 8%
which may be due to differences in the humidity of the air. The From Figure 8 one finds that:
maximum value of f, f = 0.346, was obtained in Test 8. The
minimum value, f = 0.302, was obtained in Tests 10 and 12

Figure 5. The measured bin floor force as a function of the

amount of grain for Tests 2 and 3.

Figure 8. Diagrammatic cut through the bin

Figure 6. The measured bin floor force as a function of the

amount of grain for Test 4. Figure 9. Diagrammatic view of the shear test.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 295

 These investigations in which the surface pressure has But it is known that when
been gradually increased by a factor of seven from the initial
ones show that the maximum friction coefficient has not x=0
been significantly affected. Thus the friction coefficient can
be assumed, with sufficient precision, to remain constant for then
different grain heights.
p=0
6 MATHEMATICAL DERIVATIONS
Hence
The following mathematical derivations are presented
under the assumption that the side pressures in the grain x0 = 0
are proportional to the respective vertical pressures.
Thus
Given:
P = the total force of the grain on the bin floor loge (1-Kup) = -Kux
p = vertical pressure of the grain on a surface F F
ps = lateral pressure of the grain
f = friction coefficient between the grain and the bin wall This equation may then be rewritten as
K = psF and p K = psf
p 1 Kup = e-Kux/f
s = side length of the square cross-section F
u = perimeter of the square cross-section = 4 s
F = bin cross-sectional plan area = s2 Knowing that F = s2 and u = 4s, then
x = height of the superincumbent pile of grain in the bin
= density of the bin contents 1 e-4Kx/s = 4Kp
e = base of the natural logarithms s

From Figure 10, the force equilibrium on the elemental Solving for the bottom vertical pressure p gives
slice may be expressed by
p = s (1- e-4Kx/s) (2)
F(p+dp-p)= ( F dx)-(f ps u dx) 4K

Simplifying and rearranging terms yields Finally, solving for the bottom force P one finds that

dp = dx K p (/F) dx P = s3 (1-e-4Kx/s) (3)

4K
By additional rearranging one can write
7 COMPARISON OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
dp = dx
(1-Kup) In equations (2) and (3), only the value for K is unknown.
F This can be easily determined from experiments (tests) 1
through 6. In Test 4 (wheat with _ = 0.8 g/cm3, s = 40 cm =
4 dm), a maximum floor force of 63 kg corresponding to a
pressure of 3.94 kg/dm2 was obtained. In this case, the
circumferential friction force for a pile of height of 1 dm is
obtained using

16 = 16 (0.8) = 12.8 kg = ps f u

Thus

psf = 12.8 = 12.8 = 0.8

u 16

Since

K = ps f
p

Then

K = 0.8 = 0.203
3.94
Figure 10. The forces acting on the slice.
As a simplification, I set

K = 0.2
This can be integrated to yield = 0.80

-F loge (1-Kup) = Ku(x-x0) Equations (2) and (3) then take, respectively, the following
F simplified forms

296 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 p = s ( 1 e-0.8x/s) (2a) 1.15(0.7p) = about 0.8p

P = s3 ( 1 e-0.8x/s) (2b) As a starting point for the calculation of bin wall strength,
a uniform loading of magnitude
A comparison of the experimental results from test No. 4
and the predicted grain pressures using equation (2b) is ps = 0.75 p = s ( 0.75)( 1 e-0.8x/s) (4a)
presented in Figure 11. Better agreement is obtained if one
selects a larger value of K. This larger K value would occur will provide enough precision. Even if the above tests and
if it is determined from pressure measurements at a smaller mathematical results are considered enough for the
height. It cannot be excluded that an observational error evaluation of the required strengths of the silo floor and of
enters when determining the maximum pressure. In the the silo walls, a simpler calculation method may be desired.
same way as described above, the K values for the other We are on the safe side for the common grain types if we
tests can be determined. Thus: assume wheat with a density of 0.8 kg/dm3 as the bin
content and we use a value of K = 0.2. The grain pressure
Test K against the bin floor is calculated with formulas (2a) and
No. 1 0.211 (3a). From the graphical presentation in Figure 13 one can
No. 2 and 3 0.235 read the value of
No. 4 0.203
No. 6 0.227 Z = ( 1 e-0.8x/s)

The observed deviation can be explained by the small included in formulas (2a) and (3a) for any value of x/s.
variation of f. From Tests No. 2 and 3 the value is about
15.5% greater then that of Test No. 4. In the experiments
conducted to determine the magnitude of the friction
coefficients (experiments 7 through 12), the values of f were
found to vary from f = 0.302 to 0.348 which is a range of
14.5 %. For the mathematical determination of the lateral
pressure against the bin walls, one could choose as the
largest value that obtained in Test No. 2 and No. 3, f =
0.346, and as the smallest value that obtained in Test No. 4,
f = 0.302.
The value of

ps = Kp
f
Figure 11. Comparison of the theoretical curve and the
calculated from Tests No. 2 and 3 is experimental results for Test 4.

ps = 0.235p = 0.68 p
0.346

From Test No. 4 it becomes

ps = 0.203p = 0.675p
0.302

The average is taken as

ps = 0.7p

This is the average lateral pressure acting against the

side walls of a bin with a square cross-sectional area.
However, it is to be assumed that in the proximity of the
corner of the bin cross-section, the surface pressure is less
then this average value. On the other hand, in the center
part of the wall a larger value would be obtained. Figure 12
shows the approximate values of pressure transfer to the
sidewalls.
It is taken, as a starting point, that the grain pressure
radiates outward from the center of the bin. At the bin wall a
pressure of p sin _ is exerted. Here _ is the angle at which
the radial pressure meets the wall. The highest value of the
pressure against the wall occurs in the middle of the bin wall
and is about 1.15 times the average pressure or about
Figure 12. Variation of the side force as a function of the
position along the perimeter of a square bin.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 297

8 EXAMPLES obtained. The same thing occurred when it was attempted
to determine the floor pressure at various positions on the
Example 1 floor by special small "openings". In my opinion this result is
due to an arch forming in the grain column because of the
Calculation of the floor pressure for a bin with a plan decrease in cross-section. This strongly influences the
section area 4m x 4m (s=4m). pressure transfer to the smaller cross section. It was
decided not to carry out a test with a movable bin wall
Pile x/s Z (from p=sZ P = s3z extending over the whole height of the bin (from top to
Height(x) (m) Fig 13) (t/m2) (t) bottom) because this would have required considerable
effort and because the above described calculation
1 0.25 0.18 0.72 11.5 achieved the same goal.
2 0.50 0.33 1.32 21.1
3 0.75 0.45 1.80 28.8 10 TESTS WITH OTHER GRAINS
4 1.00 0.55 2.20 35.2
5 1.25 0.63 2.52 40.3 In addition to the wheat experiments, experiments were
6 1.50 0.70 2.80 44.7 also carried out with rye and corn (maize). The results of
8 2.00 0.80 3.20 51.2 these tests agree, in general, very well with the results of the
10 2.50 0.86 3.44 55.0 tests described above. For rye with a density of 0.75
12 3.00 0.91 3.64 58.2 kg/dm3, the pressures were about 20% lower then those of
14 3.50 0.94 3.76 60.1 wheat. Corn which has the same density as wheat (_ = 0.80
kg/dm3) produced, because of its smooth surface, a floor
The corresponding lateral pressure applied to the bin pressure that was 22% higher. For bins intended for corn
walls can now be determined by multiplying the appropriate storage, the strength of the bin walls and the bin floor has to
vertical pressure by the factor 0.75. It is easiest to read the be increased by 22%.
magnitude of
11 CONCLUSIONS
w = 0.75( 1 e-0.8x/s)
The previously described experiments from which the
from Fig. 14 for the desired x/s values. above described calculations where derived were carried
out with small scale models as the production (manufacture)
Example 2 of larger scale test bins would have been associated with
considerable cost. However, they should be clarifying in a
Calculation of the lateral pressure for a silo with a plan number of respects and it is hoped that these results can be
cross-sectional area of 3m x 3m (s = 3m) confirmed by tests in larger scale; such tests are anticipated
to be conducted by a company well known in mill
Pile x/s w (from p=sw construction. I retain the right to provide additional
Height(x) Fig 14) (t/m2) information on this subject (topic) in the future.
(m)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
1.5 0.50 0.245 0.735
3.0 1.00 0.410 1.230 The authors would like to express their thanks to Mr.
4.5 1.50 0.530 1.590 Stephan Mahnke for help in procuring the articles by
6.0 2.00 0.595 1.790 Janssen and Arndt. Ms. Alyson Boye assisted in the
8.0 2.67 0.655 1.970 preparation of the manuscript.
10.0 3.33 0.690 2.070
12.0 4.00 0.720 2.160 REFERENCES

Arndt, C. 1892. Die Silospeicher von Galatz und Braila

9 DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE (The Storage Silos at Galatz and Braila). Zeitschrift Des
Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure. Volume 36, No. 34,
Originally it was the intention of the author to determine August 20, pp 973-978.
the lateral pressure of grain directly by experiments. For this Janssen, H.A. 1895, Versuche ber Getreidedruck in
purpose one of the experimental cells was provided with a Silozellen (Experiments Regarding Grain Pressure in
moveable sidewall door. The load on the door could be Silos). Zeitschrift Des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure.
applied by means of an angular lever and a suitable gravity Volume 39, No. 35 August 31, pp 1045-1049.
load. The pressure required for opening the sidewall door Roberts, I. 1892. On The Pressure of Wheat Stored in
could now be determined by calculation. However, during Elongated Cells or Bins. Engineering. Volume 34. Oct 27.
the testing, the opening of the door by the pressure of the p 399.
cell contents was so slow that accurate results could not be

298 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 13. Calculation of the bottom force for a 4m x 4m bin.

Table 1a. Floor pressure measurement results from Test establishing the floor pressure for the 90 kg pile, the top
No. 1 in Cell 1. Plan cross-sectional area = 20 cm x 20 cm, surface of the grain was smoothed out and a suitable board
wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3. placed upon it. Weights of 22.5 kg are then placed on the
board as shown in Figure 3. This is equivalent to the force
Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell exerted on the bin floor by a 90 kg grain pile. The measured
(kg) (kg) 23 kg force on the bin floor corresponds to a pile of 2 x 90
kg = 180 kg wheat.
2 2.53
2.5 3.5 Table 1c. Floor pressure measurement results from Test
2.7 3.9 No. 3 in Cell 2. Plan cross-sectional area = 30 cm x 30 cm,
4 6 wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3.
1.2 7.1
4.4 8 Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell
4.6 9.2 (kg) (kg)
5 10
5.5 12 12.5 19.5
6 16 15 27
6.2 17.9 17.5 36.5
6.4 20 19.5 49
6.6 21.8 21 69.7
6.8 24 22 90
7 26 23 1803
7.2 28
7.4 36 3This value is obtained from Test No. 2 by adding another
7.5 50 22 kg weight on the column of grain.
7.6 62

Table 1d. Floor pressure measurement results from Test

Table 1b. Floor pressure measurement results from Test No. 4 in Cell 3. Plan cross-sectional area = 40 cm x 40 cm,
No. 2 in Cell 2. Plan cross-sectional area = 30 cm x 30 cm, wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3.
wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3.
Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell
Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell (kg) (kg)
(kg) (kg)
30 40
12.5 18.5 35 52.5
14 22.25 40 66
16.5 31.8 45 85
18 238.1 50 106.8
19 44.4 55 138.2
21 65 58 165
22 78.5 60 192
22.5 90 63 3844
23 1802
4This value is obtained similar to Test No. 2 by laying a
2The test apparatus has a capacity of only 90 kg wheat weight of 60 kg on the column of wheat.
which can be handled without too much difficulty. After

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 299

 Table 1e. Floor pressure measurement results from Test Coefficient of friction = f = 3.77/10.9 = 0.346
No. 5 in Cell 4. Plan cross-sectional area = 60 cm x 60 cm, Table 2c. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted
wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3. with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 9.

Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell Normal Force Pulling Force
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

80 105 20.9 6.98

120 185 6.73
140 245 6.78
155 300 7.23
165 350 7.28
170 380 7.23
175 440 7.18
180 510 6.98
185 540 6.98
6.73
Table 1f. Floor pressure measurement results from Test Average pulling force = 7.01 kg
No. 6 in Cell 4. Plan cross-sectional area = 60 cm x 60 cm, Coefficient of friction = f = 7.01/20.9 = 0.335
wheat with density of 0.8 kg/dm3.
Table 2d. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted
Measured Floor Pressure Amount of Wheat in Cell with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 10.
(kg) (kg)
Normal Force Pulling Force
100 140 (kg) (kg)
150 290
170 430 30.9 9.23
180 500 9.03
185 540 9.58
190 8905 9.23
9.63
5This value is obtained by laying a weight of 165 kg on the 9.28
grain column of 540 kg. 9.43
9.18
Table 2a. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted Average pulling force = 9.32 kg
with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 7. Coefficient of friction = f = 9.32/30.9 = 0.302

Normal Force Pulling Force Table 2e. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted
(kg) (kg) with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 11.

5.9 1.93 Normal Force Pulling Force

1.93 (kg) (kg)
1.93
1.93 30.9 10.23
1.98 10.18
1.88 10.08
2.03 9.93
2.08 9.93
1.93 10.03
1.98 10.38
10.03
Average pulling force = 1.96 kg Average pulling force = 10.10 kg
Coefficient of friction = f = 1.96/5.9 = 0.332 Coefficient of friction = f = 10.10/30.9 = 0.327

Table 2b. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted Table 2f. Results of the sliding friction tests conducted
with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 8. with the wooden board and grain. Test No. 12.

Normal Force Pulling Force Normal Force Pulling Force

(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

10.9 3.73 40.9 12.53

3.73 12.48
3.78 12.38
3.78 11.93
3.83 12.98
3.83 12.48
3.78 12.28
3.78 12.53
3.73
3.73 Average pulling force = 12.36 kg
Average pulling force = 3.77 kg Coefficient of friction = f = 12.36/40.9 = 0.302

300 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Some remarks on ore
pass design guidelines
William Hustrulid and Changshou Sun, Department of Mining Engineering, University of Utah, SLC, UT, USA
Graham Mustoe, Division of Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA

Abstract
Mass mining systems rely heavily on the use of ore passes to transfer material from the production to the haulage levels.
Hang-ups can severely impair production capacity, present safety problems in their removal, and can significantly reduce
ore pass life. Although there are some rules of thumb relating ore pass geometry and fragment size, the database is
weak. The paper begins by presenting a critical review of the literature concerning ore pass design rules. The results of
an extensive set of laboratory experiments involving different ore pass geometries and material characteristics are then
presented. Some numerical simulations using OREPASS 3D, the 3D discrete element program developed at the Colorado
School of Mines are then presented. The paper concludes with some recommendations.

1 INTRODUCTION

The trend in underground mining systems has been

to increased scale. This is reflected in the size of the
openings, the block/sublevel heights, and the
extraction pattern geometries. As the size of the
extraction equipment and drawpoints is increased, so
too is the maximum size of the pieces to be handled.
Some of the boulders are too large to be moved from
the drawpoint and must be treated in place. Others
can be moved to special drifts where they are drilled
and blasted or otherwise broken. Finally there are the Figure 1. Different Boulder Control Alternatives
majority of the boulders which are transported along
with the smaller muck to an ore pass. The special spans larger presenting the possibility for areal
case of muck being transported directly to crushers is stability problems. A limiting orepass diameter given
an interesting one but will not be dealt with here. such practical considerations is of the order of 3 to
There are a number of philosophies concerning 3.5m. With the increase in mining scale and the
orepass management. In some cases, the loaders will emphasis on minimizing specific development, the
dump to an open hole such as shown in Figure 1A. number of orepasses serving a panel is minimized.
Guidelines are given to the loader operator regarding However with the increased mining scale, the tonnage
the limiting boulder size so that hangups should not which must be passed through each ore pass is
occur. The proper judging of boulder size and greatly increased from earlier times. To pass the extra
following the instructions is left up to the loader tonnage, linings of various types are sometimes
operator. In other cases, positive control is exerted installed. Their presence can reduce the useable
over the maximum size of the boulders being diameter from the 3.5m diameter, as excavated, to a
transferred to the pass in the form of either a scalper 3m finished diameter, for example. Although this might
grizzly as shown in Figure 1B or the full grid grizzly not seem to be a major change, this must be
shown in Figure 1C. The disadvantage of these two evaluated with regard to changing the hangup
systems as compared to the open hole is that some potential. Over the years, some guidelines have been
means must be provided to break the boulders caught developed regarding the relationship between the size
by the grizzly. In older times, this function was of pieces to be passed, the size of the orepass and
performed by men with double jacks. Today, this the hangup potential. This paper will review those
function is done by heavy hydraulic hammers often guidelines and the data supporting them, describe
operated remotely. The placement of a grizzly some of the results of a recent laboratory ore pass
between the loader and the open hole introduces a study, present some ore pass simulations using
dumping delay in the loading operation and, as such, OREPASS3D, and conclude with some suggested
acts as a production rate limiter. As a compromise, guideline revisions.
some operations dump down a short open hole to a
grizzly level where boulder breaking can occur in 2 REVIEW OF CURRENT DESIGN GUIDELINES
parallel rather than in series with the loader. There are
limits applied to the orepass size based on The most complete set of laboratory studies relating
economics, excavation techniques, and layout particle size, ore pass size and the formation of hang-ups
considerations. With regard to the latter, as the was published by Aytaman (1960). In these studies, the
diameter of the orepasses is increased in a panel source material was screened into the ten size fractions
caving sector, the pillars become smaller and the given in Table 1.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 301

 Table 1. Screen Fractions Used in the Hang-up Study by bored to a diameter of 4 m, particles with a diameter of less
Aytaman. Aytaman (1960). than 1.0 m will flow freely through the channel, particles
greater than 2.0 m will not flow and sizes in between will
- 0.742 + 0.525 ins produce intermittent hang-ups."
- 0.525 + 0.371 ins In this case, Just (1980) has modified the mesh-size
- 0.371 + 0.263 ins definition of the "largest particle size" used by Aytaman
- 0.263 + 0.185 ins (1960) to a "largest particle size" defined by the diameter.
- 0.185 + 0.131 ins With regard to designing within the intermittent flow regime,
- 0.131 + 0.093 ins Just (1980) suggests that one might make an analysis of the
- 0.093 + 0.065 ins type made by Driver (1972) in which the number of interrup-
- 0.065 + 0.046 ins tions to the free flow of material is expressed in terms of the
- 0.046 + 0.033 ins extracted material. Although his predicted blockages per ton
- 0.033 + 0.023 ins of material passed seem to be, in general, very high, it may
be worthwhile reviewing the approach. On the basis of such
Flow tests were then performed using each of the curves, one might make an ore pass size material size
fractions in cylindrical steel tubes having nominal opening decision based upon an acceptability of blockages criterion.
diameters of 3", 2", 1-1/2", 1-1/4", 1", _" and _". The tubes
were filled and then the bottom closure was opened. It was In 1983, Engineers International, Inc. submitted their final
noted whether the material (1) flowed out, (2) flowed report "Guidelines for Open-Pit Ore Pass Design" to the
intermittently, or (3) did not flow at all. The (x,y) points U.S. Bureau of Mines (Engineers International, Inc., 1983).
corresponding to the maximum screen opening (d) for each In the report, they include Table 2.
pair of screens and the actual tube diameter (D) were then By way of explanation, they indicate that
plotted with an indication as to which of the above flow
classes they belonged. Limiting lines representing the no- "Table 2 summarizes the empirical evidence for design
flow and free-flow conditions were then superimposed. As against interlocking arch formation in terms of the ratio of
seen in Figure 2, Aytaman (1960) found that the regions ore pass dimension (D) or outlet dimension (Do) and the
were defined by: frequency of arch formation. Table 2 provides design
guidance with respect to the prevention of interlocking
D/d 4.21 flow always occurs, free flow arches. In order to use the information in this table, one
2.24 < D/d < 4.21 flow may or may not occur, probable must decide which ore pass or outlet dimension and which
flow particle dimension should be used to form the ratio D/d or
D/d 2.24 flow never occurs, no-flow Do/d. In the case of circular ore passes and outlets handling
Aytaman (1960) indicates that d is the "largest" particle roughly equi-dimensional rock fragments, the situation is
size. Although performed in the unambiguous. In the case of rectangular or square ore
passes and outlets, arching is apt to occur across the
smallest dimension. However, such an arch may not stop
flow over the entire area of the ore pass or slot. In fact, slot
outlets are considered to be more active than circular
outlets because arching can only occur in one direction with
slot outlets while two mutually perpendicular directions are
possible over the circular outlets. As a practical matter, the
dimensions of rectangular ore passes are unlikely to differ
so much as to be considered slots, so that the least
dimension of a rectangular ore pass or outlet should be
used as D or Do in the table."

Table 2. Ratio of Ore Pass or Outlet Dimension to

Particle Dimension versus Relative Interlocking
Frequency. After Engineers International, Inc. (1983).

Dimension Ratio Relative Interlocking Frequency

D/d or Do/d > 5 very low, almost certain flow

3< D/d or Do/d < 5 often, flow uncertain
D/d or Do/d < 3 very high, almost certain no-flow

Where:
D = ore pass diameter
Do = draw point (outlet) diameter
Figure 2. Ore Pass Design Data and Guidelines By Aytaman d = maximum size of muck
(1960).

laboratory with certain fractions rather than a full spectrum They continue to say
of size distributions, this is considered by the present "In the case of rock fragments that are slab-shaped rather
authors to be the most comprehensive data set available. than equi-dimensional, a very conservative approach would
In 1980 Just (1980) presented his version of the Aytaman be to use the largest dimension of the fragments as d."
(1960) results in which he simplified the limits to be D/d = 4 This, apparently, is the dimension they have suggested
and D/d = 2. He indicates for use with their table. As was discussed in the introduction,
"If material containing a com-plete size range of particles in a panel caving layout the space available for locating an
is involved, the flow regime is determined on the basis of the ore pass is very limited. It is important that the opening
largest particle size. For exam-ple, if the ore pass is raise- dimension be "big enough" but not "too big" since this

302 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

translates into major expense. Given the high multiplication
factor, there cannot be any confusion in the appropriate
fragment dimension to be used.
Engineers International used a number of sources to
arrive at their table including the earlier cited work of
Aytaman (1960). New information of their own was collected
during eight mine visits. The data set included (1) both
circular and rectangular openings, (2) open holes and
grizzlies, and (3) various levels of hang-up formation. In a
few cases two different ore pass sizes were used at the
same mine. Using their data, the present authors have
constructed Figure 3 with the axes being minimum ore pass
dimension and grizzly opening. Superimposed on the figure
are their recommended limits of D/d = 5 and D/d = 3. In this
case, the grizzly opening was used to define d. Although
some points lie on the wrong side of the appropriate
bounding line, the general fit is not too bad. The Aytaman
(1960) limits have also been superimposed on Figure 4 and
these seem to describe the data even better in the view of
the present authors.

Figure 4. Ore Pass Design Data and Guidelines From

Lessard and Hadjigeorgiou (2003).

It is evident from this short review that guidelines do exist

for either (1) selecting ore pass dimensions based on a
given fragment size or (2) indicating the sizes of fragments
that can be passed through an ore pass of a given
dimension. The broad width of the "intermittent flow zone" is
a problem for those trying to "optimize" mine layouts. This
topic will be addressed again in a later section. There is,
however, a consistency problem with regard to the
appropriate fragment dimension to be used. Different
authors mean different things when they refer to fragment
dimension d. No standard definition of d currently exists.
This seems to be a critical point which needs addressing. It
appears logical to the present authors to select the
intermediate particle dimension as that which should be
selected as d when applying the design rules. Figure 1,
introduced earlier, shows an open raise, a raise equipped
with a scalper grizzly and one equipped with a square grid
Figure 3. Ore Pass Design Data and Guidelines From grizzly. It will be assumed that a typical particle is ellipsoidal
Engineers International, Inc. (1983). in shape with dimensions L x B x T (length x breadth x
thickness). For the open raise, the intermediate dimension
Lessard and Hadjigeorgiou (2003 a,b) have reported the is limiting presuming the long axis rotates to point downward
results of an extensive research program aimed at the during flow (as suggested by Jenike (1961)). For the square
development of design tools to minimize the occurrence of grid grizzly, it is also the intermediate dimension that
ore pass interlocking hang-ups in metal mines. The program controls. For the scalper grizzly, it is the minimum dimension
involved the collection of field data from mines in Quebec that controls. In this case, the use of the intermediate
coupled with numerical simulations involving the use of dimension for design would be conservative.
PFC2D and PFC3D. Figure 4 is a summary of their field
results. In their plot, the ore pass dimension D was based 3 LABORATORY ORE PASS FLOW STUDIES
upon mine plans while the fragment size d was dictated by
grizzly dimensions or, in the absence of a grizzly, by image The laboratory ore pass flow studies of Aytaman (1960)
a anylysis of the blasted ore. The x axis was labelled involved testing certain size fractions while holding all other
"Largest Rock Size" which has been re-labelled "Grizzly factors constant. Engineers International, Inc (1983) and
Opening" by the present authors. They superimposed the Lessard et al (2003b) reported actual ore pass data for a
lines corresponding to D/d = 2, that indicated as the flow variety of mine conditions. Because actual flow in ore
limit by Jenike(1961), and D/d = 5 suggested by passes involves a rather wide range of conditions, it was
International Engineers, Inc (1983) as the free flow limit. decided to try and evaluate the applicability of the ore pass
They found D/d = 4 to be the empirical limit for ensuring design guidelines under a few of them in the laboratory.
free-flow and suggest this to be a more suitable design Based on the literature review and mine experience a
guideline for use in Quebec mines than earlier ones from the number of different factors which influence the operation of
literature. As reference, the present authors have an ore pass system might be taken into account:
superimposed the Aytaman (1960) limits of D/d = 2.24 and Ore pass size
D/d = 4.21. Ore pass shape

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 303

 Wall condition: smooth or rough. the bottom to simulate full ore pass draw. For Case 1, no
Orientation: vertical or inclined hang-ups were observed in any of the tests. Since the
Operational mode: dump while empty or partially full intermediate dimension of the largest particle in the different
Boulder size and shape mixtures was less than the tube size, this was to be
Particle distribution expected. For Case 2, the tubes were completely filled in a
Moisture condition number of steps giving time for compaction and inter-locks
to form. This was exactly the way that Aytaman (1960)
All of these were studied to some degree in the current conducted his tests. Upon opening the bottom of the tube,
laboratory study. Due to space limitations, only a few of the the flow conditions are noted. For certain geometries and
results can be reported here. The interested reader is material conditions, the material flows directly out. For
referred to the report by Sun and Hustrulid (2004). others, however, only a portion flows out before there is a
A local quarry supplied quantities of their "road base" mix blockage. Upon removing the blockage, the
and "concrete" mix for use in the tests. These mixes could
then be combined in different ratios to achieve other
mixtures. The one reported in some detail here is the so-
called "mine" mix which is patterned after the fragmentation Table 4. Dimensions of the 23mm+19.5mm
distribution of the primary ore from the Esmeralda section, Fraction Particles
El Teniente mine. The laboratory size distribution is shown
in Table 3. Average Aspect Aspect
Max Inter Min Dimension Ratio 1 Ratio 2
The fraction 23mm + 19.5mm was examined in some Sample (L) mm (B) mm (T) mm mm L/B B/T
detail with measurements made of a number of the
individual pieces. The results are given in Table 4. As might 1 27 21 16 21.33 1.29 1.31
be expected, 2 31 20 13 21.33 1.55 1.54
- the minimum dimension > 19.5 mm 3 38 20 12 23.33 1.9 1.67
- the intermediate dimension <= 23 mm 4 33 23 18 24.67 1.43 1.28
- the maximum dimension >= 23mm 5 35 22 21 26 1.59 1.05
6 30 20 12 20.67 1.5 1.67
As shown, the average aspect ratios are: 7 32 21 15 22.67 1.52 1.4
L/B = 1.49 8 29 17 15 20.33 1.71 1.13
B/T = 1.47 9 31 20 16 22.33 1.55 1.25
10 42 17 11 23.33 2.47 1.55
At the Esmeralda sector, when using 6 yd3 LHDs it is 11 29 21 9 19.67 1.38 2.33
considered that the largest boulders have dimensions of the 12 28 22 13 21 1.27 1.69
order of 1.5m:1.2m:0.85m (Diaz, 2003). The corresponding 13 25 23 13 20.33 1.09 1.77
aspect ratios would be, respectively, 1.25 and 1.41. The 14 26 22 18 22 1.18 1.22
Esmeralda ore passes are 3.5m in diameter and are 15 32 21 13 22 1.52 1.62
equipped with a 40" x 40"grizzly (Barraza et al, 2000). The 16 30 22 15 22.33 1.36 1.47
D/d ratio is 3.45 and hangups are not indicated to be a 17 27 23 17 22.33 1.17 1.35
problem. 18 28 22 16 22 1.27 1.38
Figure 5 shows a picture of the mine mix. A cube with a 19 35 15 12 20.67 2.33 1.25
side length of 14mm has been used for scale. The 20 32 23 14 23 1.39 1.64
properties of the mix were determined using a variety of 21 27 21 15 21 1.29 1.4
tests. The results are summarized in Table 5. 22 27 23 17 22.33 1.17 1.35
A series of ore pass tests were conducted in much the 23 26 21 14 20.33 1.24 1.5
same way as done by Aytaman (1960) but not as extensive.
ABS tubes of 1-1/2", 2", 2-1/2", 3", and 4" internal diameter Average 30.43 20.87 14.57 21.96 1.49 1.47
were selected for the primary tests. Each tube was 60" in
length. Although for most of the tests smooth-walled tubes
were used, some tests were performed using ABS tubes Table 5. Properties of the Mine Mix
with a ring structure to simulate the rough wall conditions in
ore passes after some time of use. The primary testing Property Value
orientation was with the tubes mounted vertical. Some tests
were also performed with the tubes mounted at 50o and 60o Solid density 2.5 g/cm3
from the horizontal. One test series was performed Bulk density 1.62 g/cm3
comparing tubes of circular and square cross-section. Void ratio 0.54
Friction angle
Table 3. Size Distribution of the Mine Mix. (wall and material) 24 (smooth surface
sliding test)
Fraction Weight Percent 29 (rough surface
- 23.0 mm + 19.5 mm 9 sliding test)
- 19.5 mm + 16.0 mm 10 Internal friction 37 (angle of repose)
- 16.0 mm + 12.5 mm 11 35.9 (direct shear)
-12.5 mm + 9.5 mm 15
- 9.5 mm + 6.5 mm 20
- 6.5 mm + 2.38 mm 30 flow may start again but then stop. On the other hand, it
- 2.38 mm 5 may continue to flow. Each test is repeated four times with
the average number of hang-ups reported. The results
The tests were conducted using two extreme case LHD using the mine mix in vertical smooth tubes are shown in
dumping modes: (1) dumping of the mixture into an empty Table 6. The results are quite surprising based upon
tube; and (2) completely filling the tube and then releasing conventional ore pass design guidance. Free-flow

304 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

conditions were obtained for D/d ratios only somewhat consider the results obtained with the "concrete mix" and
greater than 2.2 rather than the 4.21 value suggested by the "road base mix" under the same test conditions. Pictures
Aytaman (1960), for of the two mixes are shown in figures 7 and 8, respectively.
The particle size distributions are given in Table 7.

Figure 5. Picture of the Mine Mix Figure 7. The Concrete Mix

Figure 8. The Road Base Mix

As can be seen, there is a major difference in the

distributions. About 87% of the concrete mix lies in the range
23mm+12.5mm. Only about 20% of the road-base mix falls
in this range. For the road-base mix, about 80% falls below
12.5mm whereas for the concrete mix the corresponding
Figure 6. Test Setup Using Vertical Tubes value is about 13%. The results of the filled ore pass flow
studies for these mixtures are presented in Table 8.
Table 6. Results of Vertical, Filled, A number of interesting observations can be made. First,
Smooth Wall Ore Pass Tests Using the Mine Mix the concrete mix with a high percentage of relatively large
particles behaves similarly to the Aytaman (1960) results.
Tube Number of For a D/d ratio of 1.7, there is essentially no flow. For a ratio
Diameter (mm) Hang-ups D/d of 3.3, on the other hand, there is free-flow. The fact that a
large number of inter-locking hang-ups are observed is
102 0 4.4 because about 23% of the mix is made up of particles
76.5 0 3.3 represented by d. For
63.8 0 2.8 the road base mix with a very high proportion of fines,
51 1 2.2 there was still free-flow at a ratio of 2.2 and there were
38.3 3.5 1.7 relatively few stoppages even for a ratio of 1.7. This is to be
expected since the percentage of the mix upon which the d
in the D/d ratio is based represents only about 3% of the
example. The one clear difference between the tests is total. The important conclusion is that the particle
that here a wide distribution of particle sizes was used distribution plays a major role in determining the frequency
whereas his tests involved a very narrow range. To examine of occurrence of inter-locking hang-ups and must be
the importance of particle size distribution it is of interest to considered when formulating ore pass design guidelines.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 305

4 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS Two modified cases were then generated. In the first
modified case (Case 1M), the dimensions of the particles
OREPASS3D, developed at the Colorado School of Mines were proportionally increased from the standard size by
under the auspices of the Western Mining Resource Center, 25%. The D/d ratio drops to 2.0. In the second modified
. is a user-friendly program for evaluating different ore case, the dimensions of the particles were proportionally
pass/chute designs. Here, it has been used to examine the decreased from the standard size by 25% and D/d = 3.33.
The result of the Case 1M (Figure 10) simulation shows that
Table 7. Size Distribution for the the majority of particles fall as a large chunk of material
Concrete and Road Base Mixes shortly after the gate is opened. However, a small chunk of
particles hang-up at the top of the ore pass for at least 5
Weight Percent seconds. This is a surprising result especially since the
Fraction Concrete Mix Road Base Mix standard case hung up.

- 23.0 mm + 19.5 mm 22.8 3.3

- 19.5 mm + 16.0 mm 26.1 10.0
- 16.0 mm + 12.5 mm 38.3 6.4
-12.5 mm + 9.5 mm 11.0 24.5
- 9.5 mm + 4.75 mm 0.9 10.0
- 4.75 mm + 2.38 mm 0.5 22.0
- 2.38 mm 0.4 23.8

Table 8. Results of Vertical, Filled, Smooth Wall Ore

Pass Tests Using the Concrete and Road Base Mixes

Number of Hang-ups
Tube Concrete Road Base
Diameter Mix Mix D/d

102 0 0 4.4
76.5 0 0 3.3
63.8 2.5 0 2.8
51 3.5 0 2.2
38.3 10 1.5 1.7
Figure 10. The Results for Case 1M with 25% Bigger
Particles. The Initial and Final Configurations of the Particles
flow characteristics of three different size particles in a 3m Show Particle Chunks
diameter, 32 m high, vertical ore pass. For the standard
case, the ore pass was filled with ellipsoidal particles of The results of Case 2M (Figure 11) involving the 25
dimension 1.8m x 1.2m x 0.85m. Using the intermediate percent smaller particles show a majority of the particles
dimension of 1.2m and the ore pass diameter of 3m gives falling freely immediately after the gate is opened. In this
D/d = 2.5. The coefficient of friction for ore/ore and ore/wall case the ore particles loosen up as they flow and do not
interactions was specified as 0.577 which corresponds to an show the chunky motion seen in Case 1M. Overall these
angle of friction of 300. After the particles settled the lower results are as expected the smaller particles flow more
gate was opened for 10 seconds. By modeling the 32 m. freely. One further analysis (called ripple) was performed
section as a 2m and a 30m , the option of opening the gates using the standard size particles. Here, the diameter of the
at different times was offered. The result of the standard lower part (3m height) of the vertical section of the ore pass
case shows that after the gate is opened, a few particles fall. was varied from 3m to 3.1m and then back to 3m. This was
However, the remainder of the particles hang-up (see Figure done to assess the likelihood of particle arching being
9). This hang-up is maintained for at least 10 seconds. generated by a small variation in the diameter of the ore
pass. The results of this case (Figure 12) showed that ore
particles flowed relatively freely and did not show any
noticeable arching.
As illustrated by these few examples, a great many ore
pass design possibilities can be easily studied, with this
powerful DEM software. Unfortunately, it is very limited with
respect to the range of particle sizes that can be included in
any one problem. This is a major limitation given the size
distribution flow dependence observed in the laboratory
studies.

Figure 9. Hang-up in the Standard Case

306 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 were studied while maintaining the same maximum particle
size. Free-flow conditions were achieved under three
different D/d ratios, namely 3.3, 2.8 and 2.2 when the
percentage of the largest size particles present assumed
values of 23%, 9%, and 3.3%, respectively. For the mine
mix, an ore pass diameter to d (intermediate boulder
dimension) ratio of 2.8 should be enough to assure free-
flow. Applying this rule at the Esmeralda mine, assuming
boulders having an intermediate dimension of 1m (the size
of the grizzly opening), one would expect that an ore pass
2.8m in diameter should be sufficient. As indicated earlier,
the actual ore pass diameter is 3.5m and hang-up problems
have not resulted.
In reviewing the field data collected by Lessard and
Hadjigeorgiou (2003b) it is seen that there are many
instances where free-flow conditions are observed for D/d
ratios in the range of 2 - 4. From the lab results these can
be explained by the broken muck having a special
distribution. The present authors suggest trying to correlate
the measured size distributions with their hang-up
observations. Perhaps this will be done in the future. It was
Figure 11. The Results of Case 2M with 25% Smaller initially thought that numerical techniques such as
Particles. The Initial and Final Configuration of Particles OREPASS3D, PCF2D, or PFC3D might be of use for
Showing Free Flow of Particles developing design guidelines. Unfortunately, at the present
time the range of particle sizes that can be studied is
extremely limited. The models can easily show hang-ups
when the particle size distribution is narrow and the particles
are relatively large compared to the ore pass dimension.
However, it is clear that single particles only slightly smaller
than the ore pass will fall through without arching.
Although it appears to be going back in time, the authors
suggest conducting some simple laboratory tests when
trying to decide on ore pass designs. For new sections in
existing mines, fragmentation distributions should be
available. For new mines, it may be possible to predict
fragmentation curves with sufficient accuracy based upon
core measurements.
Almost 40 years ago, Kvapil (1965b) published a
nomogram to be used in conjunction with some basic
relationships for ore pass dimensioning. Through the
nomogram, the effect of the component distribution (coarse,
medium, fines) and the characteristics of the individual
components could be included in the ore pass size decision.
It may be time to revisit this approach making modifications,
as necessary, to fit modern practice.
In summary, it would appear that, except in very special
Figure 12. Standard Case Particles with a Lower Ore Pass fragmentation cases, the required D/d ratios for free-flow
Geometry "Ripple.": Initial and Final Configuration of are certainly much less than 5. As shown by the
Particles Showing the Free Flow of Particles experiments and indirectly by the field data from the Quebec
mines, the ratio can even sometimes be less than 3. Further
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS work on the influence of size distribution on ore pass hang-
up formation is certainly required. The work reported in this
The proper design of ore pass systems to avoid hang-ups paper will hopefully lead to a new way of approaching the
is important for successful mass mining. A number of problem and new, practical design rules.
different control techniques are available. For a given ore
pass dimension, the size of the boulders must be controlled. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One way of accomplishing this is through instructions to the
loader operator, another more certain technique is through This publication was supported by Cooperative
the placement of a grizzly. The traditional approach to Agreement number U60/CCU816929-02 from the
design is through design ratios involving the ore pass Department of Health and Human Services, Center for
dimension and the maximum size fragment. Different Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Its contents are
authors have selected different particle dimensions to be solely the responsibility of the authors and do not
used with the ratios. It is strongly recommended that the necessarily represent the views of the Department of Health
intermediate fragment dimension be selected as the and Human Services, CDC. Support provided by the
standard. This corresponds to the opening dimension of a Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, is greatly
square grid grizzly. The current laboratory test series has acknowledged. The work presented is part of the Health and
shown that the occurrence of inter-locking hang-ups is Safety research activities currently being carried out at
dependent on the size distribution as well as on the absolute Western Mining Resource Center (WMRC) at the Colorado
size of the pieces present. Three different size distributions School of Mines. Ms. Alyson Boye of the Department of

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 307

Mining Engineering, University of Utah assisted in the Jenike, A.W. 1961. Gravity Flow of Bulk Solids. Bulletin
preparation of the manuscript. Mr. Rob Byrnes assisted in No. 108. The University of Utah.
performing the model tests. Just, G.D. 1980. Rock Fragmentation and the design of
Underground Materials Handling Systems. CIM Bulletin.
REFERENCES February. Pp 45 51.
Kvapil, R. 1965a. Gravity Flow of Granular Materials in
Aytaman, V. 1960. Causes of "Hanging" in Ore Chutes. Hoppers and Bins Part 1. Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci.
Canadian Mining Journal. November (pp 77-81), Vol 2. pp 35-41.
December (pp 71-75) and January 1961 (pp 41-45). Kvapil, R. 1965b. Gravity Flow of Granular Materials in
Barraza, M., and P. Crorkan. 2000. Esmeralda Mine Hoppers and Bins Part 2. Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci.
Exploitation Project. MassMin 2000 (G. Chitombo, editor). Vol 2. pp 277-304.
Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Pp 267-278. Lessard, J.F., and J. Hadjigeorgiou. 2003a. Ore Pass
Diaz, G. 2003. Personal Communication Systems in Quebec Underground Mines. Mine Planning
Driver, D.J. 1972. Sublevel Stope Extraction Control and Equipment Selection. Kalgoorlie, WA. April 23-25. pp
Design. Unpublished Thesis, University of Queensland. 509-521.
Engineers International, Inc. 1983. Guidelines for Open- Lessard, J.F., and J. Hadjigeorgiou. 2003b. Design Tools
Pit Ore Pass Design (Volumes I and II). Final Report on to Minimize the Occurrence of Ore Pass Interlocking
Contract J0205041 Submitted to the U.S. Bureau of Hang-ups in Metal Mines. Technology Roadmap for Rock
Mines. September. Mechanics. South African Institute of Mining and
Hadjigeorgiou, J., and J.-F. Lessard. 2003. The Case for Metallurgy. Pp 757-762.
Liners in Ore Pass Systems. 3rd International Seminar on Sun, C., and W. Hustrulid. 2004. Ore Pass Study Final
Surface Support Liners. Montreal. August. 14pp. Report. Submitted to the Western Mining Resource
Center (WMRC), Colorado School of Mines.

308 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Geomechanical criteria
for orepass design
El Teniente Mine, Codelco Chile
Eduardo Rojas, Antonio Bonani, Eugenio Santander, El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
El Teniente mine is a large coper deposit. The current daily production rate is over 100,000 tons per day of ore. Using
orepasses this ore is loaded into trains or trucks.
Orepass overbreak is an important problem that affects the mining proces. In some cases, an ore pass can reach 2 or 3
times its original diameter. This effect shortens the orepass life and may produce instabilities affecting the galleries an
upper levels.
The damage is principally associated to the: Where (and When) an ore pass is excavated and when orepass production
begins in relation to the caving front position (initial stress environment and stress changes).
Favorable rockmass conditions for orepass construction and operation are associated with the specific ratio between the
major principal stress and UCS.
According to previous concepts, design criteria were defined for the construction and operation of orepasses in Tte. 4
South sector.

INTRODUCTION geomechanical behavior, the primary rockmass can exhibit

brittle, often violent failure under a high stress condition.
At El Teniente Mine, caving considers a process that El Teniente Mine began operations in 1906. Since then,
begins from extracting ore, and finishes in the concentration various exploitation methods have been used in productive
plant. Ore extraction includes some sequential activities sectors located in secondary mineral. The methods
which are: ore extraction, vertical flow (through ore passes) ranged from "raised work over mineral" combined with
and haulage. In this system, orepasses are the most shrinkage stoping and pillar recovery to block caving and
vulnerable structures because design does not take into panel caving.
account the latest expertise of rockmass behaviour affected Knowledge gained over the years concerning primary ore
by induced stresses. exploitation with conventional panel caving (320 million tons
To date, 30 Mt of primary rock have been handled through extracted to date) has indicated that the advance of the
169 orepasses. In many cases, orepass overbreak caving face is the main cause of gallery damage in levels
determines its working life, so affecting mining structure. below the UCL. Experience has also shown that a variation
In relation to the last point, a methodology to evaluate of conventional panel caving sequence, knows as the "pre-
orepass stability in primary rock based upon field stresses undercut," method reduces the degree of gallery damage in
and rock mass conditions is introduced in this paper. Typical the levels below the UCL, as well as the possibility of
orepass problems at Tte. 4 Sur Sector are presented to rockbursts associated with the advance of the undercut
validate this method. face. Pre-undercutting basically consists of advancing the
undercut ahead of all development in the lower levels. All
GENERAL OVERVIEW production level development is made behind the cave front
and under the caved area.
El Teniente Mine is a Codelco-Chile underground copper
mine. It is located in the foothills of the Andes in the central CAVING METHOD DESCRIPTIONS
zone of Chile (South America), about 70 km SSE from the
capital city, Santiago. Caving requires the control of the breakage of a great
The El Teniente porphyry copper orebody is one of the volume of rock, induced by undercutting and draw point
largest known copper deposits in the world. It includes extraction, and hauling this broken ore from production level
andesite, diorite and hydrothermal breccias of the Miocene to benefit plant.
era as the main lithologies. At El Teniente Mine, gravity ore flow is possible due the
A chimney of subvolcanic breccias known as the favourable location of the concentration plant. In this way,
"Braden Pipe" post dates the copper-molybdenum ore passes are a key factor in ore flow process.
mineralisation. It has an inverted cone shape and the Physical and mechanical rock mass properties have
hydrothermal mineralisation is distributed round this pipe changed as the mine has deepned. Primary rock has minor
over a variable radial extension of 400 m to 800 m, with grade, greater hardness and coarse fragmentation than
mineralogical associations of variable strength. The secondary ore.
mineralisation has two very different forms, secondary
ore is located near the surface and primary INDUCED STRESS IN ROCK MASS
mineralisation occurs at greater depth.
The primary ore can be described as a high cohesion and A great quantity of information related to panel caving
impermeable rock mass. The stockwork veins, containing variants and their use in El Teniente Mine can be found in
the original mineralogy, are sealed. According to technical books and papers.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 309

 NIVEL HUNDIMIENTO
ZANJA

NIVEL DE PRODUCCION

PIQUES DE
TRASPASO
NIVEL MARTILLOS PICADORES
Figura 3. Induced stress state in rock mass by the
Conventional Panel Caving
NIVEL TRANSPORTE

Some induced stress states in the rockmass are

generated by conventional panel caving, but in this case all
excavations are constructed during the premining state of
stress so they are affected by stress changed (direction and
Figura 1. Panel Caving schematic view condition magnitude) due to the caving front advance.

Geomechanical Evaluation of orepasses at the Tte.4 Sur

sector
Stress conditions induced by the caving front are Rock mass properties: Rock mass deformability and
analyzed to identify the parameters that control orepass strength were calculated for each lithology by scaling intact
stability. Three zones of rock mass conditions induced by rock properties to the mining level (1e4 m3 of rock (table
caving front stress are recognized (Pre-mining, Transition 1)).
and 0Relaxation (Rojas E., Molina R., Cavieres P. 2001).
Therefore, several distances are incorporated into mining
design to implement safe working conditions in the mine.
The Induced stress state generated by pre-undercutting
caving is showed in figure 2. In this case all production drifts
are developing in the de-stressed zones, which is more
favourable than the transition zone, excepting the galleries Table 1. Geotechnical properties of rock mass at the
in the ventilation and haulage levels which are constructed 1e4 m3 scaled according to Hoek and Brown Criteria
in the pre-mining zone.
Rock Mass (Hoek & Brown)

Parameter Andesita Diorita Bx hidro Anh

Turmalina
Em [GPa] 43 36 14
m 0.19 0.26 0.16
m [] 35 37 41
m [MPa] 56 42 37
tm [MPa] 6 2 1.5
Cm [MPa] 11 8 6
GSI 75-85 70-90 85-90

Em: Young Modulus, m: Poisson ratio, cm: uniaxial

compresion strength, tm: tensile strength. Cm: Cohesin.
Figura 2. Induced stress state in rock mass by m: internal friction angle, , GSI: Geological Strength Index
Preundercutting Panel Caving
Geology
Primary Andesite is the principal rock within the Tte. 4 Sur
sector (46%), coarse phorphyry (42%), hydrothermal
breccias (10%), and also some bodies of lamprophyre and
latite. Geology is presented in figure 4.

310 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 2. Minor joints at 27L Op 44
and 25L Op 44 Orepasses

27L Op 44 Orepass 25L Op 44 Orepass

Joint DIP DIP/Direction DIP DIP/Direction

1 40 113/293 70 305/125
2 70 135/315 72 330/150
3 41 36/221 60 65/245

Tabla 3. In situ field of stress at Tte. 4 Sur Sector

Stress Magnitude Bearing Inclination

[MPa] [] []

1 -33 130 35
Figure 4. Tte. 4 Sur Geology and Structural general plan
view 2 -25 10 10
3 -12 330 53

The Primary rock mass at El Teniente Mine is characterized Ore pass geotechnical problems at The Tte. 4 Sur
by stockwork including faults and veins with different length Materials handling encompasses ore extraction from draw
and trace, width, filling and frequency (figure 5). points using LHDs which dump into ore passes that conduct
the mineral to the haulage level (Teniente 5 level) where it is
loaded into trains and then transported to the principal ore
passes of the mine.

Figura 5. Andesite Primary lithology (stockworks)

According by principal, medium and minor size joints can

be defined. Figura 6. Isometric view of a typical orepass at Tte. 4 Sur

JOINTS IN THE ROCK MASS Size reduction of ore is performed by pick hammers
located on the Ten Sub-4 level, roughly 33 meters below the
Principal joints production level. Figure 6 shows a scheme of Tte. 4 Sur
Figure 4 shows major joints at Tte. 4 Sur Sector, which are sector.
principally faults (>95%), the most relevant include: P, S, Sur The ore pass system of Tte. 4 Sur consists of a pair of
Sur 1 faults systems and also the Lamprophyre Dyke. branches from two drifts located in the vicinity of the
orepass. These branches coverage into one orepass at the
Minor joints reduction level.
These correspond to geological structures with trace
lengths less than excavation size (generally 4 meters). The Construction and reinforcement
structural geology of two orepasses is presented in Table 2. Different practices have been used for orepass
construction at El Teniente Mine: Drop Raising (long blast
Rock mass field Stress hole) and Raiseborer technique where a pilot guide of
The state of insitu stress within The Tte. 4 Sur sector has 1.83m is realized previous to manual slyping manual.
been obtained from measurements and monitoring using Orepass construction includes the reinforcement of the
the CSIRO Hollow Inclusion cells of stresses. The results orepass collar, ("brocal") (3m in length), with steel rings and
are presented at Table 3. concrete.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 311

 Ore pass construction requires manual slyping to obtain Ore pass behaviour
the final cross section of the orepass, installing minicage Overbreak has been a major orepass problem, shortening
cables, full length grouted, from the beginning of the ore in some cases the life time of these systems and
pass at the production level, to the end of the excavation at affecting their availability which does not 50%.
the rock hammer chambers, and also the segment of the
orepass between rock hammer level and Haulage level. Figures 9 and 10 indicates ore pass damage (overbreak)
conditions, with only low quantities of rock handled, such
that they must be closed.

Figura 9. Damage at 9 Op 54 Orepass (Production 350.000

ton)

Figure 7. General View of the support of the orepass

Figure 10. Damage (Overbreak) at 21-23 Op 49 orepass

(Production: 21 Op=250.000 ton, 23 Op=900.000 ton)

Geotechnical analysis of orepass design

Many studies has been carried out to understand the
Figura 8. Cable bolting system installed through ore pass damage mechanisms that affects orepasses, which in
section. Cable used (minicage), Cable length varies general terms have been associated to stress and
between 3 and 3.5 meters. geological conditions, overbreak has inititated due to the
impact of rock boulders into the ore pass walls.
Ore Production
Until the present about 220 Mton have been from Methodology of analysis (Hypothesis)
produced at Tte. 4 Sur sector, using 120 ore passes. Two factors are relevant if we consider the rock mass
Information about haulage drifts and their distance to the state (premining, transition and relaxation) due to the panel
caving front at the moment of starting production is caving method:
encountered at Table 3. 1.Where (and When) the ore pass is excavated in relation
to caving front position? (initial stress environment)
Tabla 4 Orepasses production at Tte 4 Sur sector 2. When ore pass production begins, related to caving front
position? (stress changes)
Haulage galleries Production Caving front to the
(XC) (TON) start production
Support of this hypothesis is based upon the level of field
orepasses distance (mts)
stresses (80 to 100 MPa) induced by the extensive caving
8AN 1.000.000-1.600.000 (-13) - (25) front (>350m). See figure 11. Taking into account the
uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of intact primary rock
2 AN 1.200.000-2.400.,,, (6) - (31)
between 100 to 130 MPa and considering the proximity of
6 AS 1.400.000-2.600.000 (-20) - (0) the caving front, fracturing of excavation walls and roof is
14 AS 500.000-1.700.000 (42) - (73) generated.
21 AS 600.000-1.600.000 (20) - (50)
29 AS 250.000-1.600.000 (10) - (32)
39 AS 300.000-1.400.000 (21) - (82)
44 AS 50.000-900.000 (30) - (90)
49 AS 20.000-2.000.000 (22) - (92)

312 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figura 11. Principal Stress at the excavation related to the
distance from the caving front
Figure 13. Graph represents the relationships between
s1/sci>0.4 and the location of caving front.
Proposal for Designs Methodology
The methodology is based upon stress estimation
considering the max/ci ratio, where smax is the maximum
shear stress round the excavation and ci is the uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS).
The maximum stress (max) was determined based upon
a back-analysis of excavations located in different sectors,
such as: Ten 4 Sur, Esmeralda and Sub-6.
Accordingly, it is possible to establish that max is
coincident with the maximum principal stress 1, in the
abutment stress (transition) zone.
Furthermore, when max(=1)/ci, >0.4 a progressive
damage of rockmass round the excavation begins, which is
reflected by increased fracturing (previous and new
fractures), key-block formation and overbreaking. Figure 12
shows the plotted values that represent 1/ci > 0.4 ratio.

Back-analysis at The Tte. 4 Sur

Information about orepass location respect to the caving
front and overbreak initiation at Tte. 4 Sur was compiled,
establishing that the greatest damage of productive ore-
passes is generated at the stress induced zone (abutment Figure 14. Orepass location from caving front and overbreal
zone). See Figure 14. initiation at Tte. 4 Sur

Greatest ore pass damage (overbreak) is generated when

production starts before or during abutment stress
induction. On the other hand, stress fracturing at the
abutment zone begins when s1/sci is greatest than 0.4.

Results and applicability of proposed methodology

During the year 2000 the proposed methodology was
established (in the Teniente 4 Sur sector mine). Over the
last four years, 20 orepasses have been incorporated into
production and these have not experienced orepass
overbreak.
The good orepass geomechanical conditions have
increased their availability to about 80%.
The results of this study indicate that ore pass behaviour
(excavated in primary rock at El Teniente Mine), could be
predicted based upon the induced stresses during their
operation. Therefore, the key factor define the moment of
orepass excavation and production.
Several examples of orepasses which have been
excavated in the vicinity of a collapsed orepasss in the
relaxation zone, reflect a normal operation of them, without
Figura 12. Plotted values of s1/sci establish orepass an adverse overbreak, which indicates the small effect of
design and operation induced stresses at the relaxation zone.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 313

 Finally, it is important to establish other factors which ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
affect orepass overbreak, when production starts.
a) Rock mass strength (lithology and structures) The authors thank the Geomechanic Superintendent of El
b) Design of orepass geometry Teniente Division, CODELCO Chile, for permiss to publish
c) Support/reinforcement system this paper.
d) Orepass operation (e.g., operation without orepass
overflow) REFERENCES

When orepasses are excavated in zones where [1] Brummer R. (1998). Design of Orepasses, CAMIRO
1/ci>0.4 it is best to install an appropriate support system, Mining Division Limited.
capable of absorbing rock mass deformation and overbreak. [2] Brzovic A. (2001). Sistema de Clasificacin geotcnico
Roca Primaria Mina El Teniente. API T01M101. Informe:
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS SGL-I-050/2003.
[3] Cavieres P., Rojas E., (1993).Hundimiento Avanzado:
1. Orepass damage generated during the panel caving una variante, al mtodo de Explotacin de Hundimiento
method is controlled by Where (and When) the ore pass por Paneles en Mina El Teniente. CODELCO CHILE.
is excavated in relation to the caving front position (initial Publicacin 44 convencin IIMCH.
stress environment) and when ore pass production [4] Constanzo H., Rojas E. (2000). Problemtica
begins, related to caving front position (stress changes). Geomecnica de los Piques en la Mina T-4 Sur, Informe
2. A progressive orepass damage (overbreak) round the Interno Planificacin. Divisin El Teniente Codelco
excavation periphery during orepass life is a result of rock Chile.
mass stress and geological condition, after overbreak has [5] IM2 (2001). Estudios de Traspaso de Mineral,
been initiated due to the impact of rock boulders on the Proyecto IM2 43/99.
orepass walls. [6] Rojas E. (2000); Evaluacin Geomecnica de la
3. A support system capable of to absorbing rock mass estabilidad de los Piques de Traspaso en Roca Primaria
deformation and keeping the rock fractures in place must - Mina El Teniente. Trabajo presentado en Programa de
be designed for overbreak control, Steel rings (1 inch Especializacin en Innovacin Tecnolgica de
thick) and concrete have been demonstrated to be a good Geomecnica y Geotcnica aplicada a la Minera
reinforcement system. (Diplomado, Universidad de Chile).
4. Analyzing the formation of keyblocks surrounding an [7] Rojas E., Molina R., Cavieres P (2001); Preundercut
orepass is an important analysis for overbreak evaluation. caving in El Teniente Mine, Chile; SME 2001;
Undergournd Mining Method.
RECOMMENDATIONS [8] Santander E., Bonani A., Rojas E. (2004). Evaluacin
Geomecnica del estado de Sistemas de Traspaso.
1. Position orepass construction and operation within a Sector Reservas Norte Area Invariante. SPL-I-010-
relaxation state of stress (behind the caving front), where 2004.
1/ci ratio is lower than 0.4 (1/ci <0.4).
2. Consider the use of steel ring (1 inch thick) and concrete
at the orepass collar and below production levels, when
orepass construction and operation is done with a s1/sci
ratio greater than 0.4.

314 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 8
Ground Support
316 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Performance of cable
bolt anchors An update
Alan Thompson, Curtin University of Technology, WA School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia

Abstract
The installation of cable bolt anchors for mining applications has been reported previously by Thompson (1992) and
Thompson and Windsor (1995). Recent theoretical investigations and laboratory testing have been used to improve the
understanding of the behaviour of these barrel and wedge anchors both during installation and in service. Computer
generated graphical simulations have been used to relate the interference between the wedge inner teeth and the outer
wires of the strand to the wedge position within the barrel.. Laboratory tests have demonstrated that corrosion may
prevent the wedge sliding sufficiently within the barrel to grip the strand and results in strand slip relative to the anchor
at low loads compared with the design capacity. This has significant implications for mass mining operations in which
there are significant times between installation and when the cable bolt anchors may be loaded due to rock mass
movements. Lubrication of the barrel/wedge interface is recommended for long term effectiveness of cable bolt anchors.

1 INTRODUCTION to rock mass displacements. In the past, the strand was

usually continuously coupled to the rock by the cement
The use of barrel and wedge anchors to restrain plates, grout annulus. In these cases, the force at the collar was
straps and mesh in cable bolt reinforcing applications observed to remain at low levels despite large rock mass
commenced in the early 1980s in Australian mines. At this movements (Thompson et al. 1995).
time, the major function of the anchors was to restrain this In conjunction with these new applications, further recent
surface hardware tightly against the rock surface and was theoretical and laboratory testing investigations have been
not to tension the strand. Also, many of these early undertaken by the writer and his colleagues. These new
applications were associated with cut and fill where cable investigations attempt to more clearly quantify the behaviour
bolts were installed in long lengths as pre-reinforcement of barrel and wedge anchors during installation with the
(Thompson et al. 1987). different equipment that is available and to simulate the
The installation of barrel and wedge anchors for the early anchor performance during service, particularly after being
applications was often performed using a tool on the end of subjected to corrosion in the underground mining
an air leg or by pushing on the exposed end of the wedge environment. The following sections review the mechanisms
using a hollow hydraulic cylinder restrained at the other end of behaviour of barrel and wedge anchors and present the
by a removable and reusable barrel and wedge anchor. results of the recent investigations.
While these methods of installation were crude, they were
reasonably effective and reliable in the short term 2 OBSERVED ANCHOR PERFORMANCE
applications associated with cut and fill mining.
As use of cut and fill mining was reduced and long hole open There is visual (e.g. Figure 1) and anecdotal evidence of
stoping became the preferred mining method, more anchor failures in Western Australian mines. The anecdotal
sophisticated methods of installation were sought. In particular, evidence relates to occasional observations of wedges
it was found that, in a monitoring exercise at Mount Isa Mines, remaining intact within anchors found on the floors of drives
the force on the strand immediately behind the anchor was only with no evidence of strand rupture. Anchors of similar
a fraction of the force being applied by the hydraulic cylinder condition were also observed by the writer after a large
(C.R. Windsor, personal communication 1982). block failure at a Western Australian underground mine.
At that time, research investigations were undertaken to
develop tools for installation of barrel and wedge anchors on 3 BARREL AND WEDGE ANCHORS
strand. These developments were reported by Thompson et
al. (1987) and were the forerunners of the installation tools Barrel and wedge anchors are an important component of
that are available today. a cable bolt, particularly if the strand is de-bonded as shown
In order to more clearly understand the mechanisms of in Figure 2.
barrel and wedge anchor behaviour during and after
installation, a number of theoretical and both laboratory and 3.1 Anchor components
field testing investigations were made. The results of these Typical barrel and wedge anchors are shown
investigations were published by Thompson (1992) and schematically in Figure 3. The wedge may be formed into
Thompson and Windsor (1995). two or three parts as shown. The inner taper angle of the
Since these investigations, barrel and wedge anchors are barrel and the outer taper angle of the wedge are
now being used in different applications associated with approximately equal and usually can be assumed to be ~7.
mass mining methods. These new applications may require The wedge is made from hardened steel and has sharp
the anchors to be functional for longer periods than in the teeth formed at the inner surface that makes contact with
past. The anchors may also be the only load transfer the strand.
mechanism between the strand and the plate at the collar in
applications in which the strand is de-bonded. De-bonding 3.2 Anchor installation methods
of the strand is used to enable tension to be established in Thompson (1992, 1995) described several methods used
the strand and to reduce the cable bolt stiffness in response for anchor installation. All these involve gripping and pulling

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 317

 Use of a chair to enable the full tensioning force to be
applied to the strand.
Application of the tensioning force to the wedge.
Application of the tensioning force to both the barrel and
the wedge (either with a spring to push on the wedge or a
recessed nose assembly to suit the geometric properties
of the anchor).
Application of the tensioning force to the barrel with a
secondary hydraulic cylinder to push the wedge home.

Since that time, a further novel technique has been

developed (Amalgamated Reinforcing 1996). This
technique involves:
Application of the tensioning force to a "shear ring" on the
barrel. At a predetermined load, the ring shears,
simultaneously causing the jack nose to firmly drive the
wedge home.

The installation of anchors with different nose assemblies can be

generalised by analysing the forces shown in Figure 4 (Thompson
and Windsor 1995). The strand tension (T) is given by:
T = KP (1)
where:
P = force supplied by the hydraulic cylinder
K = tension reduction factor given by

Pw/P (1 - tan tan B ) tanC

Figure 1:Anchors with strand receded compared with K =1 (2)
original position observed in a WA mine. tanB (1tan tanC ) + tan + tan C

= wedge taper angle

B = friction angle between barrel and wedge
C = friction between cable and wedge
Pw = force applied to the wedge
PB = force applied to barrel = P - PW

The residual tension developed in the strand after

removal of the tensioning equipment depends on:
Total force applied by the tensioning equipment.
Force applied to the wedge during tensioning.
Wedge/strand interface condition.
Barrel/wedge interface condition.
The relationship between wedge outstand and wedge
force (e.g. see Figure 5).
Figure 2:Schematic representation of a cable bolt. The strand free length.

The strand tension behind the plate and anchor is found

to always be less than the tensioning force applied by the
anchor installation equipment.. Figure 6 shows how the
strand tension may also reduce due to wedge draw in after
removal of the tensioning equipment. The tension loss
increases as the free length becomes shorter. The analysis
to predict this behaviour is based on well-established
principles used in both the prestressed concrete and ground
anchor industry codes of practice.

Figure 3:Schematic representation of barrel and wedge

anchors with two- and three-part wedges.

on the strand and pushing on some part of the surface

hardware (i.e. anchor or steel plate). These methods can be
briefly summarised as follows: Figure 4:Forces acting on an anchor during installation.

318 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 It was generally accepted that a residual tension of ~50kN Equilibrium of forces for the barrel requires:
would be sufficient to ensure that the anchor was "set" on
the strand and the anchor would subsequently be able to R = Sw cos + W son (3)
sustain forces up to the rupture force of the strand.
Subsequently, as graphically demonstrated in Figure 1, this and for the wedge (radially) requires:
has not always be found to be the case.
C = W cos Sw sin (4)
3.3 Anchor mechanism and behaviour
Barrel and wedge anchors are designed to clamp the For strand sliding to occur:
strand and embed the teeth within the outer strand wires. In
order to assess under what conditions the strand will slide T ? C tan C (5)
relative to the barrel and wedge anchor, it is necessary to
analyse the interactions between the various components of Combining equations (3), (4) and (5) results in:
the system (e.g. Thompson 1992, Chacos 1993).
Sw cos + W sin ? (W cos Sw sin ) tan C (6)

In order to proceed from here, it is necessary to assume

that sliding occurs at the barrel/wedge interface and the
sliding force SW is given by

Sw ? W tan B (7)

Substituting for SW, eliminating W and simplifying gives:

tan C ? tan (B + ) (to prevent sliding) (8)

or alternatively

tan (B + ) ? tan C (for sliding to occur) (9)

This equation means that the barrel/wedge interface

friction angle must be less the wedge/strand interface
Figure 5:Typical wedge outstand from barrel versus strand friction angle by an amount more than the wedge taper
force response curve. angle.
Chacos (1993) suggested various values for coefficients
of static friction corresponding to different barrel/wedge
interface conditions. These conditions and the
corresponding friction angles are give in Table 1. Values
were also suggested by Thompson (1992) and the
approximate values corresponding to the interface
conditions used by Chacos are given in Table 1.
Thompson (1995) reported that the wedge/strand friction
angle was measured experimentally to be ~45. Given that
the wedge taper angle can be
assumed to be equal to 7, this means that the
barrel/wedge friction angle must be less than ~38 for the
anchor to function properly. It can be seen that this condition
is only satisfied if the interface remains new and/or
lubricated.
It has also been suggested (DSI web site) that if sliding at
the barrel/wedge interface is inhibited, then the wedge inner
teeth will not be embedded into the strand outer wires to
their full depth and may be sheared off if the strand tension
increases in response to rock mass movements.
Figure 6:Theoretical prediction of strand tension loss due to
wedge draw-in for a 5m free strand length. Anchor installed 3.4 Graphical simulation of performance
with 100kN pre-tensioning equipment (estimated 10kN In order to more fully understand the interaction between
applied to the wedge 90kN to barrel and ~95kN in strand the strand and the wedge during installation and in service,
free length). a three-dimensional graphical simulation method was

Figure 7 shows the forces acting on the strand and the Table 1: Suggested values of friction angles
barrel and wedge anchor after installation and during for different barrel/wedge interface conditions.
service. In this figure:
R = force between the barrel and the plate acting against Interface Condition Chacos Thompson
the rock/shotcrete surface (1993) (1992)
T = tension in the strand = R
W = normal force acting across the barrel/ Dry, pitted, rusted, old 45 30 to 40
wedge interface Dry, lightly rusted, new ~22 25
SW = shear force at the barrel/wedge interface
C = normal force acting at the wedge/strand interface Lightly oiled, clean, new ~17 15
SC = shear force at the wedge/strand interface Heavily greased, clean new ~6 ~10

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 319

 developed. This graphical simulation method required the
accurate drawing of the actual geometries of the strand, the
wedge (both two- and three-part) and the barrel. With these
objects drawn, the interactions were modelled by displacing
the wedge relative to the barrel to simulate loading and to
then visually inspect the interaction between the wedge
internal teeth and the external wires of the strand. The
amount of relative displacement between the wedge and the
barrel for typical strand forces was estimated from
laboratory tests in which all these variables were measured
(e.g. see Figure 5).
Table 2 shows the results of these simulations for both
two- and three-part wedges. The interactions between the
wedge and strand are shown and graphically indicate
qualitatively the limited amount of teeth material that may be
available to transfer load without being supplemented by the
significant clamping effect resulting from sliding at the
barrel/wedge interface. The figure also shows that a three-
Figure 7: Component forces acting within the strand and part wedge grips the wires more uniformly and more
barrel and wedge anchor system. effectively at low forces.

Table 2: Schematic of barrel and wedge (two-part and three-part) anchor and strand mechanism.

320 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

4 LABORATORY TESTING Table 4: Summary of anchor strengths.

To complement the theoretical considerations and No. Peak Residual Failure Mode
computer simulations, a laboratory test program was Force Force
designed to quantify the expected in situ performance of (kN) (kN)
anchors. The test specimens were set up to simulate
different methods of installation and to quantify their 1/2 >250 0 Rupture of one or two wires
behaviour when subjected to loading after being allowed to 3 ~22 ~10 Wedge/strand interface slip
corrode. 4 ~50 ~13 Wedge/strand interface slip
The simulated installation configuration of the test
specimens and the anchor condition at the time of testing 5 ~45 ~20 Wedge/strand interface slip
are summarised in Table 3. The surface condition of new 6 ~50 ~25 Wedge/strand interface slip
and corroded anchors is shown in Figure 8. Corrosion was 7 ~45 ~20 Wedge/strand interface slip
permitted to develop by keeping the anchors in humid 8 ~55 ~30 Wedge/strand interface slip
conditions, with access to oxygen, inside a semi-sealed
tube. Note: Residual force was that recorded during sliding.
All the anchors were tested by pulling on the strand with a Actual residual force will be 0kN when strand completely
hydraulic jack. In tests 3 to 8, the wedge and strand pulled through wedge.
displacements were monitored by DCDTs and were logged
together with the force measured by an electronic load cell
up to the point when the hydraulic piston travel limit was Table 4 provides a summary of the peak and residual
reached and the test needed to be reset. A second loading forces measured for all the specimens tested and the failure
cycle was conducted in which only the strand displacement modes. Apart from the control test specimens 1 and 2 used
was measured. to confirm that anchors can mobilise the strength of the
strand (but not necessarily its full elongation potential of at
Table 3: Summary of anchor specimens. least ~3.5%), all the anchors failed by slipping of the strand
within the anchors. This is attributed to the inability of the
No. Installation Condition wedge to slide sufficiently relative to the barrel.
Figure 9 shows the extent of wedge movement relative to
1&2 Strand pull hand tight New the barrel that can be expected when anchors are loaded to
3# Strand pulled to 20kN New cause rupture of the strand at ~250kN. Also note that the
4# Strand pulled to 40kN New wedges protrude from the base of the barrel for this anchor.
5 Strand pulled to 10kN Corroded
6 Strand pulled to 20kN Corroded
7 Strand pulled to 40kN Corroded
8 100kN applied to wedge* Corroded

# Barrel/wedge interface glued before load applied.

* Strand force ~36kN

Figure 9: Appearance of new anchors (Specimens 1 & 2)

after failure of one and two strand wires.

The total wedge movement relative to the barrel was

measured to be ~10mm. The movement is associated
Figure 8:Comparison of new anchor with anchor subjected initially with the teeth embedding in the outer wires of the
to 6 months exposure in a mildly corrosive artificial strand and then secondly the barrel expanding radially
environment. outwards. The radial stresses in barrels and the associated
radial expansion have been studied both experimentally and

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 321

theoretically by Marceau et al. (2001, 2003). It is possible for
barrels to expand unacceptably if the barrels are too thin or
made from steel with too low yield strength. The radial
forces are higher when the barrel/wedge interface is
lubricated.
Figure 10 shows the appearance of anchor specimens 3
and 4 after failure by strand slip. The test for specimen 3
was stopped to show the extent of material shaved from the
outer strand wires by the wedge.
All tests in which wedge/strand interface slip occurred
were similar. The results for test specimens 6 and 8, shown
in Figure 11 and Figure 12, are typical of the results
obtained for the other specimens. Figure 13 shows the
effects of sliding on the strand wires.
A summary of wedge positions before and after testing
and the total wedge movement are summarised in Table 5.
It is of significance that, other than for test specimens 3 and
4 (shown in Figure 10) in which the barrel/wedge interface
was deliberately prevented from sliding, a small amount of Figure 11: Typical force-wedge displacement (Test 6 and
wedge movement did initially occur. This suggests that the Test 8).
wedge is prevented from further sliding by the corrosion
products built up on the exposed wedge surface near the
wedge taper.

Figure 12: Typical force-strand displacement (Test 6 and

Test 8).

Figure 10: Appearance of anchor specimens 3 and 4 after

failure by wedge/strand slip.

Table 5: Summary of average wedge positions before

and after testing.

No. Initial Wedge Final Wedge Wedge

Outstand Outstand Movement
(mm) (mm) (mm)

1/2 6.5 -4.0 10

3 1.3 1.3 <0.1
4 0.4 0.4 <0.1
5 2.7 1.5 1.2
6 2.1 1.7 0.4
7 1.6 1.5 0.1
8 0.4 -0.1 0.5
Figure 13: Anchor specimens 6 and 8 after testing (strand
slip ~80mm from original position).

322 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

5 IMPLICATIONS FOR MASS MINING METHODS controlled ambient conditions and with ground water
obtained from six mine sites. It will be some time before the
The results of the theoretical and experimental tests will be performed and the important results become
investigations have significant implications for mass mining available. In the meantime, it is recommended that some
operations. Some of the factors associated with mass attempts are made to ensure that the barrel/wedge interface
mining methods that impact on the performance of cable remains capable of sliding by providing lubrication or
bolt anchors are: isolation from its environment.
Potentially long lead times between anchor installation
and nearby extraction. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Changes in stress conditions cause large rock mass
movements and increases in loading on reinforcement. The invaluable assistance of Mr Glynn Cadby of Fenixx
The use of de-bonded strand to be compatible with Australia in modelling the three-dimensional objects
expected large rock mass movements. representing the strand and the barrel and wedge anchors
The possible use of shotcrete which helps to create a and then simulating their behaviour during loading is
humid, corrosive environment. gratefully acknowledged. His assistance with documenting
the tests and data processing is also greatly appreciated.
All these mass mining related factors lead to the
requirement for longevity of the barrel/wedge sliding REFERENCES
mechanism to ensure acceptable performance of the
anchor. Current practice does not require any special Amalgamated Reinforcing 1996. SurelockTM Anchor
preparation of sliding surfaces to inhibit corrosion and Locking Device. Company brochure, 8p.
promote sliding. However, this will need to change if Chacos, G P, 1993. Wedge forces on post-tensioning
anchors are to perform to their design specification. strand anchors. PTI Technical Note 2, Post-Tensioning
The following statement is paraphrased from DSI (2004), Institute:Phoenix, 4p.
with changes made to be consistent with the symbols given DSI 2004. DSI Ground Support Catalogue, Dywidag
in Figure 7. Systems International:Salt Lake City, 37p
If friction at the barrel/wedge interface increases (due to Marceau, D, Bastien, J and Fatard, M, 2001.
corrosion), a larger Sw will reduce the clamping force. As T Experimental and numerical studies of mono-strand
increases, all other forces can only increase if the wedge anchorage. Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 12(2),
can seat deeper into the barrel. If the wedge is prevented 119134.
from doing so (i.e. by corrosion or dirt-accumulation, the Marceau, D, Fatard, M and Bastien, J, 2003. Constitutive
clamping force cannot increase with the pulling force law for wedge-tendon gripping interface in anchorage
causing slippage when the load on the cable bolt gradually device numerical modelling and parameters
increases during service life. identification. Structural Engineering and Mechanics,
15(6), 609-628.
DSI further suggests that: Thompson, A G, 1992. Tensioning reinforcing cables.
To avoid slippages during use, it is important that the Proc. Int. Symp. on Rock Support, Sudbury, 285-291,
cable bolt is fully stressed at the time of installation to a Balkema:Rotterdam.
force equal to 0.5 TUlt ( ~125kN for a 15.2mm diameter pre- Thompson, A G, Matthews, S M, Windsor, C.R., Bywater,
stressing strand). S and Tillmann V H, 1987. Innovations in rock
However, in mining installations, it is rarely if ever the reinforcement technology in the Australian mining
intention to pre-stress the strand to forces of this magnitude. industry. Proc. 6th Int. Cong. on Rock Mechanics,
As a consequence, during anchor installation it must be an Sudbury, V2, 1275-1278, Balkema:Rotterdam.
imperative to establish interference between the wedge Thompson, A G and Windsor, C R, 1995. Tensioned cable
inner teeth and the outer wires of the strand and to establish bolt reinforcement an integrated case study. Proc. 8th
the barrel/wedge interface in a condition that enables it to Int. Cong. on Rock Mechanics, Tokyo, V2, 679-683,
slide and maintain this condition for the service life of the Balkema:Rotterdam.
cable bolt. This requirement can only be achieved by Thompson, A G, Windsor, C R, Robertson, W V and
isolating the anchor from its environment or by providing Robertson, I G, 1995. Case study of an instrumented
high quality and long-lived lubrication at the barrel/wedge reinforced pit slope. Proc. 35th US Rock Mechanics
interface. Symposium, Lake Tahoe, 381-386, Balkema:Rotterdam.

6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The WA School of Mines has recently set up anchor

specimens with a variety of methods used to inhibit
corrosion at the barrel/wedge interface. The specimens
have been placed in separate corrosion chambers with

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 323

 Static behaviour of
different retaining systems
M.L. Van Sint Jan, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile
Patricio Cavieres, El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
This paper presents the results of tests on 1.5x1.5 m panels tested under conditions simulating field loading and
supported with rock bolts on a 1x1 m pattern. The panels were made up of diamond wire mesh (chain link) or using
reinforced shotcrete. Shotcrete reinforcement was either a single layer of diamond mesh or synthetic fiber. The load
displacement behavior of mesh reinforced and fiber-reinforced shotcrete were similar. However, behavior of a fiber-
reinforced shotcrete may be varied almost continuously to satisfy the design requirements. Installing a mesh outside of
the fiber-reinforced shotcrete might provide an increased energy absorption capacity, help holding broken pieces of
shotcrete and decrease the danger of breaking the mesh. Punching of the shotcrete did not occur in the tests but it is a
potential failure mode that can take place in the field.

1 INTRODUCTION
2 TESTING PROCEDURES
Large-scale laboratory tests of underground support
systems provide a means to validate the design procedures. 2.1 Equipment
The tests also help to understand the behavior of the The panels reported in this paper were subjected to a
support, as it is tested under controlled conditions. flexural load trying to reproduce the boundary and loading
Several authors have tested shotcrete under static conditions that may be encountered in a tunnel.
conditions. Little (1985) and Kirsten (1993) tested shotcrete The test set up, shown in Figure 1, follows the
panels anchored with four rock bolts, the load was applied recommendations given by Prof. D. Stacey. The panel is
either with an hydraulic jack acting on a steel plate at the supported at four points with 100x100x10 mm steel plates
center of the panel or either applying a uniform load with and rock bolts spaced at 1x1 m. To simulate the load of
water bags. Fernndez et. al (1977) tested thin shotcrete broken rock, the load of a hydraulic jack is applied vertically
arches with different configurations and boundary downwards and distributed on the panel via a pyramid of
conditions. The load was applied over a 60x60cm square steel cylinders and concrete blocks. In order to reproduce
area via a movable concrete block connected to an the displacement restriction imposed by the ground, a
hydraulic jack. Holmgren (1977) tested planar shotcrete concrete ring tightly adjusted with a cement grout restrains
layers with different boundary conditions. Thompson et al. the upward displacement of the panel as well as its rotation
(1999) tested welded wire mesh and found that the at the anchoring points. The sides of the panel are free to
behavior is strongly dependant, among other factors, on the move downwards for approximately 15 cm. The test
orientation of the mesh relative to the bolt pattern. Static arrangement for wire mesh panels is similar, but in addition
and impact tests on steel mesh and mesh reinforced to the confinement ring, pinned rods connected to a stiff
shotcrete panels under reported by Tannant et al. (1995) beam provide lateral restriction.
suggest that, at the same panel deformation of 25 cm, the
reinforced shotcrete was able to absorb significantly more
energy during the impact tests (16 kJ) compared to the
static tests (9 kJ). The static and dynamic energy versus
displacement behavior of the mesh were similar, but the
total displacement under impact load was much larger (up to
60 cm) than in the static loading tests (up to 30 cm).
Ortlepp & Stacey (1997) report impact tests on panels
with lateral restriction and supporting a simulated rock mass
made with concrete blocks and steel cylinders. The tests
results show little difference in the energy absorption
capacity of weld mesh reinforced shotcrete and diamond
wire mesh.
Recently, a new dynamic testing procedure has been
developed by Villaescusa (pers. comm.). The results of the
tests should provide more insight into the dynamic behavior
of ground support systems.
The tests reported herein allow comparing the behavior of
different steel meshes and of different shotcrete Figure 1. Test set up.
reinforcement. Load measurements illustrate the
redistribution of load over the panel as an arch effect 2.2 Tests of diamond (chain link) mesh
develops in the rock mass when the panel is deformed. The tests were run on samples of mesh provided by two
different manufacturers. The geometrical and mechanical

324 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

properties of both meshes (A and B) are given in Table 1. Mesh
B was slightly thicker than mesh A because the radius of
curvature of its lacing was slightly larger than that of mesh A.

Table 1. Physical characteristics of the meshes.

Mesh Properties of the wire LxH

type mm Pu kN u % cm N

A 5.11 9.68 12.0 14x16 6

B 5.07 10.32 10.5 14.9x14.3 4
Notes: = diameter
Pu = Rupture load
u = rupture strain
L = length of one diagonal of the "diamond"
H = length of the other diagonal
N = number of panels tested Figure 3. Load displacement behavior of type B meshes.

Figure 2. Load-displacement behaviour of type A meshes.

Figures 2 and 3 show the load-displacement behaviour of

type A and B mesh. Failure of a wire was observed in only
one panel, of mesh A, at a load of approximately 90 kN.
Failure took place at the edge of the steel plate. Figures 3
and 4 show that the stiffness of the meshes increases with
the displacement, such increase may be due to the change
in shape of the mesh but also to the arch effect produced by
the concrete blocks. At small to medium loads, the panel
deflects but the central concrete blocks are not free to
descend because of the friction developed on their vertical
surfaces because of the lateral boundary conditions. Thus,
the concrete blocks form an arch and the load is
redistributed, decreasing in the central area of the panel.
After a certain amount of panel displacement, the arch effect
is destroyed, the blocks fall down, and the load is distributed
more uniformly on the panel.
Whether or not the arch effect will develop in the field,
depends on several factors including, the flexural flexibility
of the lining, the geometry of the broken rock and the stress Figure 4. Summary of test results on diamond mesh panels.
conditions.
A certain evidence of the arch effect was obtained by
measuring the strain on some blocks instrumented with 2.3 Tests of diamond mesh reinforced shotcrete
strain gauges. Because of the arch effect, the additional Figure 5 summarizes the results of tests on 5 panels of
load is transmitted almost entirely to the bolts, which should shotcrete reinforced with one layer of type A mesh. The
then be able to start yielding in order to increase the energy thickness of the panels ranged from 6.8 to 9.4 cm, with an
absorption capacity of the complete system. average of 7.9cm. The shotcrete strength, measured on
In order to facilitate the comparison of both types of mesh, four 51mm diameter samples drilled from the panels and
Figure 4 shows average values of load and energy corrected for slenderness, ranged from 7.2 to Figure 5.
absorption versus displacement. Also shown in Figure 4 is Load displacement behavior of mesh reinforced shotcrete
the standard deviation of the load capacity. panels.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 325

figure 5: Load displacement behavior of mesh reinforced
shotcrete panels.

40.7Mpa. Strong lamination existed in two out of six

drilled samples. In most of the panels, some wires broke
during the loading. Wire breakage was evident by the noise
and the sudden change in the load-displacement curve (not
shown in Figure 5).
Average values of some physical properties of the
shotcrete panels are as follows:
_ Initial stiffness = 69kN/cm.
_ Yield load = 113kN
_ Yield displacement = 6cm

In some panels, an arch effect was noticeable at a

displacement of approximately 10cm. The arch effect was
also reflected in an increase of stiffness of the load Figure 6. Energy absorption of mesh reinforced 10cm-thick
displacement curve. shotcrete panels
Figure 6 shows the average energy absorption capacity
measured in the laboratory tests
Table 2. Physical properties of the
2.4 Tests on synthetic fiber reinforced shotcrete fiber reinforced panels.
The tests on synthetic fiber reinforced shotcrete have
been informed by Van Sint Jan et al. (2003). A short Panel Fiber Average Strength of
summary will be presented. (N/m3) thickness (cm) shotcrete*
Six shotcrete panels, reinforced with Strux 85/50 fiber Mpa
provided by the manufacturer, were prepared in the field and 1A Mesh 11,4 30,8
tested in the laboratory. Two additional shotcrete panels
1B Mesh 10,4 28,08
reinforced with one layer of diamond mesh were tested for
2A 58,84 11,9 26,00
comparison. The physical properties of the panels are
2B 58,84 10,6 27,56
summarized in Table 2.
3A 66,19 11,9 18,72
Figure 7 shows the total load as a function of the mid span
3B 66,19 9,5 26,77
deflection for all the panels. Studying Figure 7 and Table 2
4A 88,26 13,5 17,68
it can be seen that the load displacement behavior was
4B 88,26 12,9 22,36
dependant on the panel thickness as well as on the type and
amount of reinforcement. * Diameter of the samples = 49mm
The average thickness of the panels with 88.3 N/m3 fiber
content was 12.9 and 13.5cm and their yield load reached
251 and 294 kN respectively. Such strengths are 72% an 3 PUNCHING FAILURE
100% larger than the strength of the 10.4cm-thick panel
reinforced with chain link mesh and they suggest that the Failure of the tests panels occurred by flexure (bending
strength of a panel with 88.3 N/m3 fiber reinforcement would moment), but punching failure can also take place and
exceed that of a similar panel (of same thickness) with one this may be the failure mode controlling the strength of
layer of chain link mesh reinforcement. the shotcrete in the field. Punching failure did not occur
Figure 8 shows the computation of the total energy input in the lab tests because the load on one panel was
into the support system. The horizontal axis shows the distributed to the four supporting plates. In a field
displacement of the hydraulic jack loading point and the situation, the contributing area to a single bolt is equal to
vertical axis the total applied load. the total area of a laboratory panel. Thus, the load on the
The results show that for a central panel displacement of plate is increased four fold. As illustrated by the diagram
up to approximately 10cm the total energy absorption of Figure 9, the punching load is a function of the tensile
capacity of the fiber-reinforced shotcrete can be similar or strength and the thickness of the shotcrete under the
even exceed the capacity of the mesh-reinforced shotcrete. steel plate. Because the steel mesh must stretch in order
Certainly, after a central panel deflection of 10cm the to contribute with some tensile strength, it will not
shotcrete is fractured and needs to be repaired. develop a significant contribution before the required

326 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 9. Diagram illustrating the punching failure
mechanism.

Figure 7. Load-displacement behaviour of shotcrete panels

reinforced with different amounts of synthetic fiber.

a) Nil punching capacity b) Maximum punching capacity

Figure 10. Diagram illustrating two possible locations of the

bearing plate.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Laboratory tests and in situ observations suggest that the

wire strands of the diamond mesh break more easily when
it is used as reinforcement in the shotcrete than when it is
placed alone.
Failure of the diamond mesh is critical because it tends to
unravel.
The load displacement behavior of mesh reinforced and
fiber-reinforced shotcrete are similar. However, the load
displacement behavior and energy absorption capacity of a
fiber reinforced shotcrete may be varied almost
Figure 8. Comparison of energy absorption of the shotcrete continuously and can be much larger than that of a
panels reinforced with synthetic fiber and the mesh shotcrete reinforced with a single layer of mesh.
reinforced panels. The laboratory tests suggest that if the arch effect is
developed in the lining, then most of the ensuing load
increase will go directly to the bolts that should be able to
displacement results in the tensile failure of the dissipate the energy input.
shotcrete. Hence, large stress concentrations will result Failure of the mesh occurred in one test, at the edge of
in the steel wires at the contact with the bearing plate, a the bearing plate, suggesting that plate design is a critical
situation that may result in the failure of one or more issue.
wires. The failure of one wire of a chain link (diamond) Punching of the shotcrete by the bearing plate is a
wire mesh used as reinforcement will result on unraveling potential mode of failure that must be considered in the
of such wire, leading to the complete failure of the analysis.
shotcrete lining. Field observations reported by Van Sint
Jan & Cavieres 2004, confirm such failure mechanism. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For the reasons previously stated, it is preferable to
locate the bearing plate over the shotcrete surface, as The authors sincerely appreciate the permission given by
illustrated in the right diagram of Figure 10, and not in the El Teniente Division of CODELCO to publish this paper.
contact with the rock surface. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the
Laboratory test results and field evidence have shown authors and do no necessarily represent the views of any
that diamond mesh has high deformation capacity, other individual or organization.
particularly associated to dynamic loading. The mesh is Professor Carl Lders, from the Pontificia Universidad
also capable to retain the broken rock. Since the energy Catlica de Chile, contributed significantly in the laboratory
absorption capacity of the synthetic fiber reinforced testing.
shotcrete is similar to that of the diamond mesh reinforced
shotcrete, a better use of the mesh might be obtained if it is REFERENCES
placed outside of the fiber-reinforced shotcrete. According
to our static tests, the mesh would start to contribute after Fernndez-Delgado, G., Mahar, J.W. and Parker, H.W.
the shotcrete begins to crack and the energy capacities 1977. Structural Behavior of Thin Shotcrete Liners
could possibly be added. More analysis and tests are Obtained from Large Scale Tests, Shotcrete for
needed to support this hypothesis. Underground Support, ASCE and ACI, 399-442

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 327

 Holmgren, J., 1977. Thin Shotcrete Layers Subjected to Thompson, A.G., Windsor, C.R. & Cadby, G.W.
Punch Loads, Shotcrete for Underground Support, ASCE Performance assessment of mesh for ground control
and ACI, 443-459 applications. In Villaescusa, Windsor and Thompson
Kirsten H.A.D. 1993. Equivalence of mesh and fiber- (ed.) Rock Support and Reinforcement Practice in Mining,
reinforced shotcrete at large deflections. Canadian Proc. intern. symp., Kalgoorlie, Australia, March 1999,
Geotechnical Journal, (30) 3: 418-440. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Little, T.E. 1985. An evaluation of steel fiber reinforced Van Sint Jan, M.L., Bonani, A. & Vicencio, B. 2003. Large
shotcrete for underground support. Canadian scale tests on synthetic fiber reinforced shotcrete. Proc.
Geotechnical Journal, (22) 4: 501-507. 3rd Int. Seminar on Surface Support Liners. August 25-26
Ortlepp, W.D. & Stacey, T.R. 1996. The performance of 2003. Universit Laval, Quebec, Canada.
containment rock support such as wire mesh under Van Sint Jan, M.L. & Cavieres P, C. Large scale static
simulated rockburst loading. In Zikmund Rakowski (ed.), laboratory tests of different support systems Proc.
Geomechanics 96, Proc. intern. symp., Roznov, 3-6 Ground Support 2004, Perth, Australia, 28-30 September
September 1996. Rotterdam: Balkema. 2004, (in press).
Tannant, D.D, Kaiser, P.K, & McCreath, D.R. 1995.
Large-scale impact tests on shotcrete. GRC Report,
45pp.

328 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The status of thin spray-on
liners and some applications
relevant to massive mining
T. R. Stacey, School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand
J. Hadjigeorgiou, Laval University, Qubec, Y. Potvin, Australian Centre for Geomechanics

Abstract
Development of thin spray-on liners (formerly referred to as membranes or superskins) has been taking place for about
10 years. Although thin spray-on liners cannot be said to have "arrived", they are probably on the verge of much larger
scale use. The development and use of such liners has been tracked over the past three years at specialist workshops
and seminars held in Australia, South Africa and Canada. This paper summarizes the current status of thin spray-on liners
and selected recent applications relevant to massive mining.

1 INTRODUCTION as shotcrete. Shotcrete, which is applied in layers much

thicker (typically 25mm minimum) than is applicable for
The mining industry worldwide is under constant pressure TSLs, has structural strength in compression. The
to improve its productivity and profits, whilst at the same implication of this is that it can provide support due to its
time providing a safe working environment for all its structural arching action, which cannot be expected of
employees. As a consequence there has been an increase TSLs.
in the amount of mechanization and automation in mining
and a corresponding search for new methods of excavation 2.1 Support action of TSLs
and ground support. Furthermore, there are niche mining Stacey (2001) has suggested a range of possible support
areas, unrelated to the implementation of mechanization mechanisms for TSLs. These mechanisms may act
where excavation support technology can potentially individually or in combination.
provide improved efficiency and safety.
The last few years have been witness to considerable Promotion of block interlock: This mechanism keeps the
development of thin spray-on liners (TSLs) as a means of rock mass in a substantially unloosened condition. In fact
ground support. These are spray-on liners with a typical there are several sub-mechanisms: interlock promoted by
thickness of 3mm to 4mm applied to a rock surface to seal the bonding of the TSL to the rock, and the tensile strength
the rock to prevent slaking, but more importantly to provide of the TSL, preventing shear on the interface and restricting
structural support. Although TSLs have been in use for more block rotation; development of shear strength on the
than 10 years they have been mostly used in specific TSL/rock interface due to the irregularity of the interface
applications. Neverthelss it would appear that they are on surface; TSL penetration into joints and cracks inhibiting
the verge of general acceptance and widespread block movement (particularly relevant in high stress
application in the mining industry. A consensus was reached situations where some loosening and stress fracturing
to use the generic term of "thin spray-on liners" rather than would have already occured); prevention of block
the previous colloquial terms of "mebranes" and displacement by two mechanisms the shear strength of a
"superskins" in order to differentiate from membranes in stiff TSL, and the tensile strength of a thin bonded TSL.
other industries.
As a result of industry interest in TSLs, three seminars Air tightness: Dilation (opening up of fractures) is a
and workshops on "Surface Support Liners Thin Spray-on necessary condition for a rock mass to fail. If such dilation
Liners, Shotcrete and Mesh" were held in Australia (2001), can be prevented, failure will be inhibited (Coates, 1970;
South Africa (2002) and Canada (2003). The seminars were Finn et al, 1999). This is unlikely in a static loading
organized by the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, environment. In dynamic loading situations, in which rapid
Laval University and the University of the Witwatersrand. entry of air into the rock mass will be restricted, an air tight
The purpose of these events was to provide an opportunity TSL can arguably improve stability.
for mining personnel, TSL manufacturers, researchers and
other interested parties to interact and exchange Structural arch: As a rock mass deforms it induces
information on TSL materials, test methods, design methods stresses in the support that withstand further deformation of
and case studies. Selected papers from the proceedings of the rock mass. This is unlikely in flexible TSLs, but might be
the three seminars have been edited into a single volume, a support mechanism for a stiff TSL. This structural
to provide the industry with a "state of the art" handbook mechanism is controlled by the strength of the surface
(Potvin et al, 2004). support and its flexural rigidity.

2 SUPPORT AND LOADING ACTION OF TSLs Basket mechanism: This is the case when the surface
support develops the form of a basket. The support can then
The comparative thinness of a TSL applied to the rock contain the failed rock while acting mainly in tension. Under
surface means that the support action provided by the TSL these conditions three considerations come into play: the
is very different from that provided by a liner material such flexural rigidity or ductility, which will serve to resist the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 329

deflection of the liner to form a basket; secondly, the tensile may occur. This can result in stress induced spalling of the
strength of the liner material itself; and finally when there are liner material.
two constituents, such as fibre reinforcement in the TSL,
both the tensile strength of the matrix material and the Water pressure loading: Water pressures may be
tensile strength of the matrix. In this case the reinforcement sufficient to fail undrained surface support.
may undergo material yield or, more importantly, the liner Bending loading: In mining excavations it is very rare that
may yield by progressive pull out of the reinforcement support is installed in the floor. Consequently although
elements from the matrix material. deformation may be contained in the roof and sidewalls, the
floor may deform freely. This can result in greater
Slab enhancement: Slabs or incipient rock slabs that form convergence at floor level than roof level, and hence
under high stress conditions, may fail due to buckling. A bending loading on the liner support particularly in the
surface support effectively decreases the slenderness of the haunch areas.
slab and increases its resistance to buckling. It is important to highlight several effects of these loading
mechanisms. Localized deformation of surface support may
Beam enhancement: A surface support on the underside lead to localized failure. Therefore, even if the liner material
of a roof beam, can enhance its bending performance, and has an elongation of 100% or 200%, the localization of
improve the stability of a roof beam. deformation of well bonded surface support may result in
failure after a total opening of only a few millimetres. In such
Extended "faceplate": All surface support extends the cases, it may be preferable for the bond between surface
area of influence of rockbolt and cable faceplates or bearing support and rock to be less effective, to allow some shear to
plates. This is more pronounced when using stiffer support take place on the interface, and hence for the deformation
liners. to be less localizad.
Furthernore, the surface support is one component of the
Durability enhancement: Some rock types deteriorate on support system, which usually also includes rockbolts. The
exposure and when subjected to wetting and drying cycles. interaction between the surface support and the rockbolts is
TSLs can seal the rock to prevent exposure and hence extremely important. The behaviour of the rockbolts
preserve its inherent strength (Bartlett and Nesbitt, 2000). influences the behaviour of the surface support and may
dictate the characteristics desired of this support.
Mechanical protection: Mechanical damage will quickly It is probable that all of the above mechanisms of
destroy the effectiveness of surface support. A shotcrete behaviour and of loading are applicable in many mining
liner provides considerable resistance to mechanical environments. With this complexity of behaviour and
damage. loading, it is perhaps not surprising that there are no
established procedures or methods for the design of rock
2.2 Loading Action support using thin spray-on liners. Satisfactory engineering
Support actions provided by TSLs, and loading design methods and procedures are therefore yet to be
mechanisms, are also described by Tannant (2001). The developed. In the same vein, it is therefore also not
most common mechanisms of surface support loading are: surprising that, although many different types of tests have
been carried out on TSLs, to date no single test, or group of
Wedge and block loading: A block or wedge defined by tests, has been defined that can satisfactorily indicate
fracture or joint planes may displace and load the liner whether a TSL will be able to provide adequate support, or
locally. In "rigid" and bonded liners, shear stresses will be whether one TSL will provide better support than another.
induced in the liner along the perimeter of the block. If The most obvious current solution to this conundrum is to
breakdown of the bond occurs this will result in a localized evaluate TSLs by means of field trials, which will indicate
or point load acting on a "basket". These loading clearly whether a particular TSL is likely to be satisfactory or
mechanisms can be both static and dynamic. not.

Distributed surface loading: A surface support is subjected 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONL

to a distributed load imposed by the rock. The retention of Y AVAILABLE TSLs
the surface support will generally be by point supports
provided by rockbolts and face plates. The distributed load An aim of workshops in Australia, South Africa and
may be due to several circumstances: failed rock, under the Canada was to characterize and document the available
action of gravity (static); squeezing rock conditions, due to TSL products. This was somewhat complicated by the
high stresses or swelling (static); rockburst loading - about a relatively young age of these products that is reflected in
1m thickness of fragmented rock is often ejected at high their continued development. Furthermore, a distinction had
velocity during rockburst events (Ortlepp and Stacey, 1994). to be drawn between sealants and TSL that provide some
Distributed loading causes the liner to provide support of the kind of support. Table 1 provides a list of different TSL
basket type. Localised deformation may occur along products that were identified during the International
fractures. This is the case when the liner is well bonded to Seminars. Not all products are currently available.
the rock surface, and when the roughness of the rock
surface prevents shear along the interface. Under these 4 CASES OF TSL IMPLEMENTATION
conditions the value of high quality bonding between liner
and rock is questionable. In fact a lower quality bond, that At this stage there does not appear to be any location in
allows yield and shear displacement along the interface may which TSLs are applied as ongoing support on a routine
be more appropriate. basis. All examples of applications relate to the solution of
particular problems on a one-off basis. Some of the
Stress induced loading: A surface support, well bonded to examples that have been published in the series of
the rock, will be subjected to the same deformations as the seminars will be summarized below. It is to be noted that,
rock. If stiffer, or more brittle, than the jointed, fractured rock owing to the rapid developments that are taking place in the
mass, it may fail prematurely under the imposed TSL field, the case studies, though recent, may describe
deformations. Several failure mechanisms such as shear, TSL material and application equipment and procedures
bending, buckling or tension, individually or in combination that are already out of date. The implication of this is that

330 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: List of TSL Products a ratio of approximately one part urethane pre-polymer to
six part, water based resin dispersion.
Product Manufacturer Chemistry
4.2 Trials with Tekflex at Neves Corvo Portugal
Mineguard Mineguard Canada Polyurethane Hepworth and Lobato (2002) described field trials with
Rocguard MCC Cementitious Polymer Tekflex at Neves Corvo mine in Portugal. The objective at
Neves Corvo Mine was to explore the possibility for partial
Rock Hold Mondi / ICTUS Methacrylate
replacement of wire mesh screen and shotcrete by TSL. The
Rockweb Spray On Plastic Polyurea mine uses shotcrete rather than screen as support to
Rock Guard Engineered Coatings Polyurea/Polyurethane advancing faces. Screen has elevated labour requirements,
SPI Polyurea Speciality Products Int. Polyurea is more prone to corrosion and cannot hinder weathering of
the rock mass. Further limitations of screen include its
Tekflex White Minova USA Inc Polymer/
Cementitious blend inability to stop progressive upward spalling, response to
blast damage and the need to bleed when broken rock
Tekflex Black Minova USA Inc Polymer/
accumulates in screen. Screen is used for rehabilitation of
Cementitious blend
damaged shotcrete. The use of screen during habilitation
Tekflex T Minova USA Inc Polymer/ close to the face can expose mine personnel to rockfalls.
Cementitious blend The use of shotcrete is subject to materials handling
Tekflex Minova USA Inc Polymer/ constraints (supply and movement of air compressors and
Cementitious blend spray equipment).
Tunnel Guard SA Mining & Eng. Cementitious Polymer Potential applications of TSLs include: as a substitute of
Tunnel Flex SA Mining & Eng. Cement Latex shotcrete where faults are exposed; zones susceptible to
weathering but which do not call for high capacity liner
3M Mining Liner 3M Polyurethane support and as screen replacement for rehabilitation. TSL
Ardumin TM020 Ardex Hydraulic Cement provides an alternative for areas where applying screen is
Castonite Strata Products Gypsum polymer problematic due to manpower problems and where screen
Everbond II Mead Mining Polymer/ is susceptible to blast damage.
cementitious blend Neves Corvo uses approximately 7000 m3 of shotcrete
each year to cover 110000 m2 of rock. Even if a TSL would
Evermine Mead Mining Cement/Acrylic
replace a small percentage it could still be important.
GSM CS1251 MBT Polyurethane- Starting in October 2000 and continued into late 2001 the
Polyurea/ Acrylic mine undertook a series of field trials using the Tekflex
Lanko 228 CHRYSO Cement/Acrylic "liquid powder" formulation. The aims of the field trials were
to:
Masterseal 840 R MBT Methacrylate
a) Evaluate the ease of mixing and spraying to determine
Masterseal 845 A MBT Cement latex the appropriate installation technology.
b) Determine optimum distance of nozzle from the surface
currently available technology is likely to be superior to that and operator comfort.
described below. The presented examples are drawn from c) Monitor dust levels and aggressiveness in terms of
selected papers that appeared in the Seminar proceedings. operator discomfort.
d) Determine short and longer term (one or two months)
4.1 TSL applications at Fraser Mine adhesion performance, principally for the Black Shale.
Swan and Henderson (2001) trace the introduction of e) Examine the resistance of Tekflex to blast damage.
TSLs to Falconbridges Fraser Mine in 1997. The main f) Estimate the surface roughness factor for the typical
objective was to replace the loose supporting or retaining highly schistose shale, for coverage and costing
function of screen (mesh), between the primary ground purposes.
support system of bolts, with a thin deformable liner. The g) Determine realistic rates of application of the Tekflex for
mine further dictated that any TSL would not expose estimating productivity and cost.
workers to any toxic elements during and after application. h) Evaluate the adherence to shotcrete on surfaces coated
The mine selected a water-based, latex-type liner. The with Tekflex.
business case was based on improved ground support
cycle times obtained using TSL over the use of screen. The trial area was in very poor ground conditions and
Furthermore, the mine estimated that a minimum of 70% of extended from 0.5m back from the face at the roof position
all loose ground could be supported by a TSL with shotcrete to approximately 5.5m back from the face. The test area
used in certain rockbursting and rehabilitation applications was sprayed from the base of one wall, across the roof, to
where superior coverage and stiffness/confinement capacity the base of the other wall. As the face was uneven the
were required. closest to the face that the Tekflex could be sprayed was
Following comprehensive testing of the Tekflex liner the 1.5m to 2m at floor level. The nozzle to roof distance was
mine embarked on a six month trial. This involved 2m to 3m and the equipoment was mounted at the back of
demonstration of loose support, confirmation of the a pickup and. The front of the test area was sprayed at
business case, crew acceptance and address of any distance close to 3m. Air temperature was 24oC and the
environmental concerns. Following the trial Fraser Mine operation took place at 75% humidity with no through flow of
proceeded with a full production-scale implementation to ventilation. The test area, however, was close to the main
replace screen. access. Although the mine experienced equipment
More recently Swan et al (2003) have outlined problems during the initial trials it was felt that these would
Falconbridges strategy to continue work towards not be an issue in a full implementation.
developing a new TSL in collaboration with 3M. This 3M During the initial field trial it was observed that mixing and
Mining Liner is a two-part system, a urethane pre-polymer pumping of the TSL was easy. Regular cleaning is however
and a water based resin dispersion. The two components necessary after every four batches. This process takes
are individually pumped to a spray head where they are between 20 and 30 minutes at the end of the shift. As the
mixed as they are dispensed. The components are mixed in material is water-soluble this is not a problem if tackled

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 331

early. The overall application was deemed reasonably "user (2003) investigated three types of TSLs referred by their
friendly" provided proper procedures and a skilled nozzle generic names:
man are employed. As there was virtually no dust and little Latex/cement thin spray-on liner. This contains two
rebound the nozzle man was comfortable using normal separate components, a liquid polymer latex and hydraulic
safety glasses and a standard dust mask. The mine cement powder. Components are mixed in a single bin and
suggests that a plastic rain suit or disposable paper overalls an air compressor provides a nozzle pressure of 690 kPa to
may be appropriate. Lighting was not a major issue with the apply the liner.
nozzle mans cap lamp being adequate. Methacrylate-based thin spray-on liner. This uses two
A difficulty in the use of TSL is to quantify the thickness of liquid, high viscosity, multi-component parts (methacrylate
the resin. This is important given the relatively high cost of monomer and a peroxide initiator). Components are placed
TSL. A coating too thin, however, does not provide adeqaute into separate bins and pumped to the nozzle in separate
support. The mine found that very good coverage, with filling hoses where they are combined using air pressure of 413-
of the open joints, was achieved when spraying from a 690 kPa. The air acts as both the mixing and propelling
distance of less than 2m. medium for the application of the liner.
Short term adhesion to wet rock was satisfactory. Long Polyurea thin spray-on liner. It uses two separate liquid
term adhesion was acceptable provided the liner was components, an isocyanate material and resin mixture. The
sprayed from distances less than 2m with good access to two materials are mixed in separate barrels, heated, and
cracks, foliation etc. At areas where this was not possible pumped to the nozzle in separate hoses where they are
rocks came loose due to adjacent blasting. This was a combined under 17 MPa pressure. Application is in three
concern as TSL coverage does not provide warning of layers. The first layer provides a tacky surface for a strong
failure as given by cracking shotcrete. In a test two days initial bond to the rock. The second layer forms a low
after installation the Tekflex liner was not significantly strength stringy material that can cover large cracks
affected by a blast. (polyurea is heated to 35 C). A durable and glossy final
Further trials demonstated that good coverage was coating provides high strength (polyurea is heated to 63 C)
possible when using a a NORMET basket to apply Tekflex. and includes graphite chips to extinguish flames.
Applications in poor ground confirmed that Tekflex provided Pappas et al (2003) provide a summary of material
little support capability for large loose slabs. This suggested properties used in the study, Table 2, derived by previous
that Tekflex was an appropriate substitute for mesh and not work by Archibald and DeGagne (2001). Flammability was
for shotcrete. not an issue as all materials were self extinguishing. The
November 2001 saw the final set of trials in very poor Health issues were all related to respiration. Further
ground in stopes and development characterized by friable information on the sprayed TSLs is given in Table 3.
and weathered material. Tekflex was easily integrated into
the production cycle with 6 linear metres installed per shift. Table 2: Summary of liner material properties
The rate of advance was three times faster than when using
shotcrte. A safe advance in a high-grade drift was possible Support Tensile Elongation Set time
in very difficult ground conditions. Swellex or resin bolts liner type strength1 (%) (Minutes)
were installed to the face before the Tekflex was installed. (MPa)
Shotcrete was applied later in the development over the
installed Tekflex without any problems of adhesion. Latex/Cement >1 (1 hr) 12-30 <3
Detailed costing was carried out based on approximately Methacrylate >2 (1 hr) >100 <3
8 litres of Tekflex product per m2 of installed Tekflex. At 3.24
Polyurea 18.5 125 10 sec
Euro per litre this is approximately 24 Euro per m2 for the
product only. A rate of spraying of 10.4 m2 per hour includes 1 Estimated strength in 28 days.
the time for transport and loading cost with a 2-man crew. 2 Initial set time.
The total material and labour cost of installed Tekflex is
approximately 31 Euro per m2. This is approximately the
same as the material and labour costs for 50mm of installed Table 3: Details of sprayed TSLs
shotcrete. The majority of the costs of the shotcrete are in
the labour cost at the surface batching plant, transport and Support Thickness Date Estimated
a two-man crew. Maintenance costs for shotcrete liner type (mm) installed cost
equipment are higher than for Tekflex. At Neves Corvo (US$/m2)
Tekflex appeared to be very effective in containing friable
ground between roof bolts in a low or destressed Latex/Cement 7.6 10/99 17.54
environment. The performance of Tekflex under high stress 3.8-7.6 10/99 10.55
conditions was not investigated. Methacrylate 2 1/01-3/01 24.5
3-5 9/01 n/a
4.3 Long term performance of TSLs in an underground 3.6-5 11/02 34.75
limestone mine Polyurea 5 4/02 43.00
Pappas et al (2003) evaluated the long-term performance
of TSLs at critical mine locations (predominately on mine
ribs) at the NIOSH, Pittsburgh Research Laboratorys Lake A double thickness of 8 mm of spray-on liner material
Lynn Laboratory. Located in the Greenbrier limestone was applied on a pillar in the hydrostatic test chamber
formation it is characterised by three to five horizontally area of the mine in October 1999. This is an area where
bedded shale bands. As a result of large seasonal explosion tests generate considerable blast vibrations in
temperature and humidity fluctuations the shale bands the area. Furthermore, pillars in this area have spalled
weather and degrade. This is further compounded by considerably due to weathering, greater overburden and
frequent explosion tests that often dislodge loose rib and damage caused by the explosion tests. Pappas et al
roof rock thus exposing fresh rock to weathering. The mine (2003) report that the latex/cement liner protected the
has adopted a long-term maintenance solution of sealing pillar from further weathering. It is also argued that the
the mine ribs and roof to cope with long-term structural TSL provides some additional confinement that prevents
degradation and potential safety concerns. Pappas et al further spalling.

332 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 An 8 mm thick double coating of the latex/cement TSL spraying. It was further estimated that it would take five
was applied at a 76 m section of a large barrier pillar near full days to spray the fine ore bin and another three days
the entrance portal. The area is subject to frequent freeze to repair and replace the chute liners. This eight-day
thaw cycles and fluctuations in temperature and humidity. shutdown was not acceptable. Practical considerations
The liner performed well with only 1% of the total area did not allow for spraying the shotcrete from a man
covered being problematic. Even then these were attributed basket suspended by crane. The other alternative was to
to rock rather than TSL failure. The site had not been fill the bin, with the operators working off the top of the
properly scaled and consequently the fractured shale was ore. The ore level would have to be lowered at several
partially degraded when initially sealed. increments and each time the personnel would have to
In 2001 and 2002 several versions of a methacrylate- exit the bin. This process would potentially expose
based thin spray-on liner were used at small trial areas. workers to further safety hazards including unsatisfactory
Once an acceptable methacrylate thin spray-on liner ventilation.
formulation was developed it was applied to three different c) Scale down the entire bin. A trial indicated that this was
types of surface conditions. not an efficient option. A five person team using scaling
In the first test the reformulated methacrylate material bars and pneumatic jack hammers could only scale 8m2
was applied over an area that was part of previously of a total area of approximately 471 m2 in two hours
unsuccessful TSL application. This did not provide a good d) Another option involved the use of a pentice. As both bins
base for adherence and after a few days, most of latest have limited access at the top there were concerns about
application debonded from the mine wall. At the second manoeuvrability and ventilation. In fact the mine
site the reformulated methacrylate material debonded constructed a six segment pentice with the intention of it
from at the saturated mine wall, due to the excess water being assembled on top of the ore. The pendice would
on the rock surface. At the third site, the surface was then be suspended using a crane while the bin was
scaled and then blown dry. The rock surface was still emptied allowing the placing of the pendice at the bottom
moist, but in the absence of excess water the of the bin. This would permit maintenance workers to
reformulated methacrylate material was successful in enter from the bottom and work safely below the
sealing the mine rib. protection provided. The actual pentice was extremely
A polyurea TSL was installed in April 2002. In the first site difficult to handle as it was big and bulky given that it was
the rib face was scaled and washed prior to application of constructed to resist falling rock from 30m. There were
the three layers of polyurea. In both sites there were small further concerns that the pentice was susceptible to
trial areas where the face was not washed and zones getting jammed on the rail mat. Consequently it was
saturated with water. After nearly a year since the never employed.
application there were no signs that these trial areas were e) The retained option was to spray the Fosroc Tekflex TSL.
adversely affected by dirt or moisture. The mine was satisfied that this alternative was feasible
At the second site the significance of not using three in that required equipment to spray was simple and could
layers was explored. In the first test area, only the second be easily handled with the crew capable to start work
and third layers of polyurea were applied. In the second safely under the Tekflex within one hour. All the spraying
area, only the second layer of polyurea was used and in the could be done directly from a man basket suspended by
third area only the third layer of polyurea was sprayed on a crane. The main challenge was to convince the crew
the rib rock. A year after the tests, debonding was only who would be replacing the liners. A proof of concept trial
observed in some parts of the area where only the second was undertaken. Some rocks were placed into a
layer was applied. All other trial areas were not adversely fabricated dummy rail mat to emulate the underground
affected by the absence of the primer layer. situation. The mat was subsequently sprayed using
Tekflex. The TSL cured in approximately 20 minutes.
4.4 Ore bin repair at BHP Cannington After an hour from spraying the test mat was struck with
This unusual application of a TSL at BHP Cannington was sledgehammers to test its performance. Rocks inside the
described by Nucifora and Irwin (2001) and illustrates the film of Tekflex were smashed, but none were dislodged.
versatility of TSLs. The mine used a surge bin 12 metres As a final test the dummy rail mat was hung upside down
deep and a fine ore bin 30 metres deep. Both bins are five by the crane, but still nothing moved. This convinced the
metres in diameter. The walls of both ore bins are lined with maintenance crew of the feasibility of this option.
sacrificial steel rail mats down their entire length to prevent Following some further time studies the mine went ahead
the bin from wearing. After having handled over five million with this option. After four and a half days, the
tonnes of ore, the maintenance team was faced with the underground ore handling system was back on line and
challenge of replacing the worn sacrificial chute liners. As the shutdown was considered a major success. The
the rail mats employ a rock box effect to minimise wear to Tekflex cured on time, the simple spraying equipment
the sides of the bins there is a significant risk of falling rocks operated smoothly. Another inadvertent benefit was that
when the bins are empty. Any remedial action would have to the white colour of Tekflex facilitated lighting inside the
ensure that no personnel were exposed to the open bins.
unsupported bin walls above.
The mine explored several options aiming for a safe and 5 OTHER APPLICATIONS
efficient way to replace the chute liners while keeping the
down time to a minimum: During the seminars and workshops several other case
studies were referred to. These however did not have the
a) Weld wire mesh to the rail mats. This was problematic as same level of documentation as those presented in Section
it would be very difficult to secure the mesh. Should the 4. A brief description of other cases is included below.
wire mesh fail it would pose more danger than falling
rocks. Once the liners were replaced the mesh would 5.1 Tunnelguard application
have to be removed to prevent future chute blockages. Spearing (2003) describes an applications using
b) Shotcrete the walls. This was of interest given the Tunnelguard in a South African gold mine. Tunnelguard is a
structural support provided by shotcrete. Concerns two component cementitious powder and liquid polymer
included the long curing time of shotcrete that would TSL. Its basic properties, measured at ambient temperature
render the bin inaccessible for close to twelve hours after are summarised in Table 4.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 333

 Table 4: Tunnelguard Properties Spearing (2003) reports on Castonite applications in a
new coal mine in the USA. A total of over 7 tons was used
Property to mitigate rock weathering and provide some support in the
area around the bottom of the new up-cast shaft. At this
Tensile strength 2.5 MPa at 28 days location the ventilation velocity was high and the air humid,
which could cause the coal to weather and collapse over
Flexural strength 4.3 MPa at 28 days time. This would necessitate disruptive and costly
Compressive strength 10.5 MPa at 1 day rehabilitation. The Castonite effectively sealed the coal and
29.5 MPa at 28 days offered some confinement to the rib pillars and roof in
Shelf life 1 year nearby excavations. Almost one year after application the
mine was satisfied with the performance of this TSL.
Gel time 20 minutes
5.4 Strataskin Basic (RR) application
Tunnelguard has been used extensively at this operation The mechanical properties of Strataskin Basic are similar
since 2002 as part of the support for twin footwall drives in to shotcrete. The main difference is its capacity to reach its
near virgin ground at a depth of over 3000m. At this site tight full properties in a matter of seconds making it unique in that
spaced bedding planes were characterised by argillaceous it can be sprayed over mobile water effectively, Spearing
infilling. The main objective was to use the TSL to prevent (2003). Typical properties are given in Table 6.
further weathering of the infilling and at the same time to
contribute to the support of the excavation as it is installed
Table 6: Typical properties of Strataskin Basic
about 2m from the advancing faces. Following early success
the TSL is currently routinely applied by contractors in both
Property
drives. The mine is exploring its potential as an in-stope liner.
Furthermore, the TSL was resistant to damage by several
Tensile strength about 2.0 MPa
recorded seismic events above 0.5 magnitude in the vicinity of
(almost immediately)
the drives. Spearing (2003) suggested that it was premature to
draw conclusions on the ability of the TSL to limit rockburst Bond strength + 1.0 MPa
damage but felt that early indications were encouraging. Shelf life 1 year (must be kept dry)
Gel time < 10 seconds
5.2 Tunnelguard application as a sealant
The origins of Tunnelguard are described by Borejszo and
Bartlett (2002). The major ore type in most South African Spearing (2003) reports on a 350 m shaft in a large base
diamond mines is ultra basic tuffisitic kimberlite breccia. The metal mine sunk through three major water intersections.
ore contains magnesium rich, expansive montmorrilonite The surrounding rock consisted mostly of shales and
clay. This clay is characterised by its capacity to absorb banded ironstones with clay infilling. At the end of the
water resulting in massive expansion. Borejszo and Bartlett sinking, prior to any sealing action, water at 12000
(2002) report volume changes as high as 18 % as the ore is litres/hour was flowing into the shaft. This had resulted in
progressively saturated with water under controlled localized areas of severe honeycombing in the cast
laboratory conditions. These volumetric changes generate concrete lining. Water was also flowing out from the rings
pressures as high as 30 MPa which is in excess of the (between each concrete pour). The mine installed injection
capacity of most support systems. pipes in the rings and removed the honeycombed concrete
Consequently most diamond mines have a considerable by moiling.
interest to prevent water coming into contact with the The TSL was sprayed between injection pipes on the
kimberlite. Tunnelguard was developed in 1994 with the rings and over the moiled out areas. Even though there was
prime objective to provide an effective sealant of the rock. still some running water this TSL application was considered
For best results this TSL is sprayed onto all exposed a success. The mine noted that it was important to control
kimberlite as soon as practically possible. the water added to the TSL and that the TSL was applied
Other Tunnelguard applications described by Borejszo very close to the substrate due to the very rapid set time of
and Bartlett (2002) include its use to consolidate various this product.
problematic rock types and prevent rock oxidation in high-
risk areas. Its main advantage is its ease and speed of 5.5 Mondi Rock-Hold
application that provides for additional time to install final Mondi Rock-Hold is a one component methacrylate
support, including shotcrete. based powder, which, when mixed with water, provides a
thin and flexible spray-on liner. Henderson and Louw (2001)
5.3 Castonite (RR) application report three applications in South African gold mines. The
Castonite is a two component liquid gypsum and polymer first application involved the support of a near vertical
TSL. Its basic properties, measured at ambient temperature, ventilation raise borehole and cubby at 2850 m below the
are summarised in Table 5. surface in quartzite. Due to space limitations the use of
shotcrete or mesh and lacing were not possible. A nominal
Table 5: Basic properties of Castonite (RR) 3mm was applied in raise borehole with thicker (not
specified) in fractured ground in cubby. Six months following
Property the application there were no visible signs of further
deterioration. The second application was to support a
Tensile strength 0.4 MPa at 1 hour moderate depth shaft, 200 m long and inclined at 45o.
1.4 MPa at 1 day Situated in quartzite the sidewalls were showing slabbing
3.8 MPa at 28 days and there were areas of heavy fracturing. The objective was
Bond (to concrete) 0.5 MPa at 1 day to consolidate the sidewalls using 3mm of TSL. The hanging
1.6 MPa at 7 days wall was already reinforced using mesh and anchors. The
final application aimed to improve the stability of in stope
Shelf life 1 year pillars in an intermediate depth gold mine. The operation
Gel time 4 minutes was considered successful as the TSL provided the

334 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

necessary confinement resulting in reduction of pillar Liners: Thin Sprayed Liners, Shotcrete and Mesh,
slabbing when compared to a control pillar that was not Sandton, South Africa, S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., Section
sprayed. 28, 17p.
Hepworth, N and Lobato, J (2002) Tekflex resin spray field
6 CONCLUSIONS trials Neves Corvo Mine, Portugal, Proc 2nd Int.
Seminar on Surface Support Liners: Thin Sprayed Liners,
This paper summarises recent developments in thin Shotcrete and Mesh, Sandton, South Africa, S. Afr. Inst.
spray-on liners. It draws from published work in a series of Min. Metall., Section 19, 8p.
international seminars in Australia, South Africa and Canada Nucifora, M and Irwin, C (2001) Sprayed synthetic liner in
to identify a series of applications. TSLs are not the solution ore bin repair at BHP Cannington, Proc 1st Int. Seminar
to every ground support problem. Nevertheless the case on Surface Support Liners: Membrane, Shotcrete and
has been made that they have an important role to play as Mesh, Perth, Australia, Australian Centre for
part of the ground support arsenal. Knowledge of their Geomechanics, Section 15, 5p.
applicability can only be achieved by documenting and Ortlepp, W D and Stacey, T R (1994) Rockburst
disseminating the results of trials and applications. mechanisms in tunnels and shafts, Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology, v 9, no 1, pp 59-65.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Pappas, D M, Barton, T M and Weiss, E S (2003) The
long-term performance of surface support liners for
The authors would like to acknowledge a number of ground control in an underground limestone mine, Proc.
people who contributed to the seminars and workshops in 3rd Int. Seminar on Surface Support Liners: Thin Spray-
Australia, South Africa and Canada. The views expressed in on Liners, Shotcrete and Mesh, Quebec City, Canada,
this paper, unless otherwise indicated, are those of the Section 22, 22p.
authors. Potvin, Y, Stacey, T R and Hadjigeorgiou, J (2004) Thin
Spray-on Liners in the Mining Industry, Australian Centre
REFERENCES for Geomechanics, in press.
Stacey, T R (2001) Review of membrane support
Archibald, J and DeGagne, D (2001) Spray-on lining mechanisms, loading mechanisms, desired membrane
support in Canadian underground mining a research performance, and appropriate test methods, Jl S. Afr.
summary, CIM Bull., Vol 94, No 1050, pp 49-56. Inst. Min. Metall., Vol. 101, No. 7, pp 343-351.
Bartlett, PJ and Borejszo, R (2002) Tunnelguard in the Swan G., P. Fantin, G. Doyle, S.A. Mikalachki, B. Martin
mining industry, Proc 2nd Int. Seminar on Surface Support R.K. Brummer (2003). Technical and Business Case
Liners: Thin Sprayed Liners, Shotcrete and Mesh, Arguments Supporting the Development of a TSL Mining
Sandton, South Africa, S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., Section System. Proc 3rd Int. Seminar on Surface Support Liners:
18, 4p. TSL, Shotcrete and Mesh, Quebec City, Universit Laval,
Bartlett, PJ and Nesbitt, K (2000) Durability of kimberlite Section 23.
and its effect on drilling and support in tunnels, Proc. Swan G. and A. Henderson (2001). Water-Based Spray-
AITES-ITA World Tunnel Congress, Tunnels under On Liner Implementation At Falconbridge Limited. Proc
Pressure, Durban, South Africa, S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 1st Int. Seminar on Surface Support Liners: Membrane,
pp 37-45. Shotcrete and Mesh, Perth, Australia, Australian Centre
Coates, DF (1970) Rock Mechanics Principles, Mines for Geomechanics, Section 24, 12p.
Branch Monograph 874 (Revised 1970), Department of Tannant, D (2001) Thin spray-on liners for underground
Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada. rock support: testing and design issues, Proc 1st Int.
Finn, DJ, Teasdale, P and Windsor, CR (1999) In-situ Seminar on Surface Support Liners: Membrane,
trials and field testing of two polymer restraint Shotcrete and Mesh, Perth, Australia, Australian Centre
membranes, Rock Support and Reinforcement Practice in for Geomechanics, Section 27, 22p.
Mining, ed E Villaescusa, C R Windsor and A G Triebsch, G and Sapko, M J (1990) Lake Lynn
Thompson, AA Balkema, pp 139-153. Laboratory: A state-of-the-art mining research facility,
Henderson, N and Louw, D (2002) Underground Proc. Int. Symp. on Unique Underground Structures,
performance of Mondi Rock-Hold, a structural Denver, USA, CSM Press, Vol. 2, pp 75-1 to 75-21.
membrane, Proc 2nd Int. Seminar on Surface Support

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 335

 Shotcrete application and performance
at the underground deep ore zone
mine, PT. Freeport Indonesia.
Rudi Toba, Ground Support (Pre-Production) Engineer, Ernanto, DOZ Mine Operation General Foreman
Indra Febrian, Geotechnical Chief Engineer

Abstract
Freeport Indonesias Deep Ore Zone(DOZ) Mine is an underground block caving mine which started production in the
mid of year 2000. DOZ reserves are 185 million tones averaging 1.16% cu, 0.83 g/t Au, and 5.21 g/t Ag and will mine
with mechanized block cave mining method. And to support long-term tunnel opening in the extraction level, we
application shotcrete for the ground support beside construction concrete and steel set. Since we applied shotcrete in
the South side East DOZ extraction and it was successful to reduce the time and cost, we try to implement shotcrete for
all the panels and drawpoints in the west DOZ extraction. With the little field experience it hard to us to do some analyst
in the shotcrete parameter. Without doubt and based on our experience at the East DOZ in the different shotcrete and
rock type it can assist us to designing shotcrete for the primary ground support in the DOZ.

1 INTRODUCTION The characteristic of the main rock types in the EESS may
be summarized as follows:
Freeport Indonesias Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) mine is a 1. Diorite: A high strength well jointed rock mass that
block caving mine within the Ertsberg East Skarn System comprises most of the footwall.
deposit. And DOZ is one from three of The Eastberg East 2. Forsterite Skarn: A massive unit adjacent to the Eastberg
Skarn vertically stacked orebodies. Two others are GBT and Diorite Contact. Generally a hard competent rock unit
Intermediate Ore Zone (IOZ). with good ground conditions.
In the DOZ mine area proper skarn is dominated by 3. Magnetite-Forsterite Skarn: Generally a hard competent
primarily forsterite and diopsidic clinopyroxene. The DOZ rock unit, with good ground conditions, but may contain
Mine reversed around 185 Million tons ore at 1.16 % cu localized zones exhibiting poor ground conditions.
equivalent and began production in the mid of year 2000. 4. HALO: Highly Altered Local Ore, form pods of low
Currently the DOZ mine is producing 40.000 tpd, and in strength highly fractured and brecciated rock within the
the future production may reach 100.000 tpd. ore zone. It cuts all other units and almost without
Around 85 cubic meters shotcrete per day to cover the exception result in poor ground conditions.
production target and project expansion in the DOZ. 5. Mineralized Marble: Highly fractured with fracture
spacings between 5 and 10 cm.
6. Marble: A very low-grade marble that is soft and
moderately fractured. It can be hard and massive near
the contact with skarn.

3 SHOTCRETE APPLICATION AT DOZ

In the DOZ, application of shotcrete involves large

openings, fractures surface, soft ground / weak joint, long-
term tunnel opening and in heavily blasted ground
(Extraction Level).
Ranges of twelve permanent support designs have been
utilized through the DOZ based on the rock type and mining
conditions, beside 50 mm development shotcrete support.
These range and type of shotcrete are examined by the
Geotechnical department who work closely with the Pre-
Production (Ground Support) Engineer to decide which type
of the shotcrete support is appropriate.
In the northern extraction has been applied Steel Fiber
shotcrete with two layers of 6mm rebar mesh, which have
2 DOZ ROCK CHARACTERIZATIONS soft and moderately fractured of the ground. And just one
layer of rebar mesh or development shotcrete in the
The rock mass is regularly classified using the Q-system southern of extraction.
and the RMR system. Rock mass quality is variable across At the HALO area we do shotcrete for development
the underground orebodies, with the diorite being the support only soon after the drift and drawpoints excavation,
highest quality and the HALO typically being the lowest because it is will combines steel frame and conventional
quality rock mass. placed concrete.

336 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 experience, empirical methods and analytical checks that
we do in the East DOZ. The Principle involved is that "I did
this before and it was successful, therefore if I have the
same conditions and I do the same again, I would imagine
that I will again achieve success".
This paper deals specifically with the past and future
At present, shotcrete sprayed around 85 cubic meters per applications of shotcrete for maintaining the ground stability
day in the DOZ to cover the development support, shotcrete DOZ mine.
permanent support and rehabilitations shotcrete in the
production area. The shotcrete used in the DOZ is typically ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
designed to achieve a compressive strength of 40 Mpa.
The author would like to thank the management of PT.
4 SHOTCRETE PERFORMANCE AT DOZ Freeport Indonesia for permission to publish this paper. The
contribution made by underground personnel involved in
In the DOZ East various shotcrete designs were applied block caving mining at DOZ mine, especially Ajanth
and closely monitored to determine their quality, Saverimutto and Chris Chmura to this paper are gratefully
performance and effectiveness. In DOZ East permanent acknowledged.
shotcrete was used as the primary support mechanism in
40% of the panel areas, in the DOZ West this will increase REFERENCES
to more than 60% panel areas. Including some ground
types that were previously supported by concrete Hinsley Sandre, Ground Control in Underground Mines
construction methods. The experiences in DOZ East have Freeport Indonesia
been use to improve understanding of the performance of Brady, B.H.G. and Brown, E.T. 1993. Monitoring rock
the shotcrete applications. This application and observation mass performance. In Rock Mechanics for Underground
learning process has been combined with a program of Mining. 2nd ed, 491-496.
design and methodology improvement to allow a continual Zostrich Geotechnical, Underground Excavation Rock
optimization of shotcrete application. Mechanics.
Butcher, R.J. 2000. The Role of Mass Concrete in Soft
5 CONCLUSIONS Rock Block Cave Mines. In Proceedings of Mass Min
2000 Conference, Brisbane, 29 Oct-2 Nov 2000, 423.
Parameters designs for shotcrete design in a mining M. Struthers 1996, Performance of Mesh and Fibre
environment are limited, especially with the little personal Reinforced Shotcrete under High Ground Pressures.
experience. The best design is a combination of personal

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 337

 Ground support design
using three-dimensional numerical
modeling at Molycorp, Inc.s,
block caving Questa Mine
Leo J. Gilbride, J.F.T. Agapito, Agapito Associates, Inc., Grand Junction, Colorado, USA
Robert Kehrman, Molycorp, Inc., Questa, New Mexico, USA

Abstract
The Molycorp, Inc., Questa Mine, located in New Mexico, currently mines using a gravity-draw panel cave to extract
molybdenum sulfide ore from the 600-m-deep D Orebody. Prior to initial development, geotechnical studies were
undertaken to predict ground response for the design of entry support on the Grizzly and Haulage levels and in transfer
raise connections. Heavy abutment pressures were anticipated ahead of the undercut, followed by significant stress relief
as a consequence of a post-undercutting mining sequence. Detailed three-dimensional continuum modeling was
conducted to predict changing stress states during the undercutting sequence and to evaluate the performance of various
concrete and steel liner designs. Lithologic variation across the orebody was simulated and proved meaningful for
identifying different stress transfer mechanisms and liner pressures in different types of squeezing ground.
Recommendations for concrete liner thickness, concrete strength, reinforcement, and steel liner thickness were
developed from modeling and, ultimately, were implemented during construction. Since the cave was initiated in October
2000, ground support has performed reliably, with only occasional compression cracking and minor tensile separation of
the Grizzly Level liner in response to passing abutment loads. Observations to date corroborate model predictions and
validate initial support design for the new deep orebody.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Molycorp, Inc., Questa block caving mine is located near

the northern New Mexico town of Questa, as shown in Figure
1. Molybdenum has been mined at Questa for over 80 years.
Molycorp began large-scale open pit mining in 1965, but by the
mid-1970s plans for underground mining were developed to
combat high stripping ratios. By the end of 1976, a substantial
high-grade deposit was delineated by exploratory drilling
southwest of the open pit. A gravity block-caving method was
selected because of the well-fractured nature of the rock mass
and the size and shape of the deposit (Shoemaker 1981).
Figure 2 shows the general layout of the Goathill and D
orebodies and the current underground mine.
Underground mine development began in 1979, followed
by initial production in 1983 from the Goathill Orebody.
Production peaked in the mid-1980s, reaching 16,000
tonnes per day. By 1992, the mine was placed in stand-by
mode in response to declining molybdenum prices. The
mine was reactivated in 1995 and caving operations in the
Goathill Orebody were converted from manual gravity draw
to highly-mechanized load-haul-dump (LHD) draw.
Plans were developed to replace production from the
Goathill Orebody with the new, deeper D Orebody to the
east by the year 2000. However, at more than twice the
depth of the Goathill Orebody (300 m deep), the D Orebody
(600800 m deep) posed unprecedented geo-technical
challenges for mining at Questa. Experience with mining in
weak ground at Goathill suggested that very heavy support
would be required in the deeper orebody. With expectations
of high ground pressures, Molycorp reverted to the original
Figure 1: Location of Molycorp, Inc., Questa Mine
and proven gravity draw system in the D Orebody, which
was considered the lower risk alternative to LHD draw.
Gravity draw was also favored for better cave fragmentation Designs for ground support, comprising concrete and
and lower ventilation requirements. Molycorps gravity draw steel liners of various dimensions and strength, were
mine system is illustrated in Figure 3. developed in accordance with predicted high-abutment

338 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2. Plan View Mine Layout

stress magnitudes. Changing abutment stress conditions porphyry rocks which intruded a complex sequence of
and rock mass-support interaction were simulated per the volcanic andesites and rhyolites. These rocks occur in a
planned caving sequence using detailed three-dimensional down-dropped trench developed in Precambrian
computer models. Ultimately, designs were adopted based metamorphic rocks consisting of gneisses, schists, and
on modeled perfor-mance and experience. Production from amphibolites. Structurally, the deposit is controlled by major
the D Orebody began in October 2000. shear systems that trend northeast, east-west, and north-
south to northwest.
Hydrothermal solutions, rich in molybdenum, migrated
upward from a deeply buried batholith through fractures,
and formed the molybdenite (MoS2) mineralizationthe
only ore mineral occurring in the deposit (Agapito and
Shoemaker 1987). The individual orebodies comprising the
deposit vary in width and height from 125 m to 250 m and
are collectively about 1,500 m long.

3 ROCK MASS QUALITY

For engineering purposes, the complex geology of the D

Orebody is simplified to four predominant rock types: strong
and weak andesite, breccia, and aplite-porphyry rocks.
Figure 4 shows the general geology on the 7200 Grizzly
Level, located 6.7 m below the 7222 Undercut Level. The
molybdenum ore occurs mostly in the breccia above the
Grizzly Level and, to a lesser extent, in veins. Beneath the
breccia, to the south, is a generally weak andesite and, to
the north, a moderately competent intrusive aplite-porphyry,
which also underlies the andesite.
The andesites in the 7120 Haulage Level are generally of
better quality and exhibit less jointing and faulting than the
andesites on the Grizzly Level. They are also of better-
Figure 3: Gravity Draw System than-average quality than the andesites in the Goathill
Orebody.
2 GEOLOGY Rock quality is substantially affected by intense fracturing
spaced as closely as 30 mm. The southern half of the
The deposit occurs in a hydrothermally altered region orebody is generally weaker than the northern half due to
associated with extensive faulting and fracturing in aplite- large amounts of clay present in the highly fractured

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 339

andesites and aplites. Fractures in the northern half of the Table 1. Rock Mass Properties
orebody contain more quartz than clay, resulting in a
significantly stronger rock mass. Extensive mapping and Andesite
observations have shown a range in Q value (Barton et al. Weak Strong Breccia Aplite
1977) of 0.002 to 8, which rates the rock mass from
exceptionally poor to fair. GSI 10 30 48 65
Rock mass properties were estimated according to the
Geological Strength Index (GSI) introduced by Hoek et al. Q 0.0023 0.021 0.16 1.03
(1995) and are summarized for the D Orebody in Table 1.
Caving operations were designed to proceed from south Q Rating Exceptionally Extremely Very Poor
poor poor poor
to north, so that the abutments from caving can be
transferred away from the weaker andesites in the south to Elastic
the stronger aplites in the north. Experience in the Goathill Modulus, E 1,000 3,200 8,900 23,700
Orebody showed consistently better ground conditions (MPa)
when caving proceeded in a northward direction.
Poisson's
Ratio, 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25

Unconfined
Compressive 3.8 12.5 18.6 52.7
Strength, c
(MPa)

Cohesion, c
(MPa) 1.1 3.1 4.1 9.2

Friction Angle, 29 38 42 52

Q = 0.10*Q' for D orebody conditions, where

Q' = Modified Tunnelling Quality Index.

Figure 4: Predominant Rock Types on the Grizzly Level

4 ABUTMENT STRESSES

From inception, heavy abutment stresses were

anticipated on the production levels in the D Orebody.
Because a post-undercutting sequence was required, newly
developed lines were expected to be subjected to the Figure 5: Block 1D Orebody Abutment Stress Model
greatest range of support pressures possible. Newly Geometry and Rock Types
developed draw lines would be rapidly exposed to peak
abutment loading followed by maximal relief to less-than-in
situ stress conditions after passage of the overlying cave. Peak abutment loads, calculated by elastic-only modeling,
Such extremes are normally avoided with a pre- are summarized in Table 2 by rock type. Best estimates
undercutting sequence. from modeling are that active ground pressures in the
Detailed, three-dimensional continuum mod-eling was deeper D Orebody will range from 130% to 290% of those
conducted with the finite-difference code FLAC3D (Itasca at Goathill, depending upon rock type.
1997) to predict changing stress conditions on the Grizzly Abutment stresses in the more competent aplite and, to a
and Haulage levels during the undercutting sequence in lesser extent, breccia rock masses were determined to
Block 1. Figure 5 shows the general model geometry and reach their highest levels near the end of Block 1 mining.
spatial relationship of the four predominant rock types. Figure 6 is a map of the major principal stress magnitude

340 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 2. Modeled Peak Abutment Stresses Orebody, the method was used for preliminary support
design. Initial results indicated that a minimum of 46 cm of
Nominal Peak Abutment concrete would be required for lining the draw lines on the
Pre-mining Stress (MPa) Grizzly Level and that approximately 15 cm of shotcrete
Stress Grizzly Haulage would be required to stabilize the heaviest sections on the
(MPa) Level Level Haulage Level.
A 61- to 69-cm-thick cast concrete liner (46-cm-thick
Goathill Orebody 8.0 17.2 12.9 floor), using 21 MPa strength concrete, was initially
proposed for secondary support in the draw lines, as shown
D Orebody
in Figure 7. A 15-cm-thick shotcrete liner (46-cm-thick
Weak Andesite 23.0 17.1 poured floor) was proposed for the Haulage drifts, as
Strong Andesite 24.7 18.0 illustrated in Figure 8. Lastly, a 6.4-mm-thick Grade 60 steel
15.1
Breccia 40.1 NA liner was proposed for the transfer raises between the
Aplite 49.6 24.0 Grizzly and Haulage levels.
Detailed FLAC3D modeling was conducted to assess the
Breccia absent on Haulage Level. performance of the preliminary designs. The primary design
criterion was the prevention of crushing or squeezing of the
liners during abutment loading. A local-scale model was
constructed of the complete transfer raise system,
illustrated in Figure 9. Support elements were attached to
the excavations to represent the concrete and steel liners.
Minor support components, including bolts and mesh used
for support during development, were not included in the
model.
Non-linear Mohr-Coulomb rock mass behavior was
prescribed in the model per the properties presented in
Table 1. Peak abutment stresses were specified for different
rock types according to the stress tensors derived from the
large-scale abutment stress model. In the transfer raise
model, entries were excavated and allowed to reach initial
equilibrium before liners were installed. After installing the
liners, abutment stresses were applied. Liner pressures
developed in response to both elastic and plastic
deformation in the surrounding rock mass.
Support performance was gauged by the amount of entry
convergence and yielding in the liner elements. For
example, local crushing of the concrete liner is indicated in
Figure 9 by the yield zone around the left draw window.

Figure 6: Peak Abutment Stress Map at the Final Stage of

UndercuttingGrizzly Level, Block 1

acting on the Grizzly Level near the end of Block 1 mining.

Stresses were determined to peak at an earlier stage in the
andesite.
Model results also suggest that abutment stresses will
attenuate a short distance away from the cave. Abutment
effects are expected to become largely unnoticeable by
about 12 m laterally into Block 2 on the Grizzly Level. In the
vertical direction, abutment stresses are expected to
decrease from the Grizzly Level to the Haulage Level by as
much as 25% in the weakest andesite and 50% in aplite.

5 GROUND SUPPORT

Original estimates for ground support at Goathill were

based on ground-support interaction analyses, which relied
upon the load-deformation characteristics of the rock mass Figure 7: Proposed Support Design for the Grizzly Level
and support (Agapito and Shoemaker 1987). For the D Draw Lines

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 341

Figure 8: Proposed Support Design for the Haulage Level
Drifts

Figure 9 indicates limited liner yielding when the proposed

draw line design was tested in the strongest aplite rock
mass. Damage sig-nificantly increased when the same liner Figure 9: Transfer Raise System Model and Liner Yielding
was tested in weakest andesite. Figure 10 shows extensive during Abutment Loading in Aplite
concrete yielding, indicative of major crushing in the liner, in
the weak ground.

Less damage occurred in the stronger andesite and

breccia rock masses.
Even in the strongest rock, the preliminary designs were
determined to be vulnerable to excessive crushing under
transient abutment loads. The benefits of a thicker liner and
higher strength concrete were tested by modeling. Results
showed that concrete as thick as 91 cm on the Grizzly Level
and 30 cm on the Haulage Level increased liner stiffness,
but attracted more load and gained little in terms of net
stability.
Greater benefit was achieved by increasing the strength
of the concrete. Crushing was shown to decrease
moderately by increasing concrete strength from 21 to 41
MPa, and almost no risk of damage was determined for very
high-strength concrete (83 MPa), as indicated by Figure 10.
Although steel reinforcement was not considered effective
for preventing crushing, light reinforcement was
recommended for augmenting tensile strength and retaining
unstable blocks in the event of cracking.
Results indicated that a steel liner was necessary to
prevent adverse closure of the transfer raises in the weak
andesite and breccia. The 6.4-mm-thick steel liner
proposed in the preliminary design was determined to be
adequate to control squeezing under most conditions.
From the analysis, and based on experience at Questa,
the proposed designs were concluded to be reliable in the
stronger aplite and breccia rock masses, except for
localized areas of geological weakness (e.g., shear zones
and faults) which would require additional support. In the
weakest andesite, the same design posed significant risk of Figure 10: Comparison of Liner Damage in the Draw Lines
concrete crushing over large areas on the Grizzly Level, using Normal (21 MPa) and very High (83 MPa) Strength
unless higher strength concrete was used or supplemental Concrete in Weak Andesite
steel arches were added. Upon consideration of the

342 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 11: Draw Line Development Showing Original Figure 13: Horizontal Tensile Fracture at a Concrete Cold
Excavation and Concrete Forms Joint and Precautionary Steel Sets in a Draw Line

findings, Molycorp adopted the preliminary designs, but condition of the liner after passage of the stress abutment.
elected to use high-strength concrete (41 MPa) on the No liner damage is evident except for a horizontal 12-mm
Grizzly Level to limit risk. open separation along a concrete cold joint near the spring
line. This pattern of separation occurred consistently in
6 PERFORMANCE almost every draw line as a result of stress relief after
passage of the undercut. Operations personnel, concerned
A total of ten draw lines (Lines 615) have been with the fractures, initially installed steel sets (Figure 13) and
developed in Block 1 of the D Orebody since the cave was straps at some locations as a precautionary measure. This
initiated in October 2000. The southernmost line (Line 15) practice was later relaxed after it became apparent that the
was abandoned for geologic reasons in 2003. Lines 4 and liners were stable.
5 were mined, but never completed because of declining Early pours attempted to use nylon fibers for tensile
grades to the north. Approximately 3.3 million tonnes have reinforcement. However, their use was soon abandoned
been produced from Block 1 through May 2004. because the fibers proved difficult to pump and clogged
By June 2002, Block 1 was entirely undercut. During this concrete lines. The fibers showed no significant
phase, transient abutment stresses passed over the draw improvement in controlling tensile fracturing.
lines, reaching maturity some time in 2003, coincident with Compressive abutment stresses caused only occasional
the onset of subsidence at the surface. Measurements cracking in the draw lines. Any damage was generally
since July 2003 have shown steady subsidence at a rate of superficial and transient with passage of the undercut, and
0.4 m per month and maximum subsidence at the surface of did not impede production. Figure 14 shows a compressive
3.0 m in April 2004. Approximately 70 m of the 200-m Block fracture along the crown of a draw line. No significant
1 ore column has been drawn as of March 2004. damage occurred on the Haulage Level.
Generally, very good ground control has been achieved in Compressive fractures, where they did occur, often
Block 1 with the recommended support. The photographs in initiated at construction defects in the liner, including thin
Figures 11 and 12, respectively, show a typical Grizzly Level spots and voids in the concrete, pipe embedded in the liner,
draw line just prior to and soon after pouring the nominally and burlap and other debris included in the pour. Figure 15
61-cm-thick concrete liner. Figure 13 shows the typical shows a small hole near the crown of the liner caused by an

Figure 12: Typical Draw Line after Liner Construction Figure 14: Compression Cracking and Straps along the
Crown of a Draw Line

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 343

incomplete pour. Steel sets were sometimes required at geotechnical uncertainty posed by mining at almost twice
these locations. Defect-related damage was largely the depth of the Goathill Orebody. From inception, reliable
eliminated in later lines with improved construction ground support was recognized to be key to successful
methods. Measures included excavating a higher back, mining. In spite of recent experience with LHD draw at
using two concrete pour lines, and shortening pour lengths. Goathill, a more labor-intensive gravity-draw system was
selected, in part, to limit geotechnical risk.
Detailed numerical modeling proved valuable for reducing
geotechnical uncertainty by accurately predicting abutment
stress effects and allowing different ground support options
to be tested before mining. Designs implemented on the
basis of modeling have performed reliably during 43 months
of mining in Block 1.

REFERENCES

Agapito, J.F.T. and Shoemaker, D.R. (1987) "Ground

Stability and Support in Block Caving Operations at
Molycorps Questa Mine," Proceedings of the 28th U.S.
Symposium of Rock Mechanics.
Barton, N., Lien, R. & Lunde, J. (1977), "Evaluation of
Support Requirements for Underground Excavations,"
Proceedings of the 16th U.S. Symposium of Rock
Mechanics.
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P.K. & Bawden, W.F. (1995), "Support of
Underground Excavations in Hard Rock," A.A. Balkema.
Figure 15: Void in the Concrete Liner near the Crown Netherlands.
Caused by an Incomplete Pour Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (1997), "FLAC3DFast
Language Analysis of Continua in 3 Dimensions Volume
1: Users Manual," Minnesota.
7 CONCLUSIONS Shoemaker, D.R. (1981), "Method Selection at Questa,"
Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping
Experience mining in the Goathill Orebody provided a Mines, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
reliable starting point for the design of ground support in the Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New York.
D Orebody. However, considerable risk lay in the

344 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Ground support management
for existing mining excavations
T. Szwedzicki, M. Stawski, FT Freeport Indonesia

Abstract
It is likely that existing underground mining developments that were excavated prior to the introduction of current safety
and geotechnical requirements do not satisfy those requirements. The quality of ground support in mining excavations
is affected by changes to geotechnical and mining conditions. Over time, these changes can lead to ground instability
and may result in considerable safety-related problems as well as economic loss.
The review of support requirements provides information on the status of ground support in existing underground
excavations and on the need for repair or rehabilitation. The geotechnical risk assessment sets out strategies to ensure
minimum ground support requirements are met. Where ground stability is affected by deterioration of support or
deterioration in ground conditions or support does not comply with current standards, existing excavations should be
additionally supported, re-supported or rehabilitated. Some excavations may need periodical scaling or should be
barricaded off.
To ensure safety of all underground personnel a minimum support standard must be approved. The approved minimum
support requirements may vary depending on size and shape of an excavation, expected service life (stand up time),
usage (often visited or traveled through, storage of material, etc). Examples of classes of support of various underground
excavations are provided. Quality assurance requires that a regular inspection and monitoring program should be
established, carried out by competent persons and conducted for all areas identified during risk assessment.

1 INTRODUCTION For all existing excavations that may extend hundreds of

kilometres in large mines, support requirements should be
Support requirements and installation procedures are systematically assessed for risk of potential fall of ground.
developed throughout the life of underground mines. New Each area should be periodically inspected for stability and
developments are generally supported according to support requirements (Villascusa, 1999) with special
geotechnical requirements, meet current safety standards attention being paid to areas where:
and comply with mining safety legislation. However existing ground conditions are likely to deteriorate over time,
mine excavations, some of them developed many years loose material is being generated and constantly requires
ago, might not have been supported at all or were supported scaling,
to now superseded requirements that were in force at the mining induced stress may increase or decrease, or there
time. It is possible that what was acceptable in the past, are significant blast vibrations,
during a development phase, does not meet current safety corrosion of support elements can take place.
standards nor geotechnical requirements. Ground instability
in existing mining excavations often results from deficiency Inspection and review must be conducted in a systematic
in quality in ground support management i.e. geotechnical way to ensure that support requirements are regularly
data collection, design of support, installation and assessed in consideration of ground conditions and use of
monitoring. For example, ground support procedures might the excavations and mining conditions.
become inadequate to manage risk over time, improper
practices were accepted or faulty materials and equipment 2 QUALITY ASSURANCE
was used. Additionally both geotechnical and mining factors IN GROUND SUPPORT MANAGEMENT
could have changed during the life of underground
excavations. Extended stand up time of excavations often Quality represents features and characteristics of the
results in changes to geotechnical and mining conditions activities that bear upon its ability to satisfy stated or implied
such as: needs. In simple terms, in relation to ground support
reduction in mechanical properties of the rock mass due management, quality is conformance to requirements or
to weathering, changes in mining induced stress and /or specifications provided in:
water inflow, legislation
deterioration of supporting ability of reinforcing elements company documents including procedures, rules,
due to corrosion, blast and mechanical damage, standards, or codes of practice
changes to the geometry of existing openings due to manufacturers and suppliers instructions
alterations in mine design or deterioration of ground. approved best work practices

As a result of changes in geotechnical conditions, the Quality controls are the operational techniques and
level of risk in existing mining excavations is changing activities to fulfil requirements for quality while quality
and may result in uncontrolled ground movement in a assurance is defined as planned and systematic actions to
form of rock falls (McCaffrey et al, 2002). Consequent provide adequate confidence those activities will satisfy
instability of the rock mass represents a considerable requirements for quality (Szwedzicki, 2003)
safety-related problem and may result in economic Stages of implementation of a quality program in ground
loss. support management include (after ISO 9002):

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 345

 Preparation of a Policy on Quality Assurance in Ground 2.2. Ground Support
Support Management Quality assurance in ground support (including rock
Appointment of a management representative respon- support and reinforcement) should be executed in design,
sible for ground support installation and performance monitoring.
Development of a Ground Support Management Plan
Determination of objectives and targets 2.3. Ground Support Design
Implementation and control of all activities The design document should specify: type of support and
Review reinforcement (eg length, diameter, steel type, grout
consistency), support density and support layout (eg.
The ground support quality system at a mine should number of bolts in a row, spacing between the rows), and
comprise geotechnical management (organisational support specification (eg bolt hole position, inclination and
structure, authorities and responsibilities), documentation depth, thickness of shotcrete, mechanical properties of
(procedures, practices, instructions, and specifications), support material, consistency of grout). Support design
operational activities (support installation) and monitoring should take into account mechanical properties of the rock
and inspection. mass, structural features of the rock mass, in situ and
Ground support quality assurance can be assessed mining induced stress, and the effect of water on stability of
through audits and management reviews. An audit is a the rock mass and on corrosion of support elements. Fig. 1
systematic and independent examination to determine shows an example of an excavation with damaged and
whether activities and related results comply with planned corroded mesh that was recommended for re-support.
arrangements and whether these arrangements are suitable
to achieve objectives. The objective of an audit of quality 2.4. Ground Support Installation
assurance in ground support is to provide mine All support must be installed according to the designed
management with the information on status and potential pattern and installation procedures. Procedures shall
improvement in geotechnical activities. The audit also include details on: storage and handling of ground support
covers safety and risk management aspects of mining material, assessment of ground support stability, ground
operations related to the ground support management. support installation, and recording of installation data.
There are two types of audits - a system audit and a
compliance audit. The system audit is used to determine the 2.5. Performance of Ground Support
existence and validity of the ground support management A procedure on quality control program to assess the
system. The compliance audit is used to confirm whether performance of installed support should specify the
specified procedural practices in geotechnical planning and parameters and the conditions of testing. Performance of
design, ground support activities and inspection and ground support should be tested after installation and then
monitoring are being implemented and are effective. monitored over the life of mining excavations.
A system audit on quality assurance in ground control Geotechnical inspection and monitoring serve to locate
management system should seek evidence of: any potential uncontrolled instability of ground before the
clearly defined responsibilities and authorities ground becomes unstable and hazardous. Early detection
documented procedures, practices and instructions of impending failure allows mine operators to plan and
knowledge and understanding of responsibilities, implement actions limiting the effects of failure.
authorities, procedures, instructions, etc Geotechnical monitoring is carried out to assess changes in
rock mass behaviour over time, Fig. 2. This may include
A compliance audit on quality assurance in ground taking readings of geotechnical instrumentation and making
support management system should seek evidence of: periodical observations.
correct operational procedures approved by the
authorised person
adequacy of personnel, equipment facilities and general
resources
effectiveness of the system when correctly operated

The audits can highlight the present achievements that

meet international mining standards but also may disclose
deficiencies and may reveal directions for further
improvement.
Ground support management activities include barring
down, installation of ground support and monitoring of
excavation maintenance.

2.1. Barring Down

A written procedure on barring down (scaling) should
specify the method of scaling rocks down and the proper
use of equipment. Rock mass can suffer from blasting and
ground conditions may deteriorate with changes in mining
induced stress or with the passing of time. Therefore, the
written procedure should specify the minimum intervals Fig. 1. An example of damaged and corroded mesh
between barring down.

346 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Fig. 2. An area identified for support rehabilitation
Fig. 3. An exposed corroded bolt recommended for
replacement
3 REVIEW OF SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS

The review of geotechnical support requirements aims at

gathering geotechnical information and using that
information to improve mine safety through increasing
stability of the rock mass. Areas for support review can be
identified in two ways by systematic inspections by
geotechnical personnel or by reports from other operators at
the mine. Assessment of support requirements can be also
done by geotechnical audits. The objective of support
review is to provide mine management with information on
the status and potential need for repair or rehabilitation of
ground support.
Where ground stability was affected by deterioration of
support, or by deterioration in ground conditions or where
support does not comply with the current standards,
excavations should be additionally supported (e.g. mesh
pinned to the existing bolts), re-supported (e.g. replacing
corroded bolts) or rehabilitated (old support removed and
new support installed), Fig. 3. Some excavations may need
periodical scaling and parts that might be unsafe for entry Fig. 4. A barricaded off area under high mining induced
should be barricaded off, Fig. 4. The risk assessment should stress
be documented in a format that will enable an action plan to
be developed (Szwedzicki 2002). As a result of risk
assessment, rock mass stability should be re-assessed and 4 CLASSES OF SUPPORT OF
recommendations made. The geotechnical risk assessment UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
should set out strategies to ensure that minimum ground
support requirements are met. These strategies include: Classes of support of underground excavations needed
reviewing established rules on ground support, are determined by the Mine Manager. Geotechnical
defining minimum ground support requirements and requirements for minimum ground support in terms of
standards for all existing excavations, support pattern, mesh overlap, properties of grout and
specifying which openings are to be maintained for thickness of shotcrete are specified by the Geotechnical
present and future mining activities, Section in installation standards. The installation standards
carrying out underground inspections and review of the can be modified according to geotechnical conditions.
present state of support. Examples of classes of support are given below:

The following steps should be followed to ensure the Class 1. - Regular bolting pattern and periodical scaling
success of the support requirement review: A regular bolting pattern and periodical scaling are
nomination of reviewing teams and establishing review considered as minimum support where underground
criteria, excavations are in competent ground (i.e. not affected by
assigning areas of responsibility for carrying out mining induced stress or by ground deterioration) and are
inspections, accessed occasionally.
inspection and monitoring,
carrying out risk analysis and recommending support Class 2. Bolts and mesh
work, A regular bolting pattern and mesh are considered as
installation of additional support to rehabilitate existing minimum support where underground excavations are in
excavations. competent ground (i.e. not affected by mining induced

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 347

stress or by ground deterioration) and are frequently 6 INSPECTION AND MONITORING OF
accessed / used by personnel. SUPPORT PERFORMANCE AND CONDITIONS

Class 3. Bolt, mesh, and shotcrete A regular inspection and monitoring program should be
Bolts, mesh and shotcrete is considered as minimum established, carried out by competent persons and
support where underground excavations are, or are going to conducted for all areas identified in the risk assessment.
be, under high mining induced stress with deteriorating The frequency of inspections should be relative to the risk
ground conditions, and where frequent access is needed. and must take into account changes in ground and
operating conditions. Geotechnical personnel, after the
Class 4. - Cable bolting inspection and consultation with the other team members,
In situations where adverse geological structures are may prepare rehabilitation recommendations on immediate
present or excavation has a large open span, cable bolting support - what is required to make the area safe
may be required. immediately - or on permanent support - what is required to
make the area stable for its expected life.
Class 5. - Other support The information and data should be collected according to
In specific geotechnical and mining conditions e.g. a defined standard. Geotechnical information and data
extraction panels, development using cave-in material or should be collected on rock mass, status of excavation and
backfill, fault zones or water bearing strata, other ground support conditions. The following data should be collected:
support material, elements or techniques might be Rock mass conditions,
recommended. Rock mass classification
Rock mass / pillar status
Class 6. Partially supported or not supported Mode of rock mass failure around excavations
"Restricted entry" Location of failure on the contour of excavations
Underground excavations that are needed but are seldom Size of potentially unstable blocks
entered (e.g. less than once a month) can be classified as Support status
restricted entry. The excavation should be barricaded and a Support conditions
sign "Restricted area, authorized personnel only" should be Type of damage to support
displayed. For such excavations only authorized entry
should be permitted. Additional information should include comments on
geology, future use, and evaluation of the risk of ground
Class 7. Not supported "No entry" deterioration. The review should identify excavations where
Underground excavations that are not used or needed at inadequate support was installed, ground deterioration took
present can be declared as "No Entry areas". The entrance place (e.g. due to stress or weathering) or ground support is
should be barricaded, preferably by a fixed barricade, and a not effective (e.g. due to corrosion).
sign "Danger, do not enter" to be displayed. Such areas are It is expected that inspections should be carried out and
unlikely to require rock support. However, the requirement results recorded for each Ground Control districts. The
for remedial work should be assessed if and when such Ground Control District means a portion of a mine where
areas are reopened. Should the excavation be needed in similar geological and geotechnical conditions exit which
the future, a geotechnical inspection should be carried out give rise to a unique set of identifiable rock mass behaviors
and minimum support requirements be provided. for which a common set of strategies can be employed. All
support activities should be well documented and records
5 CRITERIA FOR MINIMUM GROUND SUPPORT kept of location of the area, date reported, reported by
whom, date inspected and by whom, immediate and
The approved minimum support requirements may vary permanent support recommendations, priority assigned,
depending on size and shape of an excavation, expected when the work was performed and by whom, when
service life (stand up time), usage (often visited or travelled completed and results of the final inspection.
through, storage of material, etc). For all classes of Field observation can be used to identify areas of a mine
minimum ground support, details of pattern and installation that are being consistently over or under-supported, or
procedures should be specified in Support Installation where no technical reasons are being used to install a
Standards. particular type of support.
In adverse geotechnical conditions e.g. weak ground, It is expected that for each existing excavation the
presence of structural features, expected corrosion, or following recommendations should be provided by
mining induced stress, the minimum support standard specifying length of excavations which:
should be reviewed and, if needed, additional support do not require any additional support work
should be recommended and installed. Support require periodical scaling of backs and sidewalls
recommendations have been developed by experience require support with bolts
gained in excavations of underground mines and they take require support with bolts and weld mesh
into account: require support with cable bolts
geotechnical conditions, require permanent support with weld mesh and
exposure level (frequency of use and purpose), shotcreting
size of the excavation, require rehabilitation and permanent support.
service life of the opening
mining induced stress It is expected that substantial length of unused excavation
potential for corrosion can be barricaded, with access either prohibited or
restricted. This should allow for reduction of exposure of
Minimum support requirements must be provided for all underground personnel to the risk of uncontrolled ground
excavations such as: accesses, drives, galleries, crosscuts, movement.
chambers, workshops, magazines, etc. The minimum
support requirements must form part of the Mine Ground
Support Management Plan.

348 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

7 CONCLUSIONS by geotechnical audits. The objective of support review is to
provide mine management with information on the status of
Ground instability in existing mining excavations often ground support and potential remedial work. Where ground
results from deficiency in the quality in ground support stability was affected by deterioration of support or
installed in the past. Additionally both geotechnical and deterioration in ground conditions, or where support does
mining factors could have changed during the life of not comply with current standards, existing excavations
underground excavations. Extended stand up time of should be additionally supported, re-supported or
excavations often results in changes to geotechnical and rehabilitated. Some excavations may need periodical
mining conditions such as reduction in mechanical scaling or barricading off.
properties of the rock mass, deterioration of support due to Quality assurance ensures that ground support
corrosion, and changes to the geometry of existing management conforms to current safety standards and
openings. geotechnical requirements.
Quality assurance in ground support management is
achieved through conforming to requirements provided in 8 REFERENCES
legislation, company documents (such as procedures, rules,
standards, or codes of practice), manufacturers and [1] McCaffrey MA, Paster M, Glasman J. 2002,
suppliers instructions and approved best work practices. Rehabilitation of an abandoned tunnel. Proc NARSM
The ground support control quality system should Tac 2002, Hammah at al. (eds)
comprise geotechnical management (organisational [2] Szwedzicki T, 2002, Quality in Ground Control in New
structure, authorities and responsibilities), documentation Developments, DOZ Mine. PTFI report
(procedures, practices, instructions, and specifications), [3] Szwedzicki T, 2003, Quality assurance in mine ground
operational activities (support installation) and monitoring control management. Int. J. of Rock Mech. A. Min. Sci.
and inspection. Vol 40, pp 564-572
The review of geotechnical support requirements aims at [4] Villaescusa E 1999, The reinforcement process in
improvement in mine safety through increase in stability of underground mining. Proc. Conf. Rock Support and
the rock mass. Areas for support review should be identified Reinforcement Practice in Mining. Villaescusa, Windsor
and an assessment of support requirements should be done and Thompson (eds) Balkema.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 349

 A review of the support systems being
applied to the block 4 cave project of
De Beers Finsch Mine, South Africa
A.D. Wilson, Senior Divisional Geotechnical Engineer, M.S. Talu, Geotechnical Engineer,
De Beers, Finsch Mine

Abstract
The Kimberlite pipe is a near vertical sided elliptical intrusion into highly jointed dolomitic country rocks. The
heterogeneous nature of the various kimberlites, with differing degrees of susceptibility to weathering and the varying
proportions and sizes of country rock xenoliths result in a considerable range of rock strength properties which pose
significant challenges to support design. True joints are difficult to identify within the kimberlites. The main contact and
major internal contacts are sheared with contact parallel jointing and offer minimal cohesion.
Development subsequently showed significant zones of poor competency that were not necessarily well defined by the
drilling information. An entire review of the support strategy for the functional areas in all levels within the kimberlite layout
was undertaken to bring them into line with anticipated risk areas as defined by the reinterpretations and selected
numerical modeling using in situ stress measurements. Empirical and experimental judgment has been cross checked
with quantified laboratory based testing of new support constituents and combinations. The quality assurance system
discussed is a critical aspect to the entire application and covers a wide range of issues from raw material conformance
to installation integrity as well as training and certification of operators.

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE MINING ENVIRONMENT Table 1: Main Finsch Kimberlite Properties.

The Finsch Kimberlite pipe is situated in Lime Acres, Rock Type UCS (MPa) RMR MRMR
approximately 170km west of Kimberley. It is a near vertical
sided elliptical intrusion into the mainly dolomitic sequence F1 46 48 19
of highly jointed country rocks, which dip approximately
F8 49 52 20
three degrees west. It is estimated that at Finsch some
2000m of sediments and basalts have been eroded. F2/F4 106 57 25
The heterogeneous nature of the various kimberlites, the
differing degrees of susceptibility to weathering and the * After Laubscher
varying proportions and sizes of country rock xenoliths
result in a considerable range of rock strength properties as
illustrated in Table 1.
Sub horizontal, weak calcite veining is common in the
tuffaceous kimberlitic breccia (TKB). Two precursor
kimberlites create irregular pipe profiles. The final
emplacement of more competent but narrow hypabyssal
dykes radiate out as a spider from an irregular hypabyssal
core; Figure 2. A common feature of both the main contact
and major internal contacts is the development of a
sheared zone with contact parallel jointing.

Figure 2: Plan showing 610 Level undercut geology and

superimposed geotechnical zoning.

These joints are often infilled with chlorite group minerals,

gypsum or calcite that offers minimal cohesion. Slickensided
surfaces are common and the whole zone is generally
unstable and requires extensive support. If this is not installed
very soon after development, the ensuing weathering and
failure amplifies the problem, further aggravated by the
presence of ground water, which accelerates the degradation.
A comprehensive program to effect dewatering of the
Figure 1: Section of Finsch pipe; mine was initiated fairly late in the pre mining planning

350 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

phases of the block cave and hence significant water To assess the shape conformance of mined tunnels;
problems are being experienced as development is cases of poor or irregular profiles and subsequent tunnel
progressing. damage/degeneration appeared significant in existing
development;
2 HISTORICAL INFORMATION AND The need to regularly monitor and keep under break and
BACKGROUND TO THE REVIEW over break to within tight limits so that costs are minimised
and the equipment will fit as required;
Information for design purposes was historically collected To ensure the tunnel alignments did not vary significantly
from a relatively wide spaced diamond drilling programme which in turn cause problems with (undercut) mining ring
as well as mapping of the upper production areas (above pattern interaction.
530m level) and the lower exploration drilling (680m level). If tunnel profiles are allowed too big, the increase in tunnel
The density of information is relatively poor and reliance size results in an increase in the depth of fracture zone
had been placed on interpretive extrapolation to define an around the tunnel with amplified potential for damage.
inferred resource. During the development of the block Methodology for doing the profiling is simple where a
cave undercut (610m level) and start of extraction (630m manual distance-measuring laser is mounted on a vertical
level) tunnels, it became evident that there are significant turntable such that the latter is centred on line and grade
zones of poor competency that were not necessarily well with a directional laser. Fixed angle points on the turntable
defined by the drilling information. Unfortunately, the allow the operator to produce a distance profile 360 degrees
absence of a photographic record and the weathering of around the pivot. Data points are collated and stored.
stored core prevented a retrospective review of the original
core in order to enhance the current interpretations. Hence,
a review was initiated of the support systems that were
designed on the original information, taking into account
the reality seen from mapping as well as introducing
elements of a more effective tendon and surface fabric
system where appropriate.
The key functional areas of bullnoses, camelbacks, slot
turnouts and wide spans as well as internal and countryrock
contacts are the focus points together with reviewing the
generic tunnel support for undercut and extraction drifts.

3 CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS ESSENTIAL FOR

KIMBERLITE MINING; GETTING THE BASICS RIGHT:

3.1 Tunnel Wall Weathering

Accounting for the problem of weathering, tunnel wall
integrity is a key success factor in underground kimberlite
mining where slow degradation of the entire tunnel surface
is exacerbated in the presence of water and even under
"dry" conditions, degradation continues to occur. The
presence of swelling clays which absorb moisture (smectitic Figure 3: Finsch Tunnel Profiler; Original unit on left,
or montonrillonite clays within the kimberlite) are current on right.
responsible for two intensities of degradation, dependant on
the moisture available (Vietti 2004). A modified unit with an extension arm and prism has been
A range of sprayed sealants have been used with varying designed which allows the taking of profiles in an unsafe
success. Unless the seal is complete and there is a good area. The outputs from this routine system are both
physical bond, the overall effectiveness of the final support graphical and quantified, giving management a quick
system will be left in doubt due to continued progression of assessment of conformance as well as a basis for control.
the weathering front. Deviations are calculated in absolute terms such that
The area which poses the biggest challenge regarding under break sectors do not cancel over break. The reporting
sealing is the footwall and lower corners. This area is the quotes two key results, over break for the tunnel excluding
most difficult to protect because it potentially has the highest and including the footwall. Control of footwall over break
moisture, is the most difficult to effectively clean and requires significant focus because this is not only expensive
weathering here erodes the sidewall integrity. in terms of additional concrete but can be an additional risk
where the exposed deeper sidewalls are not supported and
3.2 Minimise Blast Induced Fracturing the vertical sidewall is extended by up to 1.5m. With much
This contributes to the spread of early weathering in the more emphasis on monitoring tunnel profiles, it was
tunnel walls. Fracturing not only facilitates limited moisture apparent that more control of face holes was needed.
ingress but becomes the focus for failures when the effects
of stress changes take place. The careful control of blasting, 3.4 Kwik-mark
correct choice of explosive and effective timing are therefore The pattern of face development holes as well as
essential prerequisites to limit the annulus of damage directions and depths are critical. The project implemented
around the tunnel. a light-projection tripod mounted system set up on line and
a fixed distance from the face which shows the relative
3.3 Laser Profiler collar locations of holes to be drilled. Different slides are
This system was designed, developed and implemented used for different tunnel sizes. Paint-marks are
for the block cave in a joint effort between the geotechnical superimposed on the focused light spots on the face and
and mining departments in order to quantify the deviations this ensures correct hole spacing for each development
of actual tunnel profile from planned. This customised round in kimberlite; individual holes adjusted manually if
instrument is shown in Figure 3. Motivation for this came less than 150mm from a socket. The impact of introducing
from several key aspects; this system has been significant in that there has been a

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 351

marked improvement in conformance to planned tunnel The lower 2m of the sidewalls were then sprayed with a
shape. cover of shotcrete to prevent damage to the support by the
The revised integrated secondary support system trackless equipment as well as preventing tyre damage.
consists of components that are interactive and the success
of the system depends therefore on correct installation and 5 PROBLEMS SEEN AND FORECAST
the quality assurance of the development profile. WITH THE ORIGINAL SYSTEM
Furthermore the effectiveness of the support systems can
be directly related to installation timing of the components. There were numerous cases where hangingwall and
some sidewall failures would cause poor tunnel profiles; the
4 ORIGINAL DEVELOPMENT WITH SUPPORT; rock would collapse between the bolts before secondary
METHODS AND OUTCOMES. support was installed. This, together with information from
the radial drilling undertaken after the support was
Both undercut (610m) and extraction (630m) levels were completed, suggested that there was an unacceptably wide
originally scheduled to have the same basic support system. annulus of potentially unstable rock developing around the
It was recognised that, in view of the issues of time- tunnels which in turn would severely compromise the
dependant weathering as well as poor rock conditions, the support and lead to premature failure. The zone of open
support cycles needed to be split into two distinct phases: joints/cracks extends some 800mm or more as an annulus
around the tunnel as observed by borehole camera.
Primary Support;
2.6m long (2.4 metre hole), 20mm diameter threaded bars 5.1 The key elements of concern were:
drilled by mechanised bolter on a 1m by 1m square pattern the propagation of weathering and degradation would
and installed by pneumatic placing of resin cartridges shot lead to rapid debonding of the rockbolts when abutment
into the hole. Fast setting used first (at the end of the hole) loads begin; highlighted by experiences from other
followed by slow set. The bolt then spun and torqued up operations;
against the fast set resin to bring a domed washer tight worse than expected ground conditions giving lower RMR
against the rock surface. and MRMR (Laubscher) detail not catered for in the
There were significant problems with the matching of support design;
resin set times against spinning times as well as maintaining the effective length of rockbolts themselves were in
a machine lag to allow sufficient grout strength build-up for question because they were constrained to fit machine
torquing up the nut. Numerous cases were seen where bolts capability and not necessarily based on geotechnical
had ineffective grout and were essentially loose in the hole design;
because there had been over-spinning as well as all the thin dry shotcrete layer applied as a liner before the
cartridges being fast-set. Bolt holes were drilled with 38 to mesh and straps had very limited support strength
42mm bits whereas only 32mm should have been used with because of its limited thickness, inherently dubious
20mm threadbar to ensure optimum grout shear strength is quality and insecure adhesion to the questionable
achieved. An unacceptably high failure rate of up to 18% of sealant;
bolt pull-tests (only taken to 70kN not +200kN being UTS of the support resistance of the surface steel fabric support
bolt), confirmed that this system could not be tolerated. was considered minimal; the limited mesh capacity, high
The liquid sealant (theoretically no free water), was elongation potential as well as the poor orientation of
sprayed to the tunnel walls in preparation of shotcrete. Due surface interbolt tendon would have little restraining effect
to excessive dust build-up from the time lag between blast under loading conditions.
and spray, the sealant often was ineffective and peeled Cycle lags in the development and support construction
away from the substrate. Where the sealant contact was promoted instability; there was too big an interval between
good, there were numerous reported cases of spitting off of face blast and critical reinforcing support components; the
small pieces of the kimberlite tunnel within the 1-2 hours result of which was questionable tunnel stability for its
needed for drying. This was evidence that there was designed life.
sufficient free water to be drawn into and along the blast Ensuring tunnel and infrastructure fitness-for-use; interpretive
fractures/xenolith contacts where weathering was initiated. review of the tunnel life-cycle needs indicated areas where
The popping off of small fragments being the result of special support would be required to ensure stability;
swelling pressures developed which have been recorded up
to 30MPa (Vietti 2004). Current observations of the original support system
installed more than three years ago on both 610 and 630m
Secondary Support; levels confirms its limitations even prior to undercutting;
25mm layer of dry shotcrete stiff surface lining applied there are areas requiring repairs or upgrade because the
from footwall to footwall. drycrete and mesh have effectively failed.
It was evident that the tunnel profiles were poor in many
cases from material needing barring/failing off the 6 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
hangingwalls; the shotcrete layer breaking up into a mosaic OF THE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
of fractures which resulted in the fragments being retained
by the mesh. A significant logistics problem was developing The tunnel support methodologies used in Block 4 review
in that the required rates of application were not being met were based on:
nor was there good control of product quality. RMR/MRMR distribution from mapping;
2.6m long (2.4 metre hole), 20mm diameter threaded bars Analytical and numerical calculations /modeling
drilled by hand on a 1m by 1m pattern and grouted by assessments and interpretations;
injection of water based Capram grout through a plunger Previous experience; visiting other operations
activated pressure vessel. The distance lag from the face to Beside the above methodologies the following parameters
secondary bolts plus surface fabric could be anything up to were also considered;
30m+. Strategic importance of the excavation; the pipe footprint
100mm x100mm x 3.15mm diamond mesh was then held was broken into three main support-variant areas;
in place and augmented by vertical tendon straps on 1m generic, high risk and contact (kimberlite/dolomite contact
spacing; the mesh and straps footwall to footwall. area) support;

352 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The virgin/anticipated stress regime; the secondary support cycle, together with the remaining
The practicability of support system installation; sidewall tendons.
Infrastructure impact; Steel fabric layer of mesh; either 4 mm or 5 mm diamond
Actual performance and specifications of support or 9 mm woven according to the
elements to meet requirements; support system. Either a full ring of horizontal tendon
Understanding/predicting the mode of failure; straps or twin cable straps will be installed with 8mm or 12-
Following a zero tolerance to free water addition to the 16mm thick custom washers respectively on the primary
kimberlite in all areas. bolts and on top of the primary flat washer and nut. The
spherical seat nuts will be torqued up such that the mesh
6.1 Key criteria now being followed: and straps are pulled to the shotcrete surface.
Primary Support: A thick layer of shotcrete (+/-150mm) on each side wall
Better sealant ensuring 2-pass, 100% coverage; applied from 0.6 m above the grade elevation to the footwall to
before 12 hours after the blast and ready for the next layer ensure the steel is covered and protected.
( Fibrecrete) after 1 hour.
Primary fibrecrete 50mm thick of 40Mpa UCS, +700joules 6.2 Support resistance enhanced
applied in order to ensure a better initial lining to support the The integrated support elements have been chosen to
+800mm annulus of broken ground; applied after every limit deformation and economically maintain tunnel stability.
round. The objective is to provide immediate skin support Using the contributory area principle, the support capacities
and to ensure safe working conditions in the face area. The of the various systems for the undercut 610m level are
required properties for the face fibrecrete application are represented in Figure 5 and the extraction 630m level in
high final strength and ductility with low permeability. High Figure 6. The capacities have been split into those acting in
ductility and low stiffness is achieved with a mix design of the plane of the surface fabric and that applied by the
low to moderate cement content and high polypropylene rockbolts and/or cable anchors holding the fabric in place.
fibre content. There are effectively three surface layers contributing to
Drilling of support holes can begin two hours after the aerial fabric:
application and face blasting after eight hours. Only the Fibrecrete/shotcrete
bolts on the hangingwall and upper sidewalls are installed Steel mesh
as primary rockbolt support. This prevents blasting and LHD Steel surface tendons
loading damage to bolts within 2m from the floor. The last
row of holes must be within minimum 1.0m of the rock face The aerial elements are shown on the left whilst the depth
before blasting and not exceeding 3.8 m thereafter. of effective tendon anchorage is represented towards the
Primary rockbolts (3.6m hole instead of 2.4m) installed right of the x axis in Figures 5 and 6. It was clear that the
with latex-based cementitious grout and flat washer with flat original surface fabric capacities of 3.15mm mesh and
nut. The primary washer and nut assist in enabling a longer vertical tendon straps were very low. The revised designs
distance lag to application of secondary (surface have significantly enhanced capacities, especially of the
reinforcing) support. This, in turn, enables a more efficient steel mesh fabric and surface tendons.
cycle. Rockbolt effective length has been determined by
interpreting Laubschers (2000) guidelines as well as
assessing that there will be a significant proportion of high
stress affecting the tunnels during the abutment front
moving over the development; Figure 4. The range of
MRMR within Finsch kimberlite is considered to be from 19
to 25.

Figure 5: Undercut level; comparative support resistance;

original versus current systems.

The increased capacity elements have been applied to

higher risk environments such as the bullnoses and contact
areas to match requirements.
Figure 4: Effective rockbolt length chosen
6.3 New elements added; figures 7 and 8
Secondary Support: Larger diameter wire mesh; 4mm as generic and 5mm in
This is not brought closer than 3.0m to the face (fly-rock the high risk areas of the undercut and hangingwall of
damage) and not further than 15m for 610 and 650m levels extraction level;
and 20 meters from the existing face position on 630m Woven wire panels; 3.5m x 2.2m of 9mm, 150 x 200mm
levels. aperture used in the highest risk areas on extraction level
The full drilling pattern is now completed floor to floor and as well as all the contact zones (Kimberlite/Dolomite) with
requisite bolts installed. Where applicable, the drilling and the country rock. These panels enable a significant
installation of hangingwall cable anchors should be part of support resistance shared by numerous tendons;

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 353

Figure 6: Extraction level; comparative support resistance;
original versus current systems. Figure 8: Schematic of Cable connectors

Figure 9: Bullnose reinforcement (Plan view)

Figure 7: Woven mesh, cable straps Cable U-staples; essentially a 9m cable; two by 4m fully
latex grouted legs of 18mm anchor with 1m between them
running horizontally on surface (Wilson 2000). These are
low-profile rock reinforcing / confining units used in
upgrading of areas as well as in floor reinforcing where
Cable straps; twin high yield dyeform 18mm cables in 7m specified.
joined lengths; used to secure the woven or 5mm mesh in
place. These focus the high support resistance and
distributes it between adjacent tendons along the strap; 7 ONGOING R&D TESTWORK
Custom guide washers; 200mm x 200mm used to secure
the cable straps in place; 16mm thick if used with cable Customised testwork continues on the various steel fabric
bolts or 12mm thick if using 25mm threadbolts; designed and strap configurations in order to further optimise the
such that they will deform and let the cablestraps through systems, obtain verification of design data and reduce costs
before the bolt fails. where possible.
4-way cable connectors; used to join two consecutive
cable straps; 8 QUALITY ASSURANCE
3-way cable connectors; used as terminators for cable
straps; the single cable is grouted into the rock as an end 8.1 Raw material conformance
anchor at either end of a cable strap; A comprehensive system has been embedded which
Through the pillar cables; these are drilled and latex ensures consumable items meet required design criteria
grouted in prior to the drawpoint takeoff; the last (extra) and are supplied to a quality assurance procedure which
1m of cable being protected by PVC. When the takeoff is incorporates the following;
mined, the protruding cable end is stripped of cover and Specification defined and prior approval by the
used to secure the steel panel and retaining cable straps; geotechnical department on all support consumable
Figure 9. items; risk assessments produced;
Latex pumpable grout; this has a lower strength than plain nspections of supplier premises to assess capabilities
cementitious or resin but has the benefit of being and expertise;
pumpable to ensure filling the longer holes without Review of manufacturers own QA systems and pre
initiating deterioration of the rock grout interface. delivery checks;

354 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Delivery of certified batch quality results together with 8.3 Calibration and fitness- for- use
products to the Mine confirming tested chemical content All ancillary equipment used for direct installation or
and /or physical properties; testing of support elements are required to be calibrated
Cross-check sampling and relevant testing of end-product and declared acceptable for the needed process.
by appropriately accredited facilities using industry
standard or custom designed equipment; adjudication of 8.4 Training and certification of operators
results; Emphasis has been placed on ensuring suppliers and
Accumulation of statistical database. vendors assist with risk assessments and give relevant
operational training to the mine resourced and/or contractor
crews that will perform the installations. Operators of key
8.2 Installation integrity equipment are required to be certified to ensure consistency
Significant input from the Geotechnical Engineering of quality. Due to the relative mobility of contractor crews, it
Department staff as well as reinforcement from the mining is essential to have hand-over and training of new staff.
clerks of works ensure that the contractor crews install the
various phases of support in the correct timing, sequence ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and configurations such that the overall output product
meets the design objectives set. All support systems have The authors thank Management of Finsch Mine for
been incorporated into a comprehensive procedures permission to publish this paper and Alan Guest, the
document wherein all prescribed quality checks and General Manager-Geotechnical for advice and
frequencies are covered. A systematic routine checklist of encouragement.
visual inspections and random physical testing is
undertaken throughout all development and support areas REFERENCES
where critical issues are checked against the procedures
and addressed. This, together with results from tunnel Laubscher, D.H. 2000. Block caving Manual. Prepared for
profiling incorporated into daily short-interval control. International Caving Study, JKMRC and Itasca Consulting
Installations must meet the prescribed standards for Group, Inc: Brisbane.
Contractor payments to be effected: Vietti, A. 2004. Tunnel wall weathering in kimberlite.
Effective sealant cover on the kimberlite to limit Internal Technical Memorandum, DeBeers, South Africa.
weathering; check for shadow/peeling; Wilson, A.D. 2000. The past focuses support for the
Shotcrete thickness and quality (raw materials, mix flow, future. Proceedings MasMin2000, Brisbane, (Ed G
applied compaction, compressive strength, energy Chitombo), 385-394. Australasian Institute of Mining and
absorption). Metallurgy: Melbourne.
Correct bolt diameters and fittings;
Quality of grout installation;
Bolt spacing, hole depth and attitude;
Bolt pull-tests to check grouting;
Quality of support holes marking;
Effective installation of secondary steel fabric units such
as mesh, straps, staples and special units such as stiff-
brow arch supports and railmats.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 355

 Innovative mining method, related
support systems and quality assurance
for large underground crusher
excavation De Beers
Finsch Mine, South Africa
M. S. Talu, Geotechnical Engineer Block 4 Project, A. D. Wilson, Senior Divisional Geotechnical Engineer
Finsch Mine - De Beers

Abstract
The crusher chamber excavation is situated in a relatively competent but jointed dolomitic rock mass between 615 - 650m
levels. The overall excavation is approximately 16000 cubic metres, being 78m long, 10m wide and 38m high.
For this moderately stressed excavation, the support design strategy is based on numerical modelling and the concept
of anchoring the potential unstable rock layers around the excavation to the deeper, more competent, stable rock mass.
Mining was undertaken in two main phases; hand held drilling for the multiple top cuts and bottom access and a final
central long hole drill and smooth-walled blasted area.
The innovative vertical long hole drilling method in top-down slices was chosen for the central area and encompassed
an offset raise and central slot. All work was carried out in safety standing on the cleaned floor or full slot; equipment
and consumables being distributed into the excavation via mobile crane. A close cycle is described of progressively
mining the chamber to full width with primary tendon support, mesh and lacing and required tensioned secondary long
cable anchors followed by protective shotcrete cover.

1 INTRODUCTION
Table 1 Main Joint Sets
Finsch Mine is located in the Northern Cape Province of
JOINT DIP DIP GENERAL
South Africa about 660 km South East of Johannesburg.
SET DIRECTION SPACING (m)
The crusher chamber development commenced in early
2001. The chamber development took over 15000 man J 87 168 0.38
hours in a three year period to complete .The crusher is
located between 630 and 650 level close to the shaft J 84 82 0.25
system. J 23 269 0.33
A conveyor belt tunnel below 650 level connects the
crusher bottom to the main conveyor system at 650 level.
The overall excavation is approximately 78m long, 10m
wide and 38m high. The crusher system has a capacity of
1200 tons per hour and involves underground excavation of
16 000 cubic meters. The ore will be conveyed from the pipe
to the crusher system by means of trucks. Once the ore is
crushed, it will report to the conveyor system at 65 level.

2 GEOLOGY OF CRUSHER CHAMBER

Brecciated dolomite, and to a lesser extent, secondary

banded dolomite, dominate the geology of the Crusher
Chamber excavation.
From the scan lines that were completed in the
surrounding vicinity, it was evident that the secondary
banded dolomite only dominates the upper reaches of the
area. The poorly developed horizontal bedding planes in the
banded dolomite together with three major near-vertical joint
sets create discrete blocks; Table 1.
The central portion of the chamber consists of the usual
brecciated dolomite, while the lower reaches of the chamber Figure 1 Schematic 3D Crusher Chamber Layout
is once again composed of a well defined, thinner banded
dolomite. This rock type extends right down to the footwall
of the crusher chamber. Thin shale/graphite partings are strength (UCS) of 245 MPa, however, the rock mass
common and locally significantly affect excavation wall strength is significantly lower due to the presence of the
stability. This rock has a typical unconfined compressive weak partings.

356 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 2: Insitu Principal Stresses Table 3 Properties of Intact Rock

Principal Stresses Bearing Dip MPa Rock Brecciated Banded

Parameters Dolomite Dolomite
s1 164 24 30
RQD (%) 43 62
s2 307 60 20
UCS (MPa) 162 189 to 257
s3 67 16 16
Fracture Frequency 11 9
E (GPa)101 106
Poisons Ratio 0.26 0.3
Q (Barton) 13 31
RMR (Laubschers) 53 (Fair) 78 (Good Rock)

occasionally persistent calcite filled veins, which were

observed in the crusher vicinity.
Using the Unwedge analysis, a potential unstable block
was predicted, having a volume of 6.5m and a weight of
17.8 tons in the sidewall.
The observations in the ventilation and service tunnels
showed that up to 2m of highly fractured zone was observed
along the tunnel walls.

5 PROPOSED METHOD OF
MINING THE CRUSHER CHAMBER

After various methods were examined with safety and

speed being the major consideration, two feasible long-hole
methods of extraction of the crusher chamber were
Figure 2: The photograph illustrates the presence of identified. The most important factor considered was the
brecciated-banded dolomite overlain by a 1.5m thick section sequencing of mining with the installation of secondary
of the banded dolomite leading into the hanging wall support depending on the height being dealt with.
The delay in support installation that would have been
caused by the proposed "Bottom to Top-Long hole" mining
The stress orientations and magnitudes computed from method was a concern. The timing of support installation in
the successful CSIR triaxial test data yields the results given the crusher chamber was important and should be
in Table 2. compatible with the response of the rock mass on
unloading, the so-called "ground reaction curve". Therefore
3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND METHODS more conservative Top to bottom method mining sequence
was adopted to reduce the support installation risk.
In addition to general engineering geological evaluations, The difference between the two methods was the mining
the rock excavation and reinforcement design had to be of Section A, Figure 3 which is that portion of the chamber
supported by a rock mass classification and numerical in which the Gyratory crusher will be installed. Dimensions
analysis. of this section; 35m long, 10m wide and 18m high.
Joint survey investigations were executed on several The top cut of the chamber was planed to be mined in
occasions after the hangingwall cuts were excavated. Joint three separate cuts: an initial hangingwall cut, and two top
length, dip and strike were measured; data for geological cuts 5m high each. Once the chamber hangingwall cut was
conditions such as rock mass classification, joint filling and completed to its final dimensions and was passed by the
seepage were investigated and described on the Survey department, it was wire meshed and shotcreted as
observation sheet. Simultaneously, photographs of the per design. The long anchors were installed during the
sidewall were taken and used as an input data for rock mass enlargement of the development end. Secondary support
classification. work started as a follow-on operation after mining of cut is
Both the Dolomites were assigned a weathering completed to the final dimensions within the chamber
adjustment of 92%. Due to the geometry, orientation and walls.
stresses experienced in the Crusher Chamber an A concern was that the mesh and lace would sustain blast
adjustment of 95% was assigned. During the excavating of damage from blasting of other cuts. Therefore, spraying of
benches and cuts, detailed records were kept of the rock wetcrete was used to protect the mesh and lacing on the
conditions encountered. Rock mass quality based on both excavation walls. The first three top cuts were driven by
Q-Method, Barton (1974) and Laubschers Rock mass means of conventional drilling techniques using air legs
Classification systems (1990) was calculated separately as from a platform constructed after each blast. Delays were
fair to good rock. The RMR value varied between 53 to 78. experienced with the support installation due to hand held
The shift towards poorer Q value may be partly explained drilling in the early stage of the contract and hence the
due to effect of fault plane and presence of Brecciated contractor developed cuts two and three simultaneously as
dolomite. one cut. This however required a large platform.
The vertical blasting holes for Section A were to be
4 LABORATORY TEST RESULTS predrilled and then blasted in 3m lifts. Each bench blasting
cleaning and supporting took approximately three weeks
The intersection of the three joint planes shown in Table 1 before the next lift was blasted. The apparent advantage of
has been expected to cause possible wedge failure to occur the Long Hole Drilling and blasting method when compared
at the hanging wall. The other significant feature was the with Conventional Benching layout included:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 357

 Optimal Mining method with efficient drilling 5.2 DROP RAISE DRILLING
Well defined chamber sidewall limits The total depth of the raise was 15.6m. The planned
Reduced Chamber completion date length was 2.4m and the width 2.4m. A total of 20 blast holes
Reduction in support damage due to blasting. of 64mm diameter were drilled to a standard raise pattern
Optimum sequencing of mining and secondary support developed by Boart Longyear. Six stabs were reamed to
installation. 159mm. The raise was positioned 3.0m away from the edge
of the western perimeter of the chamber.
The delay in support installation caused by the proposed
long hole mining was reduced significantly by changing the
mining sequence. As suggested by the mine, the "shaft" part
of the crusher chamber (section A), was excavated in
benches and supported first, prior to mining the rest of the
chamber. This did not only reduce the time delay between
mining and support installation, but also reduced the
relaxation of the rock mass before support installation.

Figure 4 Raise excavation

The blasting of the raise was done in lifts from bottom to

Figure 3 shows a section of different stages from top top in four blasts as per drop raise fashion. The height of the
elevation down to the final conveyor elevation. each lift was varying from 3.6m to 4m. Due to the nature of
this excavation, 9.85kg of Magnum /m_ of explosive were
This excavation was subject to strict dimension tolerance consumed. AEL cortex and smartdets were used in blasting.
of +300 mm within the 10 m width. Once the raise has holed at 630 Level, a chain-mesh
barricade were erected around the open hole, and people
5.1 Long Hole Drilling and Blasting working in the vicinity of the open hole were wearing a full
Method (From Top to Bottom): body harness at all times.
Drilling was done by means of Boart Longyear BCI 2
Pneumatic Drill Rig using steel and extension rods with 5.3 SLOT DRILLING
64mm crossbit. The drilling, charging and blasting were The slot was to serve as an ore-pass to channel blasted
done by a team of two Drill Rig Operators, three Blasters. It rock to 650 Level, where it can be lashed for the slot to be
took 40 days to complete approximately 450 holes at open again for the next blast.
varying spacing burden. The depth of the holes varied from
15.1m to 18.6m. All drilling was done from the top at 630m
level. The entire footwall was blown over, swept and
inspected for any misfires after each bench blast. Surveyed
grade lines were installed to maintain an even floor level.
Surveyed Corner markers were also installed to maintain
correct dimensions.

Table 4 Total amount of vertical long holes drilled

NUMBER OF HOLES DRILLED

SLOT 104
PERIMETER 174
INSIDE 152
Figure 5: Slot blasting sections
RAISE 20
The planned length of the slot was 25.38m long and
To ensure a smooth sidewall of the complete 2.8m wide and 15.64m long at the deepest section. For
excavation, it was required to drill around the wall blasting purposes the slot was divided into eight sections,
perimeter at 0.5 m spacing to the indicated depths. A namely S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8. The sequence of
second row of 1m spacing and 1m burden from the wall blasting was S2 S4 S6 S1 S3 S5 S7 S8 as
perimeter holes was required around the complete per Figure 5. The increase in slot section was done to
excavation. The work in the chamber was divided in to ensure the creation of a sufficient void for the next section
three separate parts: to break into. A powder factor of 4.67 kg/m was used for
Drop raise excavation slot development. The slot was completely filled with
Slot excavation broken rock when people were working in the chamber.
Benching. Only when the next cut was charged up and ready to be

358 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

blasted, the broken rock in the slot area was mucked out 9.1 Cable Tendons
to create a void for the blast. During the slot blasting the In medium to good quality hard rock, full column grouted
width of slot was increased to almost 4m. Consequently mechanical cable tendons are very efficient and are both
severe blasting fracturing to the surface of the bench was fast and convenient to install. A 38 ton capacity cable tendon
observed. is a high tensile steel rope 18mm in diameter that consist of
seven strands and has a uniaxial tensile strength of 394Kn.
5.4 BENCH DRILLING It was installed in a 38-45mm drilled hole. The mechanical
The burden of the grid holes was 1.3m with spacing of cable tendons were anchored by means of an expansion
1.0m. The burden was reduced to 1.0 m at the eastern and shell assembly situated at the end of the cable and is
western sections of the bench. The spacing of the perimeter tensioned to 18 tons with a Stressojack. A pumpable
holes was 0.5m and the burden and spacing of the cementious grout was pumped in to the support hole after
perimeter easers was 1.0m by 1.0m. The powder factor was the cable was pre tensioned to minimum 18 tons. Collar to
1.56 kg/m for the bench blasting. Hole accuracy was toe grouting method with a breather system was used.
perfected by utilising a straight trac bit, guide tubes and Three different support tendon types were installed in the
fluted guide rods. It was expected that actual deformation in chamber hangingwall and sidewall:
the sidewalls of the crusher chamber would not be A 13mm diameter 3m long cable sling fully grouted on a
excessive due to the broken rock left inside the excavation 1m by 2m grid containing 13mm lacing rope holding back
providing some temporary support. This was followed by 4mm mesh;
permanent support including pre-tensioned cable bolts 6.5m long 18mm diameter cable bolts installed 2m by 2m
installation. grid;
Lastly a pattern of 10m long 22mm in diameter full column
6 EXPLOSIVES AND INITIATING SYSTEMS grouted 50 ton cable bolts at 5m diamond pattern was
installed on the chamber; all cablebolts pretensioned to
All Drop Raise, Slot and Bench blasting required AEL 18 tons. The different length of the cable was chosen to
Pumpable emulsion or Magnum water cartridges, initiated by ensure that they are anchored well beyond the
means of Smartdet electronic detonators to obtain milli- boundaries of the predicted wedge boundaries.
second timing and an EDD pentolite booster 175g. Smooth
wall blasting was achieved by means of de-coupled cartridge The reason for the full column grout was:
explosives (32mm x 560mm) spaced at 1.2m intervals to give It will bond the cable to the rock making the cable an
a powder factor of 0.5 kg/m , and was doubled with Cordtex integral part of rock mass.
40. Most of the perimeter holes were surveyed individually to It protects the cable against corrosion.
ensure hole set-up accuracy using a smart laser with 0.05
degree precision. Survey department checked all drilled A total of 3580 each 3m long, 1300 each 6.5 m long and
perimeter holes, using an optical plumb and sighting down the 162 each 10m long cable tendons were installed in the
hole to a small "mag light". Their results were tabulated and crusher chamber. This equates a total of 19.8km of drilling
circulated to all concerned. achieved in the chamber itself. Approximately 6200m
mesh-lace was installed during the supporting of the
7 CLEANING excavation walls. 620m of wetcrete material was also
sprayed in the chamber hangingwall and the sidewalls. A
Cleaning was achieved by a 75 Hp winch bolted on the total of 144 long anchors failed during the tensioning stage
embankment on the western side of the chamber with and replaced during the excavating period. From
200mm snatchblocks used to rig the ropes down the observations it was evident that the failures of the wedge
excavation and direct the scrapers to the required area of system were due to varying hole diameter; bit sizes critical.
cleaning.
9.2 Shotcreting
8 MATERIAL HANDLING Reinforced shotcrete has very good load bearing capacity
even at small deformation. It also spreads the load imposed
A mobile crane was utilised on the west embankment by individual blocks and improves the connection to the
next to the winch. Approved cassettes with welded latches holding elements. Corrosion can adversely affect the
and the required rigging arrangements were used to lower integrity of support in long life service excavations especially
and raise material and equipment into the shaft area. A in corrosive environments such as near ground water
custom designed ladder way was installed in the south intersection. Therefore 100mm wet shotcrete was sprayed
side of the chamber and served as the travelling way up to cover wire mesh and lacing on the chamber walls due to
and down the shaft area. It was suspended from the presence of corrosive ground water environment.
sidewall and extended on a regular basis. The Service
tunnel on the south side of the chamber as well as the The design criteria for the shotcrete:
ventilation tunnel on the north side was designated as a Cube strength of 30 MPa+
second escape way. Capable of being sprayed in wet conditions
A force exhaust system was suspended down the side Cover the steel reinforcement completely and penetrate in
walls ensure proper ventilation in the lower parts of the to the diamond mesh.
excavation. Specific attention was given to training, and to quality
9 METHODOLOGY OF ROCK SUPPORT control assurance and quality control. Only fully trained
personnel were allowed to spray shotcrete in the
Wedge type of failure, peeling of excavation skin or chamber. Cube samples for quality control were taken to
unravelling due to the removal of keyblocks are the most ensure the shotcrete strength would be prepared with
dominant failure modes expected in this stress environment. every shift.
The control of these keyblock-related failures is normally
achieved by stabilizing the excavation walls at small 9.3 MESH AND LACING
displacement. Experience in South African mining Industry 4mm diameter wire mesh and 13mm diameter lacing were
show that cable tendons perform better than solid bars installed in the Chamber walls to hold unstable small
under shearing conditions. keyblocks in place, retain any loose or fractured rock and

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 359

hold both the retaining support elements and the fractured to be unaffected by mining activity. Mohr Coulomb failure
rock back to more stable ground. criterion was used for the stability analysis on the
chamber.
A typical RMR of 58 was estimated using the 1976 version
Table 5: Mesh and Lace strength
of Bieniawskis RMR. Recent laboratory uniaxial
compressive strengths on dolomite from cores show values
Support Unit Yield (Tons/m ) Yield (kN)
ranging from 160 to 250 MPa. To be conservative, the lower
4mm Diameter Woven mesh strength was used in conjunction with RMR to estimate in-
( 400-550 MPa) 12.8 125 situ rock mass properties for modelling purposes. Model
properties are listed below.
13 mmDiameter 9 strand lace 11.3 111
Density = 2850 kg/m3
Poissons ratio = 0.26
10 VENTILATION / SERVICE TUNNELS Bulk Modulus = 52 GPa
Shear Modulus = 28 GPa
Ventilation and service tunnels were supported with Cohesion = 0.47 MPa
20mm diameter, 2.6m long fully grouted threaded bars at Tensile strength = 3 MPa
one metre spacing. Straps were also installed and 100mm Friction angle = 51
Wetcrete was sprayed at the holing positions to the crusher Dilation angle = 25
chamber.

11 SUPPORT ELEMENT DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

The following table lists and describes the performance of

the cable bolts to be used in crusher chamber.

Table 6: Cable Tendon Characteristics

Element Initial Breaking

Stiffness (kN) Force (kN)

3m long 13mm
diameter cable with Loop 150 160
6.5m Mechanical
Anchor Long Bail 38 tons
18mm Diameter 360 394
Figure 4 Vertical section through the crusher excavation
10.5m long 22mm along the chamber, showing stress concentrations
diameter 50 ton
Mechanical Anchor
(Surelock system) 450 510 The models indicate a number of key points.
Peak stress concentrations exceeding 65 MPa occur
in the sidewall of the main crusher chamber. The
12 DEPTH OF FRACTURING support of brows in tensile stress regime was treated
with special attention. The brows were supported
In an excavation of rectangular shape, the highest stress with 7m long, 18mm diameter twin cable straps and
concentration occurs in the corners where the stresses are 10mm diameter tendon straps at maximum 2m
tangentially oriented. The banded dolomite in which the crusher spacing.
was excavated has bedding planes. The vertical fractures A deformation of the crusher chamber walls was expected
extended to the bedding planes where they initially terminated. to be minor. Maximum estimated values were in the order
If the field stress increases further, the vertical slabs buckle into of 12mm.
the excavation, and the fracture zone migrates further into the Plastic zone extends more than 4m in the sidewalls and to
rock mass. The thickness of the highly fractured zone in the a maximum depth of 2m in the hangingwall.
ventilation and service has been observed to extend up to two Tensile stress concentrations appeared at the brows in
meters during the excavation stage. the order of 2 MPa. Stress concentration along the top
and base of the excavation is in the region of 35 to 45
13 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS MPa. Stress distribution around the sides of the
excavation appeared to be uniformly distributed between
13.1 Model Parameters 5 MPa (Tensile) and 10 MPa.
Using the in-situ stress gradients applied in Flac With the strength properties used, rock failure around the
modelling analyses, the vertical and horizontal field stress excavation is almost entirely in shear.
components at the 63 level elevation in the vicinity of the
shafts are expected to be as follows: 14 SELECTION OF SITE FOR CRUSHER

Vertical stress, v = 21.4 MPa The Crusher was aligned to ensure that the strike of
Horizontal stress on x direction, h = 27.3 MPa major geological features is normal to the longitudinal
Horizontal stress on y direction, h = 17.7 MPa axis of the excavation so that formation of unstable
wedges is minimal. However the long axis of the crusher
These values were applied in the model. The crusher was not kept parallel to the maximum horizontal principle
positions are sufficiently distant from the kimberlite pipe stress.

360 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

15 MONITORING 16 SUPPORT REQUIREMENT CALCULATION

To ensure that any support system is effective, the The support resistance is calculated by the tributary area
timeous installation and quality of support must be diagram and the load deformation curve of the support unit.
guaranteed. The Geotechnical department made regular When 18mm diameter cable tendons are spaced 2m apart,
visual checks of the installation and pull testing. the excavation wall support would provide a static
To ensure the quality installation of the long anchors, the resistance of 68.8 kN/ m . This would be sufficient to carry
following was put in place: the dead weight of about 1.3m thickness of excavation wall
Plan of Crusher Chamber showing all anchor positions with a safety factor of two. It was assumed that there would
with numbers identifying each anchor. be a constant support resistance contribution of installed
Activities on anchors was recorded daily and kept in the tendons, irrespective of tunnel wall deformation.
"Crusher Chamber Anchor Installation Register".
No anchors were allowed to be cut under any 17 VIBRATION MONITORING AT FINSCH MINE
circumstances without Geotechnical Sections approval.
Daily control sheet with specific actions and dates were The concern was the negative impact of the ground
completed by Contractor official. vibration induced by the chamber blasting approximately
85m from the existing shaft system. A comprehensive trial
During and after the Chamber excavation period, a clearly indicated that the blast was at least two magnitudes
number of functions were to be monitored to verify the below the maximum recommended parameters.
design. Several rod extensometers were installed on the
crusher chamber hangingwall and sidewalls to monitor the 18 CONCLUSION
overall behaviour of the excavation during the operation.
The extensometers are rod type with length varying A comprehensive support design was installed at the
between 60cm to 6m. correct timing and with requisite quality assurance in a safe
Measurements at each step made over a period of more mining method which limited the rock deformation. The
than a year. Maximum sidewall deformation was recorded at chamber was successfully excavated without any major
1.9mm. Monitoring of sidewall deformation showed small incidents.
values and confirmed the initial design.
The underground monitoring program took the form of a ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
weekly audit on the crusher chamber. Geotechnical
department investigated problems arising from audits The authors thank Management of Finsch Mine for
immediately. permission to publish this paper and Mr. Alan Guest, the
General Manager-Geotechnical for advice and
encouragement. The authors would also like to express
Table 7: Summary of the modelling
their gratitude to Messers TNC and Dave Marsh of Boart
displacement versus the measured displacement
Longyear for their valuable discussions, advice and
Steps Differential Calculated Measured assistance. The contribution by Mr. David Bailey and Mr.
Displacement Displacement Hendrick Grobler, Geotechnical Engineers are greatly
between the steps (mm) acknowledged.
(mm)
REFERENCES
Hangingwall cut 0 N/M
Slot 0.5 N/M Anon. 2002.Discussions on Crusher Chamber Excavation
Bench cut 1-4 1.2 1.8 Method
Barton, N; Lien, R and Lunde, J, 1974. Engineering
Completed excavation 3 1.9 classification of rock masses for design of tunnel support.
Rock Mech, 6(4): 189-236.
* N/M not measured Laubscher, D H ,1990. A geomechanics classification
system for the rating of rock mass in mine design. J S Afr
Inst Min Metall, 90(10): 257-273.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 361

362 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
Chapter 9
Blasting
364 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Modelling fragmentation in
underground production blasting
Italo Onederra, Senior Project Engineer, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC),
University of Queensland, Australia

Abstract
This paper presents a fragmentation modelling framework for underground production blasting applications. The
approach allows for the prediction of the full size distribution of fragments expected to report to drawpoints (i.e. fines
through to oversize) from knowledge of drilling and charging configurations and rock mass characteristics. The framework
applies existing as well as newly developed mechanistic and empirical breakage models. An important feature of the
proposed approach is the ability to model single ring and multiple ring blasting conditions, incorporating stochastic
techniques to simulate the impact of operational factors such as drilling and charging quality on fragmentation. The
proposed model is described in this paper and its application demonstrated with two case studies, one on block cave
undercutting and the other on sub level caving blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION number of arguments that justify the development of a new

methodology, including for example that,
In metalliferous mining, the breakage and fragmentation The vast majority of accessible empirical and mechanistic
of the orebody rock mass by drilling and blasting techniques models do not properly consider fan drillhole pattern
is the activity that can have the most leverage in determining layouts associated with underground blasting conditions.
the efficiency of a mining operation, as the output from a There are some clear limitations of existing underground
blast affects every downstream operation (Grant et al 1995). specific mechanistic and empirical models. These relate
In contrast to surface blasting, fragmentation from to calibration requirements, input parameter definition and
underground production blasting can affect loading and possible deficiencies in breakage modelling assumptions.
handling productivity to a greater extent, due mainly to the Most approaches appear to be limited to predicting as
reduced scale of digging forces, bucket capacities, and designed conditions with no flexibility in the modelling
confined excavation geometries (Scoble et al 1991). Direct and/or simulation frameworks to consider likely external
impacts of fragmentation on orepass performance and factors such as unexpected geotechnical conditions and
drawpoint availability have also been reported by others (eg. drilling and charging quality.
Nilsson 1985, Morrison 1995 and Guest et al. 1995).
Within the underground mining cycle, the leverage of This paper introduces the development and application of
drilling and blasting can also be significant in key aspects of a fragmentation modelling framework for underground ring
material flow, handling and processing. For example, the blasting. The same model can be applied at the conceptual,
impact of fragmentation on flow dynamics is critical in sub pre-feasibility and feasibility stages of a project. It provides
level caving (SLC) operations, as flow can be directly linked a method to model both single and multiple ring blast
to recovery (Power 2004). In addition, fragmentation can fragmentation and introduces a method to model the impact
have a marked impact on the economics of leaching rate of key design and operational factors on fragmentation. The
and final recovery as demonstrated by Sheikh and Chung proposed structure is believed to provide an improved tool
(1987). for estimating the full range of fragments likely to report to
The design of underground production blasts are largely drawpoints whilst recognising limitations associated with
based on the application of loosely documented "rules of mechanistic/empirical methods.
thumb". With the application of these approaches, it
continues to be difficult if not impossible to make predictions 3 MODELLING FRAMEWORK
to the levels of accuracy now demanded by mining
companies, particularly at both the pre-feasibility and The proposed framework can be categorised as a
feasibility stages of a project. mechanistic/empirical model which enables the prediction of
While the JKMRC is involved in an international the expected distribution of fragments both in the fines,
collaborative project developing a more complete model of intermediate and the coarse regions by modelling the extent
rock breakage which combines a state of the art detonation of two distinct breakage zones (i.e. the near field crushed
code and a geomechanical code (Cundall et al 2001), work zones and the mid to far field fractured zones). Figure 1
is continuing to develop and improve empirical and describes the basic structure which is divided into two parts,
mechanistic methods based on observed responses of rock single ring blasting and multiple ring blasting. The core of
masses to practical blasting. The model presented in this the modelling structure is the single ring blasting
paper is one such approach. component.
The size distribution of fragments likely to report to a
2 FRAGMENTATION MODELLING drawpoint from a single ring blast is represented by two
separate functions both of which require the determination
Current literature indicates that very little emphasis has of three key modelling parameters.
been placed in the development of accessible fragmentation The first parameter is what has been defined as the fines
modelling frameworks that can be directly applied to inflection point or the expected proportion of material less
underground production blasting environments. There are a than 1mm in size. This point is assumed to identify the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 365

 4 MODEL APPLICATIONS
PART I - SINGLE RING BLASTING
The application of the proposed framework is
demonstrated in this section with two case studies, one on
Rock volumen characteristics block cave undercutting and the other on SLC blasting.
(intact & structure) Case study 1 Design and analysis of a narrow inclined
undercut.
As part of the pre-feasibility and feasibility stages of a large
Nominal D&B design parameters block caving operation (Duffield 2000), the author was part of a
team commissioned to provide design parameters for the
successful extraction of a narrow inclined undercut. The geometry
of this undercut is illustrated in Figure 2. In this case, the
Neir field Far field engineering design and evaluation process was directly
Modeling crushed Modeling supported by the application of the single ring blasting model. The
zones breakage zones analysis included an evaluation of several drilling and blasting
configurations for undercut heights ranging from 4 to 5 m. Table 1
gives a summary of the range of design options evaluated.
Model distribution Model distribution In this paper, results of the analysis conducted on two
of fines of coarse fragmnets inclined ring layouts are presented. Figures 3 and 4
describe the design details of these layouts.

Fragmentation distribution

PART II - Multiple Ring Blasting Simulations

Figure 1: Modelling framework.

coarsest particle size that would be generated during the

crushing and shearing stages of the rock material during the
blasting process. The second parameter is the expected
post blast mean fragment size (P50) which is influenced by
the structural conditions of the rock mass, the blast
geometry, charging conditions and explosive performance Figure 2: Narrow inclined undercut
characteristics. The third parameter is the uniformity index
(nc) given by the Rosin-Rammler distribution (Rosin and Table 1: Design parameters evaluated
Rammler 1933 and Cunningham 1983). This parameter is
also influenced by the adopted pattern geometry, charging Diameters (mm) : 89 and 102
conditions and explosive performance characteristics. The Inclined Burden range (m): 1.5 2.5
main assumptions, procedures and empirical relationships leading and No Blastholes :5 6
proposed to determine the above parameters have been lagging rings No drill positions: 1, 2 and 4
discussed in detail by Onederra (2004). Explosive: Emulsion, 1g/cc 1.2 g/cc
Diameters (mm) : 89 and 102
The second part of the framework provides a Burden range (m): 1.5 2.5
methodology to simulate multiple ring blasting conditions Flat rings No Blastholes :3 4
and can be summarised as follows: No drill positions: 3 and 4
Definition of design parameters for the panel or stope Explosive: Emulsion, 1g/cc 1.2 g/cc
being analysed, including geometry, nominal blast design
and rock parameters.
Identification of the main external factors expected to
influence fragmentation.
Definition of simulation cases which reflect all identified
blasting conditions. Analysis and modelling with the use of
the single ring blasting model and development of site
specific functions to model changes in the fragmentation.
Conduct simulations by applying the established
modelling functions and rock mass descriptive statistics.
The Monte Carlo sampling technique is used to generate
fragmentation statistics defined by the expected range of
the 50%, 80% and 90% passing fractions (i.e. P50, P80
and P90).

Preliminary validations have shown the approach to

respond adequately to changes in design which are
expected to impact both on breakage uniformity and
fragmentation. Figure 3: Parameters of leading 6-hole ring layout

366 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 6: Modelling results size distributions
Figure 4: Parameters of leading 5-hole ring layout

Figure 5 shows the results of the fragmentation model,

represented by changes in the values of P80 and P90; and the region where there was evidence of no ingress of
for a range of burden configurations (i.e. 1.5 to 2.5 m). As naturally caved material.
shown, when compared to the six-hole layout, the five-hole
layout appears to provide an improved fragmentation
outcome across the whole range of burdens. This can be Nominal design parameters
mainly attributed to a better distribution of the explosive The panel corresponds to a sub level undercut with a
energy within the reduced volume of rock given by the 4m height of 25m and production drives at 14m intervals. Two
undercut height and the use of four drilling positions. nominal drilling and blasting patterns were adopted in this
panel, a 9-hole and a 10-hole ring pattern (Figure 7). The
strength, breakage and structural characteristics of the
panel rock mass used in these simulations are summarised
in Table 2.

Figure 5: Modelling results Burden vs Size

Figure 6 shows the full fragmentation size distributions of

these two layouts at the 2 m burden configuration. This
output can be used to provide a direct view of the overall Figure 7: Example of nominal 9-hole ring pattern
size of fragments expected to report to drawpoints.
Modelling results from this example helped support the
possibility of reducing the total amount of drilled metres per
ring, without heavily impacting on adequate breakage and Influence of external factors
fragmentation outcomes. In the development of a large As pre-drilling is common practice in SLC operations,
undercut, a reduction in the total metres drilled per volume when simulating the possible range of fragmentation
of rock can translate into significants cost savings. reporting to drawpoints, the fragmentation output cannot
be directly linked to a singular ring blasting event, but
Case study 2 Blast fragmentation simulations of an SLC instead to the cumulative effects of all drilling and
undercut panel blasting performance. Figure 8 illustrates this point with
This case study simulates the fragmentation expected three examples. The first refers to the undercharging of
from ring blasting when extracting a section of an undercut rings due to the presence of an active discontinuity. The
in a large SLC operation (Trout 2002). Simulation results are second is the case where the toes of rings are over-
compared with direct and regular fragmentation burdened, contributing to poor breakage and back-
measurements obtained from rings blasted along a number break, and the third case refers to the case where rings
of cross-cuts, up to extraction levels considered to represent are unable to be properly charged due to excessive brow
blasted material. The assessment was only carried out in damage.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 367

 Table 2: Rock mass condition cases can conditions become sub optimal (i.e. drilling and
charging factors of less than 50%).
Rock breakage parameters Fracture spacing statistics

UCS,MPa 130 K 470 Location Best fit parameters

Ts, MPa 15.8 0.94 Along Log Max= 4.64
drives Norm. Min= 0.03
(m) Mean=0.96
Std= 0.92
P-Wave, 5180 PPVB, > Across Exp. Max= 3.2
m/s mm/s 4800 drives (m) Min= 0.01
Es, GPa 67 Mean=1.01
Vertical Weibull =1.46
(m) =0.54
Density, 2700
kg/m3

Figure 9: Drilling and charging factor statistics

In addition to the above, explosive performance or charge

malfunctioning can also have an influence on fragmentation.
As investigated by Rustan (1993), in SLC blasting the extent
to which charged blastholes can be damaged by previously
fired holes in a ring depends upon a critical distance
between adjacent explosive charges. At the LKAB
Malmberget mine, malfunctioning of charges inferred from
vibration monitoring was of the order of 14%. Similar results
(i.e. 15%) were also found by Fjellborg (2002) from
extensive monitoring conducted at the LKAB Kiruna mine.
Monitoring conducted by the author also concurs with the
above findings. It was observed that in the worst case
condition, detonation efficiency of SLC rings was of the
order of 80%; that is two out of ten holes would not
effectively contribute to breakage and therefore influence
fragmentation outcomes.
Following the procedures outline earlier, the effect of
changes in drilling and charging factors and detonation
efficiency factors on fragmentation are simulated with the
use of the single ring blasting model. In this case, site
specific modelling functions were established for burdens
ranging from 2.5 to 2.8m in both the 10 and 9-hole patterns.
Variable blasting conditions were reflected by changes in
drilling and charging factors of 100% (nominal) through to
30% (worst case) and detonation efficiency factors raging
from 100% to 80% in the 10-hole pattern and 100% to 89%
in the 9-hole pattern. Rock mass descriptive statistics and
operational statistics modelled with generalised Beta
functions were then used to simulate possible fragmentation
outcomes.

Simulation results
Figure 10 shows the cumulative distributions for the
predicted versus measured P50 values and Figure 11
Figure 8: Examples of non uniform fragmentation reporting shows the cumulative distributions of the predicted P80
to drawpoints and P90 values together with the measured P80 and top
size statistics. It should be noted that coarse fragmentation
measurements were obtained with the use of the Split
It is common operational practice to maintain statistics desktop image analysis system (Kemeny et al. 1999).
regarding the condition of the ring prior to charging. This is In Figure 10, the output can be interpreted as showing
referred to as the drilling and charging factor. This factor that given the simulated design and assumed variable
gives and indication of how close conditions meet the blasting conditions, there is a 50% probability for the mean
nominal as designed case and it is simply defined as the fragment size (P50) to be less than 155mm. This compares
ratio between the actual total metres drilled (measured prior well with the measured value of 159mm. After this point,
to charging) and the as designed metres per ring. Typical there is a more pronounced discrepancy, with simulations
drilling and charging factor statistics of a large SLC being slightly more conservative than actual measured
operation are shown in Figure 9. This data shows that under values. Considering the 95% probability, predictions would
normal operational conditions, the majority of rings are suggest the P50 to be less than 308mm as opposed to the
generally fully drilled and charged and that only in a few measured 250mm value. However, both simulations and

368 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

measurements indicate in all cases the P50 value to be less "what if" scenarios at the early stages of a project was
than 410mm. Figure 11 shows the results of simulations highlighted.
predicting the possible range of P80 and P90 values. In this The application and verification of the multiple ring
case the output indicates that there is a 50% probability for blasting model was demonstrated by simulating the
the P80 to be less than 385mm. This compares well with the extraction of an undercut panel in a large SLC operation.
measured value of 410mm. As before, at the 95% Results from these simulations were encouraging. Overall
probability, this error tends to increase, with P80 predictions differences between predicted and measured statistics
indicating a value of less than 1100mm compared to a appear to be acceptable for applications aimed at the
measured value of less than 1400mm. However, it is conceptual, pre-feasibility and feasibility stages of a project.
important to note that trends are consistent. This is Further work is being conducted to assess current
confirmed and supported by both the distribution of the limitations and improve the models predictive capability.
simulated P90 values and the distribution of the measured
top sizes reporting to drawpoints. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to acknowledge Newcrest Mining as

sponsors of the AMIRA-BART II project through which this
framework was developed, in particular personnel from the
Ridgeway operation which provided calibration and
validation data. Contributions and technical input given by
Dr. Gideon Chitombo, Kai Riihioja and David La Rosa are
also acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Cundall, P, Ruest, M, Chitombo, G, Esen, S and

Cunningham, C, 2001. The Hybrid stress blasting model:
A feasibility study prepared for De Beers. HSBM Project
report.
Cunningham, C V B, 1983. The Kuz-Ram model for
prediction of fragmentation from blasting. Proceedings of
the first international symposium on rock fragmentation by
Figure 10: Simulations vs measured P50 blasting, Lulea, Sweden, 439-453.
Duffield, S, 2000. Design of the second block cave at
Northparkes E26 Mine. Proceedings of MassMin 2000.
AusIMM, 335-346.
Fjellborg, S, 2002. The value of measuring VOD in large
scale sub level caving. Proceedings of the 7th
International symposium on rock fragmentation by
blasting- Fragblast 7, Beijing, China, (Ed(s): Prof. Wang
Xuguang), 717-723. Metallurgical Industry Press.
Grant, J R, Little, T N and Bettess, D, 1995. Blast driven
mine optimisation. Proceedings of EXPLO 1995,
Brisbane, Australia, AusIMM, 3-10.
Guest, A, Chitombo, G and Grobler, H, 1995. Blast
optimisation for efficient extraction of a block cave
undercut - Case studies at De Beers Consolidated Mines
Ltd. Proceedings of EXPLO 1995. AusIMM, 75-80.
Kemeny, J., Girdner, K., BoBo T. and Norton, B., 1999,
"Improvements for Fragmentation measurement by Digital
Imaging: Accurate Estimation of Fines", Sixth
Figure 11: Simulations vs measured P80 and top size International Symposium for Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, SAIMM, 103-110.
From an engineering point of view, results of the proposed Morrison, D M, 1995. Fragmentation - The Future.
modelling framework are encouraging and provide a useful Proceedings of EXPLO 95, Brisbane, Australia, AusSIMM,
platform for engineering applications. 11-18.
Nilsson, D, 1985. Optimization of fragmentation in an
5 CONCLUSIONS underground mine. SME-AIME, Annual Meeting, Reprint:
85-78.
A fragmentation modelling framework for underground Onederra, I, 2004. A fragmentation modeling framework
production blasting applications has been introduced. The for underground production blasting applications. PhD (in
modelling structure provides an approach to model both preparation), The University of Queensland.
single and multiple ring blast fragmentation. Power, G, 2004. Modelling granular flow in caving mines -
The application of the single ring blasting component was Numerical modelling validated through large scale
demonstrated with the evaluation of design parameters for physical modelling and full scale experiments. PhD, The
the extraction of a narrow inclined undercut. In this case, the University of Queensland.
capability of the proposed modelling framework to conduct

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 369

 Rosin, R and Rammler, E, 1933. Laws governing fineness explosives and blasting research, SEE, Las Vegas,
of powdered coal. J. Inst. Fuels, 7: 29-36. Nevada, 79-89.
Rustan, P A, 1993. Minimum distance between charged Sheikh, A M and Chung, S H, 1987. Predicting
boreholes for safe detonation. Proceedings of the fourth fragmentation sizing profiles for different blasting
international symposium on rock fragmentation by patterns. Second international symposium on rock
blasting - Fragblast 4, Vienna, Austria, (Ed(s): H P fragmentation by blasting, Keystone, Colorado, (Ed(s):
Rossmanith ), A A Balkema, 127-135. Fourney W L and Dick R D). Society for experimental
Scoble, M J, Lizotte, Y C, Singh, A, Hendricks, C and mechanics, 521-530
Mohanty, B, 1991. Fragmentation interaction with Trout, P, 2002. Production drill and blast practices at
underground mining systems and productivity. Ridgeway gold mine. Proceedings of the 8th Underground
Proceedings of the seventh annual symposium on operators conference. AusIMM, 107-117.

370 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Accurate modeling of the geometry
of the overburden containing irregular
free faces using DMCBLAST3D
Ruilin Yang, Stephen Chung, Orica USA Inc, 33101 East Quincy Avenue, CO, 80137, USA
Dale Preece, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Abstract
The geometry of the blast overburden includes the free face configuration, the drilling pattern, hole inclination, bench
height and boundary confinement. The geometry of a blast overburden has a major influence on the blast results, such
as fragmentation, heave and final muckpile profile.
Sandia National Laboratories and Orica USA Inc. have developed DMCBLAST3D jointly. The program can model a full
production blast with multiple blast holes and the 3D effects of blasthole delay timing. The present paper describes the
accurate modeling of the geometry of the overburden with irregular free faces using DMCBLAST3D. These irregular free
faces are modeled with a series of intersecting planes, which are polygons based on pre-blast survey points at the toe
and crest lines. The top surface and the floor with any dip and strike angles can be modeled accurately.

1. INTRODUCTION and zmax), a rectangular prism box is assumed to contain

the irregular overburden. The rock spheres are generated
Sandia National Laboratories and Orica USA Inc have to fill the entire rectangular prism box first and then some
developed DMCBLAST3D jointly (Preece et al, 2001). The of the spheres located outside the irregular geometry of
program can model a full production blast with multiple blast the overburden are detected and trimmed. The detection
holes and 3D effects of blast hole delay timing. and trimming algorithms are presented in the following
DMCBLAST3D includes several modules to model sections.
production blasts (Preece and Chung, 2002). Including an
explosive gas pressure calculation, accurate delay timing
modeling, borehole location and orientation modeling, and
accurate overburden geometry modeling.
A good blasting model requires an accurate description of
the boundaries of the blast overburden. A few meters of
overburden difference can result in significant differences in
fragmentation or throw. No matter how accurate the physics
might be, inaccurate geometry modeling can cause
modeling results to be far off from the reality.
This paper describes the geometry modeling for an
irregularly shaped overburden including the mathematical
formulations and results. Then, various irregular overburden
geometries are modeled and displayed.

2. IRREGULAR GEOMETRY MODEL

Figure 1 shows an irregular geometry model of blast

overburden. The top polygon and the bottom polygon are
used to approximate the irregular toe and crest, based on
the pre-blast survey. The plane of polygons can be inclined
with any dip and strike angles for modeling a general
inclination of the top and the floor surfaces of the Figure 1 Irregular overburden geometry model
overburden. The polygons can have as many sides as
needed to approximate the real overburden geometry. The 3. BASIC MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF
front free-face of the overburden is modeled with inclined IRREGULAR GEOMETRY MODEL
planes, joining the top and the bottom polygons. Vertical
planes are used at the two sides and the back of the 3.1 Lines and Planes
overburden to join the top and the bottom polygons. These After we represent the overburden with polygons and
vertical planes represent the calculation boundary of the joining planes, the geometry model calculations are based
overburden. on 3D line equations, plane equations, and intersections
Based on the maximum dimension of the overburden in among lines and planes. Figure 2 shows that two points with
the x, y, and z directions (refer to Figure 1, xmax, ymax, known coordinates define a 3D line.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 371

 (X1, Y1, Z1)

(X2, Y2, Z2)

Figure 2 Representation of 3D Line

We represent an 3D line as parameter equation:

x x1 = a l Figure 3 Representation of a plane

y y1 = b l 3.2 Moving a Cutting Plane to

Detect the Overburden Boundary
z z1 = g l (1) After representing the faces of the irregular overburden as
lines and planes, a moving cutting plane perpendicular to
Where, is the length of the line segment between the two the z-axis is used to calculate the varying boundary along
points. a, b, and g are directional cosines of the line the z-axis. The intersecting lines form polygons with 4, 5, 6,
segment from point (x1,y1,z1) to (x2,y2,z2). or more sides, depending on the complexity of the faces of
the overburden. Figure 4a shows a moving cutting plane
intersecting surfaces of the overburden geometry. As can be
2 2 2
l= ( x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 ) + ( z2 z1 ) seen, the cut section is a polygon with 5 sides for the
particular location of the cutting plane in the figure.
2 2 2
(x x ) (y y )
a = 2 1 ; b = 2 1 ;g = 2 1
(z z )
l l l (2)

Figure 3 shows that two intersecting vectors on a plane

define the plane. The normal vector of the plane is
calculated from the two intersecting vectors.

r r r
n = axb (3)

Where and can be defined from any two points on the

vector using Equation (2) above.

r r r r
a = a1i + b1 + j + g1k
r r r
b = a2 i + b2 j + g2 k (4)

Where are unit vector on X, Y, and Z direction. The

normal vector can be determined as
r r r r
n = Ai + Bj + Ck
Figure 4a Moving cutting plane perpendicular to the z-axis
Where to determine the varying boundary

b1g1 ag ab After an intersecting polygon is determined at a particular

A= , B = 1 1 , C = 1 1 The location of the moving cutting plane, a box is constructed
b2g2 a2g2 a2 b2 around the intersecting polygon formed from the moving
cutting plane as shown in Figure 4b. The thickness of the
The equation of the plane can be expressed as box is taken as the sphere size. The spheres in the box are
labeled as spheres to be kept. After the moving cutting
plane goes through the whole overburden along the z-axis,
the spheres within the irregular overburden geometry are all
Ax + By + Cz + D = o (5) marked as spheres to be kept and the rest of the spheres in
the rectangular prism box are trimmed and discarded from
the list of calculating spheres.
D can be determined with any known point in the plane.

372 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 6 A modeled overburden with convex curves at the
toe and a convex and concave curve at the crest

Figure 4b Using an imaginary box to decide which sphere is

inside Figure 7 shows a concave free face is modeled
accurately. The two sides of the overburden have a
relatively large overburden. While the overburden at the
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS center is small. More rows of blast holes can be used at the
two sides, whereas, fewer rows could be used at the center.
Figure 5 shows an irregular overburden stacked with The effects from the irregular free faces on blast results can
spheres. As it is seen, the top polygon and the bottom be studied with DMC.
polygon are very different to represent different shapes of
the toe line and the crest. The toe and the crest lines are
convex shapes. The widths of the overburden at two sides
are different. As we can see, the model represents the
irregular free faces.

Figure 7 A modeled overburden with convex curves at toe

and crest

Figures 8 and 9 show a DMC modeling example for an

Figure 5 A modeled overburden with convex curves at toe overburden with an irregular free face. Figure 8 shows
and crest the overburden before the blast. The right hand side of
the burden is slightly bigger than the left side. DMC
simulated that the blast was fired with three rows and a
Figure 6 shows the top polygon is concave and the bottom total of 20 holes. Figure 9 shows a calculated muckpile
is convex at one location and concave at other location. The shape after the blast of the overburden. The height at the
figure shows that the model models the geometry right side of the muckpile appears to be slightly higher
accurately. In such a case, the toe burden can be excessive that that in the left side, due to the slightly large burden
since the holes could not be drilled easily at the top surface shown in Figure 8.
where the crest line is concave.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 373

Figure 8 an overburden before the bast Figure 9 calculated muckpile shape after the blast.

5. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

Using 3D lines, planes, top and bottom polygons allows Preece D. S., Jensen R. P. and Chung S. H., 2001,
DMC model to construct an assembler of 3D elements Development and Application of a 3-D Rock Blast
(spheres) to model the irregular geometry of blast Computer Modeling Capability Using Discrete Elements
overburden. DMCBLAST_3D, The Proceedings of the 27th Annual
Irregular overburden geometry modeling enables DMC to Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
model various shapes of crest and toe lines and its effect on International Society of Explosives Engineers, Orlando,
blast results. With such a capability, DMC can assist on Florida
blast design optimizations to explore various geometry Preece D. S. and Chung S. H., 2002, Multi Blasthole,
effects on blast results. The present geometry modeling Multi-Row, Detonation Delay Timing Simulation of Rock
technique can also lead to accurately model surveyed free Blasting Using DMCBLAST_3D, The Proceedings of the
faces and its effects on blast results. 28th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
At present, free-hole definition is under the development. Technique, International Society of Explosives Engineers,
When it is finished, the holes can be drilled with free location Las Vegas, NV, February
and free orientation. The irregular geometry and free hole
definition technique will increase the capability of
DMCBLAST3D significantly.

374 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Productivity gains beyond the
boundaries of a cast blast
Stephen H. Chung, Joe A. Haid, Advanced Mining Solutions
Group Orica USA Inc., Watkins, CO

Abstract
A productive cast blast is often measured by the amount of overburden displaced to a final spoil, referred to as "Percent
Cast". The profile of a cast muckpile can indicate how much track dozer work is required to construct a dragline pad for
the removal of the muck above coal seams. This paper demonstrates how modeling can be used to investigate cast
blasting and subsequent dozing operations in large cast blast operations such as those located in the Western United
States. The results suggest that computer blast simulations with user-defined delay firing features can be used
effectively to shape the profile of a cast blast, equating to benefit for a mine. This benefit can be generated from an
increase in cast material, and/or a reduction in the volume of material to be pushed by track dozers resulting in an
increase in the coal exposure rate.

1 INTRODUCTION

Cast blasts are used to remove overburden off coal

seams. The performance of a cast blast is measured by the
percentage of material the blast is able to displace from the
original position to a final spoil location. The amount of
material that is cast to a final spoil location is referred to as
"Percent Cast" which requires no handling by mechanical
equipment. The profile or shape of the material displaced
from the high-wall would have a significant impact on the
cost and time for dozer work in the preparation of a dragline
pad.
Large-scale cast blasts for dragline operations in the
Western United States often involve inter-bedded
sandstone and coal seams of different thickness and
strengths. Adding into consideration the complexity of
irregular bench geometry, the initiation, and blasting with
angled holes to control damage as well as to achieve
displacement of fragmented muck, computer modeling
appears to be the only effective and economical tool that Figure 1. Sketch of the DMC_Blast 2-D Model
can deliver the desirable solution to meet the requirement of
a blast design. In the shaping of a muck profile down to a
dragline pad, the application of numerical modeling can help
develop a fast dozing routine for cutting down the total
dozing time.

2 TYPICAL DESIGN OF A CAST BLAST

2.1 Basic construction of a 2-D model

The parameters necessary for modeling are bench
height (total overburden), borehole diameter and depth,
burden and spacing, the underlying coal seam thickness
and the surveyed bench face and pit floor geometries
(Figure 1). Explosives loading in each borehole can
consist of multiple decks, various charge lengths and
different types of explosives. The rock properties are the
dynamic Youngs Modulus and Poissons ratio
determined from representative samples using an
ultrasonic method. Other rock properties such as
cohesion, angle of friction and compressive and tensile
strengths are also required for calculating the damage
prediction.
Figure 2. Coloring for different rock types.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 375

 Figure 2 shows the discrete elements generated in the
model. Each element has a number and coordinates
assigned to it and its movement during blasting can be
tracked and analyzed for the time history of particle
displacement and the associated kinetic energy and forces
due to the loading of explosives gases. The colors are used
to indicate rock types being considered. The strength of the
material is defined by the strength links (both tensile and
shear) as shown in Figure 3. For example, if an element
is broken off from the rest of the surrounding ones, all six
strength links will have zero value (Preece and Chung, 1999
and Chung, Scovira and Preece, 2000).

Figure 4. Visualization of toe movement.

Figure 3. DMC_Blast rock strength model.

2.2 The DMC_Blast Model (Distinct Motion Code)

DMC_Blast is a computer program that combines discrete
particle motion with gas flow to simulate blast-induced rock
motion. During the explosion gas expansion state, the code
tracks in detail the gas flow in two directions from the blast Figure 5. Borehole and burden displacement.
hole and the motion of all interacting particles due to gas
loading. DMC_Blast also tracks all collisions between
particles as they flow into the muckpile and calculates the
peak kinetic energy as well as displacement of all rock
particles.
DMC_Blast allows the simulation of bench blasting through a
user-defined delay firing time sequence. The user can stipulate
the definition of the bench cross-section geometry, designate
multiple layers of dipping rock defined by their dynamic elastic
and damping characteristics, specify the drill hole diameter and
inclination, and load different types of explosives in each hole
including inert decking.

2.3 A Few Key Features Offered by DMC

(1) Diggability: Diggability is believed to be strongly
related to the displacement of particles.
As maximum displacement increases, the opportunity for
producing large interstices between particles increases. By
looking at the displacement of particles near grade level as
shown in Figure 4, the effect of blast design changes on
diggability can be modeled. Kinetic energy of the rock
particles can also be used to examine muckpile diggability,
as increased kinetic energy would produce a looser muck.
(Chung and Preece, 2002) Figure 6. Dilution in through-seam blasting.

(2) Creating a Desirable Cast Blast Profile:

Where controlled material mixing is required, DMC _Blast (3) Rehabilitation Cast Blasting
allows us to examine the effect of blast design changes on Design of this type of blasting can be made effectively
ore/waste segregation. A typical example on different burden using DMC_Blast by testing firing time with the loading of
materials separated with colored boreholes is given in Figure 5. various explosives. Figure 7 shows a rehabilitation blast
Figure 6 shows the effects of delay firing direction on the coal intended to reshape and match the original pre-mining
seam damage in through seam blasting. contours.

376 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 opinion of the authors that cast blast performance
should not be based entirely on its "Percent Cast" to final
value, as to whether it was deemed a good cast or a
poor cast. Burden and spacing, timing, powder factor
and type of explosives are a few components of a cast
blast that can shape the profile of a cast. Shaping the
profile of a cast can allow for the center of mass to be
moved away from the highwall region. Material located
in the highwall region is very expensive to move by
dozer, due to the distance the material must be pushed
in the dragline pad construction process. Figure 9
highlights other key sub-components of a cast blast
profile. For convenience, a reference line is drawn from
mid-point of the bench top to the coal seam parallel to
the bench face, in order to create two zones, the %
Highwall Displaced and the % Face Displaced. The %
Highwall Displaced Material and the % Face Displaced
Material equals the amount of material removed off the
coal seam by the cast. The % Highwall Displaced value
indicates how much material has been moved from the
highwall region of the cast. A large % Highwall
Figure 7. Rehabilitation cast blasting. Displaced value would suggest that a large volume of
material was moved, therefore resulting in less dozer
(4) Cast Blasting for Dragline Operation. work in the highwall region, versus a small % Highwall
A cast blast designed for a dragline operation in the Displaced value, which would suggest more dozer work.
Western United States seeks a high percentage of
overburden to be cast beyond an imaginary line drawn from
the pit floor. The imaginary line has the same angle of
repose as the spoil pile, and denotes a zone where
overburden material is not moved again. Material cast pass
this imaginary line is referred to as material cast to final. If
the cast profile does not have a ready-made pad-line as
show in Figure 8, dozer work will be required to prepare the
dragline-pad which could be very time consuming and
expensive. As a result, the coal exposure rate is reduced,
and the mine productivity suffers.

Figure 9. A more general cast profile with defined terms.

3.2 i_PushLXTM, a new Discrete Element Model

(DEM) code, developed for the delivery of an optimum
dozer push sequence
The Advanced Mining Solutions (AMS) group of Orica
has further investigated the relative performance of a
series of cast blasts by applying different delay firing
times and the results are plotted in Figure 10. It can be
seen that while the percentage cast to the spoil location
and the percentage face displaced material do not vary
a great deal from one case to another, the percentage
highwall displaced material shows that Case #4 (purple
color) likely offers less dozing time in the preparation of
a dragline-pad.
To help further understand the dozing operation, Orica
USA has started an i_PushLXTM Program using Cluster2D,
Figure 8. Ideal Cast Muckpile Profile. a DEM code developed at the Colorado School of Mines.
The code is developed to operate on any given muck profile
and perform either manual or automated horizontal and
3 MUCK PROFILE FOR DOZER WORK angled pushes (or a combination of both) to derive the
optimum push sequence that requires the lowest dozing
3.1 Terms defined for a dozing analysis distance and energy in developing the dragline pad.
An "Ideal Cast" profile as shown in Figure 8 is certainly i_PushLXTM is a mechanistic model. It considers the shape
desirable, but not always attainable. From observations, and geometry of a dozer blade, the particle shapes and size
a more realistic cast profile as shown in Figure 9 is likely distribution as well as cohesion/adhesion of the material in
to be produced in a four or five-row cast blast. It is the the muckpile (Mustoe and Miyata, 2001 and Chung and

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 377

 Figure 12. Sample i_PushLXTM Push sequence

Figure 10. An efficient profile for dozer work. 4 CONCLUSIONS

DMC_Blast is designed to take practical input parameters

Mustoe, 2002). The code can also track the re-handled to allow the simulation of a realistic cast blast. By means of
materials. That is the number of times the same muck has DMC_Blast, the effect of delay timing, explosives loading,
been pushed. rock structure and bench geometry can be studied, and a
cast profile can be shaped to meet a specific requirement
3.3 i_PushLXTM Demonstration for the dozer-dragline operation. For the development of
The muckpile to be dozed is bounded by the highwall, the most efficient dozer push routine in preparing the
cast profile and the dragline pad as indicated in Figure 9. dragline pad, i_PushLXTM is showing itself to be a capable
Particles are first generated within the dozer working area. and useful tool.
The pile is then stored for subsequent dozing tasks. At the
end of each doze task (one entire track removed), the muck REFERENCES
profile is up-dated, the total dozed distance, the push
energy and power consumed by the dozer are recorded on Preece, D. S., and Chung, S. H., Modeling Coal
an output data file in ASCII format, which can be imported to Seam Damage in Cast Blasting; Proceedings of the 25th
Excel for further analysis. Figure 11 shows the setup of a Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
muckpile for i_PushLXTM while Figure 12 shows some Technique, Nashville, TN, USA February 7-10, 1999.
selected pushing routines. Chung, S. H., Scovira, D. S. and Preece, D.S., Current
Advances in DMC_BLAST Modeling, Proceedings of the
26th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, pp131- 140, Anaheim, Calif., USA, February
13-16,
2000.
Chung, S.H. and Preece, D.S., Benefits of Using
DMC_Blast in Open Pit and Underground Mining,
Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on
Explosives and Blasting Technique, Vol. II, pp50-57, Las
Vegas, NV, Feb. 10-13, 2002.
Figure 11. Muck pile Set-up for i_PushLXTM Mustoe, G.G.W. and Miyata, M., Material Flow Analysis of
Noncircular-sharped Granular Media Using Discrete
Element Methods, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Oct. 2001, vol. 127 No. 10, pp1017-1026.
Chung, S.H. and Mustoe, G.G.W. Effects of Particle
Shape and Size Distribution on Stemming Performance in
Blasting, 3rd International Conference on Discrete
Element Method, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA,
September 23-25, 2002.

378 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Bulk emulsions in underground mining
Andrs Lpez Ugalde, UBST Manager, ORICA Chile S.A.

1 INTRODUCTION

The type-ANFO explosives are used since the 50s, their

easy preparation is an important qualitative change respect
their commercialisation, management and applications, for
manufacturers as well as suppliers and explosive users.
At the 80s the emulsions entered into the market. These
explosives have certain advantages respect ANFO type
explosives, however their use at underground mining is
currently minimal.

Comparison between ANFO / Emulsion.

ANFO Composition

Ammonium Nitrate 94 %
Fuel Oil 6% Volume Variation during gasification.

EMULSION

Aqueous Phase (NA, NS) 93 %

Oil Phase (FO) 6%
Emulsifier 1%
Sensitiser

Features ANFO Emulsion

Dens. (Loading), (gr/cc.) 0.8 (0.9-1.0) 1.35 (0.9 1.2)

Veloc, of Det. (m/s) 4.796 5.910
Pressure of Det. (Kbar) 49 100
Heat (Kcal/kg) 912 721

Gas volume (L/kg) 965 944

Comparison between emulsion and ANFO.
V. of poisonous gases (L/kg) 12.1 5.7
In order to better understand the advantages of bulk emulsions
Oxygen Balance -1.32 -3.47
some field measurements were carried out to compare under
Water resistance ( Hr) nil 72
similar conditions the behaviour of both products.

Velocity of Detonation, (VOD).

What is the gasification? The VOD of an explosive is one of the most important
In general, gasification is sensitising an emulsion with air characteristics, from this variable depends the power of
bubbles which, due to the compressive waves produced by detonation. By knowing this one can determine how the on-
the detonation, will generate new points of detonation (hot site explosive is working.
spots). In the following graphs you can see the advantages of the
This process is done by adding microspheres to the emulsion respect ANFO, with values of 4,600 m/s for the
emulsion during the manufacturing process or by adding emulsion versus 3,900 m/s for the ANFO, both under similar
bubbles of gas which are generated when a solution is conditions.
mixed with the emulsion that produces the chemical
reaction. VOD Column of Emulsion RS-95
For the first case, the final density of the product will The graphs show VOD measurements taken in ascending
depend of the quantity of microspheres added to the production holes of 2 1/2" of diameter. (July 2002, Minera
emulsion, for the second case the final density will depend Las Cenizas)
of the quantity of the solution mixed with the emulsion and
the quantity of time necessary for generating this reaction, Gases.
varying according to the temperature, the acidity of the One of the other important factors in an explosive is the
emulsion and the concentration of the sensitising solution. generation of post blasting poisonous gases. Because all

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 379

explosives generate gases of this type it is a priority to
determine their volume, in order to determine ventilation
requirements, the duration of any entrance to blasted areas
and the environmental conditions.

To determine the variable of the explosives for the

calculations of ventilation, the explosives are classified in
the following table as 1, 2 or 3, according to the type of
fumes.

For not permissible dynamites

(not allowed in coal mining)

Fumes Class Poisonous Gases

Released Lt/Kg Expl.

1 Lower than 20
2 20 to 40
3 40 to 80

By comparing the level of poisonous gases generated

during a detonation, one can observe that the emulsions
produce a lower level of gases than ANFO. However,
this comparison is done under ideal detonation
conditions.
Results obtained at some sites show the same tendency,
but for the case of ANFO the results are multiplied due to
external factors such as the presence of moisture, particle
compaction, F.O. evaporation by temperature, etc, all of
them affecting the final blast.

Fragmentation.
This parameter allow us to see the real work of the In general, the energy of a fragmentation is equal to
explosive and how efficiently it is being used. shock energy + gas energy.

380 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Emulsions allow us to change this parameter depending an improvement in the results justify their utilisation.
of the type of rock, changing the density of the explosive, so Experiences controlled by ORICA show important savings
that, the lower the density of the emulsion the bigger the by using bulk emulsions.
energy of gases, and the higher the density of the emulsion When one consider in cost analysis, manpower, drilling,
the higher the shock energy. maintenance, ventilation times and the blast itself, it is
possible to get 25% savings in the overall cost.
The experiences obtained in Chile in the development of
drifts show savings of up to 14%, only considering drilling
and blasting costs.

Trials carried out in El Salvador Division of CODELCO, at

Inca Central Oeste sector, February 2004

Utilisation of bulk emulsions in Chile

Until now ORICA has performed bulk emulsion loadings
at various sites especially because of special works
demanding new technologies, special needs for some
loading and trials, demonstrating the qualities of the
system.

Pre Conditioning at Andina: At this site were loaded

Results of Production Blast at Minera Las Cenizas. 110-metre length ascending boreholes in 5 _" of diameter. It
2,5" diameter Holes. (tiros en abanico) was employed sensitised emulsion with microspheres, with
1.15 gr/cc of density.

Better results, lower costs.

To have an explosive with advantages respect similar
ones implies to have a more expensive product, however,

Section of 12.3 m2 (4.0 x 3.5 m.)

Emulsion Anfo Savings %

US$ Saving

Length of Development 3.5 3.5

Nr of Holes 37 43 6
Drilling costs 196.20 262.50 66.30 25.3
Blasting cost 179.90 176.70 -3.20 -1.8
Total 376.10 439.20 63.10 14.4

Section of 15.2 m2 (4.3 x 3.8 m.)

Emulsion Anfo Savings %

US$ Saving

Length of Development 3.5 3.5

Nr of Holes 41 49 8 Pre Conditioning at El Salvador: For the El Salvador
Drilling cost 217.40 299.10 81.70 27.3 case, 90-metre descending boreholes full of water were
Blasting cost 202.70 189.90 -12.80 -6.7 loaded with sensitised emulsion with micro spheres with a
density of 1.2gr/cc.
Total 420.10 489.00 68.90 14.1

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 381

 and in loading times and finally generating a 14% of savings
in drilling and blasting.

Production Holes at Las

Cenizas (en abanicos ): At Cenizas, in the Sub Level
caving method were used ascending holes of up to 25-
metre length with 2 _" of diameter (tiros en abanico
ascendentes). The emulsion employed was RS-95, Anfo and Emulsion
sensitised with gas. The explosive had a density of 1.0 Longholes at El Soldado: We loaded ascending holes
gr/cc. Some improvement was obtained in the of 50 metres and with 4 _" of diameter with a sensitised
fragmentation and there was less damage. emulsion with micro spheres, with a density of 1.15
gr/cc.

Development of drifts at Las Cenizas:

Besides the production trials carried out at Las Cenizas,
some trials were carried out for the development of drifts,
obtaining better results in the advances by round, less
damage due to overbreak, lower vent times, etc. The Development of Tunnel La Plvora in Valparaso:
utilisation of emulsion proved to be 10% more economical Currently, ORICA maintains an explosive supply
than ANFO. contract with Ferrovial Agroman for the development of
tunnel 1 at La Plvora. The explosive used is bulk
Development of drifts at El Salvador: emulsion gassed with gas, with a density of 0.95 gr/cc,
At this site more than 40 rounds in different sections were obtaining significant savings by round, mainly due to the
carried out for the development of drifts, reducing the price of the explosive. The alternative explosive were
number of holes and obtaining better results in the advance packaged explosives.

382 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Loading Equipment of bulk emulsions. Safe and efficient blasting in underground metal mines;
The units used for pumping bulk emulsions are totally built Technical Services; ORICA Explosives.
in Chile and, therefore, they can be customised according to Construccin de tneles, piques y chimeneas
each need and according to the vehicle required. (Construction of tunnels, shafts and chimneys); Camilo
They are composed by three main parts, the pumping Salinas T.; Department of Mining Engineer, Universidad
unit, the emulsion tank and the mobile unit. de Chile.
Tecnologa de los explosivos (Technology of explosives);
Jaime Chacn F.; Department of Mining Engineer,
Universidad de Chile.
Ventilacin de Minas (Ventilation of Mines); Exequiel
Yanes G.; Servicio nacional de geologa y minera
(Geology and Mining National Service).

Author: Andrs Lpez Ugalde

Mining Engineer with 9 years of experience in
manufacturing and handling of mining explosives. He
has participated in the supervision of loading of
explosives and blasts at various sites such as Refugio,
Collahuasi, Quebrada Blanca, El Salvador, Romeral,
Carmen of Andacollo, Andina, Salina Punta de Lobos,
Manto Verde.
Experience in underground sites such as: El Teniente,
Andina, El Salvador, Minera Las Cenizas, Minera Florida,
Minera Cerro Bayo, Tnel Candelaria, Tnel La Plvora.
Participation in technological innovation processes of IM2
at Andina and at El Salvador in loading of explosives in
longholes.
He has exposed in various technical seminars in topics
related to the utilisation of bulk emulsions.
Currently, he is in the Management of loading systems of
bulk emulsions for the underground mining.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 383

384 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 10
Mass Mining Methods II:
Case Histories
386 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Thirty years evolution
of block caving in Chile
Jaime Chacn, Departmento Ingeniera de Minas, Universidad de Chile
Hans Gpfert, Departmento Ingeniera de Minas, Universidad de Chile
Cade-Idepe Consultores en Ingeniera
Alfonso Ovalle, Departmento Ingeniera de Minas, Universidad de Chile, Metlica Consultores S.A.

Abstract
An analytical account is made of the evolution of Mass Caving of the Chilean mines in the last thirty years. For this, the
cases of El Teniente, Salvador and Andina (Ro Blanco) mines are reviewed. Because the driving force of the mentioned
evolution was the change of the geo-mechanical properties of the ore bodies while their exploitation advanced and
became deeper, reference is made to the characterization of the rock masses on which the mining designs were based
on. The evolution is analyzed describing the effects on designs and equipment of the different mining levels and unit
operations characteristic of mining by Mass Caving: undercut, extraction, secondary breakage, ore transfer and
intermediate haulage. Based on the analysis of the evolution of these three decades, a projection of the possible
developments of Mass Caving is made for the future and a balance of some pending problems with this type of mining
is presented.

1 INTRODUCTION The case of El Teniente mine illustrates what was going

At present, three of the five Codelco-Chile producing to happen in the short to medium range term in the three
mines are underground and use the mining method known mines: as reserves in the upper or secondary enrichment
as Block Caving: El Teniente, Ro Blanco (Andina) and El zones deplete (which fragments very well producing fine
Salvador. Fine copper recovered from these operations is grained material), the continuity of mining necessarily
today in the order of 570.000 tpy, out of a total of around required initiating the extraction of the primary ore zones,
1.600.000 tpy produced by Codelco. There are no other with much harder and resistant rocks. These types of rock
mines at present in the country that use this mining method, cave with more difficulty and generate a coarser product,
even though some isolated efforts have been tried in the which is impossible to handle with the standard designs and
past. mining practices.
This method was first used in Chile in 1924 at the From this start point, and for the next two decades, the
Potrerillos mine of Andes Copper Mining Co., branch of concepts and designs which are involved in mining of hard
Anaconda Co. Then El Teniente Mine of Braden Copper rock evolved to what is now known as panel caving with
Co., branch of Kennecot Copper Corporation, after a long LHD, with subsequent variations and refinements. The main
evolution process, applied the block caving method as such aspects of this evolution are summarized in this paper.
in the late 30's. Years later two other caving mines join the It is important to recognize the contribution of the
brotherhood, El Salvador mine of Anaconda Co. (1959) as numerous professionals who with their creativity and effort
replacement of Potrerillos and, finally the Ro Blanco mine achieved conceptual solutions and intelligent designs that
(1970) of Cerro Corporation. allowed the referred evolution to be successful, and
The method, in its traditional form -chute tappers, acknowledgement is made to all those who dedicated long
grizzlies, and gravity transfer to a transport level- had extra hours to synthesize their findings in papers, without
reached through the years, in which this chronicle would have not been possible. Each
Potrerillos and in El Teniente, a high degree of one deserves to be mentioned, but faced with the possibility
standardization and efficiency (Figure 1). to forget a few, we feel it is more just not to name anybody
A similar design was adopted at the Ro Blanco mine of and we trust that each will recognize his mark in this re-
Andina, but with an intermediate ore transport level with belt count.
conveyors; while at El Salvador, because of the ore body As usual, a tally of this sort has deficiencies that arise
geometry, the utilization of scrapers was preferred for ore from the reduced space available, from the fragility of
extraction. memory despite abundant references, from the difficulty to
This was the technical setting when in the year 1971 sort out the essentials from the accessory, and also from the
nationalization of the big copper mines took place. Besides bias introduced by the personal interpretation and
the political impact and the transfer of technical and experience of the chroniclers. The authors declare that they
managerial responsibilities from US companies to Chilean have aimed to be faithful to the available sources and hope
professionals, this also meant the concentration of the to count with the indulgence and compre-hension of those
property of all the mines in the hands of only one owner. that may have a different view of the relevant facts of these
Coinciding with this situation, almost simultaneously and thirty years of mass caving with LHD in Chile.
because of different reasons in the three mines the
appearance of sectors with harder rock and bigger 2 THE ROCK MASS
fragmentation in the production programs started taking
place, with much lower productivities using the traditional Given an ore body with its own metal values and defined
block caving design. geometry, the main conditioning variable to determine the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 387

 quantitatively predict geotechnical rock quality in hard rock
is in Andina and dates back to 1974. On the basis of RQD
and FF, a prognosis of cavability, reinforcement,
fragmentation and productivity is made for a sector of Ro
Blanco mine with turmaline breccia. This was the first of a
long sequence of contributions to the numerical
characterization of the rock mass. Between 1980 and 1985,
the three mines adopt geomechanical rock classification
systems based on the scheme developed for mining by
Laubscher from Bieniawskis work. With minor
modifications derived both from the evolution of the
definition of the Laubscher index and from local
adjustments, the same classification system is still in use in
order to define design parameters such as cavability,
fragmentation and reinforcement.
Complementing the rock mass characterization,
advancement in stress measurement was started. Starting
in 1972 and for the first time in Chile, in situ stress
measurements were taken at El Teniente mine, using the
"overcoring" system with the USBM gage. Since that time
the "overcoring" and the "doorstopper" systems have been
used at various locations in the three mines (and also at
other locations), so there is now an extensive data base of
the natural stress field in the country. This information has
been used for the global design of the undercutting and
mining sequences, to define orientation of mine openings,
and to design resistant pillars.
As has been pointed out, the deepening of the mines has
implied that mining has been of harder rocks subject to
more aggressive stress fields. Because of this, the
occurrence of violent liberation of energy, has been an ever
more frequent phenomenom (induced seismicity). In the late
70s, these phenomena started at El Teniente mine, with
more intense expressions corres-ponding to rock burst
constituting a permanent threat to the exploitation of primary
rock, which has meant toll in lives and also has had an
important impact on costs.
The way in which this situation has been dealt with in El
Teniente considers microseismic monitoring of the mine,
which has been done since 1980 and is able to give early
warning to evacuate parts of the mine. It also helps to
understand the phenomena in order to regulate draw rate,
to alter undercutting sequence and even to redesign
Figure 1: Block Caving with chute tappers, El Teniente fortification. Similar to many other aspects, the problem is
mine. far from solved: only the learning of the cause-effect
relationship has taken almost a decade. But as far as the
design parameters of a block caving is the set of phenomenom has been able to be characterized and
geomechanical pro-perties of the rock mass. understood, there has been advancement regarding the
As stated in the introduction, the trend in the thirty years mitigation and control of effects.
covered by this paper, has been the exploitation of deeper An important subject related to the rock mass
sectors of the mines, with bigger stress fields and harder characterization is fragmentation. In 1973, a well known
rock. colleague stated the general belief of the time: "avoiding the
If we take the First Latin American Mining and Extractive productions of boulders in a block caving is like squaring the
Metallurgy Congress of 1973 as a milestone, we can circle". Through the years, ever coarser fragmentation has
appreciate how the compre-hension and treatment of the required more expensive designs, smaller draw rates,
subject has evolved in all relevant aspects of the mining bigger capital expenditure in infrastructure and equipment
method, among which it is worthwhile noting: for fragmentation and ore handling, and in the bottom line,
Cavability (base area and weakening developments); has meant a negative impact on the profitability of the
Gravity flow (dilution and recovery); operations. Up to some time ago, the only aim was to
Stress fields (extraction sequence, orientation of mine improve fragmentation as an additional advantage of
workings and reinforcement); designs which main objective was another one: forced
Fragmentation (extraction grid and equipment). caving with explosives to induce caving; the adjustment of
undercutting sequence and mining progress to control
Regarding the natural characteristics of the rock mass, in damage in the production level openings; the control of
1970 the RQD and fracture frequency were started to be draw rate to manage extraction and dilution. In the last three
logged at El Teniente in primary rock. It is worth mentioning years there has been an effort to modify the in-situ
that at that time in the secondary rock at El Teniente, four characteristics of the rock mass, which has been termed as
geotechnical parameters were mapped (type of rock, pre-conditioning of the ore, using special techniques with
fracturing, hardness and water filtrations), with the purpose explosives or with hydraulic fracturing. Hopefully we are in
of defining reinforcement and to design induction of caving the eve of another major change in cave mining, as was the
and explosive usage. But the first registered attempt to introduction of LHD equipment in its time.

388 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

3 FIRST DESIGNS

El Salvador Mine: In the year 1970, still under Anaconda

management, for the first time in Chile block caving with
LHD equipment was utilized. In a sector planned to be
extracted with the standard system, with chute tappers,
grizzlies and branched orepasses, because of the poor
production rates achieved and because of serious problems
with ore pass maintenance, it was decided to place a few
well fortified orepasses outside the blocks and introduce
LHD equipment for the extraction and haulage of ore in the
production level.
Shown in Figure 2 is the first design adopted for the
Production Level, with a herringbone design, where the
loading accesses concurred from either side to only one
central draw point. These central loading points aligned
every 12,5 m.

Figure 3: Block caving with LHD extraction, El Salvador

mine.

access and the tramming drift, requiring heavy steel and

concrete structures. In relation with these three problems,
Figure 2: El Salvador Mine, original design with mechanized other design criteria and parameters were incorporated,
LHD extraction. such as the ratio between voids and total area, and the
angle between the loading access and the tramming drift.
In this first successful block caving experience with LHD's
Probably the main design criteria considered, was to give in Chile, loading rates around 400 to 600 t/shift per
the 5 yd3 LHD's enough space to face the heap for loading equipment were obtained with 5 effective hours per shift and
in a straight position, a position strongly recommended at a tramming distance of between 50 and 150 m.
the time by equipment manufactures. The resulting
extraction grid was then 24,0 x 12,5 m, defined as the dis- Ro Blanco Mine: In the mid 70's, in this mine of the
tance between rows of loading points and the distance Andina Division of Codelco-Chile, in the south sector of the
between two consecutive loading points in the same row. first Production Level, more than 200.000 m2 rock of a
Unconfirmed information, because of the change of different characteristic to what had been successfully
administration at the time, indicate that results of that exploited with a traditional block caving (chute tappers,
experience, mainly regarding ore recovery, were not good. grizzlies, gravity ore transfer) had to be mined. It was mainly
Chilean engineers that took the technical control of the turmaline breccia that presented cavability problems and
operation, in light of the publications about gravity flow generated coarse fragmentation.
models by Mc Cormick, Janelid and others, concluded that After the results of the first block in this area, -the
the problem originated in the excessive distance between productivity of the chute tappers decreased by 30% and the
rows of draw points (24 m). powder factor in secondary blasting increased 3,5 times- it
The design was corrected and the next block had an was decided to modify the mining system. Three
extraction grid of 16,0 x 12,5 m (Figure 3), that later evolved alternatives were analysed:
to 14,3 x 16,0 m. .The idea was to maintain the length of Block caving with scrapers and haulage by railroad.
the loading accesses to allow straight LHDs, offsetting the Block caving with LHD's.
draw points from the extraction points by means of a raise Forced caving with big diameter long hole blasting and
that climbs backs up from the loading access. chute tappers.
Conceptually it was a good solution, in the sense that it
yielded an almost equilateral extraction grid, but there were The trade-off analysis favored the second option of block
operational problems associated to the weakness of the caving with LHD and the herringbone type design chosen is
brow of the draw points and to the labour intensive type of shown in Figure 4. The main design criteria considered were
development required. It also turned out complicated to related to parameters such as the length of the loading
maintain the stability of the intersection between the loading access and the dimensions of the extraction grid. There

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 389

 At the outset of these preliminary studies, it was
concluded that the rock would cave, even for very
competent rock conditions and for "normal" base areas,
and that the coarse fragmentation was manageable with
diesel LHD equipment, pick hammers for secondary
reduction and with an underground crusher. As a
synthesis, the block caving method was still the best
solution.
After this conclusion, the final conceptual engineering of
the primary ore project is started in 1974. The analysis
focused first on the configu-ration of the Production Level,
specifically on the design of the extraction grid. The clue of
the problem was to reconcile design parameters where the
optimization of one of them affected others in a negative
way. For example:
The extraction grid had to be as equilateral as
possible and also ample enough to have loading
accesses long enough to allow LHD equipment to
load straight.
The spacing between draw points had to allow the
interaction of the draw volumes: it cannot be too big.
Reducing the distance between rows of draw points
augments the ratio between voids and total area, affecting
the stability of the Production Level.
A smaller angle between the tramming opening and the
loading accesses, allows increasing the length of the
latter one, but generates instability conditions difficult to
control.

The most important subject, the spacing of the extraction

grid, was uncertain. Even though some qualitatively
approaches to the problem were known, originated in
gravity flow models, the scaling of these models to real
conditions was then and is still an unresolved question. The
only certainty was that as the ore gets coarser, the diameter
of the volume that flows also increases, and therefore the
Figure 4: Block caving with LHD, Ro Blanco mine, Andina. distance between draw points could be enlarged
considerably.

were also some local conditions such as the lack of barren

overburden and no dilution problems. The reason not to
mine by open pit, even though there was no overburden,
was because of extreme climatic winter conditions.

El Teniente Mine: The year 1970, coincidental with the

change of administration, the Mine Department starts the
first discussions about the change in rock conditions. In the
central sector of the Teniente 4 Production Level, numerous
blocks already prepared with the traditional layout were
emplaced in the primary ore zone of the deposit, in some
cases only at the base and in others to a considerable
height.
In 1972 the first block in primary rock was undercut using
a slightly modified standard system (4 million t) and the
results obtained highlighted the real magnitude of the
problem: chute tapper productivity was reduced to between
20 and 30 t/man-shift, as compared to an average of 200 in
secondary ore. The conclusion was that there was no
alternative but to introduce radical modifications to the
method or change it altogether.
With the assistance of swedish professor and
consultant I. Janelid, internationally reputed in massive Figure 5: Block caving with LHDs, Henderson mine,
mining at the time, the first conceptual studies were original design
started. His approach points to the dynamics of gravity
flow and to materials handling of coarse ore. His
contribution in this respect was conceptually of great The experiences of El Salvador and Andina were
importance, even if swedish praxis and theory were extensively analysed, and also careful attention was given
oriented to sub-level caving, which has a different to the Henderson mine in the US, that had started
extraction dynamic. At that time, and for obvious reasons, operations with LHD recently (Figure 5). It was concluded
the possibility to seek advise from US consultants, with that the herringbone type configuration was the limiting
ample experience in block caving, was not an scenario. factor of these designs.

390 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Eventually, with minor differences, the three Codelco
mines ended up applying this methodology for the design of
the new production sectors, adopting variations of what has
been termed the "Teniente Type Design", with different
spacing between rows of draw points, as a function of the
expected fragmentation according to the local conditions of
each mine or sector. Also, even though it may seem a detail,
this greater flexibility has been possible because of better
mechanical conditions of equipment, which has made it
possible to ease the restriction imposed on them to load on
a straight line.

6 THE FUTURE AND PENDING PROBLEMS

The mining method which we have termed mass

caving with LHD, and in particular the "Teniente Type
Design", has been successful for more than 20 years
and may well continue to be a good option for mass
mining in the future. It is a productive and low cost
method, which makes it the logical continuation for deep
open pit mines. Nevertheless, there are still many
challenges to face.
The main pending problems are related to the following:
forced caving and/or pre-conditioning
caving height
secondary fragmentation
seismic activity and collapse of openings
draw control and reserve recovery
undercutting rate

Forced caving and/or pre-conditioning: One of the

effective ways to control the occurrence of rock bursts has
been to maintain a low draw down rate for the initial area of
a project, until it can break through to surface or the
previous level, which usually happens after one third of the
Figure 6: Block caving with LHDs, El Teniente mine. rock column has been extracted. After this precaution,
practice has shown that draw down rates can be
accelerated. It is possible that there exists a trade-off
The new proposed configuration (Figure 6) consisted in between the cost to force the caving or pre-condition the
confronting the loading accesses in opposite directions, and rock mass of an important initial area and, on the other
aligned along the same axis. The idea was to take hand, the benefit of obtaining a more productive rate and a
advantage of the space provided by both loading accesses safer undercut.
for the manoeuvring of the LHD's. The design was validated
by marking down the ground plan on surface to duplicate the Undercutting height: The trend in under-cutting height in
design geometry, and test driving the first LHD equipment hard rock, at least in El Teniente, has been to decrease.
that had been acquired by the mine. Results spoke for From the initial 16,6 m used in sector Teniente 4 when it
themselves: the cycle time of equipment increased in only a started production in 1982, it has evolved to the actual 3,6
few seconds, which were irrelevant in the total cycle time. m in the pre-undercut modality being used in the Esmeralda
The adopted design is shown in Figure 6. sector. Even though this design has some opera-tional
The first block undercut with this new design started advantages, the doubt remains whether such a low
production in May, 1982. Two years later, after steady state undercutting height will cause the settling of huge blocks,
production and with a continuous modality of undercutting pressure on pillars and collapses of openings in the
(panel caving), 5 yd3 LHD productivity reached 850 t/shift, production level.
with a daily draw down rate in the order of 0,5 to 0,6 t/m2
(185 to 222 mm/day). Secondary fragmentation: The amount of secondary
blasting required by natural caving of hard rock can be
5 PRESENT DAY DESIGNS very significant. It is necessary to make a good prediction
of this unit operation and compare it to the convenience of
In the mid 80's Andina starts studying its third Production making a forced caving, as has been successfully done
Level (Third Panel Project) with the participation of D. for example in the west part of Teniente 4 South. The
Laubscher as consultant. A new design methodology was normal behaviour of rock is that secondary blasting will
incorporated. The distance between draw points was decrease as the extraction column increases. This unit
refined with respect to the expected fragmentation operation must be carefully planned, designed and
produced by the undercutting; also the interactive draw executed. After secondary blasting, there is a materials
concept was definitely introduced, postulating that the handling design for coarse ore, which depends upon the
diameter of the active material can attain 1,5 times the particular characteristics of each mine. There must be a
diameter of a column with isolated draw. Nonetheless, the match between bucket size of the LHD, grizzly size at the
results of recent investigations by the IM2 group of dump points, pickhammer at the production level or at the
Codelco and by the Mine Department of the University of reduction level, sizers or crushers if to load conveyor
Chile seem to indicate that the final "paper" about the belts, type and size of chutes if to load trucks or trains,
subject has not been written. bins, primary crushers, etc.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 391

 Seismic activity and collapse of openings: The Although there have been significant advances both in
collapse of openings in the production level is a problem to knowledge and in design and operation of Codelcos block
deal with. The main reasons for this problem are settling of caving mines, several issues still have to be addressed in
huge blocks, high abute-ment stresses, improper design, order to solve the many problems that remain, and most of
poor construction, and inadequate undercutting sequence. which are related to the geotechnical nature and behavior of
High stress concentrations can also produce induced the rock in the mines as they progressively get deeper.
seismi-city, with violent effects such as rockburts.
Examples of these are: 18% collapse of the total undercut
area in the production level of Teniente 4 South sector; 5 REFERENCES
major seismic events, between 3,2 and 4,0 in the Richter
scale, in Teniente Sub 6 sector from Jan 90 to Mar 92, with Alvial, J, 1992. Analysis of the extraction at Teniente 4 Sur
great damage and extensive stoppage of activities. LHD. Massmin 92. Johannesburg, South Africa, SAIMM,
A mitigation measure for these situations has been to pp. 233-244.
change the undercutting modality to pre-undercutting, which Behn, B and Gpfert, H, editores,1973. Los mtodos por
consists in making the production level openings and hundimiento: su aplicacin en minas chilenas. Primer
constructions "under shadow", that is, after the abutement Congreso latinoamericano de minera y metalurgia
stress has passed, which is accomplished by doing the extractiva, Santiago, Chile.
undercut before the development of the production level Chacn, J, 1976. Block Caving y LHD: Compatibles?,
openings and constructions. This has been successfully Revista Minerales N 134, Instituto de Ingenieros de
done in the Esmeralda sector of Teniente, even though not Minas de Chile (IIMCH).
exempt of problems. Chacn, J and Krstulovic, G, 1978. Antecedentes geotc-
High magnitude seismic events occur mainly at the start nicos para el hundimiento forzado con tiros de gran
of mining a virgin sector in highly competent rock, while dimetro, Revista Minerales N 144, IIMCH, Santiago,
subsidence is propagating to surface or to the previous Chile.
level. As a control measure, strict restrictions to the drawing Crdoba, N and y Daz, G, 1986. Hundimiento de bloques
rates are imposed up to one third extraction of the column, con traspaso LHD en mina El Teniente, Revista Minerales
after which the restriction is eased. As mitigating measures N 172, IIMCH, Santiago, Chile.
for rock projections and collapses caused by rockbursts, Didyk, M and Baeza, L, 1986. Geomecnica en la mina El
special reinforcement has been designed, where yielding Teniente, Revista Minerales Nos 172 173, IIMCH,
characteristics are important. Santiago, Chile.
Encina, V, 1977. Anlisis de alternativas de explotacin
Draw control and reserve recovery: In some which use de la mena dura en la mina Ro Blanco, Memoria de
block caving with LHD's, there is a trend of uneven draw. Ttulo, Universidad de Chile.
For instance, in Teniente 4 South sector, an effective LHD Hoppe, R. Amax prepares to cave the Henderson after a
productive daily rate varying between 0,1 and 9 t/m2, for an decade and $ 400 million in development, E/MJ January
average of 2,27 has been reported. Furthermore the daily 1976, New York.
draw rate for the whole sector was 0,59 t/m2 as an average. Ovalle, A and Codoceo, J, 1977. Factores que inciden en
This would indicate a deficiency in the draw control, which is la productividad de un bloque en la mina El Teniente,
also reflected in the low reserve recovery shown as Revista Minerales N 139, IIMCH, Santiago, Chile.
compared to higher figures for the standard chute tapper Ovalle, A and Albornoz, H, 1981. Block caving with LHD
system. For the first 66 million t extracted, recovery was equipment at El Teniente, Design and Operation of
+19% of the in-situ tonnage and -34% of the in-situ grade, Caving and Sub Level Stoping Mines, Dan Stewart,
with a resulting 10% loss in recovery in terms of fine copper. Editor, SME of AIME, Denver, US, pp. 355-361.
Ovalle, A, 1981, Analysis and considerations for Mining
Undercutting rate: The pre-undercut moda-lity, which the El Teniente ore body, Design and Operation of Caving
apparently has been a solution to preserve the integrity of and Sub Level Stoping Mines, Dan Stewart, Editor, SME
openings and deve-lopments of the production level, has of AIME, Denver, US, pp. 195-208.
important difficulties regarding accesses and coordination of Rojas, E, Cavieres, P, Dunlop R. and Gaete, S. Control of
work in a much restricted area. This limits the undercutting induced seismicity at El Teniente Mine, Codelco-Chile.
rate, and therefore the capacity to produce from the sector. Massmin 2000. Brisbane, Austalia, pp. 775-782
Some challenges ahead visualized to solve this problem Saldivia, J, 1976. Experiencia con uso de equipo LHD,
are: uncouple production faces; adopt advanced undercut mina EL Salvador, Revista Minerales N 133, IIMCH,
instead of pre-undercut and redesign fortification of Santiago, Chile.
accesses to allow for rockburst, and industrial engineering Sisselman, R, 1978. Chile's El Teniente mine: Meeting the
analysis to improve work organi-zation and coordination in challenge of declining ore grade, E/MJ Vol. 179 N6, New
the confined areas. York.
Susaeta, A and Daz, H, 2000. Estado del arte del
7 CONCLUSIONS modela-miento del flujo gravitacional en minera por
hundi-miento por bloques, Revista Minerales N 235,
The evolution of block caving in Chile over the last thirty IIMCH, Saantiago, Chile.
tears shows how the mining industry has been able to adapt Torres, S and Alvarez, R, 1987. Mtodo de Explotacin
to changing natural conditions, keeping its competitiveness para Ro Blanco III Panel, Revista Minerales N 177,
in spite of an increasingly complex environment. This has IIMCH, Santiago, Chile.
been possible thanks to the ingenuity, open mindedness
and effort of the professional teams both at the mines and in
supporting outside groups.
Among the different improvements which were introduced
during the three decades, the "Teniente Type Design" of the
production level has probably had the biggest impact on the
successful lay-out of the ore extraction scheme and has
hence been introduced in all three chilean operations.

392 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Koffiefontein mine front
cave - Case History
Linda Hannweg, Geotechnical Engineer, De Beers Kimberley and
Koffiefontein Mines, Loren Lorig, ITASCA S.A., Chile
Gert van Hout and Alan Guest, Department of Geotechnical Engineering, De Beers

Abstract
In a first for the diamond mining industry, Koffiefontein Mine in the Free State, South Africa, opted for the Front Cave
mining method to extract a 90 metre high block of kimberlite ore. Front Caving is essentially a combination of the
traditional Block Cave and Sub Level Cave mining methods using retreating drawpoints on two or more levels. Many
rules have to be applied in order to keep control over this method. Caving-by-gravity techniques of mining rely on
closely controlled draw of the caved ore to ensure proper caving action and to minimise the dilution of ore with waste
material from the open pit. The Front Cave was operated quite successfully until February 2003 when a major collapse
occurred on the undercut level, and significant movement was recorded on an upper sub-level cave level. The events
are thought to be related as they occurred at the same time. The cause of the collapse is uncertain, but a number of
actions that may have triggered it are described.

1 INTRODUCTION overall draw level infrastructure was considerably less

expensive than a similar sized Block Cave layout since the
In a first for the diamond mining industry, Koffiefontein complete draw level and its drawpoint support was not
Mine in the Free State, South Africa, opted for the Front required to last the life of the cave as would be the case with
Cave mining method to extract a 90 metre high block of Block Caving. Lower initial capital requirements together
kimberlite ore. It was initially planned to mine the ore body with the benefit of concurrent production from upper levels
by the Blast Hole Open Stoping mining method used in the during production build up in the Front Cave, guaranteed
upper levels, but slope stability studies indicated the early revenue to offset up-front capital expenditure.
possibility of major ore dilution from slope failure in the Front Caving is essentially a combination of the traditional
surrounding rock. Block Cave and Sub Level Cave mining methods using
Other mining methods were considered, including the retreating drawpoints on two or more levels. The extraction
Sub-Level Cave method as well as conventional and levels consist of 4m wide by 4.2m high tunnels spaced at
mechanised Block Caving. Due to the low in-situ grade, 15m centres. The two levels are vertically spaced 12 metres
Block Caving, although technically sound, was ruled out apart with the upper level (480m or 48 Level) acting as the
because the large capital requirements would result in a main undercut level. The lower level (490m or 49 Level) is
negative return on investment. the main extraction level.

2 BACKGROUND

The main reason for a proposed change of mining method

was to control the increasing quantities of dilution that would
occur as mining progressed. The retreating block cave method
(having production levels on 450m and 470m, and scavenger
level on 490m level) was initially decided on; however this
meant that all the dilution had to be loaded out before the next
blast could be taken. The stability of the 450m level
drawpoints was considered a problem owing to a 60-degree
angle to the 470m (47) level operating drawpoints. The
irregular shape of the cave front would lead to higher side
dilution. By pulling 60% of the ore column on 450 and 470m
levels, dilution would be brought into these drawpoints and the
490m level scavenger drawpoints would draw into diluted ore
zones. A further consideration was the capital cost involved in
developing a third level.
Front Caving was felt to be technically sound with a Figure 1: Section through Koffiefontein Mine
minimum financial outlay, an advantage without which
Koffiefontein Mine would not have been able to mine the
block economically. This included the fact that operations 3 ESTABLISHING THE FRONT CAVE
could continue on the upper levels while mining began in the
centre blocks of the Front Cave, allowing for a slower The initial slot cutting took place on the east-west axis.
production build up required from the Front Cave itself. The Two 660mm raise-bore holes were drilled upwards from 48

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 393

Level for 18m. A 660mm hole was drilled between 48 and
49 Levels, and reamed to 1,2m. A pattern of 89mm holes
were then drilled around these raise-bore holes and blasted
until the opening was 4m wide. Further rings were blasted
from east to west until the slot was 10m wide. The slot was
then progressed for 22m after which the 49 Level section of
the slot blasting commenced.
Once the eastern portion of the slot was established,
undercutting commenced against the mudstone contact
where preferential caving was most likely to occur. During
this undercut process, only the swell from the blasted
ground was drawn to create sufficient void to blast the next
ring. Broken ground in the void provided a cushion to limit
the effect in the event of an air blast. The undercut was
retreated 24m from the slot centreline on 48 Level and 13m
on 49 Level. The undercut was not retreated in a longwall
fashion (parallel to the rows of drawpoints) but rather in a
breast configuration with the eastern side leading the
undercut. This allowed undercutting and production (and Figure 2: Plan detail of Front Cave layout showing tunnel 3
hence revenue) to commence whilst development was in on the left and 29 on the right
progress.
During the undercutting phase and the opening of the slot, This 20-degree angle would thus ensure that there was a
high horizontal stresses perpendicular to the slot axis were continuous and almost constant production throughout the
experienced. This could be seen in the large deformations life of mine: some drawpoints would be producing while
in the support, especially in the hangingwall of the slot about other drawpoints were retreated to their next semi-
20m from the brow on 48 and 49 Levels. It was noticed that permanent position.
the south side suffered more stress build-up than did the This angle also ensured that waste (not on top of the cave
north side. at the start but later having filled the entire pit) would not rill
Hydraulic radius was achieved by undercutting a into the eastern side of the pit as 20 degrees is far below the
small column of ore, which was then drawn until the angle of repose for kimberlite, 37 degrees.
planned extraction percentage was achieved. The next This rule was converted from a value in degrees to a rule
column of ore was then mined by advancing the expressed in depletion difference between neighbouring
undercut. columns in April 2002. This was justified on the basis of
On Friday, 13 November 1998 the Front Cave holed several arguments such as the problem of calculating an
through into the 370m Level pit floor. The theoretical angle: what density needs to be used to convert pulled tons
hydraulic radius of 17 (90m x 55m) was achieved in to a height difference in a column, bulked or virgin? Also,
December 1998. The period between 50% and 100% one could ask the question what angle it can be referred to,
hydraulic radius is critical in terms of delays, which could the angle on top of the remaining column or the angle based
result in the build-up of stresses. The undercut must be on mined tons?
advanced as smoothly as possible during this period, and This rule was not always adhered to, mainly due to
the timing of ring drilling, blasting and loading should remain production pressures, resulting in the drawpoint being
on schedule. brought into production regardless of whether or not the 20
degree angle was in place.
4 RULES DURING PRODUCTION STAGE Two rules were established with regards to the North-
South control. The first dictated that the depletion difference
Right from the start of the feasibility study (Preece, between two similar columns across the central slot should
1996), it was decided to draw at a maximum of 400 mm not exceed 1000 tons (N-S rule). The other stipulated that
per column per day. This rate was set such that the caved the production on both sides should have ceased at the
ground has time to mature and by attrition, reduce the same time, in other words, the North side should slow down
fragmentation size of rocks reporting to the drawpoints. In the production after strip one as it has more drawpoints than
June 2001, the draw rate was consciously increased to the South.
600 mm for a period of three months during the first strip
extraction, in order to see what the effect on 5 RETREAT STAGE
fragmentation was. Larger than normal blocks were found
at the drawpoints, and the influx of waste (dolerite and The original planned sequence of retreating was as
shale) was rapid. The original draw rate of 400 mm was follows: Once a column achieved a depletion of 81%, the
found to be most practical. semi-permanent drawpoints (SPDs) have to retreat to the
In order to maintain a smooth production profile, it next position. (concrete SPDs act as passive support to
was decided to apply an East to West angle of 20 prevent brow deterioration). From this position it was again
degrees. This 20 degrees angle was considered to be planned to mine another 90 m high, 24 m by 15 m wide ore
an appropriate compromise between geotechnical and column, without causing failure in the vertical wall of the
production requirements. It did coincide with the angle next column.
between the horizontal and the line obtained when Once the hydraulic radius was achieved, and the mine
connecting the bottom of the most eastern column and had been in production for a while, concerns were raised on
the top of the most western column, both on the North the timing of the pull back of the SPDs to the next strip.
side of the Front Cave. If production could adhere to These concerns were justified as at that stage. The ore was
this rule, it meant not covered by any waste and failure of waste material from
that the very first column (T29/T28 on the East) on a the open pit above could easily sterilise any ore if a
particular strip could retreat at the same time when the last subsequent localised kimberlite failure (of the now vertical
column of that strip (T3/T4/T5) came into production (Figure ore faces), was to occur. The probability of a kimberlite
2). failures was very real, as the depletion of a column would

394 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

theoretically leave a vertical ore face of 90 m high. In fact that were retreated to the next position. The introduction of
(and later seen), depleting an ore column from 48 level and the 12 m intervals on the 48 level and then the abolition
49 level brought down the surface of a 24 m by 15 m ore thereof caused major problems in the scheduling of
column in a vertical mode, without causing failure or retreating the SPDs, resulting in poor interaction between all
affecting the ore column in the next strip. This is very SPDs.
unlikely in the absence of any confining material against the There was evidence that pillars or span interrupts -
vertical wall, and was certainly a real concern for the Front since pillars do not necessarily consist of intact kimberlite -
Cave during the mining in strip 1. were left when retreating to the next SPD position. These
The geotechnical engineers decided to break the strict span interrupts prevented the cave from propagating above
connection between 48 and 49 SPDs at a high column the undercut rings, allowing the waste to rill into the tunnels,
depletion stage. By retreating the 48 level SPDs in 12 m cutting off intact ore. There was a perception on the mine
intervals, it was hoped to flatten the profile of broken that the 12 m intervals on 48 level were insufficient to cause
material in the cavity and hence reduce the probability of caving to follow. However, cave inhibition was most likely
highwall toppling failures. It was further intended to reduce caused by the span interrupts, not insufficient span. By this
the sterilisation of ore zones as a result of the increased time also, major pit sidewall failures had occurred, resulting
sphere of influence of the 48 Level drawpoint cones. in the disappearance of the threat of highwall toppling
Another advantage of decoupling the 48-49 relationship failures. The decision was then taken to revert to the
was that the draw ellipsoid of the 48 level SPD did not original pullback scenario i.e. 24m on both levels, which
overlap that of 49 level, and therefore the 400mm rule could have proven to work well.
be applied over two columns. The possibility of increased Retreating the SPDs took longer than expected and
call convinced mine management to agree with the following during these periods, there was no proper interactive draw.
changes put forward by geotechnical staff in June 2000: In addition, during the 2 months before the failure, brow
Retreat 48 level SPDs at 12 m intervals, assume their zone positions were unintentionally retreated rapidly without
of influence to extend 12 m ahead of the SPD and not loading the entire call after blasting the undercut rings.
interact with the zone of influence of the 49 level SPD.
This retreating process would then be repeated after each 8 FAILURE
strip is completed, until the entire ore block is depleted to
the contact. Since the Front Cave mining started in 1997, no
significant geotechnical occurrences were recorded until
6 DRAW CONTROL February 2003. In February 2003, tunnels on the northeast
side of the pipe on 48 Level began to collapse from the cave
Subsidence mining relies on closely controlled draw of the front towards the contact, and cracks started to form in the
caved ore to ensure proper caving action and to minimise footwall of tunnels on the northwest side of 37 Level close
the dilution of ore with waste material from the open pit. to the contact at the same time. Collapse of tunnels close
A Mixed Integer Linear Program based draw control was to the contact on the northwest side of 49 Level followed.
developed for Koffiefontein Mine, the first mine in De Beers
where a Vehicle Monitoring system was linked directly to a 9 NUMERICAL MODELLING
draw scheduling program (Guest et al, 2000 and Hannweg OF ROCKMASS BEHAVIOUR
et al, 2001). It was initially implemented to schedule the call
from the Front Cave and was used successfully until June Following the collapses in 2003, earlier three-dimensional
2000 when the pullback was changed to 12m. Two numerical models were updated in an attempt to explain the
versions of this MILP based code were implemented observed behaviour. This included simulation of the actual
successfully, the last one however for a very short period of mining sequence prior to the collapse and introduction of a
time. Due to staffing limitions, a third version could not be new rock mass material model based on the Hoek-Brown
developed and an Excel based program was applied, and is failure criterion. Among other things, the new rock mass
still being used. material model (Cundall et al, 2003) allowed for a strength
A dedicated draw control officer has kept records of all reduction (strain softening) as the rock mass weakened
daily draw figures, waste predictions, ran the draw control over a critical strain, scrit. The rock mass material properties
programs and declined on a number of occasions to give used in the analyses are shown in Table 1.
production personnel extra call when it was not aligned with
the rules described above. Table 1: TKB Rock Mass Material Properties
The concept of a Production Factor and Draw Control
Parameter Value
Factor was also initiated at Koffiefontein. Both factors are a
single value between 0 and 100%, indicating how well the Density 2430 kg/m3
actual production over a weekly period adhered to the
UCS 50 MPa
planned call (Production Factor) and to draw control rules
(Draw Control Factor). RMR (GSI) 50
Rock mass elastic modulus 7 GPa
7 FRONT CAVE PERFORMANCE Rock mass Poissons ratio 0.25
mb (D=0) 1.677
Production from the Front Cave occasionally exceeded
the planned production. There was a constant pressure to mb (D=1) 0.281
mine drawpoints at full capacity once they came into s (D=0) 0.0039
production, leading to a flatter draw profile than expected. s (D=1) 0.0002
This then resulted in more drawpoints having to retreat at
Critical Strain, scrit 4.5%
the same time, causing logistical problems with the pull back
operation. Despite the production pressure, most draw
control rules were adhered to very well and the recovery of The updated numerical modelling showed that:
strip one exceeded the planned 81% by far. But as a result,
the ore/waste interface was now very close to the The original design may have been somewhat brittle or
production elevation and waste actually followed the SPDs fragile. The original extraction level layout with parallel

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 395

 tunnels spaced 12m vertically and 15-m horizontally had 10 CONCLUSIONS
a horizontal pillar width of 11 meters. Overbreak reduced
the average pillar widths to about 10.4. If it is assumed From the discussions detailed, it can be seen that a
that blast damage reduced the pillar to ten meters then number of factors contributed to the sudden massive failure
the resultant pillars with rock bolt support had the capacity experienced at Koffiefontein Mine. No single action can be
to support 11.5 MPa of vertical stress based on two- held accountable for this. The Front Cave mining method
dimensional numerical analysis using average RMR and has many inherent rules to make it work if these are all
UCS properties. Taking into account measured variations strictly adhered to, there would be no problem with the
in RMR and UCS the pillars probably had a capacity method. In the case of Koffiefontein Mine, production
about 10 to 13 MPa. constraints and requirements may have contributed to the
Three-dimensional modelling suggested that pre-mining failure of the Front Cave.
vertical stresses could have been in the order of 8 to 11
MPa and that mining increased vertical stresses at the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
abutment.
Abutment stresses increase as mining retreats toward the The authors are grateful to all their colleagues that helped
kimberlite/country rock contact, and them during the development of this work. Also, the authors
Introduction of a veranda geometry due to rapid brow wish to acknowledge the permission of the Director,
retreat at the extraction level significantly increases Operations to publish this paper.
vertical abutment stresses over cases without a veranda
geometry. REFERENCES

Therefore, it appears that the extraction level had only a Cundall, P, C. Carranza-Torres & R. Hart, 2003. A new
small safety factor with respect to the applied loads, making constitutive model based on the Hoek-Brown criterion.
pillar collapse a plausible failure mechanism. Any factor that Guest, A and Van Hout, G, 2000. An application of Linear
increased abutment loads could have contributed to stability Programming for Block Cave Draw Control, in
problems. The factors that potentially contributed to proceedings MASSMIN 2000, Brisbane, pp 461-468.
abutment loading included the rapid retreat on 48 Level from Hannweg, L and Van Hout, G, 2001. Draw Control at
December 2002 to February 2003, a crater wall failure that Koffiefontein Mine, in proceedings Mine Mechanistaion
imposed an additional load on top and the irregular mining and Automation, 2001, Johannesburg, pp
pattern over the previous two years. The pillar collapse Preece, M, 1996. Front Caving a solution to waste
mechanism is manifest as severe tunnel deformation as dilution at Koffiefontein Mine for the extraction of the
shown in Figure 2. 370m to 490m ore reserve. Massive Mining Methods,
It should be noted that the numerical analyses assumed Randburg. The South African Institute of Mining and
homogeneous and isotropic initial conditions. Weathering, Metallurgy.
particularly contact with water, is known to severely reduce
the strength of kimberlite. Weathering in the floor may
explain the severe floor heave observed in the mine, but
which was not as evident in the numerical models.
For the parameters used here, mb > 1.5 indicates
undamaged rock and mb < 0.5 indicates completely
damaged rock.

Figure 3: Tunnel deformation and rock damage around

extraction tunnels

396 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Hendersons new 7210
production level
K. Keskimaki, B. Nelson, M. Callahan, R. Golden, S. Teuscher, C. deWolfe, A. Hansen,
Climax Molybdenum Company, Henderson Mine Empire, CO USA

Abstract
Hendersons new 7210 panel cave production level is currently under development, with plans to initiate the undercut in
October 2004. This level will provide nearly all the production from Henderson for the next 20 years. The 7210 level
design is similar to 7700 level with the following improvements: high lift cave, wider bell spacing, enhanced wire meshing
and shotcrete for drift support, a redesigned drawpoint brow, alternative roadway construction methods and the addition
of dewatering drifts. These improvements will reduce ore development costs by over 50% from historic costs. The initial
undercut area will be monitored with TDR to ensure that voids that potentially could cause an air blast are not allowed
to form. LHDs with 7.4 m3 buckets will feed bins that transfer the ore from 7210 production level to 7065 truck level,
where remotely controlled loading chutes are utilized to load 72 tonne side dump haul trucks. From there the ore will
flow across the existing 24 km conveyor system to the concentrator located on the opposite side of the continental divide.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Description

The new 7210 level is as deep as 1550 m below the peak
of the overlying mountain, with the crusher reclaim located
at a depth of 1643 m. This makes Henderson one of the
deepest caving operations in the world. (Figure 1).
The largest improvement in development costs comes
from mining a portion of the orebody in a 240 m to 340 m
high cave. Another major change to the way the cave is
mined is an increase in the drift spacing from 24.4 m to 30.5
m. This will reduce the number of bells which will need to
be mined to exploit this orebody. Other improvements
included in the new lower level include an increase in the
size of the bucket on the existing and new LHDs from 6.7
m3 to 7.4 m3 and improved support in the drawpoints.
Finally, roads have been improved on the 7065 haulage
level by changing construction methods to allow for less
expensive new installation and easier repairs. The Figure 1: Henderson Mine Cross Section
dewatering drifts ease the maintenance of the roads by
positively draining away the water as well. These
improvements have and will increase productivity and will is relatively continuous in the orebody and consists of
also make the operation much safer. These improvements molybdenite and quartz in random, intersecting, closely
combined with a behavioral based safety program and a spaced veinlets. (Rech et al, 2000)
commitment to "Zero" (to not get hurt at work or at home), The ore of the Henderson deposit has exhibited the
have driven the incident rate four times lower than it was 15 strength characteristics of a competent granite or rhyolite,
years ago, and three times lower than five years ago. with uniaxial compressive strengths typically ranging
Although larger, the modern equipment greatly reduces the between 100 Mpa and 275 Mpa.
risk to the operator due to enhanced designs, better Past experience on the 8100 and 7700 production levels
guarding, and more ergonomic cabs with sound has been that the rock caves fairly readily, more so than
suppression and dust filtration. might be expected of a rock of this compressive strength.
This is believed to be due to the lubricating influence of
molybdenite coatings and fillings on geologic structures.
2 GEOTECHNICAL ISSUES The low friction angle of molybdenite leads to easy shear
ON THE LOWER LEVEL CAVE and tensile failure along mineralized structures. Ore grade
has historically been a good indicator of both rock
The Henderson molybdenum deposit is comrised of two competency, and cavability at Henderson (Rech et al,
partially overlapping orebodies that lie 1080 m to 1600 m 2000).
beneath the summit of Red Mountain. The orebodies are Low grade areas, particularly in the high-silica zones on
entirely within a Tertiary rhyolite porphyry intrusive complex the 8100 production level, correlated closely with areas
ranging in age from 24 to 30 million years that has intruded where weight problems were experienced (Rech et al,
Precambrian granite. The deposit is elliptical in plan, with 1992).
overall dimensions of 670 m x 910 m. In section, it is These relationships are expected to continue to hold true
arcuate with an overall height of 550 m. The mineralization for the 7210 production level. Models showing ore

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 397

classification by molybdenum grade will be created to help
predict geomechanical conditions. It is also expected that
models of other geomechanical parameters such as RQD
and a rock mass classification such as RMR or Q will be
developed. Historically, Hendersons RQD has ranged from
0 to 100, averaging 49, and RMR has been found to range
from 27 to approximately 60 (Rech et al, 2000).
Orderly progression of the growth of the new cave on the
7210 production level is vital to ensure safe working
conditions and achievement of production goals. A plan to
monitor growth of the cave using Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) cables has been developed.
The current plan assumes installation of TDR cables in 13
vertical holes approximately 120 m long. Those holes will
be drilled from exhausted areas of the overlying 7700
production level. The layout of these holes on
approximately 50 m centers and their near-vertical
orientation should provide good data of the geometry of the
new lower level cave as it grows up towards the existing
cave.
A similar system of vertical and sub-vertical TDR cables
was successfully used at Henderson to monitor the growth
of the 7755 level cave towards the 8100 production level Figure 2 7210 Level General Layout
(Rech and Watson, 1994).
It will also be important to monitor the eastward growth of
the 7210 cave as it crosses over the critical boundary from also reduces the amount of drifting required on the 7065
low-lift to high-lift conditions. truck haulage level.
For this purpose, two additional fans of inclined holes are The 7210 production level is located 18.3 m below the
planned to be drilled from the former 7500 rail haulage level. undercut level. Production drift spacing is 30.5 m with
TDR cables installed in inclined holes on the northeast drawpoints spaced at 17.1 m intervals. The entry angle into
corner of the 7755 undercut level are currently showing the the drawpoints is 56 degrees. (Figure 3).
eastward progression of the cave in response to the
shooting of the undercut. 3.1 Bell Development
Where safely possible, cave growth will also be monitored The increase in the production drift spacing from 24.4 m
by routine drift inspections on the existing upper levels to 30.5 m necessitated a redesign of the V-cut and bell. The
which are located in the path of the cave growth from the location of the brow relative to the production drift was not
7270 undercut level. changed when the drift spacing was increased. This
resulted in a doubling in the length of the V-cut from 7.4 m
3 LAYOUT & DEVELOPMENT to 14.8 m. The V-cut has 3 drill set-up locations from each
end of the drawpoint crosscut rather than the single set-up
The 8100 and 7700 production levels were oriented with in the past (Figure 4). The new drawpoint spacing and brow
production drifts at a bearing of due north. The 7210 lcation results in a much more uniform area of influence for
production level is rotated to an azimuth of 64 degrees. the drawpoints than with the previous layout.
(Figure 2). This orientation better follows the orientation of The bell development drilling was also redesigned with
the orebody and reduces the amount of boundary drifting. It the increase in the production drift spacing. The previous

Figure 3 7210 Drawpoint Layout

398 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

method of bell development required holes to cross each
other from the two adjacent undercut drifts. This required
the offsetting of bell development rings from drift to drift.
Although the offset would theoretically eliminate the
intersection of bell development holes from the adjacent
drifts, it was still a common occurrence. The alternating
offsetting of the rings from drift to drift also resulted in bell
shapes that were inconsistent from drift to drift.
The new bell and undercut ring spacing is 2.13 m with 8
rings per bell. This new bell development ring design has
eliminated the issue of intersecting holes and has made the
bell shape consistent from drift to drift. In addition, the slope
from the major apex of the bell down to the brow is now
defined with holes from the near drift resulting in a
consistent and well defined surface. The previous design
defined this slope with the ends of holes from the opposite
drift which resulted in a ragged and inconsistent slope,
especially when the ends of these holes were lost and
couldnt be loaded (Figure 4).
Figure 4 7210 Ring and V-cut Layout
3.2 Production Drift and Drawpoint Support
As part of lean mining at Henderson, an evaluation of the
support for the production drifts and draw points was Spacing of the ore bins varies from 102 m to 137 m
conducted. The poured concrete linings required significant depending on factors such as the overall length of the
manpower to install and maintain and in most cases were production drift and the ore column height and tonnage in
over-designed for the draw life of the area. The current the particular area. Ore storage bins are oriented with the
design is an installation of 100 mm by 100 mm by 12 gauge long axis parallel to the 7210 level production drifts, and half
wire mesh with 1.5 m split bolts covered with 100 mm of way between the two production drifts that each bin serves.
shotcrete as soon as the excavation of the draw point is (Figure 6). The bins are developed off drifts driven
completed. This flexible support is more forgiving under perpendicular to the production drifts on the 7150 ventilation
abutment loads than the poured concrete linings. This level. Accessing the bins from this level allows the
process requires minimal re-shotcreting to maintain safe exhausting of some ventilation air down the orepasses,
production drifts for the draw life of the area. The steel brow reducing the pistoning effect and resulting dusting on the
section is the only the portion that is in poured concrete. production level. The two 60 degree, bored 2.1 m diameter
(Figure 5). production orepasses feed the bin from opposite sides and
opposite ends of the storage bin.
3.3 Bins and Orepasses The bins are developed by mining a 5.5 m wide by 25 m
The ore bins for the new production level will be long bin cutout on the 7150 ventilation level. A 2.1 m
configured similarly to the bins used to feed ore from the diameter by 18.5 m long raise is bored at a declination of
7700 production level to the 7500 rail haulage level. The 65 degrees from the 7150 level down to the truck loading
major difference is that the new bins will be developed chute cutout on the production level. The bin is then mined
directly over the truck haulage level for the center loading by drilling from the 7150 level and slashing to the bored
chutes rather than the offset configuration used with the raise. The resulting bin capacity is approximately 675
side-loading chutes for with the trains. tonnes.

Figure 5 7210 Drawpoint Support

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 399

 3.5 Shops
Currently, the haul truck fleet, consisting of four 72 tonne
haulage trucks, is maintained in the 7065 haulage level
shop. This shop consists of a primary crane bay with four
adjoining secondary work bays. An 18 tonne overhead
bridge crane having 32 meters of travel and a maximum
working height of 6 meters serves the crane bay. In addition
to the haul trucks, mine support and development
equipment is also maintained in the 7065 shop.
A shop will be built on the 7210 production level to
support the seven production LHDs. This shop will consist
of a crane bay with two adjoining secondary work bays. An
18 tonne bridge crane having 10 meters of travel and a
maximum working height of 4 meters is currently planned.
Like the 7065 shop, the 7210 shop will also be used to
maintain mine support and development equipment.
The fuel system for the 7210 and 7065 levels will consist
of a 26,000 liter tank and an automated fuel transfer system
fed from the existing 8035 fuel storage system that is fed via
a fuel line from the surface. The 8035 storage has a total
capacity of 80,000 liters. Oil and lube is provided to both the
7210 and 7065 levels using totes, refilled from surface
storage facilities.

4 HIGH LIFT CAVING

The word "lift" refers to the height of the ore column

extracted by a production level of draw points in any caving
operation. Traditionally, at Henderson, production levels
were developed to extract a nominal 122 m lift. This means
Figure 6 7210 Ore Bin Layout that every 122 m vertically in the ore body, a new production
level with drawpoints and the associated levels to support
the production level must be mined. Therefore, it stands to
The rock above the front of the truck loading chute is reason, that if the lifts can be made higher, the amount of
reinforced by installing cable bolts from the 7150 level. development mining will be decreased.
These bolts are installed after the orepass is bored from As production progressed on the 7700 level, engineers
7150 to the 7065 chute but before the bin is slashed. and operators began to study and design the next lower
Additional ground support such as grouting and additional production level. The optimum elevation for the new level
bolting will be added as geologic conditions warrant. was determined to be 7210. This would result in a slightly
higher lift of 150 m to mine the ore beneath 7700 level. At
3.4 Ventilation this time, only the western portion of the 7700 level had
The ventilation system at Henderson is an exhaust been mined and the idea emerged that the eastern portion
system that uses a single 930 kW fan on the surface of the of the ore above the 7700 level could be mined from the
7 m diameter No. 1 exhaust shaft and six 225 kW 7210 level. This would result in a nominal 240 m to 340 m
underground fans that feed the 9.8 m diameter No. 5 lift for the eastern portion of 7210 while a 150 m lift would
exhaust shaft. Intake air is fed to the mine through the 8.5 remain for the western portion of 7210 beneath 7700 level.
m diameter No. 2 shaft, the 7 m diameter No. 3 shaft and If the 270 m lift could be done, it would cut the
the 16 km conveyor tunnel. The No. 2 shaft also serves as development mining costs per ton of ore in half. Loss of ore,
primary access into the mine. however, could quickly negate these savings if there were to
The new production level will not require deepening of the be major problems. To address these concerns, Henderson
ventilation shafts nor new ventilation drifts to be driven to personnel benchmarked several other caving mines around
these shafts. Ventilation raises were bored from the the world that utilized high lift caves. Codelcos El Teniente
perimeter of the previous intake and exhaust ventilation and Andina mines in Chile and the DOZ mine at Freeport,
levels down to the new ventilation levels. The main access Indonesia were visited and found to be using high lifts
ramp to the new production level also serves as a primary successfully. The Philex Mine in the Philippines, although
source of intake air. not visited, had been using high lifts for years. The
Production area ventilation consists of intake air that is fed information gathered from this benchmarking, along with the
up 2.1 m diameter raises that are northeast of the initial experience at Henderson of observing very vertical caving
production area. A temporary boundary drift was driven at the from cave monitoring systems and observation of the cave
southwest end of the initial cave area. Ventilation doors will be propagation to the surface, led to the decision to design and
installed in all production drifts along this southwest boundary. develop a high lift cave for the eastern portion of the 7210
A 2.1 m diameter exhaust raise will be bored from each of level.
these drifts to the 7150 exhaust level. All intake and exhaust In addition to cutting development costs per ton in half, a
raises will have pneumatically controlled doors so that high lift cave has other advantages. Hendersons
ventilation can be shut off from inactive production drifts. experience has been that dilution from surrounding waste
The 7025 drainage level doubles as a secondary exhaust rock in a cave is less when there is not an existing cave
ventilation level. Each of the truck loading chutes has a 1.2 above. Dilution occurs when fine rock from an older cave
m diameter exhaust raise at the back of the chute that draws above sifts down through the coarser ore from the new
air down to the drainage level. This design ensures that the cave. This phenomenon is avoided with the high lift. There
dust generated during truck loading operations is pulled will also be no steel from the drawpoints of an exhausted
away from the truck operator. production level above reporting to the lower level with a

400 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

high lift. Secondary blasting will be minimized as the and utilize a 5-axle system. The third and fourth axles
percentage of very coarse ore from the bottom of ore are the drive axles while all but the center axle provide
columns will be low. steering.
There will also be several challenges with a high lift. While Average cycle time is seven minutes, with an average
fine ore will minimize secondary blasting, it can also create productivity of 560 tonnes per operating hour. Although the
dust problems and problems with grinding at sag mills at the trucks are rated at 72 tonnes, they are typically loaded to
concentrator. Fine ore will be present for the upper two only 68 tonnes due to bed liners. The truck beds are lined
thirds of a high lift column as compared to the upper one with seven tonnes of 500 Brinell hardness liner plate to
third of a 122 m column. Since twice the tonnage is undercut minimize wear on bed surfaces.
with each cave shot, the undercutting process will be much Choice of the rigid-framed, side-dump trucks came from
slower. As a result the abutment loading in front of the cave extensive benchmarking trips to other underground and
will sit in one spot for a longer time, potentially resulting in surface mines. The rigid frame design has a longer life
more damage to the pillars. This will create the need for than the articulated trucks typically found in underground
additional ground support on the undercut level as well as mines. And, when the 72 tonne trucks were ordered, the
additional support for the drawpoints. Each drawpoint will be largest underground articulated truck available had a
used to extract twice the tonnage creating a need for a capacity of only 60 tonnes. Although tractor/trailer
longer lasting brow. combinations were available with larger capacities,
At Henderson the benefits outweigh the challenges for a benchmarking indicated that rigid frame trucks were
high lift cave. These challenges will be addressed with the capable of faster dump cycle times since no stabilizing
design of the production and undercut levels. jacks are required for dumping. In addition, rigid frame
trucks traditionally require less maintenance (Tyler,
5 PRODUCTIVITY AND LEAN MINING Keskimaki and Stewart, 2000).
Issues with the trucks have been the under-designed
5.1 Productivity for LHDs axles which have been replaced with heavy duty axles and
The Henderson mine LHD production rate is expected to steering linkages which have also been upgraded. Potential
increase from 270 tonnes per hour per LHD to 300 tonnes improvements for the future include replacing the heavy
per hour per LHD on the 7210 production level even though liner plate with lighter plate, and modifications to the loading
the average tram distance will increase from 50 meters to 60 process to more evenly distribute the weight and increase
meters. This improvement is a direct result of recently capacity.
increasing the size of LHD buckets from 6.7 m3 to 7.4 m3. Currently, 7 center-loading chutes are used to load
the haul trucks. A truck backs under a chute, and then
5.2 Lean Mining loads as the truck pulls forward. The chute is operated
Historically a large portion of mining cost at the via an infrared controlled remote, with video monitoring
Henderson Mine has been associated with substantial in the cab and the chute and video is also available at a
development mining leads to ensure cave capacity that central dispatch control room. Chutes are designed for
would support any production demand. Recent market between two million and six million tones of ore and
conditions have forced Henderson to reevaluate this have liner plates ranging from 37 mm to 75 mm in
process and develop a lean mining approach to long thicknesses. Chute supporting steel is embedded in
development leads. Development drifting, undercut concrete and a concrete floor is poured in the chute and
drifting, undercut drilling, bell development, draw points and entrance.
undercutting blasting are now in the same year they are The haulage trucks are currently operated via two-way
scheduled for production. Mining activities that are traffic with an average tram distance of 1000 m (Figure 7).
significantly above our current capabilities are addressed by The trucks are operated in 6.1 m wide by 5.5 m high drifts,
using a contract mining company. which are wide enough for a single truck. The traffic control
system is a municipal off-the-shelf system programmed for
5.3 Contracted mine development our truck route. This system is flexible and allows for
In lieu of adding staff and mining equipment to complete changing traffic patterns. Installation and maintenance of
the development of the 7210 level with company forces, the system is performed by the instrumentation staff at the
Henderson chose to hire a mining contractor to complete a mine (Tyler et al 2000).
portion of this work (6.5 km). The advantages, with over 50 The haulage system is currently running at 20,000 tonnes
per cent of the work completed, include less disruption to per day utilizing two trucks. Development is nearly
normal mine production as the existing employees and complete to allow the haulage system to operate as one-
supervisors can focus on their normal activities. Henderson way traffic for increased productivity.
supplies four contractor support personnel, a project
manager, and consumables like rock bolts and wire, and 6.1 Haulage road construction
shotcrete as required. Haul roads on the 7065 haulage level are vastly improved
from when the haulage level started in late 1999.
6 7065 HAULAGE LEVEL Improvements in drainage, road construction and
maintenance have been instituted and truck productivity has
In 1999, Henderson replaced its 23-year-old rail haulage increased.
system with a 24 km conveyor system fed from an While ramping down to the haulage level, large water
underground crusher. To feed this crusher, Henderson inflows were encountered. Original estimates were 150 l/m
purchased four side dumping 72 tonne haul trucks. These to 200 l/m based on core holes drilled through the proposed
are backed up by two 36 tonne, rear dumping haul trucks crusher centerline. Actual flows in the declines to the
used to initially develop the level and access ramps. Truck haulage level peaked at 1,500 l/m to 2,000 l/m of 50 degree
loading is accomplished by remote controlled C water when the 7065 level was reached (Callahan et al
pneumatic/mechanical center loading chutes. Truck traffic is 2000). The discrepancy was due to the nature of the
controlled by a timed light system, similar to a city traffic geology of the haulage level. The crusher itself is designed
control system. to be in the barren, but stronger Ute granite. Most of the
Production is currently achieved through the use of two haul route is located outside the core in surrounding stocks
or three of the 72 tonne trucks. The trucks are rigid frame (Carten et al 1988). Water courses abound in the contacts

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 401

 Figure 7 7065 Haulage Level Layout

between the stocks and are intersected throughout the program using motor graders and a vibratory compactor was
haulage route. instituted to keep these roads passable for the 72 tonne trucks.
As haulage was first initiated on the level, a series of Studies and benchmarking were undertaken to develop a
pumps and drainage pipes were installed. Although this longer lasting, easier to maintain road. Concrete roads were
system was adequate for the first year, as the route eliminated due to installation cost and previous experience
expanded, road inundation and damage occurred with that had shown a rough ride and a short life (less than 6
resulting loss in production. months). Three types of an engineered road system were
A secondary system of sump pumps and concrete ditches chosen and tried. The first roadway system (Type 1) was a
was installed and a dedicated drainage maintenance worker sub-base of ballast, a layer of geotextile, and a top layer of
was assigned to keep the water from damaging road mixed mine muck and raisebore cuttings.
integrity. The second roadway system (Type 2) investigated was a
Finally in the fall of 2002, production had to be halted for sub-base of ballast, a honey-combed grid system 15 mm
one week in order to install concreted roadway in 245 m of thick filled with ballast, a layer of geotextile and a ballast and
the north end of the haulage route due to inability to mine muck mix top layer.
maintain the roadway. The third system (Type 3) examined was a ballast layer, a
It was decided to mine small (2.1 m wide by 2.7 m high) layer of geotextile, a ballast layer, a 15 mm thick geogrid
drainage drifts five meters below the roadway and drill drain layer filled with ballast and a top layer of a class 5 road
holes down to these drifts to handle the water inflow. This base. The purpose of the ballast in all cases was to allow
was highly successful, and eventually was expanded to all sub-drainage below the road.
of the wet areas of the haul route. All future haul route drifts All three systems appeared to work at first, but in wet
are designed with this accompanying drain drift in order to areas all failed within three to six months. In fact, the Type
facilitate water removal. 1 system installed in the north end of the haul route (TNHW)
When the haul roads were originally designed, several failed completely and had to be replaced.
methods of construction were analyzed. These included After drainage drifting was installed, testing was begun for
concrete roads with imbedded drainage, muck haul roads new types of road building materials and methods. A road
with a poured concrete lean mat and several engineered improvement team developed a cement-modified soil road
gravel roads using geotextiles and sub-drains. using run-of-mine muck with a lean concrete fill underneath
The first haulage roads were built from mine muck from the where needed, and raisebore cuttings as a top-layer. This
drift development process. Development and haulage were was not only less expensive than any other options (other
scheduled concurrently; therefore these first primitive than muck only) it was workable for a good riding surface
development roads became main haul roads. A maintenance and lasted much longer.

402 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1 - Summary Haul Roads - Cost Per same as the one used on other levels of the mine and
Running Meter (average 425 mm depth, 6.4 m width) involves the stringing of leaky feeder antenna throughout
the working areas. As a result, this will provide radio
Ballast, geotextile, mine muck / communications to everyone working on the level.
raisebore cuttings $48 The business LAN will be used for data and ordinary
business needs. Fiber optic cable will extend the Henderson
Ballast, geocell, ballast, geotextile, LAN to the new 7210 level. This LAN will be extended to the
ballast / mine muck $53 offices, lunchrooms and the shops. This network will be
Ballast, geotextile, ballast, geogrid, used for e-mail, entering time for payroll, internet access,
class 5 road base $49 the warehousing and accounting systems, etc.
The process control system is a PLC based control
Mine Muck with lean concrete fill $29 system. This system communicates using a combination of
Mine Muck without lean concrete fill $11 fiber optic and copper cabling to monitor and control various
equipment needed to operate the levels pumping and
Cement Modified Soil with lean concrete fill $41
ventilation systems. Fans, pumps, air doors, CO monitors
Cement Modified Soil without lean concrete fill $24 and other equipment can be monitored and controlled from
High strength concrete road $52 central computer stations with this system. A radar system
will also be used in conjunction with the process control
system to monitor the level of ore in the ore passes. This
Road maintenance is performed with two motor graders information will be available to the truck haulage
and a vibratory compactor. Water dripping from the back dispatchers computer for dispatching decisions.
onto the road is controlled with small sections of brattice
cloth nailed to the shotcrete, or for large sections, a "tent" of REFERENCES
brattice cloth suspended from the center of the drift and
draped out to the ribs. Callahan, M F, Keskimaki, K W, and Rech, W D, 2000. A
Case History of Crusher Level Development at
7 MINE DEWATERING Henderson, Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane, pp.
307- 323.
Mine dewatering is done via a series of pumping and Carten, R B; Geraghty E P; Walker, B M and Shannon, J
settling stages. Water is collected at the 6920 level via R; 1988. "Cyclic Development of Igneous Features and
drainholes and sump pumps. The collected water is their Relationship to High-Temperature Hydrothermal
pumped up 35 meters via 56 kW vertical turbine pumps to a Features in the Henderson Porphyry Molybdenum
slurry tank. Water is pumped from there up 80 meters via Deposit, Colorado"; Economic Geology, Vol 83, pp 266-
two in-line 75 kW horizontal pumps to a solids settling area. 296.
The cleared water is transferred to a holding area where Lorig, L, and Brandshaug, T, 1996. Rock Mechanics
it is pumped up 200 meters with 300 kw vertical turbine Analyses of the 7175-Level Mining at the Henderson
pumps. Finally, water is pumped completely out of the mine Mine, Minneapolis, MN: Itasca Consulting Group.
730 meters vertically with 1,300 kW six-stage horizontal Nelson, B V and Fronapfel, L C, 2002. "Recent Ventilation
pumps. All mine water is processed through a surface water Improvements at the Henderson Mine"; SME annual
treatment plant. The average amount pumped from the meeting, Phoenix.
entire mine is 70 l/s. Rech, W D, Jensen, E B, Hauk, G, and Stewart, D R,
1992. The Application of Geostatistical Software to the
8 COMMUNICATIONS FOR THE Management of Panel Caving Operations, in Proceedings
7210 PRODUCTION LEVEL. MassMin 92, pp 275-281.
Rech, W D, and Watson, D K, 1994. Cave Initiation and
The communications for 7210 will consist of three major Growth Monitoring at the Henderson Mine, SME Annual
categories: Voice communications, the business Local Area Meeting, Albuquerque, NM.
Network (LAN) and the Process Control Network. Rech, W D, Keskimaki, K W, and Stewart, D R, 2000. An
Voice communications will take place in two forms, the Update on Cave Development and Draw Control at the
telephone system and the leaky feeder radio system. The Henderson Mine, in Proceedings MassMin 2000,
telephone system will be a standard copper wire phone Brisbane, pp. 495-505.
system. This system will be present in the offices, shops and Tyler, W D; Keskimaki, K W and Stewart, D S; 2000. "The
certain other key spots on the level. Touch tone telephones New Henderson Mine Truck Haulage System The Last
will also be used to clear the blasting area in conjunction Step to a Totally Trackless Mine", MassMin 2000,
with the mines Automated Brass System. Brisbane, pp317-323, SAIMM.
The second mode of voice communications for the level
will be the leaky feeder radio system. This system will be the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 403

 The DOZ Mine A Case History
of a mine startup
Timothy Casten, Senior Manager of Underground Planning, Brian Clark, Manager Maintenance,
Banu Ganesia, Manager Production, John Barber, Leon Thomas, Vice President,
Underground Mines Division, P.T. Freeport Indonesia

Abstract
The Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) Mine is the latest underground block caving mine to be developed at the P.T. Freeport
Indonesia mine site in West Papua, Indonesia. The original feasibility design was for a 25,000 tpd production rate. This
was achieved 17 months ahead of schedule and under budget. During this period the mine reserve base was increased
and the mine underwent an expansion to 35,000tpd with a 50,000tpd option currently being considered. The mine has
been a very successful project for P.T. Freeport Indonesia and this paper attempts to capture some the valuable lessons
learned during the start-up phase and on through the ramp-up to full production. High capacity block caving mines are
being planned to supply P.T. Freeports future production ore, these lessons learned are the keys to successful
implementation of new projects.
The mine initiated undercutting in November 2000 and has ramped up to a sustainable rate of over 40,000tpd. The mine
is an advanced undercut, mechanized block cave, utilizing a truck haulage level and a gyratory crusher. This paper will
describe some of the issues encountered during mine development, pre-production and the production ramp-up periods
and how they were dealt with. The paper will discuss the key lessons learned in bringing the mine up to full production
and describes the methodology employed to reduce activity scheduling interference, improve work quality, how
bottlenecks in production were overcome and some of the critical challenges dealt with along the way.

1 INTRODUCTION The DOZ Mine commenced pre-production development

in 1997 and initiated caving in November 2000. The
The DOZ Mine is part of the P.T. Freeport Indonesia feasibility study called for a production ramp up to 25,000
(PTFI) mining complex. It is the third vertical lift in the East tpd by January 2004, a little more than a three year
Ertsberg Skarn System (EESS) deposit. The mining production ramp up period before achieving steady state.
complex began block caving operations in 1980 with the During the development and pre-production periods
Gunung Bijih Timur East Ertsberg (GBT) block caving exploration drilling continued and the orebody was
mine. This mine achieved a maximum production rate of expanded.
28,000 tpd and was depleted in 1994. The mine started with
a gravity slushing system on the extraction level but quickly
converted to a more efficient LHD system. The mine used
a trench slot post undercutting method.
The Intermediate Ore Zone (IOZ) block caving mine
began production in 1994 and ramped up to a maximum
production rate of 32,000 tpd. This was designed as a LHD
extraction system with rockbreakers and grizzlies located at
the north and south fringes of the extraction level. The sized
ore was loaded onto coarse ore conveyors using vibrating
feeders and conveyed to one of two Jaw crushers. The
mine began with an El Teniente style layout on the
Extraction level but had to convert to a herringbone layout
due to wet muck problems. A conventional post
undercutting system was used. The IOZ mine was depleted
in 2003.
The DOZ mine was designed as a fully mechanized block
caving mine using LHDs and a Truck Haulage level. The
ore handling system was designed to handle the largest
particle that the 54" x 77" crusher would accept. This was Figure 1: DOZ and ESZ orebody reserve growth
accomplished by the use of a 1 meter grizzly on the
extraction level, 4.1m diameter orepasses from the Operational ore demands from the rest of the PTFI mining
Extraction to the Truck Haulage level, chain gate style area challenged the production ramp-up plan and required
chutes and 55 tonne capacity trucks direct dumping into the that the DOZ Mine achieve 25,000tpd by September of
crusher. 2002, nearly a year and half ahead of the original schedule.

404 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

The additional ore reserves and production demands also
made an expansion to 35,000tpd economically viable and
this expansion occurred between October 2002 and March
2003. The DOZ mine produced at an average of 40,500tpd
in 2003 to meet additional ore demands for the operation.
As of writing this paper the DOZ has produced at a peak of
58,800 tpd with an average YTD production rate of 45,000
tpd.

Table 1: DOZ/ESZ Reserves as of 2003

Mine Tonnes Cu Au Ag
(Millions) (%) (g/t) (g/t)

DOZ 184 0.96 0.65 5.11

ESZ 121 0.54 0.90 1.64

In 2000 an adjacent orebody named the Ertsberg

Stockwork Zone (ESZ) was added to the reserve base.
The ESZ is located on the south west side of the DOZ
orebody. The two orebodies are geologically distinct but
Figure 2: DOZ Simplified Rock Quality Undercut level
physically contiguous. Figure 1 shows the DOZ and
ESZ reserve growth since 1995. Table 1 shows the
current ore reserves for the DOZ and ESZ mines. A massive magnetite to less than 10 MPa in the DOZ breccia.
study is currently underway to include the ESZ into the RMR varies from a low of 25 in the poorest ground to a high
DOZ mining sequence and increase the average of 65 in the most competent ground.
production output to 50,000tpd. In order to plan and design for this variability in rock
This paper examines some of the key lessons learned in quality a series of simplified plans were produced. These
the DOZ mine startup period and focuses on some of the plans formed the basis for the design and scheduling of
critical bottlenecks encountered and the methodology activities for the development, pre-production ground
applied to successfully overcome them. The intent of this support and caving teams. Figure 2 shows a typical plan
paper is to focus on the key issues in some detail while view of the east side of the DOZ. The mine has been
giving mention to the other project drivers. divided into three rock quality categories; good, medium and
bad. This simplification allowed planners and supervision to
2 GEOLOGY AND GEOTECHNICAL look ahead and prepare for a change in ground support,
caving rates etc.
The geology of the EESS and the DOZ Mine has been
described in detail by others (Coutts, 1998). The key issue 3 KEY ISSUES AND LESSONS LEARNED
to note in the DOZ is the extreme variability of rock types
encountered in the ore zone across the strike of the orebody The IOZ mine was in active production during the
from the footwall to the hangingwall. Starting at the north feasibility, design and development phase of the DOZ mine.
(hangingwall) and proceeding to the south, ground Several lessons learned from the IOZ mine were applied to
conditions change from very poor to very good. Rock the DOZ mine design. In addition, new technologies to the
strengths (UCS) vary from a high of 219 MPa in some operation were applied in the DOZ such as advanced

Figure 3: Section Looking South Undercut Transition

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 405

undercutting and improved QA/QC systems. This section
discusses some of the key changes applied to the DOZ
during the ramp-up process.

3.1. Caving Methodology

The DOZ mine initially employed a conventional post
undercutting system during cave initiation. The post
undercutting method had been used in the IOZ Mine and
was familiar to management and crews alike. The post
undercutting system had caused stress damage problems
in the IOZ resulting in the premature closure of some
drawpoints and additional repair activities.
In addition to the post undercutting method the DOZ also
initially incorporated a 10m vertical stagger to accommodate
an existing exploration drift. This was driven at grade along
the strike of the orebody to help prove up the reserve by
adding drilling stations. The grade of the drift was such that
it intersected the planned extraction and the undercut levels
as it progressed from West to East. Figure 3 shows this
development in section, looking south. The cave was
initiated between Panels 13 (P13) and 14 and advanced to
the east.
Early on in the undercutting sequence at DOZ,
management decided to change to the Advanced Undercut
method. This change resulted in a significant reduction of
Figure 4: IOZ/DOZ mine lintel set comparison
stress related damage to the DOZ Extraction levels and has
been a major factor in the reduction of panel and drawpoint
repair requirements. 3.3. Pre-Production Ground Support
The layout of the Extraction and Undercut levels to A review of the key problem areas was undertaken in the
incorporate the existing exploration drift and change in IOZ, and the drawpoint design and construction was
undercutting methodology required significant design and identified as an area that could be improved. The lintel sets
construction work. The extraction and undercut level were redesigned by the onsite central engineering group
elevations were set to match the gradient of the exploration and were fabricated in the operations Light Industrial Park
drift where possible. This resulted in a series of split level (LIP) rather than being built as required by the underground
drawbells between P15 and P16. Significant engineering shops. Figure 4 shows a comparison of the IOZ and DOZ
and caving resources were required to open these mine standard lintel set designs.
drawbells. The success rate of the staggered drawbell Closing an active drawpoint for repair requires the panel
blasting was fairly poor with numerous remnant crown section to be closed for a significant period of time,
pillars that required remedial drilling and often incurred potentially impacting access up to 8-10 other drawpoints.
significant delays (Sinuhaji). This can often result in additional damage to the panel as
Changing extraction elevations and undercutting methods the drawpoints are not being pulled and the area begins to
could have resulted in a significant delay to the mine production take weight from the cave. The other active drawpoints are
ramp-up as the cave moved east. Although the caving rate typically pulled harder to maintain tonnage calls resulting in
was slower than planned during this period the DOZ caving further uneven draw.
team were able to manage the transition safely and The new lintel sets are fabricated with shear studs to tie
successfully. Since November 2000, over 85,000 square them to the formed concrete and with pockets that allowed
meters of undercutting have been accomplished with no for bolts to pin the sets to the ribs. The bolts have been very
accidents. The issues encountered in this transition and the effective in preventing the posts from buckling and kicking
methods applied to overcome them helped formulate the out under load. The bolts and shear studs have also
scheduling rules of thumb discussed in section 4 below. protected the lintels from secondary blasting damage and
impacts from the loaders.
3.2. Quality Control In practice the new lintel sets have performed extremely
The quality control on ground support installation and well. To date three drawpoint lintel sets have required repair
concrete placement was not under an independent QA/QC out of 270 opened drawpoints.
group in the IOZ. The post undercutting system applied
considerable abutment stress to the opened panels. This 4 PRODUCTION RAMP UP ACTIVITY SCHEDULING
ground weight and poor quality resulted in some drawpoints
and panels failing prematurely and required them to be The Extraction Level posed the greatest problem in short
repaired earlier than anticipated. The DOZ mine has a term scheduling for the numerous activities planned in the
dedicated team of QA/QC engineers and technicians who area. Once production was initiated in a panel, production
monitor the development and pre-production ground LHDs and secondary breakage units as well as drawbelling
support process on a daily basis. drills, pre-production ground support crews, construction
Having the Field Engineering group in place at the start of crews and development crews would require access
the pre-production process was critical in reducing short through the same area. As each panel only has two access
term re-work issues required due to poor materials or points, every intervention by a separate crew caused a
practices and has improved the long term quality of ground safety risk and disruption to the other working crews. With
support and development significantly. Having field the application of an advanced undercut system the
engineers working directly with operations on a daily basis required activities by different crews on the Undercut Level
has greatly assisted in the successful completion of several increased and posed a similar scheduling problem.
critical projects such as the main crusher installation, chute The scheduling of activities became a trade off between a
modifications and undercut and drawbell blasting issues. Just-In-Time method and an Early Completion method. In

406 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the JIT method tasks were deferred as late as possible and West. Figure 5 shows the planned undercut level designs
a series of crew interventions were required to be managed with mid access drift.
in the panel and undercut areas. This deferred capital This methodology was carried down to the Extraction
expenditure but increased the risk of slipping the schedule. level with the production panels being split into two sections
In addition, the advanced undercutting method requires that typically at the centrally located orepass. The split is
development and construction of drawpoints and drawbells accomplished by driving the drawbell drift through to the
be delayed as long as possible to improve the stress adjacent panel and creating a mid-fringe drift for access,
distribution of the abutment. This is the typical methodology ventilation and to multiple activities in a single panel. The
applied to most projects but also tends to have the least development of the drawbell drift ahead of the undercut is
flexibility during the start-up period. an out of sequence event for the advanced undercutting
The Early Completion method reduces crew interactions process, but the benefits of this mid-access more than
by bringing forward activities and separating work areas, covers the cost of additional ground support required to
effectively decoupling sets of activities. This tends to compensate for the open drift.
accelerate activities but reduces risk. A set of guidelines were produced to assist in the mine
The JIT method was found to be not flexible enough to scheduling process:
deal with delays or issues such as unexpected ground
conditions, material delivery delays or re-work issues. At Extraction Level
mine start-up there are typically very few working areas Panels are split into two sections, North and South,
available on the Extraction and Undercut Levels. Any typically at the centrally located grizzly tip.
delays or loss of access tend to have a domino effect on the A mid drawbell drift is chosen and driven between panels.
crew activities and overall schedule. A small cave front with This effectively allows each panel section to have two
limited alternative working areas places every undercut ring access points and allows for two concurrent activities per
and drawbell on the critical path. panel with minimal interference between crews.
The savings generated by deferring activities were Separate panel sections to contain development, pre-
soon consumed by the lower availability of working production ground support and construction, caving and
places, resultant crew inefficiencies and overall production activities.
schedule slippages. The ability to move crews to The panel section schedules are driven by the drawbell
alternative working places as required greatly improved opening sequence.
overall productivity and allowed the mine to accelerate Cave advance is based on the maximum lead/lags
production. Although this may have accelerated some allowable in the differing ground types based on Figure 2.
capital this was more than offset by the accelerated The draw belling must be completed after one month of
production that resulted. the undercut completion to prevent packing of the blasted
By accelerating development and pre-production muck in the undercut.
activities, the opportunity for faster drawbell opening
and undercutting was realized. The ability to keep all of Undercut Level
the crews working in an available heading, with minimal The drill drift level development is split into two sections
interruptions, ultimately drove the accelerated using a mid-access drift.
production ramp up. It was recognized that the price of This created a multiple heading environment for the
delay far outweighed the cost of an Early Completion development and caving crews compressing schedules
methodology. by deferring non-critical activities.
Although the exploration drift discussed previously The splitting of the undercut also deferred capital by
presented a significant design and construction hurdle it did sectioning off longer term development.
effectively split the undercut level of the mine into two Pre-drilling and pre-charging of undercut holes is utilized
sections. This presented an opportunity to defer some to reduce activities around the open brow and improve
undercut development by utilizing this existing access. The undercutting efficiencies.
splitting of the undercut into manageable sections allowed
the crews to focus on the critical path areas while also Figure 6 shows the production ramp up of the DOZ Mine
providing a multiple work place environment. Although not in tonnes per day by month. There is a clear change in
originally planned for the West side of the mine the success production rates after about the first 16 months of
of the East side split has driven the change in design for the production. In this first phase the mine ramped up at
approximately 700tpd/month. This slower rate reflected a
smaller cave front and limited working areas. Numerous
crews working in the same locale caused interference and
delay. It also reflects the typical mine start-up issues
normally encountered such as the problems with the chutes
and the transition from advanced to post undercutting as
discussed in this paper.
The second phase shows a ramp up rate of 1900
tpd/month up to an average monthly rate of over 45,000 tpd.
Three main factors were responsible for this change in
production rate; 1) the de-bottlenecking of the caving areas
by the application of the guidelines discussed above, 2) the
re-design of the ore handling chutes and, 3) the completion
of the transition from the post to the advanced undercutting
method.
The goal of any ramp up is to compress the start-up
period as much as possible. Although the different key
production drivers encountered in the DOZ are discussed
within this paper, the ability of the project team to recognize
Figure 5: Undercut level showing existing and planned mid and react to these issues was the real key in exceeding the
access drifts and deferred activities. planned production rates.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 407

5 ORE HANDLING SYSTEMS obstacle. Many variations of the standard chute design
were tried along with some unique solutions.
The ore handling system in the IOZ utilized rockbreakers There were three major problems with the original chute
at the north and south fringes of each panel. The LHDs design that needed to be overcome; 1) the chute structural
dumped ore onto 0.4m x 0.4m grizzlies, sizing it for feeding design, 2) the chute control systems and, 3) the ore flow
onto coarse ore conveyor belts that transferred the ore to through the chute due to sticky ore packing in the top of the
one of two jaw crushers. chute.
During the design phase it was anticipated that a coarser
ore would be found in the DOZ mine than was evident in 5.1. Material Flow Issues
other block cave mines within the PT Freeport contract of The biggest obstacle to overcome in increasing
work. Several options were considered on how to handle production was the sticky ore encountered early on in the
the larger fragmentation and ultimately a coarse ore mine start-up from the high grade DOZ breccia material.
handling system was decided upon and designed into the Tests revealed that the angle of repose of the sticky ore was
system. at a minimum of 60 degrees and could be as high as 90
The final option selected was to use one meter degrees (Jenike and Johanson).
spaced grizzlies on the extraction level on top of a 4.1- Although the raises were bored at an inclination of 75
meter diameter raise. A single bored orepass was degrees and the chutes were inclined to 45 degrees in the
designed for each extraction level panel which fully open position the sticky material quickly compacted
services up to 20 draw points. At the bottom of the 35 and blocked the raises at this junction. This required a
to 45 meter long raise a 2.4-meter wide center loading campaign of hang-up blasting in the lower section of the
chute was installed which loads into Elphinstone AD55 raise that often resulted in significant damage to the chutes.
haul trucks. The trucks then dump to a 54" x 77" High pressure water hoses were tried at the chutes but in
gyratory crusher. some cases made the problem worse by adding water to the
The ore passes, when kept three-quarters full, were breccias and marble ore types making them stickier and
designed to give up to 800 tonnes of storage per orepass. harder to handle. This created a cleanup problem around
With up to 15 ore passes in production during peak the chutes and occasionally caused the crusher pocket to
production considerable tonnes could be stored which plug and hang-up.
would allow the mine to compensate for disruptions in the In the short term the transfer raises were run empty to
system. This storage was also envisioned to enable the prevent the sticky muck from compacting and hanging
extraction level to be disconnected from the truck haulage up. This removed the approximately 800 tonnes of
level. storage from the orepasses and trucks had to queue at
The DOZ Mine began production in 1999 with three chutes waiting for a full load. This impacted the
installed chutes or LPs. During the initial period of mine achievable production rate significantly. Additional
startup several issues became apparent with the chute damage was also seen at the chutes due to the ore
installations that were significantly reducing the flow of ore impacts caused by the empty raises.
and acting as the main bottleneck to production. Ramp up Many different vibrator configurations were tested to help
production targets were not being achieved and vibrate the packed ore loose but these met with limited
considerable damage was being done to the existing chute success. The chute vibrators also resulted in increased
installations in order keep the ore flowing through the damage to the entire structure and were not considered to
chutes. be a long-term solution. The concept of floating the floor
The DOZ ore material ranges from blocky, hard diorites to was developed so that the rest of the chute structure would
soft, sticky breccias. The ore types behave significantly be isolated from the vibration.
different from a handling point of view. The mine was With the concept of turning the chute floor into a vibrating
initially undercut in the high grade breccia areas which plate a chute was selected for trial. The floor was detached
resulted in large amounts of sticky ore being delivered to the from the chute and suspended with the use of heavy springs
raises and chutes without the ability to blend with coarser placed around the floor. The exciter mechanism was
material. attached to the floor bottom and connected to an electric
Being identified as the highest priority obstacle to motor by V-belts. In effect, the chute was converted into a
reaching production goals considerable effort went into re- vibrating feeder with the floor at a 45 degree angle. The
designing the chutes. A campaign of chute re-design was modification turned out to be an immediate success so all
embarked upon by the underground maintenance, the existing chutes were modified while a longer-term
construction and engineering groups to overcome this design was finalized.

Figure 7: Cross section of DOZ chute showing design

Figure 6: DOZ Mine production ramp-up modifications

408 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

5.2. Chute Structure RE-Design well as new technologies. The DOZ mine achieved full
The chute design also exposed several key header beams production 17 months ahead of schedule and was under
to the muck flow. Although these had been armored with budget. The mine is still undergoing expansion and is
liner plate the repeated impacts seen from running the studying a 50,000tpd mining rate.
raises empty resulted in accelerated wear and loosening of Every mine start-up encounters challenges and
these header beams. Several of these beams made it to unexpected issues. The mine start-up environment also
the crusher, jamming it, and requiring extended shut often presents unexpected opportunities. The
downs to remove them. Chute downtime for repair was management, engineering and operations team must be
also considerable. flexible and reactive enough to cope with these setbacks as
Widening the chute and elongating the floor helped well as leveraging any opportunities presented.
overcome the ore flow and structural design issues. A block cave mine start-up is a series of interlinked
Different widths were tested, with the optimum being 3.1- activities that often require close coordination and
meters. This width moved the sides of the chute out of the scheduling. The initial nature of a block cave often places
flow sufficiently enough to alleviate damage and stop individual undercut rings and drawbells on the critical path.
bridging of the ore. The ability to decouple these activities and allow the crews
Floor elongation was accomplished by excavating a hitch to work with minimal interruptions in a multiple heading
under the footwall of the raise. The chute floor was environment is a major driver in growing the cave and
extended underneath the footwall into this hitch. A accelerating the production ramp-up process.
secondary support set was put at the back of the hitch to At 40,000tpd the DOZ mine is one of the worlds
prevent erosion of the raise. The head beams were then largest block caving mines. The continued success of
recessed into the hitches, protecting the beams, improving the DOZ Mine is critical to PTFIs future operations. As
chute down times and reducing transient steel feed to the the Grasberg Open Pit finishes mining in 2015 the
ore flow system. operation will be supplied by ore from underground
mining operations for the next several decades. Future
5.3. Chute Control Systems block caving mines at the PTFI mining complex are
A hydraulic system had been designed to move the chain currently being planned to produce at rates over
gates and lips and control the flow of muck. In order to save 100,000tpd.
money these were set up so they could be shared between Block cave mines are capital intensive projects
two chutes and would switch across chutes using PLC requiring high expenditures in the early years of
systems. The hydraulics proved to be difficult to install, development. A large component of a block caving
impacted two chutes if they were out of operation, and mines value is driven by the speed at which it can begin
required considerable maintenance. As the hydraulic producing at full capacity. The ability quickly bring into
cylinders tended to hold the chutes quite rigidly they were production large capacity block caving mines is a key
easily damaged by rock falling onto the chute through the driver for the PTFI future operations. Successful
open raise. projects like the DOZ not only provide ore to the mill but
The hydraulic chutes were replaced with pneumatic units generate confidence for the future of the operation.
that were quicker and cheaper to install, easier to maintain,
and had a more flexible response to impacts. This reduced ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the control equipment cost by almost 85% and installation
time was reduced to three days versus three weeks. The The authors would like to thank PTFI Management for
systems have proved to be very dependable with little or no allowing the publication of this paper, Rod Mainland and the
downtime. An air intensifier is used on the system to DOZ Field Engineering Group for their work on the QA/QC
provide sufficient power for the lip up function. This air-to- systems and Rodger Bonney and 68 Engineering for the
air intensifier has proved reliable and boosts the improved structural designs.
compressed air by 50% of operating parameters to ensure
adequate power is available to raise full chute lips. REFERENCES
As new chutes were constructed these changes were
made in the field and the results monitored. The campaign Coutts, et al., "Geology of the Deep Ore Zone, Ertsberg
was successful and currently transfer raises are run full and East Skarn System, Irian Jaya", PacRim 99, Bali,
the chutes are performing well. Figure 7 shows the key Indonesia, October, 1999.
areas modified to improve the chute design. Casten, Sinuhaji, Poedjono, Flumerfelt, "The Application
of Advanced Undercutting at P.T. Freeport Indonesias
6 CONCLUSIONS Deep Ore Zone Mine", Operators Conference, Townsville,
Australia, 2002.
PT Freeport Indonesia has been block caving at the East Jenike and Johanson, Internal Report on Ore Material
Ertsberg Mining district since 1980. The DOZ Mine is the Characteristics, 2002.
third lift in the sequence. The operation has ramped up the Barber, Thomas, Casten, "Freeport Indonesias Deep Ore
DOZ mine faster than initially anticipated and has Zone Mine", MassMin 2000.
incorporated lessons learned from the previous mines as

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 409

 Undercutting at E26
lift 2 Northparkes
AC (Tony) Silveira, Senior Mining Engineer, Northparkes Mines

Abstract
Northparkes Mines completed the undercut on the Lift 2 block cave in January 2004. This paper discusses the designs
considered at the time of the feasibility study, and the various changes made to these designs prior to and during the
undercutting operation in the Lift2 block cave. This paper also highlights operational issues encountered whilst mining
the Lift 2 undercut and ways in which these issues were overcome. A summary of critical success factors is also
included.

1.0 INTRODUCTION million tonnes per annum are expected from Lift 2 over the
next six years.
Northparkes Mines (NPM) is located in New South Wales
in Australia, approximately 350 km to the northeast of 1.1 The Lift 2 Undercut
Sydney. Production presently comes from the E27 open pit The Lift 2 undercut is a narrow inclined advanced
and the E26 underground mine. The E26 underground mine undercut or continuous void, extracted for the purpose of
is the first mine in Australia to employ the block caving inducing caving directly above it. Some of the critical factors
method of mining. Extraction of cave ore commenced in related to the extraction of this undercut include:
1997 from the Lift 1 extraction horizon, some 480 m below No remnant pillars are to be left since they could act as
the surface. transfer points for stresses from the Lift 2 block, directly
onto the extraction drives located below.
Creation of the stress shadow. In this shadow region,
further development of the extraction level drives can be
progressed.
The progress of the Lift 2 project hinged on the advance
rated achieved in the undercut, and preparation of the
extraction level for production.

Figure 1: Section showing layout of the Lift 1 & Lift 2.

Ore above the Lift 1 extraction horizon has been

exhausted and the mine has developed a second, lower
production zone, known as Lift 2. The Lift 2 extraction
horizon is located some 350 m below that of Lift 1 (Figure
1). The Lift 2 Undercut, which is the initial stage of setting up
for production in a block cave, is located some 10 m above Figure 2: Plan view showing undercut drives with the
the Lift 2 extraction level. Planned production rates of five access drive on the east and the slot drive on the west.

410 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The Lift 2 undercut consisted of 14 parallel drill drives
running from east to west. All these drives were linked
together on their eastern end by an access drive, and on
their western end by a slot drive (Figure 2). Areas
between the 14 drill drives were designed to be mined
out as inclined or flat portions of the undercut, generating
an overall crinkle/corrugated shape (Figure 4). The
inclined portions of the undercut were designed to
provide major apex pillars above the extraction level
drives, while the flat portions of the undercut lie directly
above the drawbell crowns. This is similar to that used at
Palabora mine in South Africa.

2.0 UNDERCUT DESIGN

The main design changes to improve operational, safety Figure 4: Planned ring designs
and cost aspects are covered in this section.
The initial Lift 2 undercut design consisted of 14
parallel drill drives only connected at the flat pillar through several stages of review and the decision to go to
portions. A major change made to this design involved three holes per ring was made after feedback from Palabora
putting in a western slot drive (shaded section in Figure mine indicated that it was not necessary to drill and fire the
2) that linked all the drives together on the western brow portion of the inclined pillar holes above the flats. This
perimeter of the undercut. This western drive allowed area fell in on a regular basis without being drilled or
early access into some of the western ends of the blasted. Palabora at the time were using four 64 mm blast
undercut drives, as well as making slot opening easier as holes on incline ring pillar holes, and four 76 mm blast holes
the eight slots were now designed as vertical slots on the flat pillar ring holes. NPM opted for an 89 mm sized
(previously inclined). blast hole pattern leading to:
The undercut drill pattern consisted of 89 mm diameter Cost savings with fewer holes drilled and charged (only
blast holes in a combination of long incline, short incline and three per ring).
dual flat rings. All these rings were drilled at an apparent Reduced redrills due to ease of loading primers into hole,
ring burden of 2.1 m (true burden of 2.0 m). even in partially dislocated ground.
The initial undercut slotting design proposed at Time saving with quicker drilling and charging.
feasibility consisted of a series of 14 inclined slots drilled Greater face velocity of the fired dirt, throwing it further
in a meshing manner above the major apexes on the into the cave, thereby reducing undercut bogging.
extraction level (Figure 3). Mining of inclined slots is an Better fragmentation due to higher powder factor.
inherently difficult task. The development of the western Reduction of potential hole closures, dislocations and
slot drive led to a reduction in the number of slot rises redrills.
(from 14 to 8), as well as the elimination of inclined slots
altogether. This reduced the risks associated with This last point was a major success and was also a result
mining inclined slots. of the quick turnaround maintained on all the undercut
During the feasibility stage, the long and short inclined faces, where no face was kept standing for any extended
rings consisted of fanned inclined holes with five to six period of time. On average, each undercut face was fired
holes per ring (Figure 4). The angle of the major apexes once a week.
(i.e. the angle of the flattest inclined holes) was
designed to be 50 degrees from the horizontal. This was 2.1 Inclined Ring Design
to ensure that the fired dirt cleared the apexes and Figures 5 and 6 below highlight some of the changes
flowed into the drawbells. This angle was increased to made to the inclined rings design. Shaded portion "A" in
54 degrees. Figure 5 was the region into which the long inclined rings
The biggest change made to the undercut inclined ring originally extended. All the drill rings were designed and
design involved reducing the number of holes from six per eventually drilled at a forward dump/tilt angle of 20 degrees.
ring to a final design of three per ring. The drill design went The reasons for the 20 degrees forward tilt angle were:
Reduction in the possibility of loss in overall void height
during firing. The firing direction of the toes of the holes of
forward tilted rings, helps reduce the likelihood of pillar
formation at the toes.
Keeping the falling rocks (if any) away from reporting to
the open brow, as the ring was tilted forward.
Better packing of the fired dirt onto the previously fired rill
in the cave, due to the directional throw due to forward
tilting.
This would thereby reduce the amount of swell reporting
to the brow, thereby reducing the swell removal required.

The design change made involved flattening of the apex

of the inclined void, reducing the drill metres by
approximately 1.5 m per long inclined ring. This apex region
was a "tight corner" in the firing sequence of the ring, at the
time. This last metre was also the section where possible
deviation in the longest holes would be most prominent. The
number of holes per ring was also reduced from four to
Figure 3: Planned slot designs
three per ring.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 411

 Ease with drilling and blasting i.e. smaller length holes.
Reduction in the risk of pillar formation due to hole
deviation.
Ease of bogging, as access is available from both sides.
Minimal tele-remoting required (avoiding delays and cost).
More flexibility with drilling headings i.e. more drill
headings to work with.
Potential reduction in the amount of misfires in the flat
pillar region.

This dual flats pillar comprised of 3 x 5 m long holes drilled

from either end and fired within the same shot (Figure 7).
Each flat ring had a jumbo stab hole in the floor to enable
ease with bogging of the fired dirt. After mining about 20 %
of the undercut it was found that these jumbo stab holes
were no longer required as the lowest hole in the flats
performed adequately by ensuring breakage of the ground.

Figure 5: Initial changes made to the planned inclined rings

design

Figure 7: Initial dual flats ring design

Modelling at the time indicated that as the undercut

progressed, hole dislocation could occur at the collar and
toe of the drill holes if a half flat pillar was excavated.
Modelling also indicated that hole dislocation would only
occur at the collar if the full flat pillar was excavated. In
reality however, no such problems were encountered with
the excavation of the full flat pillar.

2.3 Slot Design

A total of eight "6-reamer" up-hole vertical slots, of lengths
varying from 11 m to 14 m, were successfully fired to start
Figure 6: Final inclined rings design the initial firing faces within the undercut (Figure 8).

2.2 Flat Ring Design

During initial development of the drill drives, it was found
that additional wall overbreak had the potential to reduce the
pillar width. Following a geotechnical evaluation, the
decision was taken to increase the pillar width from 8 to 10
m to ensure stability of the flat portion of the undercut during
undercut retreat. Palabora mine at the time were using
approximately 13 m flat pillars. This flat pillar was fired in
two separate blasts, with a lead/lag between the 8.3 m and
5.5 m sections. NPM however evaluated the geotechnical
and production risks of a lead lag within a 10 m flat pillar,
and opted for a "dual flats" pillar. This involved drilling the
flat pillars from both adjacent drill drive accesses with 5 m
long holes (Figure 7), instead of the single flat 10 m holes.
All the drill rings were designed and eventually drilled at a
forward dump/tilt angle of 20 degrees. The reasons for this
20 degrees forward tilt angle were ease with bogging of the
fired dirt around the corner (turning radius of the LHD) and
better visual of the fired toes from a safe location (after
firing). Bogging is a term commonly used in Australia to
describe rock removal by an LHD. It is also referred to as
lashing (South Africa) and mucking (USA).
The flat portion was initially designed to have three holes
per ring, with these flat sections designed as single flats with
the holes being 10 m long. Changes were made to the
design wherein the risks of single flats with 10 long holes,
were evaluated against the use of dual flats with 5 m long
holes. NPM adopted the dual flat rings for a variety of
reasons some of which include: Figure 8: Pattern for rises/slots

412 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The 6-reamer slot pattern is a pattern widely used in many
mines for its forgiving nature with respect to drill hole
deviation. Drilling of the slots is a critical part of the
operation. Here a single experienced driller was given the
responsibility of drilling the inner box holes of this rise.
Lower feed and rotation pressures were required for drilling
of the initial eight box holes of each slot. Lead guide tube
and T-51 rods, drilling 89 mm shot holes and 152 mm
reamer holes.
The drill string combination used drop centre "Retrac" drill
bits to achieve better accuracy. "Retrac" bits have a partial
cutting action when the drill rods are retracted from a drill
hole, due to the serrated edge on the tail end of the bit. After
firing the vertical slots and using CMS (Cavity Monitoring
System) to confirm the void, a series of inclined holes were
fired to open up the void to the required excavation profile.
The design for these slot-stripping rings used on the first
four slots, consisted of four rings on either side of the slot
rises. While firing the initial slot rises it was found that quite Figure 10: Plan view showing Brow Access Limits
often the first slot stripping row was lost due to over break
from the rise firing. After four of these rises and slots were
successfully excavated, the number of slot stripping rings 3.3 Charging and Firing
was dropped from four to three on either side of the slot Charging and firing activities were carried out using a
(Figure 9). specialist explosives contractors charge-up personnel. Two
people were used to get this task completed within the time
frame of 3 hours required. On average the time spent on
charging two rings (two sets of long and short inclines and
flats = 126 m2) in two headings was 2.5 to 3.0 hours. As the
production rates were ramped up later in 2003, two shots
(four headings = 252 m2) were quite regularly blasted at the
end of a shift.
All the undercut rises were charged with IKON electronic
detonators. The precise timing and intrinsic safety benefits
of these IKON detonators made them suitable for the rise
firing application. Their cost however, made them
uneconomical to be used on standard undercut ring firings
as the Enduradet detonators are available at approximately
25% the cost of the IKON detonators.
The Feasibility Study considered single ring firings for
the entire undercut. After analysing the benefits of
Figure 9: Design for slot stripping rings showing extraction multiple ring firings, a decision was taken to carry out all
level located below undercut ring firings as "2- ring" firings instead. Each firing
comprised of two dual flat rings, two long incline rings and
two short incline rings. Some of the benefits of 2- ring
3.0 OPERATIONAL ISSUES firings include:
Reduction in the number of times that charging of holes
This section describes some of the operational issues needed to take place in the undercut.
encountered and the ways in which they were overcome. Reduction in the exposure of personnel to poor brow
conditions and hazards at the undercut face.
3.1 Drilling Better throw characteristics of the fired dirt.
The contract between the owner and the contractor
specified a tube drill string requirement to ensure drilling Feasibility assumed the use of a "square" brow, or no
accuracy. In order to maintain drilling flexibility with the two lead/lag between the inclined and flat rings. Geotechnical
Solomatic 720 drill rigs on the undercut and extraction modelling was then carried out and confirmed that this could
levels, the following were agreed on: be increased to two rings.
Undercut level (89 mm holes) would use T51 speed rods The two ring lead lag was then adopted and used for a
and drop-centre 89 mm Retrac drill bits. variety of benefits some of which include:
Extraction level (64 mm holes) would use T38 speed rods Improved stability at the brow area.
and drop-centre 64 mm Retrac drill bits. Less dirt required to be bogged from the area adjacent to
Use of 700 Series drifters on both drill rigs. the collars of the flat holes.
Reduction in exposure of personnel to the brow area
3.2 Hole Preparation when charging the flats, and the undercut in general.
No individual was allowed access past the last flat ring
fired so it was not possible to physically be under the collars Production drilling and blasting in the undercut proceeded
of the inclined rings at the brow (to clean and prepare them with no major setbacks. The use of a robotic arm for charging
for charging). A 1.5 m bund wall was erected at the brow helped increase productivity and this is reflected in the
where the last flat ring had been fired. This bund was put in increased undercutting rates achieved. The introduction of this
place to protect personnel from injury from any rocks falling machine, coupled with completion of development mining in
from the brow area or from within the undercut void. Figure other areas of the mine, resulted in an increase of LHD and
10 below illustrates the access restrictions to personnel at other resources available to the undercut. This all contributed
the undercut face. to the improved production rates from October 2003 on.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 413

3.4 Swapping of Incline Rings 4.1 Critical Success Factors
After commencement of the undercut blasting, it was The following aspects are considered to be key areas in
noticed that the long inclined holes, which lagged behind the the success of the Lift 2 undercut:
short inclined holes and were damaged from adjacent firings The use of the 6-reamer vertical rise/slot (Figure 8) with
(see DD6 & DD7 in Figure 11). the benefits listed (slot design section).
DD7 shows a lag firing of the long inclined rings after a The use of three slot stripping rings on either side of this
lead firing of short inclined rings has gone off in DD6. The slot, (Figure 9).
right hand side shows a lag firing of the short inclined rings Keeping the short inclined rings as the lag firing and the
in DD9 after a lead firing of long inclined rings has gone off long inclined rings as the lead firing coupled with the use
in DD8. of dual flats in the flat portion of the undercut. Drilling 89
Some of the advantages of swapping the inclined rings mm holes in these flats making the jumbo lifter holes
included: redundant (Figure 7).
Opportunity to confirm breakage at the major apex after Use of one ring lead-lag in the dual flats regions in order
firing the long incline holes in DD8, DD10 and DD12 to reduce early failure of the flat belly portion. The "2-ring"
through the short inclined holes and confirming breakage lead-lag used in the drives, between the flat and incline
into the void. allowed face shape to be maintained whilst providing
Less likelihood of experiencing hole dislocations and some flexibility in activity.
damage in the long incline holes. Choke firing of the undercut rings with opening the brow
The swapped long incline holes pulled the ground every four firings limited personnel exposure to an open
effectively providing the correct height and void size. brow. It also helped reduce the quantities of fired dirt
bogged. Opening the brow for void confirmation was
essential.
The specialist explosives contractor using a robotic arm
charge up machine contributed to increased productivity
and improved safety.
Strict adherence to the lead lag rules ensured no
geotechnical problems during mining of the Lift 2
undercut. Good ground support systems ensured stability
of excavations and the shotcreted undercut drives all
stood up well during drilling and blasting operations.
Steady advance rates reduced the possibility of stress-
induced damage. By not leaving the undercut standing for
any extended period of time NPM were able to achieve
significant targets in a safe and efficient manner.
A good Quality Assurance programme and constant
supervision contributed a great deal to the success of the
Lift 2 undercut. The lack of experienced operators was an
issue during initial stages of the undercut. Engineering
staff maintained records on swell removal and ensured
Figure 11: Ring Layout DD7 & 8 that continuous void confirmation is carried out as and
when planned.
Provision of adequate resources, e.g. service crews for
4.0 SUMMARY fixing of sprays, ventilation and assisting with hole prep
work ensured that drilling, charge-up and swell removal
The Lift 2 undercut drill and blast design has proven to be were completed in a timely manner.
a successful design. NPM has safely and efficiently All undercut development, as well as drill and blast
completed the undercut within a period of 11 months designs, were done in-house by NPM engineers and
(February to January 2004). During this period a total of technical specialists.
65,457 metres were drilled (planned metres totalled 64,754
m). Less than 1000 metres or 1.5% of the total metres ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
drilled in the undercut were re-drill metres due to hole
dislocations/closures or angle errors. The author wishes to thank those personnel who have
A total of 33,768 square metres were blasted in the contributed to this paper especially those involved with the
undercut, with the advance rate peaking at 6,101 square design and mining of the Lift #2 undercut.
metres per month in December 2003. The author would also like to thank Northparkes mines for
An average of 45% of the fired dirt was removed from the permission to publish this paper.
undercut, which was significantly below the 60% forecast.

414 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 LHD versus mechanized grizzly
in III panel of Andina
Augusto Aguayo, Claudio Campos, Manuel Mansilla, Jorge Sougarret, Andrs Susaeta
Andina Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
The secondary ore of the III Panel of Andina Division is being mined concurrently through a mechanized grizzly and
a LHD layout. The design criteria as well as layouts and materials handling system are presented.
The retro analysis of 7 years of mining results with a comparison between methods regarding recovery, dilution,
stability, costs, etc. is presented in a quantitative and qualitative way.
Results show that grizzlies have been a much better system than LHD, from the economic and technical standpoint.
Weakness of both methods are described.
The analysis intends to project the advantages of the full gravity system (grizzlies) over intermediate hauling systems
(LHD). The potential projection of this experience to future designs in more competent rock is considered, with concepts
of continuous mining and preconditioning techniques.

1. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF ANDINA MINE mostly in primary rock, mining secondary and grizzlies in
secondary rock.
The Rio Blanco Ore deposit is located at an altitude of
3240 m (undercut level) in the Andean range 2. DESIGN PARAMETERS
approximately 50 km to the north of the city of Santiago.
The Mediterranean climate is characterized by cold and Table N1 presents the principal design parameters of
rainy winter seasons and hot and dry summer the LHD and Grizzly layouts of the Andina III Panel.
conditions. The average snow downfall over the crater is These designs have been in operation for more than 8
over 10 meters. years.
Total underground tonnage is of 45.000 ton/day. The Figure N1a and b shows a typical design plan of the LHD
mine has been caved since 1970 in three different system and in Figure N2a and b the III Panel Grizzly design
panels. The actual III Panel is being mined by grizzlies is presented.
and LHD concurrently. The LHD layouts are located

Table N1 - Design Parameters

Parameters Grizzly LHD

Rock
- Fragmentation Assessment 3% > 1 m3 10% > 1 m3
- Primary 0m 0 - 120 m
- Secondary ore column 220 - 300 m 220 - 450 m
- Lithology Granodiorite, Andesite, Magmatic, Granodiorite, Andesite, Magmatic,
granodiorite porphyry Riolite granodiorite porphyry
Design 9x9 13 x 13
9 x 11 (limited sectors) 13 x 15 ( Ore pass singularity)
Geometry Grizzly layout Teniente layout
Extraction system Gravitational to truck 7 yd3 LHD
Ore Transfer Ore pass (2 x 2 m) Ore Pass (2.5 x 2.5 m)
Haulage 50 & 80 ton truck 50 & 80 ton truck
Development cost
(up to caving) - Project 1200 US$/m2 750 US$/m2
Total caved area up to 2003 56.159 m2 96.176 m2
Ore Reserves (Up to 2003 caving) 36 Million t 151 Million t
Average in situ ore column height 280 m 256 m
Estimated Dilution Grade (%Cut) 0.5% Cu 0.5% Cu
Project % Dilution entry point 65% 75%
Project extraction rate 0,44 ton/m2*day 0,56 ton/m2*day

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 415

 Figure 2a

Figure 1a

Figure 1b Figure 2b

Figure N 3 shows a profile of the primary/secondary

rock interface with the extension of the LHD and grizzly
layouts.
As it is shown the LHD as well as the grizzlies are
primarily extracting secondary ore. The dilution of the III
Panel is mainly the remnant of the II and I Panel, which had
very high grade. The main dilution (sterile rock) is of riolite
coming from the north of the subsidence area, but through
the years have migrated and diluted most of the subsidence
area. The riolite is used as a lithologic tracer of dilution
percentage.

3. OPERATIONAL RESULTS

The operational results to compare Grizzlies and LHD for

the III Panel consider a combination of results from all
information up to 2003 and some specific sectors for each
method that have been mined up to closure of the draw
points.

Caving Sequence
Following figure N4 shows the effective and future caving
sequence of the III Panel by year, starting in 1995 for the
grizzly (in blue) and LHD sectors (in red).
Development and operational cost
Following costs are effective average results for
representative areas and tonnage. Figure 3

416 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Primary rock presence in the lower part of the column, poor
performance of the ore pass system (due to mud), hang
ups, etc. The dilution entry point for LHD sector has been
lower than planned, as well as the projected productivity.
The following Table N4 shows the planned and effective
production by sector up to 2003:

Table N4
Effective tonnage production
by year for LHD and Grizzly

UN 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
Grizzly
Real kton 615 2,647 5,845 4,840 5,999 7,084 6,649 6,318 6,828 46,824
Program kton 1,124 4,090 4,208 4,861 5,091 4,765 5,944 5,885 5,476 41,444

LHD
Real kton 624 4,570 6,829 8,581 8,904 8,969 8,353 46,832
Program hton 2,945 4,679 9,340 11,435 10,256 10,315 10,724 59,694

Figure 4
Grade & Fine Copper Production
Even considering the low Copper prices that as an effect
Development: As a result of a more dense draw pattern generated a lower caving area in the III Panel, and lower cut
(9 x 9 meters), the grizzly design is more intense in off grades, the average effective grade is higher than the
development and construction (specially drop boxes and planned one, mainly due to higher grades in the grizzly
loading chutes), thus generating a higher development cost. sector, explained by the higher dilution entry point and
Following Table N2 shows Grizzly and LHD development probably higher dilution grades.
cost from caving to transport level in US$/m2. In the LHD sector grades have been a little lower than
planned, with also a lower tonnage extracted. The dilution
entry point was lower than estimated.
Table N2 Development Cost Table N5 shows extracted average grades by year for
both sectors.
UN LHD GRIZZLY

Development Cost US$/m2 770 1.200 Table N5

Average extracted grade by sector

Operating: Operating costs are presented up to transport 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
(not included) due to differences in distances, for Grizzly
comparison purposes of both methods. Repairs of the Real 1.089 1.405 1.308 1.259 1,182 1.307 1.308 1.285 1.355 1.293
production infrastructure (production, ore passes, chutes,
etc.) are included in the cost. The total cost per ton including Program 1.155 1.188 1.187 1.154 1.161 1.324 1.339 1.203 1.039 1.199
operation and development has been estimated considering
the effective tonnage per square meter produced by each LHD
method, accounting the collapses. Table N3 summarizes Real 1.690 1.584 1.439 1.338 1.179 1.016 1.035 1.236
these results. Program 1.687 1.518 1.257 1.176 1.205 1.203 1.202 1.255

Table N3 Operational Cost When comparing the global balance of fine copper
produced, the result shows approximately 62.000 tons
Cost Grizzlies LHD below the project, mainly due to lower production in the LHD
Operational 0,773 US$7t 1,094 US$/t sector.
Table N6 shows the results expressed in fine Copper
Total Cost 2,05 US$/t 2,24 US$/t production for both sectors, against the planned tonnage.

Table N6
Total Extracted Tonnage Productivity Fine Copper Production by sector
Total Tonnage : Production was initiated in the grizzly
sector, effective produced tonnage was under the planned UN 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
schedule during the first two years. After that the situation
was reverted, from 1997 to 2003 production from the Grizzly
grizzlies have been more than 5 million tons higher than the Real kton 6,7 37,2 76,4 60,9 70,9 92,6 87,0 81,2 92,5 605,4
original project. The effective average dilution entry point for Program kton 13,0 48,6 49,9 56,1 59,1 63,1 79,6 70,8 56,9 497,1
the isolated draw zone (Pedza) for this sector is at 75%
extraction, that is 10% higher than the projected value LHD
(65%). Productivity has been higher than planned also. In Real kton 0,0 0,0 10,6 72,4 98,3 114,8 105,0 91,1 86,5 578,7
the other hand, the LHD sector has systematically been
Program hton 0,0 0,0 49,7 71,0 117,4 134,4 123,6 124,1 128,9 749,1
under the planned productivity, due to a series of factors:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 417

 Draw Practice - Uniformity of Draw: % Dilution Entry Point
One of the relevant parameters of draw control in a panel Represents the extracted percentage of the in situ column
caving operation is the uniformity of draw. This parameter is when the dilution is reported in the draw points. In the case
being controlled with the Uniformity Index (IU). Figure N5 of Andina the dilution corresponds to caved material from
presents the results for the index, indicating the % of total the II Panel, overlaying the III Panel. The steel arches,
tonnage per year drawn with uniformity (uniform and semi concrete and other materials from this level are a very good
uniform draw). tracer of the dilution, and have been mapped in every draw
point. This dilution corresponds to the "isolated column
dilution" or Pedza. The expected dilution from the
"interactive zone" should be determined when the
permanent increase in dilution percentage starts. The
mapping of a specific lithology (ryolite) that has
contaminated the subsidence area from the north side of the
crater, that can be easily recognized from the andesite and
granodiorite As seen in Figures N6 and N7 where all the
mapping information has been summarized for Area A
LHD and Areas 1 and 2 Grizzlies of the III Panel, there is a
very good correlation between the Pedza appearance and
the increase of ryolite percentage for both cases (not
considering the effect of side dilution that is incorporating
early ryolite). There is also a clear change in the dilution
curve slope showing the Pedzi (Dilution from the interactive
zone).
The summary of the total tonnages extracted, caved
Figure N5: Tonnage drawn with Uniformity areas, dilution entry points, etc. for the sectors presented in
the figures is presented in Table N7.

4. BACK ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION RESULTS Available Area

The strength of each design can be evaluated considering
Recovery of reserves the geomechanic behavior through the III Panel caved area.
The Grizzly sector has had a 18% higher recovery of For the grizzly system a total area of 56.159 m2 have been
mining reserves than the LHD sector to date. The column caved over 9 years, without the loss of a single draw point
height were similar thus the grizzly sector has recovered up due to collapses. With the LHD system a total of 96.176 m2
to 350 m columns, compared to the 296 m of LHD. The have been caved most of the development in primary rock,
good recovery of the grizzlies can be explained due to the with a total loss due to collapses of 26.369 m2, that
very good interaction of a 81 m2 draw pattern, compared corresponds to 27,4% of the total caved area. Evidently this
with a 175,5 m2 LHD layout, for the same caved material. is one of the greatest weakness of the designed system.

Figure N6: LHD Area A % dilution entry curve.

418 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure N7 Grizzlies Area 1 and 2 % dilution entry curves

Table N7 Draw Results

Item Grizzlies LHD

Unit productivity(without collapses) ton/m2 952 795

Total Area m2 22.607 22.626
Total Tonnage ton 21.526.627 17.995.873
Total % Extraction % 145% 118%
Total % Ryolite extraction % 6,7% 6,7%
Ryolite Tonnage ton 1.351.803 1.032.012
Pedza % 73% 64%
Pedzi % 89% 79%

System Productivity
Effective productivity of each system has been evaluated Table N8 Productivity (t/m2)
considering the average tonnage produced per active
square meter, by year. In following Table N8 productivity for 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
each sector by year is summarized. The grizzly sector had Grizzlies
a program of 150 t/m2 and has an average of 177 t/m2 per Real t/m2 91 149 260 215 163 181 188 134 210 177
day. The LHD had a program of 185 t/m2 and the effective
productivity (not considering the collapsed area) is 136 t/m2. Program t/m2 71 129 138 128 143 180 204 175 182 150

Ore pass availability and Mud Problems LHD

Moisture coming from snow and water precipitated in the Real t/m2 70 168 144 151 153 135 129 136
subsidence area generates mud conditions for both the Program t/m2 70 157 190 217 212 222 214 195
grizzly and LHD systems. The vulnerability of the LHD due
to ore pass closure due to mud problems and repairs is high
(great area to one box). Low ore pass availability has
generated low productivity of the LHD system. Ore Reserves Recovery
The ore reserves recovery has been calculated with
Summary the total extracted tonnage per caved area (this
With the above information, Table N9 was computed includes the collapsed areas) the total productivity for
summarizing the main results of the two caving extraction the grizzly sector is of 940 t/m 2 against 667 t/m2 of the
methods used in the Andina III Panel. LHD.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 419

 Table N9 Summary of back analysis results

Index Observation Grizzlies LHD

Investment (cost/m2) From under cut to transport level 1200 770
plus caving
Design strength Strength of design is evaluated Total caved area = 56159 m2 Total caved area = 96176 m2
against collapsed area Total collapsed area = 0 m2 Total collapsed area = 26369 m2
% Area loss = 0% % Area loss = 27,4%
Unit Productivity Ton per open productive area 177 t/m2 136 t/m2
per periiod
Ore Reserves Recovery Total tonnage per closed area 940 t/m2 667 t/m2
(with collapsed area percentage)
Total Cost Operation to truck transport 0,773 US$/t 1.094 US$/t
(exclusive) with repairs)
Total Cost Operation plus development 2,05 US$/t 2,24 US$/t
% Pedza % Extraction 73 64
% Pedzi % Extraction 89 79
In situ reserve recovery % of mining reserves recovered 136% 118%

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS:

With the compiled results the conclusions are: For secondary ore, or for cave fragmentation that can be
handled by a gravitational system, it should be preferred
Total cost including development and operations, over a LHD extraction system.
considering collapses areas, is 9,2% lower for Grizzlies If fragmentation of the cave can be managed (ie: through
against LHD. preconditioning of the rock) a gravity based method,
Operational problems with LHD are higher due to high should be much efficient than an LHD alternative.
vulnerability of the ore pass system. The LHD design should be reviewed to endure stability of
Ore reserve recovery (due to 81 m2 layout against 169 the future developments of the III Panel.
m2) is much higher in grizzly layout (41% higher).
Dilution control even with the lack of uniformity in the
grizzly sector has been much better in grizzlies, obtaining
same total tonnage of dilution (ryolite) for 20% additional
recovery.

420 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 New mine level project
at El Teniente
Patricio Yez, Mine Engineering Superintendent, Rigoberto Molina, Geomechanics Engineer,
El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
El Teniente, one of CODELCOs mining Divisions, is carrying out an expansion plan of the underground panel caving
operation and the processing facilities in order to reach a 130,000 tonnes per day, plan known as the El Teniente
Development Plan.
For the production plan and future development plans, the exploitation of the deposit above elevation 2,120 meter above
sea level, has been considered until year 2014. From this year on, it will necessary to incorporate new mining projects,
located below that level, in order to maintain the long term production rates.
In this context, starting from year 2014 El Teniente will incorporate the New Mine Level project, which will become the
most important underground panel caving project and will sustain the production plans in the long term, exploiting only
primary ore. The undercut level will be located at 1,880 meters above sea level. The new level will be divided in five
mining sectors, including 1,371 million tons as total ore reserves with a 0.96% copper grade, covering an area of
1,606,000 square meters. The initial production rate will be 2,000 tons per day and will reach a maximum production
close to 130,000 tons per day in the long term.
The New Mine Level Project will deepen the exploitation of the deposit 100 meters below the current deepest level of
the mine (the main transport level, railroad Teniente 8) and will incorporate blocks with an average of 300 meters height
approximately. The location of such future mining level requires the introduction of relevant changes to the main
infrastructure of the mine, such as a new main transport level, new service shafts, primary crushers chambers, new
drainage and ventilation levels. Other important topics of the project to be discussed are the elevation of the future mining
level, the slope strategy with the mining going down to the new level (connection to the crater), the interaction with the
current operation sectors and with the main infrastructure of the upper levels of the mine, the mining plan and its
production capacity, the mining method design and the geological and geomechanical studies.
All these aspects configure the main focus of the studies currently under development at the pre-feasibility engineering
stage and will be emphasised on this paper.

1. INTRODUCTION

The El Teniente Codelcos Division, a state-owned

company, is located 80 kilometers South of Santiago at
2,200 meters above sea level (Figure 1). It exploits the
largest underground cooper mine in the world. The mine has
been exploited since 1905 and it includes 2,400 kilometers
of galleries.
This division annually produces close to 450,000 tons
of cooper fine, bars and cathodes. As a result of the ore
treatment, 4,750 tons of molybdenum and more than
800,000 tons of sulphuric acid are also produced each
year.
The 130,000 tpd production plan is supported by the
exploitation of ore reserves located over the 2,120
meters above sea level elevation (Teniente Sub6 level)
up to the year 2014. After that time, new mining projects
located below that level should be incorporated in order
to maintain the long term production in agreement with
the plan rates.
In that way, the "New Mine Level " is added to the
production plan starting on year 2014. Its reserves are
situated below the current main transport level (Teniente 8,
elevation 1,980 meters above sea level). It will include five
production sectors (Norte, Andes Norte, Andes Sur, Andes
Central, Sector Sur y Pacifico). Figure 1: Divisin El Teniente Location

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 421

 Figure 3: New Mine Level Sector Location

shape, close to 1 Km in diameter, with a sub vertical axe and

more than 2 Km of vertical extension. It includes ten main
lithological units which are presented in Figure 3.
A main set of strike slip N-E faults are present in the
northern orebody volume, N, N1 and N2 faults and P and P1
faults in southern area. The width range varies from 5 a
120cm with traces in th range of 100m to 500m. These
faults are projected to the lower levels, including the New
Figure 2: New Mine Level Sector Location Mine Level.

Table 1: RMR Laubschers Classification Properties

2. NEW MINE LEVEL PROJECT
UNIT ff/m3 RMR
Location
The New Mine Level project is located in a zone defined Andesite HT
by the coordinates -660N y 1,300N and 0E y 1,580E, as (Late Hydrothermal ) Hw 5-8 50-60
shown in Figure 2. The ore column is defined by the level Andesite HP
1,880 meters above sea level and the current production (Principal hydrothermal) Principal) 8-11 42-53
sectors Esmeralda (2,210 meters above sea level) and
Teniente Sub6 (2,120 meters above sea level). The ore Diorite (primary) 4-9 55-65
columns are 240 meters for the sectors under Teniente Dacite (primary) 4-6 65-70
Sub6 and 340 meters for those under the Esmeralda sector.
Hydrothermal Brecchia 3-5 60-70
Almost 97 % of the project reserves are primary ore.
Primary Igneous Brecchia 3-7 55-65
Geology
The El Teniente orebody is located in the central Chilean
Andes and it is classified as a gigantic deposit. It is one of Table 2: Intact Rock Properties
the largest cooper-molybdenum deposit, with more than 75
millions of cooper fine tons. Parameter Andesite Diorite Dacite Braden
The size of the economical mineralized rock mass is 3 Brecchia
Km. in N-S direction and 1.5 Km in E-W direction. The Density [ton/m3] 2,8 2,7 2,7 2,60
underground mine has already exploited a 1 Km rockmass
column from the Teniente "J" level to the Teniente Sub6 Deformability
level. Modulus (E) [GPa] 60 45 30 25
The mafic complex is an aggregate of gabbros, diabasas, Poisson Ratio(n) 0,16 0,21 0,18 0,23
basalts, basaltic porphyries and basaltic andesites. It I
configured as a tridemensional set of fractures, veins and From Hoek & Brown
veinlets ("Stockwork"), with pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite and criteria (ci) [MPa] 120 140 110 90
molybdenite mineralization. From Hoek & Brown
A relevant brecchia complex (Braden Brecchia) is located criteria, (Mi) 9,1 9,2 20,2 11,6
in the central zone of the orebody. It corresponds to a
Cohesion ( c ) 23 23 19 10
complex of hydrothermal brecchias, with an inverted cone

422 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) Laubschers (1990)
classification values are shown in Table 1 for the main
lithological orebody units.
Table 2 presents the intact rock properties for the
andesite, diorite, Braden brecchia and dacitic porphory
units.

Geomechanics
Guidelines for caving starting and propagation
The New Mine Level will initiate the caving using a
descending mining, avoiding an excessive tensile stress in
the surrounding rockmass and a relevant confinement in the
top of the caving cavity. If a standard connection method is
used, caving progressing upwards, the caving will be more
difficult. It will probably increase the recorded induced
seismicity. The abutment stress generated in the borders of
the cavity and the increase in the seismically active volume
above this cavity will create a higher radiated energy events
in relation to the size of the ruptures originating those
events.
The starting point of the induced caving corresponds to a
connection from the crater to the undercut level (downwards
connection) instead of a connection from the undercut level
to the crater as used in the standard connection (upwards
connection), Figure 4.
Once the undercut level is reached, the undercut zone is Figure 5: Stress Field zones
expanded by the incorporation of drawbells as in a standard
caving method.
A favorable condition is created by a gradual increase of Fragmentation
the seismically active volume as the mining goes down. It Five zone have been defined around the central Brecchia,
increases from a cero volume to its maximum. In the other included in the exploitation area of the New Mine Level. The
side, the active volume decreases from a maximum at the fragmentation has been classified in a relative scale including
starting of the undercutting as the caving progress upwards small size material, medium, coarse, very coarse and blocks.
in a standard caving method. The classification zones are presented in Figure 6.

Subsidence
Table 3 shows the subsidence angles for the New Mine
Level sectors. Those values have been derived from
empirical models validated against damage zones surveyed
in the current productive sectors.

Figure 4: Difference Natural Caving and Induced Caving

Stress Condition
The stress field as been estimated resulting a principal
major stress of 60 MPa and a minor principal stress of 33
MPa at a 1,800 meters above sea level elevation in the
central zone (see Figure 5). The higher stress
concentration are induced in the eastern zone (high
mountain zone, zone 3 in figure 5) and in the border of the
Braden Pipe (zone 2 in the same figure). This estimation
has been obtain from the stress measurements existing in
the production sectors and in the bottom level of the mine,
Teniente 8 at an 1,980 meters above sea level elevation.
Currently, efforts are made in order to improve this
estimations using numerical models and/or hydraulic
fracturing stress measurements. Figure 6: Fragmentation Zones Level 1,880 masl

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 423

 Table 3: Subsidence Angles of NML Sectors Tabla 4: Permisible Distances for the NML

Sector Subsidence Angles Sector Permissible Distances

(Collapse/Fracture) NML (meters)
North South East West From To

Andes Norte 63/55 N/A 63/55 68/55 Undercutting-Extraction 60 100

Andes Central 63/55 N/A 63/55 68/55 Undercutting- Developments

(Production Level) 20 25
Andes Sur 66/58 65/58 63/57 68/55
Undercutting Mining
Sur 74/65 71/64 68/60 70/62 Preparation(Undercut level) 40 70
Note: The range depends on the NML zone
Seismicity
ining induced seismicity is associated to the breaking of Reserves
the rockmass. Under same rockmass characteristics, The project reserves are close to 1,371 millions tons,
distances from seismic event sources and underground with an average cooper grade of 0.96%, a molybdenum
work local conditions the seismic radiated energy can grade of 0.024%. From the total reserves 57% are
damage galleries creating rockbursts. classified as proven, considering a total area of 1,606,000
Empirical evidences show that the most seismically square, Tabla 5.
unfavorable stage of the caving process is the initial caving
before connecting to the upper caved level. The seismic risk Mining Plan
during this stage will be minimized by the use of the The principle used for defining the extraction sequence for
deepening connection. each sector was to maximize the economical revenues of
the reserve exploitation. In addition, other technical criteria
Permisible Distances were utilized as the interaction between sectors under
The application of the Panel Caving method define three exploitation (subsidence) and the geomechanical rockmass
zones with different permissible distances. characteristics which are predominant in relation to
Undercutting front extraction face distance economical criteria due to their relation with the technical
Undercutting front Production level Development feasibility of the exploitation. Figure 7 presents the
Advancing face exploitation sequence for the NML sectors.
Undercutting front Prepared Area in Undercutting Level The project expansion strategy for the starting of its
production operations is divided in two stages. The first
Undercutting front Production level Developme Tabla 4 one called "going down" involves the connection of the
shows the permissible distances for the New Mine Level. current crater with the undercutting of the New Mine Level

Figure 7: Exploitation Sequence for NML Sectors

424 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The typical production gallery section is 5.0 m width and
Tabla 5: NML Sector Reserves
4.5 m height.
The distance between drawbells crosscuts is 20 m and
Total Reserves
between galleries is 34.64 m, defining an influence area
SECTOR Mton % % % % % Area of 346.4 m2 for each extraction point. The tonnage to be
Cu Mo Proven Probable Possible extracted by each point will be in the range of 224,000
and 317,000 tons of ore, depending on the column
Norte 157.8 0.9 0.015 22 39 38 171 heights.
Andes Norte 216.6 1.03 0.022 20 44 36 309 The orepass system is configured by 3.5 m diameter
orepasses, with a 200 m spacing in each production
Andes Central 269.1 1.12 0.025 22 41 36 350 gallery. This means an influence area of 6,928 m2
Andes Sur 433.2 0.89 0.022 6 43 51 506 involving 20 extraction points for each orepass. Then, an
ore tonnage ranging from 4.4 to 6.3 millions tons would be
Sur 136.0 0.81 0.021 11 40 49 145
transferred depending on the column heights of the
Pacfico 158.3 0.90 0.031 5 15 80 124 corresponding sector
TOTAL 1,371.0 0.96 0.024 15 42 43 1,606 The secondary blasting reduction will be mechanized
using hydrofracturing equipments
Automatic LHD equipment is considered.
and the second one the expansion of the Panel Caving
operations.
The 130,000 tpd mining plan integrates the first NML
sector to the mine production during year 2014. Its initial
production rate will be 2,000 tpd and it will reach a 130,000
tpd production as permanent regime production after the
year 2025. Figure 8 presents the 130,000 tpd mining plan
and the NML production.

Figure 9: NML Production Module

Ore Handling
The general criteria to be considered for the ore
handling system design are: a high production capacity,
Figure 8: The 130,000 tpd Mining Plan handling of a primary coarse ore, operational flexibility,
low operational cost and high productivity, low
Exploitation Method operational risk associated to the technology and an
A present-day approach for mining involving large easy construction.
production volumes has been adopted. It will be highly From this point of view, the project has defined the use of
technified, with automated production operations and in automatic 13 yd3 LHD equipment for the production level.
agreement with high environmental and safety standards They will load the ore at the extraction points and dumped it
The Panel caving method has been selected for the New at the orepasses.
Mine Level, using the pre-undercut or advance undercut At the transport level, ore will be loaded to 80 tons trucks
variant with the exception of the initial area where a by means of mechanized plate feeders. At each loading
SubLevel Caving or an Inclined Caving are going to be point the production from 2 orepasses will be handled. The
applied. A "going down" option for the initial mining will typical gallery section will be 5.5 by 5.0 m to allow the
generate a more favorable seismic rockmass response. automated truck operation.
Besides a faster connection to the upper caved level and a Ore will be transported by the trucks to the centralized
shorter time to reach a permanent regime production rate primary crusher chambers located out of the extraction
are expected. zone. These chambers are provided with shooters, 1.5
The main characteristics of the mining method to be by 1.5 m grizllies and permanent pickhammers. The ore
applied are the followings: will be transferred to the rotating crushers, 60" x 89"
Four main levels: undercutting, production, haulage and size, with a 1.5 m feeder capacity. The resulting
ventilation. material should be less than 8". It will be transported by
A production module involving a Teniente type extraction a conveyor belt system to the concentrator plant. The
mesh. The production module appears in Figure 9. conveyor belts will be 60" wide, 4.1 m/s speed, a
Production galleries and drawbell crosscuts in agreement maximum capacity of 5,500 tph and different lengths
with the use of 13 yd3 LHD equipment. and slopes.
Drawbell crosscuts with a 60 angle in relation to the Table 6 and Figure 10 provided the main specifications
production galleries. and a diagram of the ore handling system.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 425

 Table 6: NML Ore Handling System Specification

Fase Specification Notes

Secondary Reduction 4.9 hours/shift (LHD) Ratio > 1.8 m

Extraction (13 yd3 LHD) 4,000 t/shift Average distance 50 m.
Ore transfer 3.5 m diameter ore pass Material Size < 1.8 m
Feeder Loading 4 trucks/minute 2 ore pass/feeder
Haulage (80 t truck) 2,250 t/shift Haulage distance 1,500 m.
Pickhammer 2.7 hours/shift (truck) Reduced Ratio 1.5 m. 1.8 m. range
Grizlly (per crusher) 4 grizllies, 1 pickhammer each

Principal Indicators The estimated low costs are generated by the NML
The conceptual engineering studies currently under project correspond mainly to the mining preparation low cost
development show the following figures: due to the increased sized of the extraction mesh and a
First sector commissioning date year 2014 decrease in the annual new area required due to the higher
Permanent regime production capacity 130,000 tpd rockmass columns, automation process, a single
Level lifetime > 30 years exploitation level and preparation and maintenance
Maximum rate per exploitation front 45,000 tpd outsourcing.
Area added for each sector < 28,000 m2/year
Estimated El Teniente personnel 476 personnel Key Factors
Estimated contractors 1,599 personnel The conceptual engineering studies have detected same
Estimated productivity (El Teniente personnel) key factors regarding the technical and economical success
> 280 tons/man-day of the project. The main factor are the followings:
Estimated productivity (including contarctors) Geological and Geometalurgical Exploration Plan.
> 70 tons/man-day - In-situ geological resources
Mine investments 663 MUS$ - Geometalurgical model
Average operational cost 2.43 US$/ton - Hydraulic drainage
- Mining preparation 1.06 US$/ton Geomechanical Exploration and Studies
- Extraction and ore transfer 1.01 US$/ton - Connection to crater method validation or
- Primary crushing and main transport 0.36 US$/ton initiate induced caving

Figure 10: NML Ore Handling System

426 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 11: NML Project Global Plan

- Stress field estimation Panel 8 Anexos", Report N PDT-I-003/2000, December

- Seismic risk evaluation 1999.
Mining and Metalurgical Planning JRI Ingeniera, "Proyecto Ingeniera de Perfil Plan
- Exploitation sequence and production capacity Exploratorio Mina Concentrador Informe Final Volumen
validation I", September 2001, in contrat for El Teniente Divisin.
- Simultaneous productive operation of different sectors JRI Ingeniera, "Proyecto Ingeniera de Perfil Plan
(subsidence and interference) Exploratorio Mina Concentrador Volumen II Area Mina",
Mine design and Engineering September 2001, in contract for El Teniente Divisin.
- Project master plan validation (construction analysis) JRI Ingeniera, "Proyecto Ingeniera de Perfil Plan
including engineering, construction, supplies and Exploratorio Mina Concentrador Informe Final Area
commissioning. Figure 11, shows the project global plan. Planta", September 2001, in contract for El Teniente
- Technological developments (process automation) Divisin.
- Exploitation method and its variant post-evaluation. Parraguez R., "Topicos a Considerar en la Ingenera
Conceptual Plan Exploratorio NNM (Panel 8), I Etapa",
3. CONCLUSIONS Report N PL-059/02, February 2002.
Ynez P., "API T01M201: Proyecto Nuevo Nivel Mina
The New Mine Level is one of the most important project Panel 8 Ingeniera Conceptual", Report N PDT-I-
among those with a conceptual engineering study at the El 001/2000, July 2000.
Teniente Division. It will incorporate 1,371 millions tons of Ynez P., "API T03M202: Proyecto de Explotacin Nuevo
ore reserves to the production plan. Nivel Mina", Report SPD-I-MI-022/02, July 2002.
Production from this project will be included in the year Celhay F., and Ziga P., "Proyecto Panel 8
2014 planned production. The first project sector (Andes Antecedentes Geolgicos", Report GL-I-59/02, July
Norte) will support the 130,000 tpd long term production 2002.
rate. Exploiting the only the sectors located above the 2,120 Celhay F., and Letelier M., "Estimacin de Arsnico y
meters above sea level elevation, that rate will be sustained Antimonio Sector Sur Yacimiento El Teniente", Report
only to the year 2014. SGL-I-054/03, July 2003.
The development of this project will generate a large Celhay F., and Letelier M., "Estimacin de Recursos CuT
impact in the main mine infrastructure due to excavation of y MoT Sector Norte Central", Report SGL-I-131/03,
a new infrastructure below the current deepest level existing December 2003.
in the mine (Teniente 8 Level, 1,980 meters above sea level Molina R., Parraguez R., Catalano J., and Derk Ingeniera
elevation). y Geologa Ltda., "Anlisis Geomecnico Plan
Exploratorio Teniente ( P.E.T.)", Report DI-CT-SP-008,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS July 2002, in contract for El Teniente Divisin.
Molina R., Parraguez R., Catalano J., and Derk Ingeniera
The autors thank at the "Gerencia de Recursos Mineros y y Geologa Ltda., "Anlisis Geomecnico Proyecto
Desarrollo" and "Gerencia de Minas" of the El Teniente Aumento Capacidad Mina, Ingeniera Conceptual - Etapa
Division, CODELCO CHILE, for the authorization to publish I", Report DI-CT-SP-004, July 2002, in contract for El
this paper. Teniente Divisin.
JRI Ingeniera, "Informe Ingeniera Conceptual Proyecto
Aumento Capacidad Mina Concentrador 150 ktpd, Vol 1
REFERENCES al 6", Report SDS-03/02, August 2002, in contract for El
Teniente Divisin.
Melndez L., Villanueva J. and Ynez P., "Resumen Molina R., Parraguez R., Catalano J., and Derk Ingeniera
Ingeniera de Perfil Panel 8", Report N PL-542/1999, y Geologa Ltda., "Informe de Hundibilidad en Mina
November 1999. Esmeralda, Fase I", Report DI-CT-SP-024, October 2002,
Melndez L., Villanueva J., and Ynez P., "Ingeniera de in contract for El Teniente Divisin.
Perfil Proyecto Panel 8 Seleccin de Reservas", Molina R., Parraguez R., Campos J., and Derk Ingeniera
anexos, December 1999. y Geologa Ltda., "Informe de Hundibilidad en Mina
Celhay F., "Programa de Sondajes Proyecto Panel 8", Esmeralda, Fase II", Report DI-CT-SP-029, November
Report GL-042/2000, March 2000. 2002, in contract for El Teniente Divisin.
Yez P., "Ingeniera de Perfil Proyecto de Explotacin Espinosa C., and CIIM T y S, "Sistema Estndar de
Panel 8 Informe Final", Report N PDT-I-003/2000, Control Operacional de Fragmentacin, SECOF", Report
December 1999. P-106745, November 2002, in contract for El Teniente
Yez P., "Ingeniera de perfil Proyecto de Explotacin Divisin.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 427

 Len H., and TI, "Sistema Estndar de Control Cavieres P., and Vasquez P., "Aplicacin del Sistema
Operacional de Fragmentacin, SECOF, Levantamiento Standard de Control de Fragmentacin SECOF, al sector
de Variables", Report TI-432/03, March 2003. Teniente 4 Sur", Report SPL-I-032/03, September 2003.
Dunlop R., "Estudio de Caracterizacin del Macizo Molina R., Parraguez R., and Others, "Anlisis
Rocoso por Mtodo Geofsico para Reservas bajo Geomecnico Plan de Negocio y Desarrollo 2004",
Teniente 8", Report SPL-I-027/03, July 2003. Report SPL-I-004/04, February 2004.

428 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 KGHM The largest
underground mine in the world
Andrzej Zablocki, Atlas Copco Chilena S.A.C., Piotr Kijewski, CBPM Cuprum (Poland)

Abstract
Intensive exploration during the middle of the 20th century in the south-west region of Poland led to a discovery of one
of the world largest copper ore-bearing deposits. The excavation of the deposit is concentrated in three mining sectors:
Lubin, Polkowice-Sieroszowice and Rudna. All of them belong to a joint-stock company KGHM Polska Miedz S.A.
comprising three dressing plants, two smelters and one copper rolling mill.
Annual extraction of approximately 30 Mill tons of ore with an average copper content of 2% makes it the world largest
underground mine of fine copper production (530,000 t. in 2003). Geology, resources, geotechnical conditions and the
variation of mining methods for a depth of 1000 m and one of the worlds most unusual mineral deposits of such a large
excavation volume is described in this paper.

INTRODUCTION Deposits currently being exploited were discovered in

1957 by Dr. Engineer Jan Wyzykowski of the National
Poland belongs to a group of states that disposes of large Institute of Geology. The first documentation was
copper ore reserves. These deposits are concentrated in the elaborated in 1959 and was the base for the first mining
southwest of the country, in two geological units: the northern investments in1960 and for the following exploitation
Foresudetic basin and in the monoclinic grounds of Foresudetic tasks, indispensable to recognize the geological-mining
(fig. 1). These are the sedimentary deposits of a variety of conditions and to document the new portions of the deposit.
sulphuric mineralisation. Mining production is currently carried The first shaft reached the ore level on March 20th, 1960,
out in the monoclinic grounds of Foresudetic, in the region of and the first mining units ("Lubin", "Polkowice") reached
Lubin, since in the northern basin of Sudetic exploitation ceased 25% of its productive capacity in January 1969. In the years
due to exhaustion of reserves (region of Zlotoryja or because of 1970-1980 mining investments allowed making use of new
economic causes (region of Boleslawice). sectors in the deposit; "Rudna," "Sieroszowice", and also
increasing the exploitation to its current annual level of more
than 28-29 million tons of ore.
Parallel to the mining construction, ore treatment plants
have been created as well as copper foundries in Legnica,
Glogow and Cedynia.

Features of the Deposit

The copper mine located in the mountainous region of
Foresudetic appears on the contact area between the
sandstone sediments called rotliegendes and marine
formations of Zechstein. In general it is a one stratum
deposit, with an irregular roof and floor surface with a slight
6 degree dip. The characteristic deposit lithostratigraphic
level is the layer of copper slate of Zechstein with a high
concentration of copper, silver and other accompanying
metals. Mineralisation also includes contiguously slate
located on the floors of the rotliegendes and carbonated
rocks of Zechstein on the roof.
The thickness of the deposit is quite variable, fluctuating
between 0.5 m and up to more than 20 m. Due to its
significant thickness the "Rudna" sector can be particularly
distinguished where close to 45% of the resources are
located in the group of more than 6 m with a maximum of 26
m.
The deposit is exploited at a depth of 600 to 1,000 m and
has been recognized to a depth of 1,600 m. The difference
in depth of the deposit is related to the rock stratum
monoclinic declination. In the limits of the deposit of each
mining division the quantitative differentiation of the mining
1) Eocretaceous, 2)Triassic, 3)Permian, 4)Paloeozoic formation variations stands out. Thus, in the "Lubin" sector the
(cristalic), 5)Fault belts 6)Line of geological section, 7)Exploatation zone. sandstone ore conforms to 71.5%, carbonated ore 17.5%
and slate 11%. The predominance of the sandstone ore
Fig. 1 Drawing of geological structure of the region showing stands out even more, 84.5% in the "Rudna" sector, with
copper deposits in western Poland 10.5 carbonated ore and 5% slate.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 429

 In the "Polkowice-Sieroszowice" sector the superiority of economically justifiable. On this basis, the balance of
the carbonated ore of 64.2% can be noted over the reserves has been determined in each Mining Division
sandstone ore and slate, 23.6% and 14% respectively. (tab.1).
The copper content in each sector of the deposit is Included in the balance resources possible to exploit in
different. A general trend appears to be a higher quantity of the near future, is part of the deposit "Glogow Gleboki",
copper in the deposit where it is less thick, which is related which is today the reserve sector. Reserves of this part of
to an increased participation of the more mineralized slate. the deposit can be developed making use of the current
This shows an average content of 10% of copper whereas mining structure of divisions "Rudna" and "Polkowice-
in the sandstone ore this fluctuates between 1-3%. Sieroszowice". Balance reserves in the reserve sector
The characteristic feature of the deposit is the high comprise 688.4 million tons of ore and 14.9 million tons of
contents of silver which often exceeds 100 ppm over the copper, that allow increasing the quantity of reserves of the
average exploited ore with a level of 60 ppm. Thus the total balance to 2,555 million tons of ore and copper to 45 million
production of over 1,200 tons puts KGHM within the group tons.
of the main world producers of silver.
Mining Operations and geotechnical conditions
The mine gradually increased the production
(table 2) split in terms of ore hoisting between Lubin (8
Million t/y), Polkowice-Sieroszowice (10 Million t/y) and
Rudna (11Million t/y).
In addition, KGHM is exploring to the north-east of its
existing mines and has already identified a further 700 Mt
of mineralization in the Glogow Gleboki area grading 2.2%
copper. Right now the new shaft is being developed in this
sector. At the moment the shaft is 1050 m deep and its final
depth will be 1246 m. Up to 635 m depth the freezing
method was used in order to be able to sink it.
In total the mines have 26 vertical shafts with diameters
ranging from 6 m to 7.5 m and depths that vary from 632
m at Lubin to 1,120 m at Rudna All of the shafts were sunk
using the freezing method as they pass through a major
aquifer.
The most modern shaft belongs to Rudna mine where the
depth of the loading level is 1,022 m; it is equipped with two
twin-skip Koepe friction hoists. Each unit consists of a four-
rope hoist with 5.5 m diameter friction drum powered by a
3,600 kW motor. Each of the skips has a capacity of 300 kN
and runs at a speed of 20 m/s.
Access to the deposit from the shafts and preparatory
workings is by a network of drifts located directly under the
strong dolomite roof and above the sandstone, along the dip
of the ore zone.
1)Documented deposit, 2)Exploatation zone, 3)GlogoW Gleboki The main drifts are equipped with conveyor systems for
reserve zone, 4)Battery of shafts, 5)Individual shafts ore transport. Evaluation of mining methods is shown in fig.
3.
Fig. 2 Copper-bearing Zone Originally the long wall method was used based on coal
mining experiences but very soon abandoned because of
limited possibilities to mechanise the work and low
Base of Reserves productivity.
The mining ownership in whose limits the Mining Divisions The predominant method used is room and pillar,
of KGHM Polska Miedz S.A. carry out the exploitation of the although this is adapted to the prevailing seam thickness
deposit, reaches about 416 km2 (fig.2), assuring a base of and geotechnical conditions. For instance, deposits up to 5
reserves indispensable for maintaining the high production m thick are currently mined by room and pillar with roof
of copper and silver. According to principles adopted in caving or roof deflection, considered to be more effective
Poland, balance resources and safer since it enables full mechanisation. The
comply with that part of these geological resources technology behind mining deposits 5 to 7 m thick is based
which makes the exploitation technically possible and on advanced-fracturing and post-failure capacity of pillars.

TABLE 1: Level of Reserves year 2000

Mining Divisions Reserves Average grade Quantity

(Million tons) Cu % Ag (ppm) Cu (Thousand t) Ag (t)
Lubin 423.888 1.29 64 5.462 27.109

Polkowice-Sieroszowice 490.693 2.60 53 12.758 25.624

Rudna 652.063 1.83 141 11.911 26.717

Total 1.568.744 1.92 51 30.131 79.660

430 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 TABLE 2: Annual Production of fine copper and silver at KGHM Polska Miedz S.A.

Year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003

Fine copper (ton.) 235,244 348,849 376,106 325,319 405,739 486,602 529,616
Silver (ton.) 487.1 690.8 801.4 840.0 964.3 1,119.0 1,357.9

Fig 3. Evaluation of mining methods at KGHM

When exploiting a deposit with thickness of more than

7 m, as well as the exploitation of protection pillars at the
surface, a hydraulic filling is applied. The roof opening
reaches 150 m, and the longest edges of the pillars are
located perpendicular to the exploitation front line. Deposits
Figure No. 5. General layout of exploitation for the seam
below 3 m thick, such as most of those encountered in
thickness at Polkowice-Sieroszowice
Polkowice-Sieroszowice, are excavated with a special
selective mining method using low-profile equipment (fig.4),
permitting to decrease dilution. This will be even more capacity. For this reason, extensive rock reinforcement is
important in the future as with the increasing depth of the used, compromising standard mechanical and resin grouted
deposit, the seams are getting thinner. 1.6 m and 2.6 m bolts and 5-7 m cable bolting, mainly at drift
crossings

SUMMARY

The Zechstein copper ore deposit in the region of Lubin

consists of an important base of resources for copper
mining in Poland . The mining ground together with reserves
foreseen for the near future exploitation, industrial reserves
amount to 935 million tons of ore and 47.6 million tons of
copper. There are also balance reserves documented in
adjacent land that form a potential base of raw material.
Ore mining that reached in 2003 more than 30 million
tons, is accomplished at three Mining Divisions, related
Fig 4 Atlas Copco low profile drilling unit mutually by the structure of main drifts, horizontal and
vertical transportation, ventilation and ore treatment.
The variation of the method for a height of 3 m at The homogeneity of the deposits geological structure,
Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine is shown in figure 5. mining level, technical and technological conditions of the
Geotechnically, the deposits are intersected by a mining tasks, indicate that in Poland lies the largest
multitude of faults. An especially dangerous feature of the underground copper mine in the world and also the
rock is its ability to accumulate high amounts of energy, second largest producer of silver, owned by consortium
which can occasionally explosively release as a rock bursts. KGHM polska Miedz S.A.
The deposit is stressed, and is subject to seismic events The mines technology will continue to evolve and this
and rock burst, so KGHM has developed a sophisticated may well include some even more radical mining
monitoring system and makes m3 techniques in the future.
Because of the variety of the thickness of different parts of
the deposit different size of to over 8 m3 bucket capacity, REFERENCES
which together with trucks take ore to conveyors.equipment
is used. For example, mucking is based on a large fleet of Atlas Copco, 2003. Copper Mining in the Sudetic
LHDs ranging from 1,5 extensive use of rock bolts. Whilst Mountains, Underground Mining Methods.
the immediately overlying rock is normally strong, in some Atlas Copco, 2003. Ericsson M. Mining trends,
places weak layers of shales decrease the roof bearing Underground Mining Methods.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 431

 Casteel K, Jan. / Febr. 1998. Low, long Lena, World Potts A, November 2003. Mining the Kupferschiefer,
Mining Equipment. Mining Magazine.
Katowice, 1971. Monograph przemyslu miedziowego w Wroclaw, 1998. Chronicle of Polish Copper.
Polsce. Zablocki A. Kijewski P: Est en Polonia la mayor mina
Krakow, 2002. Speczik At: Czterdziesci lat polskiej miedzi. subterranean de cobre? Minera Chilena, April 2004.
Lubin, 1996. Monograph KGHM Polska Miedz S.A.

432 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Open Benching at EKATI diamond
mine Koala North: Case Study
Jaroslav Jakubec, SRK Consulting, Canada, Larry Long, BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc

Abstract
EKATI Diamond Mine was the first diamond mine to be developed near Lac de Gras in the Northwest Territories of
Canada. The first production came from the Panda open pit in 1998. Current operations are based on mining multiple
pipes by the open pit method, and Koala North pipe has been developed and mined underground. Koala North
underground project was undertaken to test the underground mining method and to provide access to the lower
elevations of the Panda and Koala pipes, which will also be mined from underground once the open pit operations are
completed.. The Koala North underground mine, North Americas first underground diamond mine, formally opened in
November 2002. It is being developed as an open-benching, mechanized, trackless operation. This paper documents the
experience from the first two years of open benching mining method applied to kimberlites in Arctic conditions.

1 INTRODUCTION The upper 40 meters of the Koala North pipe was mined
in late 2000 as a small open pit to provide grade and
The EKATI Diamond Mine, operated, and 80% owned by geotechnical information and a prepared surface for the
BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc. (BHPB), 10% owned by Stewart transition to underground mining.
Blussom, and 10% owned by Chuck Fipke, is Canadas first The Koala North pipe has been selected as a trial
diamond mine. The EKATI Diamond Mine is located in the underground mine for the purposes of testing mining methods
heart of Arctic in Northwest Territories of Canada, and to provide access to the lower elevations of the Panda and
approximately 300 km northeast of Yellowknife and 200 km Koala pipes which will be also developed as underground
south of Arctic Circle see Figure 1. The mine lease area is operations once the open pit mining is completed. The trial
entirely covered by treeless tundra and approximately one mining decision was made primarily because of uncertainty in
third of the surface is covered by lakes. the several aspects of open benching and mass underground
mining at large in the northern Arctic environment. Although this
mining method was successfully used on several De Beers
diamond operations in South Africa, it has not been tested in
this setting.

2 GENERAL GEOLOGY

Koala North kimberlite pipe intruded into Archean

granitoids within central Slave Structural Province in the
Northwest Territories. It belongs to Lac de Gras group of
kimberlites and it is located between Koala and Panda
kimberlite bodies along the North-East trending structure
(Figure 2).

Figure 1: Geographical location of EKATI Diamond Mine.

Since its opening in 1998, the EKATI Diamond Mine has

produced more than 15 million carats. Its annual output
contributes to approximately 6% of world diamond
production by value. As of 2002 more then 150 kimberlite
occurrences had been found at EKATI claims that cover
more than 3,400 km2. Currently six kimberlite pipes are
included in the mining plan and nearly all of the diamond
production has been from open pit mining of multiple
pipes.
However, as some pits deepened the decision was made Figure 2: Aerial view (looking approximately north) across
to convert some of them into underground mines. the central development area at EKATI Diamond Mine.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 433

3 KOALA NORTH PIPE GEOLOGY The rock mass weathering susceptibility in the mining
context is the strength deterioration within the life of
The Koala North body forms steep-sided pipe with excavation due to the exposure to moisture. The degree of
inverted cone morphology typical of most kimberlites in the weathering is influenced mainly by the clay minerals within
Lac de Gras area (Figure 3). It was covered with 15 to 20 m the kimberlite rock types. Weathering of the kimberlite can
of boulder - and gravel-dominated glacial till overburden and adversely impact on ground support performance,
it was located in a depression formerly occupied by the production blasting and trafficability. Weathering can also
Koala Lake. Immediate country rocks are formed by promote the generation of mud as experienced in South
competent, granodiorite of the Koala Batholith. African operations and it is an important issue that needs to
In general the kimberlite outline is roughly circular with be addressed in any kimberlite mining. An accelerated
wall rock contacts dipping steeply inward at angle of weathering tests performed on the core revealed that the
approximately 86. The pipe has irregular geometry in the majority of the Koala North kimberlite has low weathering
upper part where the eastern margin of the pipe flattens out susceptibility except above mentioned clay-rich kimberlite
considerably. It was suggested that the irregular morphology and mudstone, which form only 5-10% of the rock mass.
of the upper portion of the pipe is possibly controlled by a It is often found that poor quality rock mass is present
fault that predates kimberlite emplacement. adjacent to the kimberlite body contacts. This could create
The dominant infill lithology at Koala North is crudely mining difficulties in both open pit and underground
bedded to massive, relatively mud-rich volcaniclastic operations. From the geotechnical point of view, two types
kimberlite. This includes fine- to medium-grained crater of contact zone are usually recognized: the internal contact
sediments, ash/mud-rich to olivine-rich resedimented zone within the kimberlite body and the external contact
volcaniclastic kimberlite (RKV) and primary volcaniclastic or zone developed in the country rocks. In case of Koala North
pyroclastic kimberlite (PVK). the external contact zones are variable both in the geometry
Current drilling at Koala North has intersected kimberlite and competency. Typically, as the development in the
down to the 155 m elevation (~ 270 m below the top of the country rock approaches the kimberlite pipe contact, there is
pipe) and indicates that it is comprised exclusively of a zone of granodiorite approximately 1m to 5m in width with
volcaniclastic kimberlite material to this depth. increased joint frequency and in some areas there is also a
narrow (approximately 1m to 2 m wide) transition zone at
the pipe contact in which kimberlite stringers occupy joints
within the granodiorite. Although the contact zones are not
equally developed around the entire perimeter of the pipe,
their presence negatively impact on the dilution.
Based on the physical properties of the individual rock
types and geological zones, a geotechnical domain model
was developed subdividing the rock mass in the mining area
into eight geotechnical domains. The rock mass parameters
for individual domains are illustrated in Table 1.

5 MINING METHOD

The selected mining method for Koala North is open

benching. The decision was made as a result of technical,
economical and safety risk assessments. Competent
country rocks, favorable geometry, relatively competent
kimberlite, and most importantly, the arctic context of the
projects played an important role in the mining method
decision making process.

Table 1: Rock mass rating values

for individual geotechnical domains
Figure 3: An isometric view of the Koala North pipe and Geotechnical Domain RMR
underground development (after Jakubec et al 2003).
Overburden ---------
4 GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Near-surface Granodiorite 35 - 55
The initial geotechnical information was obtained from the Granodiorite 60 - 75
exploration drillholes using Laubschers rock mass rating
(RMR) classification system (Laubscher, 1990) for both External contact zone 40 - 55
kimberlite and country rock masses. This was later updated Internal contact zone 18 - 30
with data obtained from the open pit and it is continuously
Upper RVK 20 - 40
updated with ongoing geotechnical mapping using updated
Laubschers classification system (Laubscher and Jakubec, Lower RVK 45 -65
2001). Clay-rich RVK 15 - 30
In comparison with other known pipes in the vicinity of
the Koala North it was very clear that majority of the
kimberlite rocks are relatively competent. The exceptions The natural caving option was rejected because the size
are clay rich intervals within the RVK units that are of the pipe in terms of the Hydraulic Radius (plan
relatively weak and show low rock mass competency. area/perimeter) varies from HR=18m at the surface to
Such clay units form irregular bodies and are also highly HR=10m at the base of the current study zone. These are
susceptible to degradation and weathering when small values in terms of caving and would require very weak
exposed to moisture. material for an assured cave.

434 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The open benching is a top-down retreat mining method, When the crosscuts are fully developed, the slot drifts
similar to sublevel caving but without the caved waste connect individual tunnels and the level is ready for the slot
behind the drawn ore. development and production blast. Production stope with
apex pillars is shown in Figure 5.
Individual production levels have been developed at 15 m
spacing. The mining front maintained 3 levels in production,
maintaining approximately a 45 slope for stability purposes.
In the plan view, the front maintained a concave shape with
the boundary drawpoints lagging behind the central
drawpoint.

6 ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARCTIC CONTEXT

6.1 Production rates and Dilution

The production rates 1,500 wtpd achieved as planned.
Koala North underground operation experiences more
dilution than the open pits during normal mining operations.
The current average dilution rate is approximately 17%. Half
of the dilution is eliminated underground at the draw points,
and half is sorted on surface. It has to be noted that
approximately 75 % of the dilution is from upper 2385 level,
compared to 25 % from 2370 level. This is due to several
factors including pit bottom blasting damage, relaxation of
the rock mass at the upper edge of the pipe contacts and
also due to the underground production blast design for the
upper level. Once the rock mass is damaged and "loosen
Figure 4: Schematic vertical section of open benching with up" then the effect of thaw and freeze up - ice jacking can
individual production level geometries (after Jakubec et al create small scale rock falls resulting in dilution.
2003).
6.2 Operational Issues
An access ramp to the underground workings was developed Freezing muck pile
from the surface down to the first production level at 2385. The During the winter months the broken muck pile in the
ramp has an arched profile of 5.5 x 5.5 m and all the stope after the production blast will freeze up if not removed.
development drilling was conducted using brine solution due to The level of freezing depends on water content. This can
the presence of permafrost and cold air temperatures. potentially result in operational problems if measures to
Accesses to the individual production levels are mitigate the impact would not be implemented. The key to
developed from the main ramp at regular intervals. These the successful ore recovery is removal of freshly blasted
drives provide access for stope production, exploratory muckpile as soon as possible and prevention of water
diamond drilling and installation of the mining infrastructure access to the stope.
such as sumps, electrical installations and refuge bays. All Any muck that left behind was primarily on the apexes
the level accesses have flat back square profiles of 5 x 5 m. between the drawpoints was recovered on the next level
Production crosscuts were developed into and across the below when it was blasted. Although sometimes
kimberlite pipe for slot access, stope drilling and production experienced, the truck "carry back" of the ore due to
mucking. These cross-cuts are designed in an arched profile freezing has never been a serious problem.
of 4.0 m wide x 4.0 m high. Due to the susceptibility of Stabilizing effect of frozen pipe walls and the destabilizing
kimberlite to weathering, all the development and effect of ice jacking
production blast-hole drilling has been completed dry. When the Koala North open pit walls and the "glory hole"
walls are completely frozen from October to May no stability
problem as observed on exposed pipe walls. In late May
with the walls warming up due to the longer exposure to sun
and warmer temperatures followed by freezing during the
short night small scale rock falls were experienced. This is
mainly due to the "ice jacking" effect on open joints see
figure 6.

Trafficability and Ice build up

When the Panda Ramp had advanced to the point that it
was developed below the permafrost water began to seep
through the joints in the rock mass. Ice began to build up on
the haulage road and it quickly became a problem with
equipment moving on the ramp. After evaluating of the
alternatives the decision was made to install heaters on the
fresh air intake raise and within a few days of
commissioning the system the roads were free of ice.
During the winter there is also ice build up on the escape
ladder way and cleaning procedures were developed to
combat the problem.

Figure 5: Production stope after the mucking is completed. Fogging - cold and heated air
Note that frozen muck on top of apex pillar is standing up in After the heaters were installed on Panda fresh air intake
very steep angles. raise a pocket of fog would develop where the unheated air

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 435

 The overall volume of shotcrete used per meter of
kimberlite development is 1.4 m3. It was found during the
testing that the shotcrete set up poorly at -18C, and never
attained full strength, but from 5C to 20C, the
compressive strength averages 38 MPa which is acceptable
for Koala North application.

Development and Production drilling

Two issues have to be considered: development drilling in
permafrost and production long hole drilling in the
kimberlite.
Due to the susceptibility of kimberlite to weathering, the
production drillholes had to be drilled dry. This proved to be
very successful and the only problem that has to be
combated in the context of the cold climate is re-drill due to
the icing up of the drillholes. Although this problem could
have a significant impact, it is experienced only during the
Figure 6: View into the open stope from the open pit. Note spring snow melt and freeze-up period, while in the
well developed apex pillars and stable blasting face. The remainder of the year there were virtually no issues with re-
main source of wallrock dilution came from the upper levels, drilling.
combination of poor blasting, pit bottom relaxation and ice The development in the permafrost granite required
jacking. drilling with brine. Some increased corrosion problems were
experienced on underground equipment. It was also found
that high quality two-stage settling of solids out of re-
from Koala North mixed with the heated air. A "fog zone" circulated brine is essential.
was created between 2245 Level and 2205 Level of the
Koala North Ramp. The fog would begin to dissipate once Roadways construction
temperatures rose above 30C. Procedures were The key to the successful roadway maintenance system
developed that allowed traffic to move safely through this in any underground mine is to keep water out of the running
zone and prohibited pedestrians. surface.
In diamond mines this rule even more important due to
Impact of cold on productivity, men and equipment the weathering susceptibility of the kimberlite. Harsh
Temperatures in the underground workings follow the winter condition can add another level of difficulties to
temperature outside with a significant delay of the roadway maintenance especially during the spring
approximately 1 month. Long development headings were time of the year.
still +4.50C after 3 weeks of 10C to -15C outside. The In Koala North all the drawpoints were driven at +4%
main reason is heat generated by the working equipment at grade to allow water to drain quickly and for ease of
the headings and as well as low airflow due to leakage in the equipment recovery. Three roadway designs were tested on
vent ducting. Before the heaters were installed, some of the 2355 mining level; 150mm granite crush, graded kimberlite,
mine areas could became very cold in the winter months. and "geogrid" beneath 100mm crush. The 100mm granite
The open drawpoints in the kimberlite could easily reach - crush as required on kimberlite floor provided the optimal
50C with the wind chill factor. acceptable running surface. Kimberlite roadways when
The underground crews work an 11-hour shift but their frozen from November to June - provide excellent pavement
effective time at the face is 8.5 hours. Based on the surface.
assessment of the performance of the underground crews in
the winter months, the rotation of the underground 6.3 Stress Release
personnel was changed from 6 weeks in and 3 weeks out to In order to accelerate the development of an access to
4 weeks in and 2 week out. The main reason for this was Koala and Panda pipes it was decided to temporarily
the impact of the severely cold temperatures. It was felt that suspend the mining of Koala North. The production levels
six weeks proved to be too long to be exposed to that work that were already developed were retreated all the way to
environment. the granite contacts but no slot was excavated on level 2340
The primary impact the cold had on the equipment was on below.
the hydraulic systems. This was especially true at the While the level 2355 was approximately half way
beginning of the project when ruptured hydraulic hoses mined out, some shotcrete cracking occurred in the
were a common occurrence. This was because the tunnels and on level 2340 below. The intensity of
equipment was more frequently exposed to the low cracking on level 2340 increased towards the slot end
temperatures on the surface outside the mine. Indirectly, of the pipe. Stress measurements in the vicinity of the
there was also increased damage to the equipment due to pipe were conducted by CANMET and numerical
the use of brine for drilling. This issue is discussed below modeling using FLAC3D was undertaken by ITASCA.
separately. The model was calibrated to the mining sequence and
the level of cracking was reproduced. The results from
Shotcrete mix for cold climate the Koala North modeling are used to evaluate the
Current shotcrete mix used underground comprises of geometry, support and mining strategy for other
480 kg ready mixed shotcrete (Type 30 include silica fume) underground projects.
and 1120 kg of aggregate. In the winter 27.5 kg of CaCl is
added to prevent freezing. 7 CONCLUSIONS
In order to achieve good quality product it was important
to introduce the QA/QC program that covers entire process The successful introduction of open benching at Koala
from batching to application. Daily inspections by the North kimberlite pipe is very encouraging. Although this
geology/geotechnical staff are the best tool to inspect mining method was successful on several De Beers
shotcrete performance. diamond operations in South Africa, it has not been tested

436 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

in the harsh arctic environment prior to commissioning the REFERENCES
Koala North underground operation.
The long term data are not available yet and initial Jakubec, J., Long, L., Nowicki, T., Dyck D., 2003.
experiences are influenced by the learning process. For Underground Geotechnical and Geological Investigations at
example the 2003 spring snowmelt in comparison with EKATI Mine Koala North: Case Study. 8th International
previous year had only relatively minor production impact Kimberlite Conference Abstracts. Victoria, Canada
and in total only three shifts were lost due to water issues, Laubscher, D.H, Jakubec, J., 2001. The MRMR Rock
and approx. one additional week of 25% reduced Mass Classification for Jointed Rock Masses.
production. Underground Mining Methods, Society for Mining,
While it is probably too early to properly assess all the Mettalurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME). Littleton,
aspects of the operation very valuable lessons were Colorado, pp. 475 483.
learned. The knowledge gained at Koala North will Laubscher, D.H., 1990. A geomechanics classification
contribute to the planning processes for the other system for the rating of rock mass in mine design. J.S. Afr.
underground mining projects Inst. Min. Metall. vol. 90. no. 10. South Africa, pp.257 - 273.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank BHP Billiton Diamonds for

permission to publish this paper. Also, the help of Tyla Hay
of SRK in making this paper a reality is greatly appreciated.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 437

438 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 11
Mine Planning II:
Case Histories
440 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 The development and
implementation of a mixed integer
programming model for production
scheduling at the Kiruna Mine
Mark Kuchta, Department of Mining Engineering, Colorado School of Mines

Abstract
Production scheduling is a critical aspect of planning the operation of an underground mine. While mathematical optimization
techniques have been widely applied to production scheduling for surface mines, the application of optimization techniques
such as Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) to multi-time period underground mine scheduling has been severely limited due
to the large number of integer variables and complex sets of constraints required, which results in unrealistically long solution
times. A new long-term MIP-based production scheduling model has been developed and integrated into the mine planning
system at LKABs Kiruna mine. The optimization model uses a new block data format for which production data for mining
areas is preprocessed into monthly production quantities. This data structure allows for a significant reduction in the number
of integer variables required. Algorithms to determine the earliest and latest possible start dates for production areas further
reduce the number of integer variables. In this paper, the model development is outlined and the results are illustrated using
practical scheduling examples from the Kiruna mine.

1 INTRODUCTION wide, with a strike roughly in the north-south direction and a

dip of about 70 degrees. Two basic ore types are found in-
Production scheduling for large underground mines is situ: a low phosphorous content very high grade magnetite
often a complex and time-consuming task. Due to the ore known as B ore, and a high phosphorous magnetite ore
complexity of the problem, heuristic scheduling algorithms known as D ore. The ore body is characterized by clear-cut
are often used. While heuristic algorithms may produce boundaries at the hangingwall and footwall contacts and
useable schedules, there is no way of knowing how close between the two primary in-situ ore types.
the schedule is to some desired optimum, for example, a From the two in-situ ore types, the mine produces three
schedule that minimizes total mining costs. Mathematical raw ore types based primarily on their phosphorous
programming methods provide a means of producing contents known as B1, B2 and D3 ore. The three run-of-
"optimal" schedules. While the application of such mine ore types supply four mills. The B1 ore type is used
techniques to open pit mine scheduling problems has been for fines production and feeds a single mill, the B2 ore type
widely used, their practical application has been limited in is used for pellets production in a mill not equipped with a
underground mining. Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) is floatation circuit, and the D3 ore is used to supply two
a mathematical programming technique that can be applied palletizing plants, each equipped with flotation circuits for
to the underground scheduling problem. The practical use of excess phosphorous removal. There is very little stockpiling
MIP has been hindered because models must incorporate a available between the mine and the mill, which places
large number of decision variables, many of them restricted enormous demands on the mine to carefully plan the
to assume integer values. The large number of integer extraction sequence so that the proper quantities of the
variables required for model formulation results in three ore types can be delivered to the four mills.
commensurately long solution times that may be Kiruna produces about 24 million tons per year using
unacceptable for practical planning purposes. By large scale sublevel caving (Fig. 1). Transversal sublevel
preprocessing the production data and through careful caving is normally used with mining proceeding from the
model formulation, it is possible to reduce the number of hangingwall to the footwall. The spacing between sublevels
integer variables and thus greatly reduce solution times. is about 27 m and the spacing between crosscuts is about
This paper summarizes a new mixed integer programming 25 m. The production drifts are 7 m wide and 5 m high.
model developed for the Kiruna Mine. The scheduling From the production drifts, rings of holes are drilled upward
system developed has been integrated into the mines in a fan-shaped pattern at an inclination of 10 degrees
computerized mine planning system and is used for both forward (towards the hangingwall), with spacing between
monthly and strategic planning. Five-year production rings of 3 to 3.5 m. Each production ring contains around
schedules with monthly fidelity can usually be produced in 10,000 tons of ore.
about 10 minutes. The orebody is currently being mined from the 1045 m
main transportation level (Fig. 2). The mine is divided
2 THE KIRUNA MINE vertically into 10 production areas, each with an extent of
400 to 500 m. One or two large capacity Load Haul Dump
The Kiruna mine is located in Northern Sweden above the units (LHDs) operate within each production area on a given
Arctic Circle. It is owned and operated by the Swedish sublevel. The area where an LHD operates is known as a
mining company LKAB. The ore body is a world-class high- machine placement. A series of ore passes known as a
grade magnetite deposit, approximately 4 km long, 80 m shaft group runs from approximately the center of each

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 441

production area down to the main transportation level. The
ore passes extend down to the 1045 m transportation level MP1 MP2
where the ore is transported by large trains to the main
crushers and then hoisted to the surface through a series of 1, 50 1, 10
vertical shafts. Mining begins at the uppermost sublevels 2, 40 2, 20
and proceeds sequentially downwards. 3, 30 3, 30
4, 20 4, 40
5, 10

Figure 3. Two production areas MP1 and MP2 with 5 and 4

production blocks, respectively. The block number and
reserves in tons are given.

Indices
b = production block
t = time period

Sets
B = set of all production blocks
Figure 1. Mining by sublevel caving. V = set of blocks for which a sequencing
constraint exists
Sb = set of blocks by which block b is constrained

Parameters
T = number of time periods
Rb = total tons available in block b
Dt = production demand for time period t

Variables
Xb,t = tons mined in block b during time period t
Yb,t = 1 if block completely mined by time period t,
0 otherwise
Ut = under production from demand in time period t
Ot = over production from demand in time period t

Objective
t

minimize (Ut + Ot)

t=1

Figure 2. The 1045 m main transportation level at the Kiruna

Mine. Constraints

demand: Xbt + Ut + Ot = Dt , t
b
3 BASIC MODEL FORMULATION
t
A number of different types of sequencing constraints sequence 1: Xb,u > = Yb,t Rb , bt T
are required for MIP scheduling models. The most u=1
common is a constraint that simply requires that all of a
constraining block be mined before mining can t
commence in a constrained block. Constraints of this sequence 2: Xb,u < = Yb,t Rb , b V, b Sb, t
type are always required when the reserves for a block u=1
are greater than the tons that can be mined from a block
in a single time period. Such constraints require one t
integer variable per constrained block and time period. reserves: Xb,t < = Rb , b
The number of integers required increases exponentially u=1
as number of time periods increases. Figure 3 shows a
series of blocks that must be mined sequentially, i.e., an Xb,t , Ut, Ot = 0, Ybt binary
overlying block must be mined before the block
immediately under it can be mined. Assume that a Sequencing constraint 1 turns the binary variable Yb,t for
production schedule is to be determined which block b to 1 in the time period in which all the reserves for
minimizes the deviation from demand for ore in each that block have been mined. Sequencing constraint 2
time period. The mathematical formulation for producing insures that nothing can be mined from the constrained
such a schedule using MIP is given below: block b until all the material from the constraining block b
has been mined. The reserve constraint insures that no
more than the available reserves can be mined from a given

442 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

block, and the demand constraint insures that the demand Notice that the formulation contains no sequencing
for ore is met in each time period while allowing for both constraints. As with the previous model, the demand
over and under production. The objective function seeks to constraint insures that the demand for ore is met in each
minimize the over and under production. time period while allowing for both over and under
Using this type of sequencing constraint, a production production, and the objective function seeks to minimize the
schedule consisting of five time periods for the two over and under production. The constraint "limit one"
production areas shown in Figure 3 would require a total of insures that at most one Y variable for each production area
20+15 = 35 integer variables. can be 1. The key to the formulation is the demand
Several attempts at multi-period scheduling using mixed- constraint, which for 5 time periods using the data given in
integer programming have been made at the Kiruna Mine Figure 3 would expand as follows:
using basic model formulations similar in structure to that
described above (Almgren, 1994) and (Dagdelen, et al., 1) 50*Y1,1 + 10*Y2,1 + U1 O1 = D1
2002). In both cases the models could not be solved for
multiple time periods due to the excessively large number of 2) 40*Y1,1 + 50*Y1,2 +
integer variables required and the resulting long solution 20*Y2,1 + 10*Y2,2 + U1 O2 =D2
times.
The need for a sequencing constraint that insures that all 3) 30*Y1,1 + 40*Y1,2 + 50*Y1,3 +
the available tons from a constraining block be mined before 30*Y2,1 + 20*Y2,2 + 10*Y2,3 + U1 O2 =D3
anything can be mined from a constrained block can be
completely eliminated by preprocessing the production data 4) 20*Y1,1 + 30*Y1,2 + 40*Y1,3 + 50*Y1,4 +
into production blocks that exactly contain the amount of 40*Y2,1 + 30*Y2,2 + 20*Y2,3 + 10*Y2,4 + U1 O2 =D4
material that can be mined during one time period. Integer
variables are still required for scheduling; however, only one 5) 10*Y1,1 + 20*Y1,2 + 30*Y1,3 + 40*Y1,4 + 50*Y1,5 +
integer variable is required per production area per time 40*Y2,2 + 30*Y2,3 + 20*Y2,4 + 10*Y2,5 + U1 O2 =D5
period regardless of the number of blocks contained within
the production area. With such a formulation, the number of Figure 4 shows the overall structure of the formulation in
integer variables increases linearly rather than exponentially spreadsheet format. The reserves for two production areas
as the number of time periods increases. The mathematical are shown in column 1. Columns 3 to 7 give the time
formulation for a production schedule that minimizes the periods. The value of the Y variable for each time period
deviation from demand for ore using preprocessed block for each production area is given along with the
data is as follows: corresponding production. The total production, demand,
and deviation from demand for each time period are shown
Indices in the last three rows. As can be seen with this simple
a = production area example the demand of 50 units per time period can be met
b = production block exactly by starting mining in production area 1 in time period
t = time period 1, and in production area 2 in time period 2.

Sets
Time period 1 2 3 4 5
A = set of all production areas
Ba = set of blocks within production area A Reserves
Bt = set of blocks that can be mined in time period t. MP1 y 1 0 0 0 0
1- 50 50 40 30 20 10
Parameters 2- 40 0 0 0 0
T = number of time periods 3- 30 0 0 0
Rb = total tons available in block b 4- 20 0 0
Dt = production demand for time period t 5- 10 0

Variables MP2 y 0 1 0 0 0
Ya,t = 1 if mining starts in production area a in
period t, 0 otherwise 1- 10 0 0 0 0 0
Ut = under production from demand in time period t 2- 20 10 20 30 40
Ot = over production from demand in time period t 3- 30 0 0 0
4- 40 0 0
Objective
Sum 50 50 50 50 50
t Demand 50 50 50 50 50
minimize: (Ut + Ot ) Deviation 0 0 0 0 0
t =1

Constraints Figure 4. Spreadsheet representation of a production

schedule using preprocessed production data.
t

demand: Rb Ya,t + Ut Ot = Dt t
a b Ba Bt The formulation for this simple example requires 10
integer variables compared to 35 required with the previous
t formulation. While in this simple example the reduction is
limit one: Yat 1 , a small, with large model containing many production areas
t =1 and hundreds of production blocks, the reduction in the
number of integer variables can be dramatic. Often,
Ut, Ot 0, Yat binary solutions for large models can be found quickly using the
second model, whereas using the first model solutions

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 443

simply cannot be found at all in a reasonable amount of constraint that limits the number of LHDs that can be active
time. simultaneously within the same shaft group, and (iv) limit
start, a constraint that limits the number of machine
4 MODEL EXTENSIONS placement s that can be started during a planning period.
The horizontal and vertical sequencing constraints make
The basic model structure using preprocessed production use of the existing binary variables that represent whether
data outlined in the previous section has been applied to the to start each machine placement in a given time period. As
problem of long-term production scheduling at the Kiruna such, these constraints do not require introducing any
mine. additional integer variables. The complete mathematic
For planning purposes, the ore body is divided into 100 m formulation for the Kiruna MIP scheduling model can be
blocks, extending from the hangingwall to the footwall, and found in (Kuchta, et al., 2003 and Kuchta, et al., 2004). The
with the block height equal to the sublevel height. Estimates first year of a typical 5-year schedule produced using this
of the amount of B1, B2, and D3 ore that can be extracted model is shown in Figure 6. Twenty machine placements
from each 100m block are then made. These estimates were scheduled in the first year yielding a production of 22
take into account the blending of the in-situ high million tons.
phosphorous D-ore with the in-situ low phosphorous B ore
during extraction (Kuchta, 2002). Results from mining of the
upper sublevels are incorporated into the block estimates.
A machine placement, defined as the area on a sublevel
within a production area where an LHD operates usually
consisting of one to four 100m blocks, is the basic planning
unit for long term strategic production scheduling. For each
machine placement, the 100m block data is processed into
blocks that contain the amount of the three ore types that
can be extracted in one month. These block estimates take
into account the planed extraction sequence for the block as
well as the estimated LHD capacity. This preprocessing is
key to the model performance since it eliminates the need
for binary variables that sequence the extraction of blocks
within a machine placement. The block data for a typical
machine placement is shown in Figure 5. A five-year
strategic plan typically contains up to 60 machine
placements each with an average of 15 to 18 monthly
production blocks representing a total of over 125 million
tons of ore.

Figure 6. Example of a one-year monthly schedule.

5 VARIABLE REDUCTION

The principle variables in the model are binary variables

indicating in which time period the mining of a given
machine placement is to start. Various mining sequencing
requirements can be used to eliminate binary variables
corresponding to time periods when it can be shown that it
would not be possible to start the mining of a machine
placement.
In most cases it is possible to use a simple procedure
Figure 5. Production plan for a typical machine placement. for establishing the earliest possible start date for each
machine placement. Figure 7 shows a small section of
The objective of the MIP scheduler is to determine the a mining layout that is representative of the Kiruna
start dates for each machine placement such that the Mine. There are two production areas, each with its
deviations from the planned quantities for the three ore own shaft group, SG1 and SG2. There are two
types (B1, B2, and D3 ore) are minimized, subject to various sublevels, L1 and L2, and each production area on each
operational constraints that are tied to the mine layout and sublevel has been divided into two machine
mining aspects associated with the sublevel caving mining placements. For simplicity, each machine placement is
method. The major operational constraints are: (i) vertical assumed to contain 10 monthly production blocks, each
sequencing, a constraint that insures that at least 50% of an with the same tonnage.
overlying machine placement has been mined before Referring to Figure 7, if machine placement MP1 is
mining commences in an underlying machine placement, (ii) assigned a start date of 1, the vertical sequencing constraint
horizontal sequencing, a constraint that insures that mining requiring that 50% of the overlying machine placement be
commences in the machine placement to the right and left mined before mining of an underlying machine placement
of a given machine placement when 50% of the given can begin would require the earliest possible start date for
machine placement has been mined, (iii) shaft group, a MP5 located immediately under MP1 to be 6. All binary

444 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 with 60 monthly time periods. Using the early satrt and late
start variable reduction procedures described above, the
model size will typically be reduced to around 900 integer
variables. The difference in solution times with such a
reduction is huge. By preprocessing the production data
into monthly production quantities and applying additional
variable reduction techniques, five-year production
schedules with monthly fidelity can usually be produced in
about 10 minutes.

6 SUMMARY

A new mixed integer-programming model has been

developed and is currently being used for long-term
production scheduling at LKABs Kiruna mine. The model
makes use of a new data structure based on preprocessing
the data for each production area into blocks containing the
amount of ore that can be mined in one time period. This
data structure significantly reduces the number of integer
variables required. Algorithms that determine the earliest
and latest possible start dates reduce the number of
integers required further. Five-year production schedules
using the new system can usually be produced in less than
10 minutes. Research is currently being conducted in
extending the model towards shorter term weekly planning.
The techniques described in this paper have been shown
to be useful for developing production schedules for a large
Figure 7. Small section of a mining layout. mine using the sublevel caving mining method. It should
also be possible to apply this model to operations using
other underground bulk mining methods such as sublevel
variables used to indicate whether or not to start mining stoping.
MP5 in time periods 1 to 5 can be removed from the model.
Additionally, the number of machine placements that can ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
be active within a given shaft group is limited, i.e., mining of
a given machine placement cannot begin until an ore pass The authors would like to thank LKAB for the opportunity
becomes available. Assume both MP1 and MP2 are started to work on this challenging project and for permission to
in time period 1, and that the maximum number of machine publish these results.
placements allowed to be active in shaft group 1 is 2. This
restriction would establish an earliest possible start date for REFERENCES
both MP5 and MP6 of 11. The binary variables
corresponding to this delay can also be eliminated. Finally, Almgren,T., 1994, "An Approach to Long Range
the left and right sequencing constraints that require that Production and Development Planning with Application to
mining commence in an adjacent machine placement when the Kiruna Mine, Sweden", Lulea University of
50% of the given machine placement has been mined can Technology, Doctoral Thesis number 1994:143D.
also be used to establish the earliest possible start date for Dagdelen, K., Kuchta, M., Topal, E., 2002, "Linear
a machine placement Programming Model Applied to Scheduling of Iron Ore
In some cases it is also possible to use a simple Production at the Kiruna Mine, Kiruna, Sweden",
procedure for establishing the latest possible start date of a Transactions of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, And
machine placement. If the start date for any one machine Exploration, Inc., Vol. 312, 2002, pp 194-198
placement on a sublevel is known, the left and right Kuchta, M., 2002, "Predicting Run-of-Mine Ore Grades for
sequencing constraints that require that mining commence Large-Scale Sub-Level Caving at LKABs Kiruna Mine,
in an adjacent machine placement when 50% of the given Transactions of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, And
machine placement has been mined can be used to Exploration, Inc., Vol. 312, 2002, pp 74-80
establish a latest possible start date for all other machine Kuchta, M., Newman, A., and Topal, E., 2003, "Long Term
placements on the same sublevel. For example, if MP2 is Production Scheduling at LKABs Kiruna Mine", Mining
started in time period 1, the latest possible start dates for Engineering, The Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and
both MP1 and MP3 would be 6. All binary variables for a Exploration, Inc., Vol. 55, No. 4, April 2003, pp 35-40
machine placement greater than the latest possible start Kuchta, M., Newman, A., and Topal, E., 2004,
date can be eliminated. "Implementing a Production Schedule at LKABs Kiruna
A complete description of the early start and late start Mine, Interfaces, Vol. 34, no 2, March-April 2004, pp 124-
algorithms described above as well as an implementation in 134
the AMPL programming language is given in Topal (2003). Topal, E., 2003, "Advanced Underground Mine
A five-year strategic plan typically contains up to 60 Scheduling Using Mixed Integer Programming", PhD
machine placements and with no variable reduction would Dissertation T-5733, Colorado School of Mines, Golden,
require 3600 integer variables for a production schedule Colorado.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 445

 Complex cutoff grade
optimization at the Kiruna Mine
Emmanuel Henry, Senior Geostatistician, AMEC, Canada
Kjell Klippmark, President, KGS, formerly Mine Manager, LKAB, Sweden

Abstract
LKAB operates the Kiruna mine, a large-scale sublevel caving (SLC) operation in Northern Sweden, and provides the
market with iron products of different qualities and prices.
Defining an optimal draw point closure cutoff grade is a key concern for SLC mines. It has a direct effect on operational
costs, mineral resource recovery, market deliveries and corporate financial results in the short and long term.
Lanes (1988) Cutoff Grade Theory gives a framework to address this issue, but must be adapted to account for several
particularities at the Kiruna Mine. First, the grade-tonnage curve must account for draw point dilution, a particular feature
of SLC, and second, complex process structures must be modeled with several parallel flows. Each flow has its own
blending, cost, and capacity constraints, which eventually become non-linear. Finally, fluctuations in the market capacity
for the various iron ore products impose different marketing capacity constraints.
The paper describes a cutoff grade optimization model that was built specifically for the Kiruna Mine. Based on market
conditions, the model determines the necessary cutoff grade to meet a required return rate, optimal production rates,
and the location of limiting capacities (bottlenecks in the process). The underlying assumptions, results and potential
significant economical benefits are also discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION waste-rock dilution (expressed as the weight percentage of

waste-rock in a tonne of ROM).
LKAB operates the Kiruna Mine, a large-scale sublevel Internal waste-rock dilution comes from in situ waste-rock
caving (SLC) operation in Northern Sweden, and provides intrusions in the SLC production rings and external dilution
the market with iron fines and pellets. Iron ore producers are comes from the blending of caved waste-rock with newly
subject not only to variations in the metal price, negotiated fragmented ore at draw points. External dilution increases
once a year between major market suppliers and buyers, with increasing draw, defined as the percentage of the
but also to demand, which is very dependent of the global tonnage produced from a ring compared to its theoretical in
economic conjuncture. The higher the economic situ tonnage (usually 10,000 t).
conjuncture (e g the more cars sold in the World), the more Iron grades are relatively constant in the magnetite and
steel consumed, and thus the more iron ore bought. external waste-rock dilution is the most influent factor on the
In order to keep competitive with major low cost open-pit ROM iron grade.
producers, LKAB invested heavily in process optimization ROM waste-rock content is monitored on the mines main
and cost reduction. One aspect that was overlooked until haulage level but it is not dynamically controlled. Annual
recently was the potential impact of an optimization of the averages have been relatively constant around 36-37 %,
cutoff grade on LKABs financial performance. and when market capacity is high, plants generally complain
A cutoff grade optimization theory, intrinsically a process that the ROM contains too much waste-rock and not enough
optimization tool, was developed by Taylor in 1972. He magnetite to fulfill market capacity, and ask waste-rock
demonstrated that maximizing the cash flow of a mine by dilution to be lowered. The mine usually answers that
using an optimal cutoff grade is a function of costs, lowering waste-rock dilution by decreasing the draw would
capacities, and a grade-tonnage curve. Lane (1988) increase mine development costs, and more important,
integrated financial constraints, such as the rate of return, would result in "high-grading" of the resource.
and long-term resource consumption optimization This controversy motivated the construction of a waste-
constraints in the model, and made it a strategic planning rock dilution optimizer to find the waste-rock dilution that
tool. An important conclusion of both theories is that the would maximize the value of the mine in function of the
break-even cutoff grade that is applied by many mines is market capacity, using Lanes Theory (Lane, 1988).
rarely optimal (see Hall, 2003).
A model was developed specifically for the Kiruna mine in 3 PROCESS MODELING
order to demonstrate the economic potential of adapting the
cutoff grade to market capacity (Henry, 2003). Adaptation of The first step in the construction of a cutoff grade
Lanes theory, however, was not straightforward since optimizer consists in modeling the mining process sensu
process flows are very complex, with several ore qualities largo (i.e. from mine development to marketing). The
giving rise to several products processed and sold in process is described by material flows, capacity structure,
parallel. A very particular feature in SLC mining operations and cost structure.
is the distortion of the in situ grade-tonnage curve due to
waste-rock dilution at draw points. 3.1 Material Flow Model
The Kiruna mine produces at least three qualities of
2 BACKGROUND finished products (f p) from three ROM qualities. Low-
phosphorus and low-alkali material (B1) is used to produce
Iron ore grades in the Kiruna mine run-of-mine (ROM) fines (KBF) in a plant in Kiruna. Low-phosphorus and high-
depend on in situ iron grades in the raw magnetite and alkali material (B2) is used to produce pellets (SPBO) in a

446 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

plant located in Svappavaara, 50 km south of Kiruna. The proportions of magnetite (1-grb) and waste-rock
Finally, high-phosphorus material (D3) is processed into (grb) entering each sub-process (KBF, Svappavaara,
pellets (KPBO) in Kiruna. KA1, and KA2) were determined by analyzing historical
Processing of the in situ iron resource is divided in the data. They will most likely vary with the differential
following steps (terminology derived from Lane, 1988; see demand for KBF, SPBO, and KPBO, and will also
Figure 1): depend on grb.
Mining: Tunneling and production drilling of SLC rings. Some of the magnetite which is fed into the primary
Treating, Step 1: Ore fragmentation, loading, and hoisting. separator and following enrichment plants is lost with the
Treating, Step 2: Primary grinding and primary separation. separated waste-rock, resulting in magnetite recovery less
Treating, Step 3: than 100 %. Recoveries achieved in each of the KBF,
- Secondary grinding and enrichment into KBF, or, Svappavaara, and KA/KK processes are different and
- Transport by train to Svappavaara, secondary grinding, functions of grb.
enrichment, and pelletizing into SPBO, or The proportion grb is directly related to the draw of a SLC
- Secondary grinding, enrichment, and pelletizing into ring. The greater the draw, the greater the proportion grb.
KPBO.
Marketing: Transport by train to harbors and shipment to 3.2 Capacity Structure
customers. Capacity constraints limit the quantity of material that can
be transported and processed at each step of the process.
The model considers a tonne of ROM loaded from a draw A simplified capacity structure breakdown into major
point and dumped in an ore pass containing a proportion of process unit is proposed:
grb (grberg = waste-rock, in Swedish) of external waste- Annual mine development capacity (tunneling and
rock and a proportion 1-grb of constant iron grade magnetite production drilling): M.
(internal dilution and iron grade variations are ignored). For Annual ore production capacity (blasting, LHD loading,
each 1-grb tonne of magnetite loaded and dumped in an ore hoisting, and primary grinding and separation): H1.
pass: Annual enrichment and pelletizing capacity: H2.
1-grb t is hoisted. Annual market capacity (train transport, harbour
1-grb t goes through the primary grinding and separation. stockpiles, demand): K.
A part of (1-grb) is treated in the KBF-process.
A part of (1-grb) is treated in the Svappavaara-process. Capacities are rarely constant and are often multivariable-
A part of (1-grb) is treated in the Kiruna KA1/KK-process. dependent. Hoisting capacity, for example, depends on the
A part of (1-grb) is treated in the Kiruna KA2/KK-process. proportions of B1, B2, and D3 ore qualities produced since
these qualities must be hoisted separately. Plant capacities
For each grb tonne of external waste-rock loaded and are dependent not only on the waste-rock proportion, but
dumped in an ore pass: also the moisture content and the fragmentation quality. A
grb t is hoisted. high waste-rock proportion requires the raw material to be
grb t goes through the primary grinding and separation. re-circulated several times before an adequate quantity of
A part of grb is separated away in the primary separation waste is removed, resulting in decreased plant capacities.
line and is dumped on waste dumps. Whenever possible, non-linear relations should be
A part of grb follows in the KBF-process, where it is accounted for in the model. Although non-linear effects
separated and stored in tailing dams. between waste-rock dilution and plant capacities are
A part of grb follows in the Svappavaara-process, where it suspected, a valid mathematical model was not available at
is separated in the enrichment plant and stored in tailing the time of the model construction and capacities were
dams. therefore modeled constant.
A part of grb follows in the KA1 enrichment process, Mine development capacity must be expressed in tonnes
where it is separated and stored in tailing dams. of resource, while for practical reasons mine personnel
A part of grb follows in the KA2 enrichment process, reports it in meters of tunnel or in meters of blast-holes
where it is separated and stored in tailing dams. drilled. A draw point can produce an almost infinite quantity

Mining: Ore Treating, Step 1: Treating, Step 3: Marketing:

Ore production Treating,
Development KBF process KBF fines
and hoisting Step 2:
Grinding
and
primary
separation
Treating, Step 3:
Svappavaara Marketing:
process SPBO
pellets

Treating,
Step 3: KA1
process
Treating, Step 3: Marketing:
KK1/KK2 KPBO
process pellets
Treating,
Step 3: KA2
process

Figure 1: Ore flow model at the Kiruna mine.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 447

of raw material, but in the model, it is fair to assume that more accurate but would also require a much more
after loading 150 % of its nominal in situ 10,000 t, a ring sophisticated model which would integrate individual grade-
does not produce any magnetite. Thus only 15,000 t useful tonnage curves for B1, B2, and D3 ROMs, taking into
tonnes can be produced from a draw point. There is a 3 m- account quality mixes at draw points.
spacing between production rings, and about 65 % of the
total tunnel length developed in Kiruna is for production 3.3 Cost Structure
purpose. This implies that about 4,6 m of tunnels must be Each sub-process induces fixed and variable costs. The
driven for each 15,000 t developed in situ resource. For following variable costs are accounted for in the optimization
example, a tunneling capacity of 15,000 m/yr would then model:
correspond to 3,261 draw points and about 48,9 Mt of Mine development.
resource. Ore production, excluding primary grinding and
The nominal hoisting capacity is 26 Mt/yr. If the real LHD separation.
production capacity was only 22 Mt/yr, this real capacity Primary grinding and separation.
should be used as parameter H1 in the optimization. The Waste-rock handling at primary separation.
optimization must reflect the actual process state, not KBF-production.
theoretical ones. This is also true for all the other capacities: Waste-rock handling in KBF-process.
M, H2 and K. Svappavaara enrichment and pelletizing.
Capacities H1, H2, and K must also account for the Waste-rock handling in Svappavaara.
material produced by tunneling, since it produces a KA1 enrichment.
significant amount of ore and waste-rock, around 1 Mt/yr. Waste-rock handling in KA1.
For example, if the true hoisting capacity is 23 Mt and 1 Mt KA2 enrichment.
of material are produced by tunneling, the final capacity Waste-rock handling in KA2.
available for ore production (from rings) should be reduced KK pelletizing.
to 22 Mt. If the market can take 11 Mt f p only, and the mine Train transport and harbours.
development generates 0.5 Mt f p, then the optimization
should be run using a total demand of 10.5 Mt f p. Ideally, Fixed costs were all regrouped in a single variable.
the model should be dynamic and optimize the cutoff grade The separation between fixed and variable costs is
as well as the quantity of tunnel needed at the same time. essentially a question of time perspective. Most personnel
However, this desirable level of sophistication would require costs, for example, could be considered as fixed costs. Most
integrating long-term mine planning, market planning, and material costs, like rock bolts in the mine, or contracted
certainly a resource block-model, in order to account for maintenance costs were considered variable.
mining infrastructures that must be developed in advanced The model incorporates the very important opportunity
(e g new ramps). cost defined by Lane (1988). This cost should be evaluated
One of the biggest assumptions in the model is that the considering the present state of the remaining mining
market capacity K is a summation of several semi- reserves, market capacity forecasts, and the cost of capital.
dependent market capacities for KBF, SPBO, and KPBO. It is indeed the parameter that links short-term process
Modeling individual and differential capacities would be optimization (immediate cash flow maximization) to mine

Figure 2: Waste-rock dilution at draw points.

448 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

value maximization on long-term (net present value The average waste-rock dilution for the whole year in
maximization). 2002 in Kiruna was 36 %, which corresponded to an
average draw of 104 %.
3.4 Marketing Price
Although market capacity was not modeled differentially, This curve is one of the most uncertain parameters in the
marketing price was different for KBF, SPBO, and KPBO. optimization.
In iron marketing, it is not unusual to discount prices over
the official price negotiated every year in Germany and
Japan. This is used primarily when iron producers wish to 5 OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM
enter a new market or in periods of low conjuncture. It is
important to account for these discounts in the optimization. The model was programmed in Excel using 37 input flow,
capacity, cost, price and grade-tonnage-curve parameters.
4 GRADE-TONNAGE CURVE For a series of draw increments between 0 % and 150 %, it
calculates the average cumulative waste-rock dilution in the
The second step in a cutoff grade optimization consists in material produced from a draw point, the increment of
defining a grade-tonnage curve. The diluted grade-tonnage present value per resource unit utilized using functions
curve, not the in situ grade-tonnage curve, must be used. adapted from Lane (1988), the net cash flow before taxes
Although there are some theoretical curves describing generated by a ring and by the whole Kiruna operation, and
waste-rock dilution as a function of increasing draw, they the numbers of consumed rings and produced tonnes of
could not be validated on real curves obtained from test finished products.
draw points. Lane (1988) demonstrates that in order to maximize the
Rings with early waste-rock dilution are generally stopped value of a mine, it is enough to maximize the increment of
early, giving low draws, while rings with late dilution are present value per resource unit utilized, which is a function
stopped late, giving high draws. Although waste-rock of costs (variable, fixed, and opportunity costs), price,
dilution is monitored for most rings at the Kiruna mine, this grade-tonnage curve, recoveries, and process limiting
makes it impossible to build an unbiased average waste- capacity. The program calculates the increment in present
rock dilution curve (the higher the draw, the higher the bias). value if M, H1, H2, or K are the limiting capacities,
Figure 2 shows the diluted grade-tonnage curve finally used alternatively. Figure 3 illustrates a configuration where the
in the optimization. It relies upon the two following points: market capacity (K) is low, 10.5 Mt. The optimum waste-rock
The very first tonnes from a draw point are expected to be dilution is then determined by following the lowest curve
waste-rock-free, provided that the crosscut is located in pass (M limiting between 0 % and 21 % waste-rock dilution,
magnetite (this is an approximation since on the footwall K between 21 % and 44 %, and H1 limiting above 44 %) and
side, the lowest part of the ring is composed of waste- finding the maximum on this pass, which occurs at about 36
rock). Average waste-rock dilution at 0 % draw should %. At this waste-rock dilution level, the increment in present
therefore be close to 0 %. value is 13.9 kr.

Figure 3: Increment in present value of resource utilized in function of the average waste-rock dilution, market
capacity = 10.5 Mt.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 449

Figure 4: Increment in present value of resource utilized in function of the average waste-rock dilution, market
capacity = 15 Mt.

6 HOW MUCH IS THIS WORTH? Table 1: Cash flow generated for two
waste-rock dilution scenarios, 30 %
The value maximization curve in Figure 3 is relatively flat and 36 %, and market capacity = 15 Mt
around the optimal 36 %, indicating a departure to this
optimum has little impact on the mines value. Waste-rock dilution 30 % 36 %
In order to understand the impact of market capacity on
the optimal waste-rock dilution, the market capacity was Cash flow1 generated by an in situ tonne
increased to 15 Mt. of magnetite developed (kr/t) 23,9 21,3
The resulting optimal waste-rock dilution is then 30 %, as Cash flow1 generated by a ring (kr/ring) 358,743 318,919
illustrated in Figure 4. The optimum waste-rock dilution is
then determined by the balancing mine development and Global operation cash flow1 (Mkr) 897 655
hoisting capacities, M and H1. The optimal waste-rock Number of consumed rings 2,500 2,056
dilution is also lower than for a market capacity of 10.5 Mt:
Direct loss2 (Mkr) - 242
Richer material is sent into the process, so that more
finished products are made from each tonne loaded at draw 1-Net before tax; 2-Direct loss = 897 655 = 242 Mkr
points (less waste-rock circulates in the system). The
process is economically more efficient, at the cost of
increased resource consumption, however. 7 THE DRAW POINT DILUTION
A decrease in these bottleneck capacities M and H1 would CURVE, A STRATEGIC TOOL
have a direct impact on the net economy of the mine in periods
of high market capacity. Similarly, increasing H1, by renting The optimal waste-rock dilution calculated from the model
additional LHDs for example, would increase the mine value relies heavily on the grade-tonnage curve in Figure 2.
and the optimal waste-rock dilution. Investing in enrichment or The sensitivity of the optimal waste-rock dilution to the grade-
pelletizing capacity (H2) increase, however, would have no tonnage curve was tested for a market capacity of 15 Mt. The
effect on the mine value and would be a waste of money. new grade-tonnage curve is illustrated in Figure 5. Draw points
Producing at 36 % waste-rock dilution instead of 30 % are now assumed to produce only waste-rock from 120 % draw
when the market capacity is 15 Mt generates a significant and above. The resulting optimum waste-rock dilution is 37 %,
loss of value, as detailed in Table 1. A direct cash flow loss for an increment in present value of about 15.7 kr/t, as showed
of 242 Mkr is incurred as less finished products can be in Figure 6. It corresponds to a draw of 88 %.
shipped to customers, thus less net earnings can be If the true curve was the one of Figure 2, but the
generated. Rings are "sold" for a net earning of 318,919 kr optimization was performed on the curve of Figure 5, the
instead of their potential maximum value of 358,743 kr. (incorrect) optimal waste-rock dilution would cost about 280
Obviously, the value of such an optimal waste-rock policy Mkr. This amount (remember it is for one year only!) gives a
will vary considerably with the market level. It is during high perspective on the value of a research and development
market capacity periods that it will have the most significant program aiming at determining the true grade-tonnage
economical impact. curve achieved in operation.

450 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 5: Waste-rock dilution at draw points, second scenario.

Figure 6: Increment in present value of resource utilized in function of the average waste-rock dilution, market capacity = 15
Mt, and grade-tonnage curve as in Figure 5.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 451

8 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

Cutoff grade optimization could have a significant impact Hall, B, 2003. How mining companies improve share price
on the Kiruna mine short- and long-term economic by destroying shareholder value, or how the junior
performances and value. Net cash flow increases in the geologist and engineer determine the CEOs bonus. CIM
order of several hundreds of million Swedish Crowns could Conference 2003, Montreal, Canada.
be achieved in high market capacity years. Henry, E, 2003. Vrdemaximering av Kiruna gruvan med
Implementation of a cutoff grade control would need hjlp av en optimal grbergsinblandningspolicy (Value
relatively minor adjustments in the way the Kiruna operation maximization of the Kiruna Mine using an optimal waste-
is run; particularly, no major investment would be needed. rock grade policy; in Swedish). LKAB internal report.
Further investigations are required, however, first to Lane, K, 1988. The economic definition of ore. Mining
determine a reliable grade-tonnage curve, then to test the Journal Books Ltd, London, United Kingdom.
various assumptions on the process model. In particular, the Taylor, H K, 1972. General background theory of cutoff
model should account for the three run-of-mine ore qualities grade. Trans Min Metall, Section A, Vol 81, July, p 160-
and for the differential demands in KBF, SPBO, and KPBO. 179.
A similar model was built for the Malmberget mine, LKABs
second operation, where differential demand for fines and
pellets were modeled. This second model demonstrated the
importance of modeling differential demands on the mine
value and optimal operating strategy.

452 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Production scheduling at Finsch
diamond mine, South Africa
Otto Richter, Mining Engineer, Block 4 Project Planning, Finsch Mine - De Beers, South Africa
Tony Diering, Principal Consultant, Gemcom Software International, Canada

Abstract
De Beers Finsch Diamond Mine in South Africa is in its final stages of developing the new Block 4 project which will
introduce block caving at Finsch Mine for the first time. There are several new and innovative technologies which will be
employed for Block 4. As a result of this, it has been necessary to pay particular attention to production scheduling for
the build up of production in the early years. The combination of geotechnical constraints and the need for special
conditions around the use of fully autonomous Load Haul Dumpers and Dump Trucks , whilst satisfying the need to
maximize Net Present Value (NPV), has resulted in a unique set of conditions for the production schedules. In particular,
the ventilation and vehicle access requirements impose unwanted production constraints on active draw points which
makes the generation of a smooth caving front much more challenging.

1 INTRODUCTION

Finsch Diamond Mine is situated some 165km North West

of Kimberley, the diamond city of South Africa. Finsch Mine
started as an open cast mine in 1964, changing over to
underground operations in 1990 after reaching a pit bottom
depth of 430m. Underground operations were planned to
extract ore from the kimberlite pipe through a modified open
stoping method.
Country rock instabilities and resulting sidewall failures
poses major challenges to the current mining method in
Blocks 2 and 3, resulting in the development of a block cave
in Block 4.
The Extraction Level will be situated on 630mL and the
Undercut Level 20m above on 610mL, with an average
column height of around 80-110m above the Undercut
Level. Undercut and Extraction tunnels run parallel to each
other as can be seen in figure 2. Loading in the Extraction
tunnels will only be performed from one side of the Figure 1: Finsch Mine - De Beers mining blocks.
kimberlite pipe.
This paper describes how the various facets of undercut
development, draw bell development and production build-
up to full production have been modeled. This required
extensive modifications to the PC-BC Block Cave system in
order to accommodate these complex constraints.
The end result is an improved confidence in the ability to
achieve the required production rates as well as overall risk
reduction for this significant project.

2 GEOLOGICAL MODEL

Due to the variance in grade between the different

kimberlite facies within the kimberlite pipe, the direction of
Undercut and Extraction level advance has a major effect on
the Net Present Value (NPV) of the project.
Initial planning, based on the geological information
available at the time, was done for the Undercut to start in
the North-Western corner as indicated by the arrow in
Figure 3 on 1999s lithology. As exploration drilling and Figure 2: Extraction / Undercut Tunnel relationship.
sampling progressed, it was realized however that the
highest grade (F8) portion of the ore body was not situated
where originally anticipated, but was located against the Through scheduling the updated ore body in PCBC it was
contact on the opposite side of the kimberlite pipe as shown proven that it would make financial sense to start the
on 2004 Lithology. Undercut on the opposite side of the kimberlite pipe

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 453

 Figure 4: Block 4 Undercut Ring Blasting schedule.

to build up to a maximum undercutting rate of 1,350m2 per

month over a period of about 7 months.
A down side to the straight undercut face and the advance
direction is the prolonged period required for the
undercutting process to progress across the width of the
kimberlite pipe and the associated prolonged duration each
Extraction tunnel will be exposed to both production loading
at the rear end and draw bell installation in the front.

4 EXTRACTION LEVEL SCHEDULING

Draw bell installation and hence production buildup will

follow in the shadow of the Undercut face at an angle of 450.
Two areas of the Extraction level scheduling will be
Figure 3: Changes in Geological Model discussed, namely:
Drawpoint prioritization and
Development and support constraints
extracting the higher grade ore first. More detail is given on
this in Section 3. 4.1. DRAWPOINT PRIORITIZATION
The kimberlite pipe also contains internal "floating" In order to optimize the Net Present Value of the project
portions of Basaltic low grade ore. In order to understand within the given Geotechnical and Mining Constraints,
the effect these grade and rock type variances will have on various scenarios were investigated using PCBC in order to
the overall mined grade and ore composition being sent to test how sensitive the overall grade and dilution are to the
the treatment plant over time when mining in different prioritization of the drawpoints. Four main options were
sequences and at various rates, multiple runs were investigated, namely:
performed in PCBC in order to come up with a schedule that Emphasis on new draw points
would best utilize the given resource model. Emphasis on old drawpoints
Emphasis on all drawpoints according to remaining tons
3 UNDERCUT LEVEL SCHEDULING in drawpoint
NPV optimization
Geotechnical constraints and current infrastructure were
the two major role players in the design of the undercut face The results clearly showed that the low cave height
shape. From a purely financial / NPV point of view, the placed a major constraint on the degree to which the
Undercut would ideally have to be mined in a chevron V- emphasis on the drawpoints could be varied. Should the
Shape, starting in the highest grade F8 kimberlite in the emphasis be varied too much, drawpoint availability was
South-Eastern corner and advancing across the kimberlite seriously compromised due to earlier drawpoint depletions,
pipe in an North-Westerly direction. The associated premature dilution ingress and resulting grade dilution.
challenge of moving past two precursors and the current It was found that despite this constraint, the grade can be
sizer excavations on 620mL in this manner however increased by up to 13% in the earlier years by placing more
resulted in the undercut being designed to move across the priority on the new, undiluted drawpoints without
kimberlite pipe with a straight face, starting on the Eastern compromising the total ore resource. It was also found that
side of the pipe at the one precursor and moving across the the period at which the cave would be producing at its
pipe in a West-South-Westerly direction towards the other designed capacity of 3.8Mta can be extended by up to 12
precursor as shown in Figure 4. months. This was done by placing the emphasis on the
Undercut rings are designed at a spacing of 2m and lead- drawpoints according to its remaining tons. NPV
lags of 7m between adjacent undercut tunnels. Undercut optimization was also performed by scheduling the cave
ring blasting commenced early May 2004 and is scheduled using LINDO, a linear programming option within PCBC.

454 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Care had to be taken not to compromise the cave angle challenges with regards to premature waste ingress, will
through this option as priority is placed on the drawpoints have to be contended with.
that will yield the highest NPV value, hence the full benefit The total number of activities taking place at any one time
of NPV optimization could not be enjoyed. This option could not be reduced as this would mean deviation to the
proved however that even within a given tons call, there is current design, nor could the number of activities taking
usually room for financial optimization. place at any one time be reduced as this would result in an
extended production build-up, negatively affecting the NPV.
4.2. DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT In order to increase the total number of ventilation
Poor kimberlite rock conditions (Mining Rock Mass Rating districts, a double return airway system was implemented.
of 19-25) resulted in major support work required to ensure This would allow for development and support as well as
the stability of the Extraction Level tunnels. Table 1 shows production loading to be performed in the same tunnel at the
a typical support requirement per meter Extraction Tunnel. same time. Making use of a double return airway effectively
splits the extraction tunnel into four separate ventilation
phases (Figure 5) during its operation with the following
Table 1: Typical Extraction level tunnel support advantages:
Allows for smaller ventilation zones to be in operation at
Unit Size Quantity/m any point in time, thus less activities per ventilation zone,
Allows for separation between autonomous production
Threaded bolts 25mm x 3.8m 15 (0.5m spacing) LHDs and employees involved in development and
support,
Vibro mesh 9mm 2.0m (Side wall)
Allows for separate ventilation zones in a single tunnel,
Woven mesh 5mm Hanging to Vibro thus multiple activities can be performed in a single
Cable straps 18mm 5 (Side wall) tunnel,
Ensures that production loading can be better controlled
Cable straps 15mm 9 (Hanging wall)
across the position of the ventilation barrier, thus ensuring
Wet-crete 30Mpa 200mm thick an improved cave back angle and a reduced chance of
Fiber-crete 40Mpa 50mm thick premature waste ingress as can be seen from Figure 6.

Intake air: Return air:

Added to the poor rock conditions is the decomposing
characteristic of Kimberlite in the presence of water due to
a high clay content, resulting in dry development with a full
cover of sealant and shotcrete to be sprayed after each
development round.
This had dramatic effects on the development and
support cycle times, resulting in slow linear advance rates
utilizing mechanized continuous operations on multiple
development ends using continuous operations. Draw bell
installation was also negatively affected, requiring around 3
months per draw bell with a total of 3 draw bells planned per
month.
In addition to development and support taking place
simultaneously in the same tunnel, time had to be allowed
for production loading. Production loading is as important in
the daily activity schedule as the development and support
activities, as this ensures continuous movement of the
production columns, which prevents re-compaction of the
broken kimberlite. Re-compaction of the broken kimberlite
would result in stress build-up which often leads to
infrastructure damage and tunnel collapse. Uninterrupted
production loading allows for faster payback of invested
capital and an improved Net Present Value (NPV). In order
to allow for more time to perform the above activities,
multiple ventilation districts had to be created in order to
facilitate the scheduling of multiple activities in the same
tunnel.

5 MULTIPLE ACTIVITY SCHEDULING

Making use of a central return airway in a block cave to

create multiple ventilation districts in the same tunnel is
fairly common practice when making use of a V-Shape
undercut face. Combining a single return airway with the
long single sided loading extraction tunnels of Block 4 and Figure 5: Four ventilation stages of an Extraction Tunnel
the relatively slow advance rates however resulted in a very
slow production build-up unless cave angles were allowed
to exceed angles of up to 600. The Block 4 portion of the 6 PCBC SOFTWARE MODIFICATIONS
ore body has a height to width ratio in the order of 1:2.5.
Should such steep cave angles be allowed in the early Block 4 currently makes use of a general scheduling
stages of the cave, it would soon hole into the current package to schedule the horizontal development and
operations and waste failures, posing major mining support activities. From this, the drawpoint commissioning

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 455

dates are given as input into the PCBC cave scheduling and large columns, the variance between the PCBC generated
simulation software. In order to cater for the constraints draw cones and the actual trough and ring designs are
explained above, a number of alterations had to be negligibly small, but in Block 4s case these tons contribute
incorporated into the PCBC software in order to allow the 12% of the total column tons and therefore required more
accurate scheduling of the expected Block 4 tons and grade accurate representation. This was done through a quick
profiles. The most important changes are explained next. import function where the correct trough and undercut
heights and its associated tons and volumes as per the
blasting designs are imported for each of the drawpoints,
replacing the slices as created in PCBC, as can be seen in
the illustration below.

Figure 7: Slice file modification for trough and undercut ring

slices

6.4. DRAWPOINT SEQUENCING

PCBC caters for scheduling in different time intervals, e.g.
monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. In order to make use of the
drawpoint dates as scheduled by the development and
Figure 6: Improved cave back angle support scheduling package, PCBC had to be modified to
generate a drawpoint commissioning sequence making use
of these dates, irrespective of what time interval is used to
6.1. DATA SECURITY schedule in PCBC. This was accomplished successfully by
Data security was ensured by converting the Desktop stating both the drawpoint commissioning dates and the
edition of PCBC to support full SQL Server databases. PCBC periods in number format. PCBC then compares the
Scheduling is performed directly from the geological block drawpoint commissioning dates with the PCBC scheduling
model as created by the Geologists in the GEMS SQL periods and automatically places the drawpoints in the
Database, ensuring that all systems make use of the same correct sequence and time period. In earlier versions the
information from Geology and Geotechnical, to Survey, to time period was based on a text string and required manual
Mine Planning and Production. Data security will become modifications to suit the PCBC scheduling periods.
more important once production commences and schedules
have to be modified for actual tonnage production and draw 6.5. USER INTERFACE
point development status. It can be seen from the information above that multiple
records of data are associated with each drawpoint. In
6.2. MULTIPLE GRADE ELEMENTS order to ensure easy access and modifications to this
In order to ensure accurate diamond grade forecasts, information, PCBC was modified to easily export/import
PCBC had to be modified to handle multiple grade elements data to/from MS Excel as it is often easier to modify data in
when scheduling. In order to cater for the various kimberlite MS Excel than in the SQL Database environment. Any
facies encountered, the slice file had to be expanded to information associated with a list of drawpoints (Drawpoint
cater for 15 different grade elements. When performing a Status, limiting draw heights, descriptions, tunnel
production schedule with the expanded slice file, associations, production curves, hang-up curves, etc) can
information is obtained on both the total production values in now be easily formatted in MS Excel and import into the
terms of tons and grades, as well as on the individual PCBC Database to update drawpoint records.
kimberlite facies groups, improving the functionality and
accuracy of Diamond Value Management, Treatment Plant 6.6. PRODUCTION RATE CONSTRAINTS
flow control and accurate grade predictions. Production rates are constrained by various methods
within PCBC. The first level of constraint is on the individual
6.3. SLICE HEIGHT drawpoint production rates. In order to ensure that the cave
Block 4s relatively low column height required the bottom matures adequately before higher production rates are
two slices of the slice file to be modified to more accurately called for, each drawpoints daily production rate is
reflect the trough and undercut ring tons. When scheduling increased based on the cumulative tons being drawn from

456 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

that particular drawpoint to date. The production rate curve
below is defined within PCBC as a normal XY-Curve, stating
tons per square meter of drawpoint area per day versus
cumulative percentage drawn from that drawpoint.
Individual drawpoints can be assigned individual curves or
similar drawpoints can be grouped together to make use of
a single curve.
The initial stage of the drawpoint curve has a very high
rate during draw bell construction. There after it follows a
slow buildup, starting at about 50t/85mm per drawpoint per
day and maturing over a range of about 18,000t to a
maximum rate of about 120t/200mm per drawpoint per day
for a drawpoint area of influence of 225m2. A drawpoint will
reach maturity within about 9 months based on the stated
daily tons.
In addition to the constraints on individual drawpoints, a Table 2: Typical hang-up frequency table
constraint can be set per production block. This is typically
applied where the sum of the total available tons in a single
tunnel is greater than what a single loader can realistically production time is calculated and hence a more realistic
produce from that tunnel in the same time period. prediction of tons and grades is achieved.

7 CONCLUSIONS

The Block 4 project is currently standing on the doorstep

of moving from planning to actual implementation with the
undercut that commenced early May 2004. A lot of the
assumptions used in Block 4 are based on current
operations, both inside and outside of De Beers, yet these
assumptions had to be adapted and tried and tested where
possible to suit the current project. The Planning Phase of
any project is the stage where major cost savings or losses
are built into the project and should be adequately
resourced with regards to time, money and people and initial
assumptions should be re-evaluated and re-calibrated in
order to ensure that applicable, accurate values are used at
all times. Proper planning and scheduling ensures easier
implementation which in turn reduces risk to the success of
the project to a large degree.
Installing a block cave requires intense scheduling of
multiple activities. It is therefore important to create an
auditable schedule that can be tracked in order to highlight
Figure 8: Typical drawpoint production rate curve areas lagging behind and to identify areas of opportunity.
Initial planning should therefore be realistic and rather on
the conservative side than on the optimistic side, especially
The maximum capacity of a single loader is calculated for a first of its kind project like the Block 4 operation.
for each production block / tunnel based on the tons Software applications are however not always designed to
weighted average tramming distance for that tunnel in best apply the rules and constraints applicable to each
that time period. This function was further enhanced project and therefore software customization is often
within PCBC by importing the average cycle time per inevitable. Working closely with the software manufacturer
drawpoint and based on the total available loading time results in a final product that is better suited for the task at
per period, PCBC will constrain the tons called for if it hand and that will benefit the mining industry at large.
exceeds the maximum possible tons which can be The Block 4 schedule is the product of many iterations. Only
loaded from that tunnel based on the individual through comparison of multiple scenarios could the schedule
drawpoint cycle times. be optimized to what it is now. Having only a large number of
scenarios however do not always proof to be valuable
6.7. HANG-UP CONSTRAINT information, but merely a lot of data. It is important that the
In order to further enhance the accurate prediction of mine planning personnel, the software manufacturer and the
production tons and grades, the available time for mine production personnel all understand and agree to the
production loading had to be enhanced. This was done by problem at hand in order to turn heaps of data into usable
incorporating the expected number of hang-ups or information. The best solution to a problem is usually only
blockages expected due to oversize rock at any point in time found once the correct information is available.
in a drawpoints life, as can be defined by a XY- Curve per Production pressure and NPV often play major roles when
drawpoint of number of occurrences per 1000 tons drawn making decisions. Even though these are good indicating
versus accumulative tons/height drawn to date. factors, they should not be used as over riding factors to
By doing this, the total number of blockages expected per break the basic rules of mining. The cave should dictate the
drawpoint can be calculate for every period based on the production build-up, not vice versa (Dont let the tail wag the
tons loaded in that same period. Converting these dog).
blockages to an associated "down time" where the The value of accurate, upfront information should never
drawpoint will not be available for loading, the total time be underestimated. Exploration work well ahead of time is
available for production can be more accurately calculated. crucial in order to ensure proper extension of current
Through an iterative process the most realistic available production blocks well in time, ensuring fewer complications

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 457

during change over between production blocks. The current REFERENCES
plan is only as good as the information it is based on.
Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC: A block cave design and draw
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS control system. Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
pp. 469-484.
The authors want to acknowledge the permission given by Diering, T, 2004. Computational considerations for
De Beers South Africa to publish this technical paper as production scheduling of block cave mines. Proceedings
well as the time and dedication of Gemcom staff in the MassMin 2004, Santiago.
modification of the PCBC cave simulation and scheduling
software.

458 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Application of simulation
to improved planning at Esmeralda,
El Teniente Mine, Chile
Mauricio Barraza, El Teniente Division, Codelco, Chile
Matt Rohrer, Automod, Brooks Automation, SLC UT, USA
William Hustrulid, Department of Mining Engineering, University of Utah, SLC, UT, USA

Abstract
The mining systems used to mine the ore at El Teniente have evolved over the years. Today the primary mining system,
conventional panel caving, provides about 75 percent of the daily production. In 1997, panel caving with pre-undercutting
was introduced in the Esmeralda sector. Since that time, sector production has increased from 250 tpd to about 40,000
tpd. This rate is scheduled to increase to 45,000 tpd by year 2005. One of the major advantages of pre-undercut panel
caving over conventional panel caving is the much higher physical availability of the production area. This is due to the
fact that the development and construction work on this level has been done under largely de-stressed conditions. In
conventional panel caving, the development and construction on the production level is done under the existing high in
situ stress conditions. These stresses are then increased even higher by the abutment stress associated with the passage
of the undercutting front. This means that the production level can be severely damaged and in need of repair even before
actual production begins. Repair and rebuild of the openings is an on-going task in conventional panel caving. An
important question to be answered is how best to utilize the high physical availability of the production level offered by
pre-undercutting. This paper demonstrates through the use of Automod simulation how the utilization of the available
production area can be maximized. Because of the geomechanics constraints imposed upon the mine design and
execution, the planning and sequencing of the development and construction operations on the production and
undercutting levels is much more complicated than with conventional panel caving. Simulation offers the opportunity to
easily explore many different planning possibilities in a very short time.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1: Several Types of Simulations

(Brunner, 2001).
Simulation is defined as the imitation of a real-world
process or system over time. It is an indispensable Static Simulation Static simulations, are used when the
problem-solving methodology for the solution of many real effect (appearance, load-bearing
world problems and can be used both to describe and capacity, etc) is observed only at a
analyze the behavior of a given system and also to aid in the single instant of time.
design of a new system. Both existing and conceptual Discrete Event Discrete event simulations (sometimes
systems can be modeled with simulation (Banks 1998). Simulation called dynamic simulations) are typically
used to model systems whose states
2 GENERAL SIMULATION CONCEPTS change at discrete points in time. The
beginning of drill cycle, a skip reaching the
surface, and the contents of an ore pass
The goal of any simulation is to mimic something. reaching a critically low level are all
Typically, there is a stimulus/response interaction (Banks examples of discrete events. Material flow
1998). Some examples of this are: systems, where liquid or bulk solids move at
In a flight simulator, the goal is to mimic the visual and constant rates, are candidates for discrete
tactile interaction between a person and a physical event simulation.
system (the aircraft). Continuous Continuous simulation is used to
In a circuit simulator, the stimulus is the input signal and Simulation model nonlinear behavior (chemical
the goals are to mimic the response of a physical circuit reactions, heat transfer) using equations.
component.
Stochastic The most common stochastic simulation
In an automobile simulator, the goal is to simulate the
Simulation is the Monte Carlo simulation. For
response of the suspension to road bumps, the air flow example, if you know the probabilities that
around a vehicle and many other physical factors. the various components of an LHD will
independently fail today, and if you want to
All of these examples are primarily physical models. A know the probability that the entire LHD
will fail today, you could run a static
brief description of different types of simulations is experiment a thousand times (or million
represented in Table 1. times) to see how likely it is that the LHD
will fail. Although this particular problem
2.1 Simulation Basics might also be solved mathematically,
Simulations can be thought of as a framework for a stochastic Monte Carlo simulation
might be easier to set up for some
describing the operation of a system. Describing a system types of problem.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 459

using this framework can sometimes be very beneficial even important benefit of a well-done simulation project may
if the model is never used for experiments (Banks 1998). simply be the insights gained by describing the system in
Resources and entities In a simulation-oriented system the simulation framework. This includes gathering,
description, entities flow through a series of resources. analyzing and processing the raw data as well as
Entities are units of work or units of traffic. They queue up developing the logical rules for system operation. Second,
for and use resources according to logical rules. animation is sometimes used demonstrate to analysts,
Resources are generally constrained. operators, management, and others that the model is valid
In a simple model, an entity might represent some (Banks 1998, Brunner 2001, Hollberg et al. 2002, Pegden et
quantity of material (ore or waste), and the resources al. 1995).
might be people, an LHD (equipment), or a storage area. Statistics: Statistical output generated by a model can
In a more complex model, there might be entities that be derived from a standard output report or customized to
represent the logical controllers of the system (human suit the model user. Typical outputs include resource
managers as well as automated controls). statistics, queuing statistics, and other summary
Interactions: Simulation can capture interactions in a way information. The model can also produce any other
no static technique can. There are many, many dynamic measurable statistic that is consistent with the models
cascading events in an underground mine. A given task level of detail. This could include, for example, the duration
may be subject, for example, to waiting for a blast, waiting of various activities, time plots, a trace file for
for repairs, waiting for adjacent work to be completed, and understanding the model logic, and a resource table
so forth. (schedule).
Random variables: Most simulations include Under the heading of resource statistics, a simple
representations of random variations. Using point example would be the utilization of a drill. In the calculation
estimates (averages) as inputs to any kind of model can of drill utilization one could divide the operational time by;
cause interactions to be overlooked. This is typically most total time
obvious in the case of failure modeling but many other total time minus maintenance shift and shutdowns
aspects of mine behavior can be sampled from a time when crew members are available to run the drill
probability distribution. operating time divided by the sum of operating and repair
time
2.2 Simulation Inputs something else
Model inputs fall into these broad categories: logical data,
system description data, process data, and demand data It is important that there be agreement as to the correct
(Banks 1998, Brunner 2001, Hollberg et al. 2002, Pegden et calculation.
al. 1995). Time plots, whether generated by the simulation software
Logical data: Logical data includes all rules for operating or plotted from data produced by the model, can provide
the system. What activities must halt when a blast is many insights.
scheduled? Who decides which scoop should be Animation: A simulation model can be animated in many
assigned to a pending mucking task and how is that ways. Animation can, for example, be in 2-D or 3-D space.
decision made? What shift schedule do the jumbo drill It can (1) show people and equipment moving or only
operators follow? Is there a stope sequence that is to be show material state changes, (2) be pictorial or
followed in the model or will the model make sequencing schematic, (3) be to scale or not to scale and (4) be
decisions dynamically; and if so, how? delivered with or separately from the model.
System description data: System description data
represent the physical system. This includes mine All of these forms of animation are valuable for verifying
geometry, material properties, and the equipment list. It is and validating the model. They are also extremely useful for
often useful to break unique geometries into individual achieving buy-in from other operating personnel as well as
material blocks that may have unique properties. from top management. A model is not going to be
Process data: Process data are the rates and speeds that considered useful unless everyone understands that it is
constrain system performance. Operator and equipment valid and it is not going to be considered at all if people do
performance, equipment failure, hoisting rates, conveyor not understand what it is.
speeds, and similar data fall into this category.
Demand data: Demand data drive the model. In other 2.4 Steps in a Simulation Study
contexts, the demand data are how many cars are we The flowchart shown in Figure 1 provides a set of steps to
trying to make or how many boxes need to be shipped guide a model builder in a thorough and sound simulation
today. Demand data are not typically a major factor in a study.
mine model because the model is generally set to go all
out given the other constraints in place. However, there 2.5 Simulation in Inderground Mining
may be cases when the model is set to start certain There are many ways simulation can be used in the
material blocks at certain times or to stop before the end planning and operation of mines (Table 2). The variables
of any shift once a certain tonnage is hoisted. The goal in include:
such case is to see how the equipment and operators are Model objectives
utilized. Model focus
Model time frame
Data for a mining model are often difficult to gather and
reduce to a usable form. The logical data may be The objectives for modeling a mining operation can vary
incompletely understood by a single individual and a team widely. Typical objectives may include some or all of the
of people may have trouble agreeing on what practices are following (Banks 1998, Brunner 2001):
or will be followed underground. Equipment type comparisons
Specific capital purchase decisions
2.3 Simulation Output Mine plan analysis (discussion of integrated planning and
The output from a simulation can assume various forms. modeling)
Although simulation outputs are usually statistical, they Mining method comparisons
need not be. There are two reasons for this. First, an Operating policy evaluation and improvement

460 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Step 1: Problem formulation
Medium-term models (might run for up to a few simulated
years) are used to evaluate equipment plans and
scheduling and operating policies.
Step 2: Setting objetives
and overall project plan Long-term models (might run for up to a few simulated
decades or more) are used to evaluate long-range mine
plans, look for development bottlenecks, and so forth.
Step 3: Model building Step 4: Data collection

2.6 Simulation Software-Automod (Banks 1998,

Step 5: Coding Pegdent ET AL 1995)
This software from AutoSimulations, Inc., has general
model-building features, including the specifications of
No
Step 6: Verified? processes, resources, loads, queues, and variables.
AutoMod software is a very powerful tool for describing
material handling systems. Automated guide vehicle (AGV)
Yes
and path-guide transporters, conveyors, bridge cranes,
No AS/RSs, and power and free devices can be defined
Step 7: Validated?
rapidly. The animation capabilities include true-to-scale
three-dimensional graphics, rotation, and tilting, to mention
Yes a few. A CAD-like drawing utility is used to construct the
Step 8: Experimental desing model.
A separate utility option is AutoStat. It provides simulation
Step 9: Production warm-up capability, scenarios management, confidence
runs and analysis interval generation, and design-of-experiment capability.
AutoView is a post-processor that provides three-
dimensional walkthrough capability for presentation-quality
Step 10:
Yes
More runs?
animation.

No
2.7 Software Considerations
Step 11: Document
program and report
Input Considerations
results
CAD Translation If there exists a CAD drawing of
the static background, a CAD
Step 12: Implementation translator will take a CAD drawing
and convert it into the drawing
Figure 1: Flowchart, Used to Guide a Model Builder in a system used by the simulation.
Simulation Study (by Bank, Carlson, and Nelson 1996) Importing a File These provide the capability to
import a data file for use in the
simulation.
Table 2: Uses and Benefits of Simulation in Exporting a File The output file will be used as
Underground Mining (Banks 1998, Brunner 2001) input to a spreadsheet for
drawing business graphics
Uses Benefits beyond or different from those
generated by the simulation
Analysis of proposed Supporting processes such as software.
capital expenditures. services, materials, and Syntax This should be easily understood,
Analysis of operating repairs. consistent, and unambiguous.
procedures. Material handing including Debugger Even the best of simulation
Analysis of plans muck movement by vehicle; bin analysis makes mistakes or
and schedules. flow with ore passes, crushers, commits logical errors when
Understanding and hoppers, and other building a model. The debuggers
communication of intermediate storage; and assist in finding and correcting
system behavior. hoisting and removal. those errors in the following ways:
Day-to-day Trucking operations. - The simulation can be monitored
decision making. Operator training. as it progresses.
- Attention can be focused on a
particular area of the simulation
Along with the many different objectives possible in or a particular entity.
underground mine modeling, the areas of focus can also - Values of selected model
vary widely. Some general areas of focus include (Banks components can be observed.
1998, Brunner 2001): - The simulation can be
The development process temporarily suspended, or
The production process paused, not only to view
information, but also to reassign
The time frame of the model depends, in part, on its values or redirect entities.
intended use (Banks 1998, Brunner 2001). Input Data Analysis The ability to determine whether
Short-term models (which might run for up to a few Capability input data can be described by a
simulated months) are used to evaluate operating statistical or mathematical
policies, to directly schedule the operations, or to assess distribution.
the impact of exceptional conditions.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 461

Processing Considerations could become rather a large stack
of paper. At the other extreme is a
Speed When there are many entities in a database that contains all these
system, the software speed output in an organized fashion.
should not degrade to the point of Collection of Desired This allows the specifications of
slow motion. Mathematical measures of interest to the
Run-time flexibility An example of this feature is the Expressions modeler.
scenario generation. In this case, Custom performance Does the software allow the
with some prodding, the Expressions analyst to define and create new
simulation software will or custom measures of
automatically generate alternative performance for a model?
possibilities for simulation (i.e.; of Write to a File Does the software allow data,
scenario generation allows input events, or system variables to be
data to vary over a range) written to a file whenever
Random Variety There are about 12 statistical desired?
Generator distributions that are commonly This feature allows the analyst to
used in simulation. Most, but not later import the file into
all simulation software has the spreadsheet or database
ability to generate random programs for further customized
varieties using these 12 analysis or manipulation.
distributions.
Reset For steady-state analysis, it is
important to have the ability to Environment Considerations
reset the statistics that have been
collected to zero. This reset is Ease of use This is important to some, not
accomplished without clearing the important to others. The power of
entities that are currently in the the software is probably much
system. more important than ease of use.
Attributes and Attributes are local values Ease of Learning This is important to the casual
global variables available to the entity processing user, not so important to the
that attribute, and global variables frequent or continuous user.
are available to all entities. The Quality of Often, documentation is so
question is how many of each of Documentation impossible to understand that
these is available. users refuse to read it. Context-
Programming The ability to mimic custom logic sensitive and useful on-line help
(Custom logic accurately to any desired degree is an advantage.
representation) of detail usually requires some Animation Not all animation is created
type of internal programming Capability (3D) equally. Consider the ease of
capability or underlying language. development, the quality of the
It is an absolute necessity for picture, the smoothness of
modeling complex problems or movement, and the portability for
systems in order to build high- remote viewing.
fidelity model. Stability Is simulation software their
Portability This means the software can be primary business or just a
run on various classes of sideline?
computer without changes in the Support Does the vendor offer adequate
software. technical support and access to
the system?
Output Data
Components of the Path-Move System
Standardized Report Examples of standardized output
measures are the average Guide paths Guide paths represent routes that
number in queue, average time in are taken by vehicles or people in
queue, etc. The software can a system. They may consist of a
produce these and other values number of segments. Guide
automatically or upon request. paths can be one or two
Customized Report These are tailored presentations directional
such as those that would be Transfers Transfers are a connection that
shown to a manager. The format joins two segments of guide path.
can be set by the simulation For a vehicle to move from one
analyst. segment to another, the two
Business Graphics The software can have the ability segments must be connected by
to generate bar chart, pie charts, a transfer.
and histograms that are of such Control points Control points are locations at
high quality that they can be which vehicles can pickup or set
shown to managers and included down loads in the system. These
in reports. can be located anywhere on a
Data Base One possibility is to collect a path.
Maintenance stack of paper output Vehicles Vehicles transport loads from one
representing the replications from location to another by following a
each scenario. However, this path in the path-move system.

462 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Vehicles can be defined and
grouped by type and can differ in
velocity, capacity, and the time
required to pickup and set down
loads in the system. Vehicles can
also be assigned different
attributes based on the type of
loads they are carrying; for
example, an LHD has a different
rate of acceleration or velocity if it
traveling empty or with a load.

3 APPLICATION OF SIMULATION TO
PLANNING AT ESMERALDA

In 1997, panel caving with pre-undercutting was

introduced in the Esmeralda sector. Since that time, sector Figure 3: Plan View of the Production Level. This is
production has increased from 250 tpd to about 40,000 tpd. represented by the Path Mover.
Although there are similarities between pre-undercut and
conventional panel caving, there are also a number of
significant differences. It has taken the mine some time to Table 3: Extraction Rates Imposed by the
learn both about the pre-undercut method and about its Geomechanical Group
application to extract primary ore under the relatively high
stress conditions which are present. There has been little Primary Ore Initial Caving Steady
opportunity to try and optimize the planning and sequencing Extraction (m/d) Caving(m/d)
operations but this is now in order as the daily production Ranges (%)
rate is scheduled to rise to 45,000 by year 2005.
This will be the first improvement opportunity evaluated by 05 0.05 0.10
simulation. The simulation example will show how the 5 10 0.07 0.13
utilization of the available production area can be 10 15 0.08 0.15
maximized. 15 20 0.10 0.17
20 25 0.13 0.20
3.1 Simulation Model DevelopmentI 25 30 0.16 0.24
Mine Layout
For simulation, the production, haulage, and undercut
levels will all be included since they interact directly. Of
these, the most important is the production level because its
advance rate controls:
the increase in the area of extraction,
the movement of the front on the undercut level, and
the need to incorporate new drifts on the haulage level.

The different model components for the example are

shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Ore Flow
The simulation model is used to study flow rates and
capacities. The flow of ore is represented by the height of
the ore column (Figure 4). The flows are subject to the
restrictions imposed by the Geomechanical Group. This
means that the extraction rates are defined so as to try to
control the breakage of the solid ore column (Table 3). Figure 4: A 3D Representation of the Mining Model
Showing The Production Level, Haulage Level, and Ore
Column Height.

Problem Formulation
Production area availability and utilization values under
conventional and pre-undercut conditions are presented in
Table 4.

Table 4: A comparison of Production Level

Areal Availability and Utilization by Mining

Panel Caving Availability (%) Utilization (%)

System Production Level
Figure 2: Section View Showing the Draw Bell between the
Conventional 50 45 to 50
Undercut Level and Production Level. This is represented
Pre-Undercut > 90 65
by a QUEUE

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 463

 As can be seen, the physical availability of the pre- of ore column extraction. This means examining how the ore
undercut panel caving production area is very high. This is column is broken during the extraction time.
due to the better rock mass conditions resulting from the
development of the production openings in a de-stressed 3.3 Model Validation-Simulation 1
area. Although the utilization of the area is higher than in In this step two simulations are run using historical
conventional panel caving (65 percent versus 45 to 50 extraction data from the mine. The first model is run by shift
percent), it can be improved. Today the main challenge and the second is by month. The required LHD and train
associated with the pre-undercut variant is to improve the data are the cycle time values (the time to load, speed-
utilization of the available production area. loaded, speed-empty, time to dump, etc)
Areal utilization is defined as "the total area with
extraction divided by the total open area, expressed as a Simulation 1a Schedule by Shift
percentage" A particular shift schedule is simulated and the area
Physical availability is defined as "the total area for utilization is determined. The production rate and the
extraction over the total open area, expressed as a utilization of the LHDs and the trains was compared with
percentage" the actual information from the mine. The difference
between the actual LHD productivity and the average
The objective is to maximize the production from the productivity from 7 simulation runs is 13 tons/shift or 1.8
available production area. In this evaluation, one percent. For the trains the difference is 85 tons/shift or 3.6
determines the available physical area by multiplying the percent and for the area utilization the difference is 0.5
total production area by the physical availability. This percent. Essentially, there is no difference between the
available area should them be utilized to as high a degree simulated and actual conditions. An output report presents
as possible to minimize the specific development and to all of the information from the analysis. The information for
maximize the production efficiency. one shift is represented in Table 5.

3.2 The case Study Model

The Model considers the utilization of the production level Table 5: Model Case 1 Validation.
area. This involves LHD movement on the production level,
the filling and emptying of ore passes, and train movement Productivity Actual Simulation
on the haulage level from ore pass to ore bin. Shift 1 Shift 2 Shift 3 Shift 4 Shift 5 Shift 6 Shift 7 Average

The respective capacities are: LHD( tons/Shift) 718 687 883 757 777 692 700 739 705
LHD = 7 t (7.3 yd3)/cycle Train(tons/Shift) 2450 2250 3000 2350 2335 2166 2190 2270 2365
Ore pass = 400 t Area Utilization (%) 65 61.4 67.2 66.1 66.8 62.2 62.8 64.9 64.5
Train capacity = 400 t
Simulation 1b Schedule by Month
The current production area is 300m by 150 m in extent. A second simulation was performed based upon the
It consists of: monthly schedule. The actual (or planned) mine operation
317 draw points by month including area utilization was compared to that
15 streets arising from the simulation. Two simulation runs were made.
2 train loops The first was to compare the actual mine production for the
15 ore passes months April and June 2002 with the output of the model.
The second run was made comparing the output fo the
Three simulations will be made with the model. model to that planned for the months of August 2002 and
Simulation 1: The current mine (LHD and train) schedule December 2002 as included in the program for year 2002.
with 65 percent area utilization. The actual/planned and simulated production rates and the
Simulation 2: Increase the utilization of the current LHD and train utilization values were compared. The results
available area to 80 percent. This is done by increasing the are shown in Tables 6 and 7.
number of LHDs. It is accompanied by increase in the
production rate. Table 6: Model Case 1 Mine Production Rate 2002
Simulation 3: Increased production efficiency while
maintaining the current areal production rate and the Year 2002 Actual Production Rate Planned Production Rate
number of LHD units. April June August December
Model Building Production (t/d) 22,370 23,350 26,909 25,717
The overall model consists of five "processes" or
modules. These are: PRODUCTION AREA, LOAD, LHD,
ORE PASS, and TRAIN. Table 7: Model Case 1 - Simulated Production
Rate for 65 Percent Area Utilization
Data Collection
The data needed are divided into: Year 2002 Simulation results Simulation results for
Schedule of the production plan for comparison to the comparison with the
LHD distribution schedule data from the mine planned program for 2002
The number of trains April June August December
An ore pass file
LHD (t/d) 22,598 23,599 26,911 25,745
Model Verification Number of LHDs 11 11 13 12
In this step, model verification means the determination Train haulage(t/d) 22,191 23,134 26,374 25,672
as to whether the computer implementation of the model is Open Area (m2) 94,175 96,520 105,507 111,370
correct. In this case, verification is done using animation. In Area of Utilization (m2) 61,214 62,738 68,580 72,390
the simulation analysis one can detect an action that is Area of Utilization (%) 65 65 65 65
illogical. The verification is made by observing the condition

464 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The difference between the actual and the simulated much greater attention to planning and sequencing is
production rates for April is 223 t/d, for June it is 230 t/d. In required of pre-undercut panel caving than of
both cases the simulation yields a smaller production than conventional panel caving. Simulation assistance is
the actual. This is because the actual production is required to achieve an optimum result considering all of
compared with the simulated output production recorded on the different factors.
the haulage level and the train takes the load from the ore With respect to the Case Study, one of the major
pass only if it is full. advantages of pre-undercut panel caving over
When comparing the planned production versus that conventional panel caving is the much higher physical
simulated for August, the difference is 522 t/d less than the availability of the production area ( >90 percent as
plan. For December the simulated production rate is 25 t/d compared to about 50 percent). This is due to the fact that
more than the plan. the development and construction work on this level has
been done under largely de-stressed conditions. In
3.4 Model Result Simulation 2 conventional panel caving, the development and
In this simulation, the area utilization will be increased construction on the production level is done under the
from 65 percent to 80 percent. This is done with by existing high in situ stress conditions. These stresses are
increasing the number of LHDs assigned to the same area then increased even higher by the abutment stress
as was used in simulation 1 (CVB Open Area). By adding associated with the passage of the undercutting front.
LHDs there is a natural increase in the production rate. The This means that the production level can be severely
output data from the model are summarized in Table 8. damaged and in need of repair even before actual
The output report shows the possibility of increasing the production begins. Repair and rebuild of the openings is
monthly production rate by increasing the number of LHDs an on-going task in conventional panel caving.
in production. The next step in the evaluation is to perform With the high physical availability of draw points in the
an economic analysis. pre-undercut variant, one can choose several different
production strategies.
Table 8: Simulated Production Rate Based Three alternatives were considered:
Upon 80 Percent Area Utilization. CVB Open Area. Alternative 1: was the production strategy in use today. It
has a production level area utilization factor of 65 percent
Year 2002 April June August December which means that 65 percent of the available draw points
are in use at any one time. The simulation yielded results
LHD (t/d) 26,317 29,524 33,830 32,117 very close to those achieved in the mine.
Number of LHDs 12 14 16 15 Alternative 2: the same physical production area as in
Train haulage (t/d) 25,704 28,815 33,507 31,536 Alternative 1 was assumed but the utilization factor was
Open Area (m2) 94,175 96,520 105,507 111,370 increased to 80 percent. This was accomplished by adding
Area of Utilization (m2) 75,340 77,216 84,406 89,096 more LHDs to the fleet. The result was an increase in the
Area of Utilization (%) 80 80 80 80 areal production capacity by 20 percent.
Alternative 3: was to maintain the same number of LHDs
as in Alternative 1 but to increase the utilization to 80
3.4 Model Result Simulation 3 percent. The result was that the same production as
In this simulation, the areal utilization will be increased to obtained in Alternative 1 could be achieved from a
80 percent while maintaining the same production rate and significantly smaller area.
number of LHDs as indicated in simulation 1. In achieving The overall conclusion from the Case Study simulation
this, the total area in production can be less thereby was that it is possible to increase the areal utilization of
improving the production efficiency. The output data are the production level from 65 percent to 80 percent. In
summarized in Table 9. doing so one can either get the same production from a
smaller area than today or a higher production from the
same area as today. Although an economic calculation
Table 9: The Results for an Areal Utilization has not been made at this point, it is certain that the
at 80 Percent and the CVB - Production Rate increased draw point utilization will result in very
substantial cost savings.
Year 2002 April June August December

LHD (t/d) 22,526 23,267 26, 908 25,694 REFERENCES

Number of LHDs 11 11 13 12
Train haulage (t/d) 22,210 22,909 26,815 25,615 Baiden, G.R. (2001) "TeleminingTM System Applied to
Open Area (m2) 76,518 78,423 85,725 90,488 Hard Rock Metal at Inco Limited" Underground Mining
Area of Utilization (m2) 61,214 62,738 68,580 72,390 Methods, ed. SME 2001, pp 671 712, USA
Area of Utilization (%) 80 80 80 80 Banks, J., ed. (1998) "Handbook of Simulation: Principles,
Methodology, Advances, Applications, and Practice", John
The output report indicates the possibility of increasing Wiley, New York.
the production efficiency while maintaining the production Banks, J., ed. (2000) "Getting Started with AutoMod",
rate and number of LHD units constant. The results AutoSimulation, Inc, Bountiful, UTAh 84010.
demonstrate the importance of good management when Banks, J., ed. (2001) "AutoMod Users Manual v 10.0",
generating the production schedule because with less area Brooks Automations, Inc. AutoSimulations Division,
in development and construction it is possible to achieve the Bountiful, UTAH 84010.
same production rate. This generates budget savings for the Barraza, M., and Crorkan, P. (2000) "Esmeralda Mine
company every year. Exploitation Project" Proceeding of the MassMin 2000, pp
267 277, Brisbane, Australia.
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Barraza, M., San Martin, J., Crorkan, P., and Bustamante,
S. (2000) "Grupo de tarea planificacin mina Esmeralda",
To meet the combination of geometrical, extraction and PL-I-096/2000, Internal report, Codelco Chile Divisin El
operational constraints in pre-undercut panel caving, Teniente.

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 Betancourt A., Silva, M., and Valdivia, C. (1999) Pegden, C. D., Shannon, R. E., and Sadowski, R. P.
"Resultados de instrumentacin mina Esmeralda, PL-I- (1995). Introduction to Simulation Using SIMAN, 2nd edn,
021/99, Internal report, Area Ingeniera de Rocas, pp 8-24 (McGraw Hill: New York).
Codelco Chile Divisin El Teniente. Rojas, E. Molina, R., and Cavieres, P. (2001) "Pre-
Brunner, D.T. (2001) "Simulation of Underground Mining undercut Caving in El Teniente Mine, Chile" Underground
Operations" Underground Mining Methods, ed. SME Mining Method, ed. SME 2001, pp 417 423, USA.
2001, pp 705 679, USA. Rojas, E., Molina, R., Bonani, R., and Constanzo, H.
Bullock, R. and Hustrulid, W. (2001) "Planning the (2000) "The Pre-Undercut Caving Method at El Teniente
Underground Mine on the Basis of Mining Methods" Mine", Proceeding of the MassMin 2000, pp 261 266,
Underground Mining Methods, ed. SME 2001, pp 29 48, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Brisbane,
USA. Australia.
Cavieres, P. (1999) "Evaluacin de los mtodos de Rojas, E., Cavieres, P., Dunlop, R., and Gaete, S. (2000)
explotacin en mina El Teniente" Internal report, Area "Control of Induced Seismicity at El Teniente Mine",
Ingeniera de Rocas, Codelco Chile Divisin El Teniente. Proceeding of the MassMin 2000, pp 775 781,
Codelco Chile Divisin El Teniente, (2000) "CASO BASE Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Brisbane,
VIGENTE 2001 Unidad de Gestin Autnoma Mina Australia.
Concentradora", Internal report, Subgerencia Minco. Rojas, E., Barraza, M., Bonani, A., Morales, A., Munoz,
Diering, T. (2000) "A Block Cave Design and draw Control R., Pasten,O., and Morales, M.A. (2000) "Grupo de Tarea
System" Proceeding of the MassMin 2000, pp 469 484, Esmeralda Mediano y Largo Plazo, Situacin Sector Fw",
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Brisbane, PL-I-005/2000, Internal report, Codelco Chile Divisin El
Australia. Teniente.
Hollberg, K.F., Graehl, D., and Despain, L. (2002) Rech, W. D. (2001) "Henderson Mine" Underground
"Application of Simulation Technology to Underground Mining Methods, ed. SME 2001, pp 397 403, USA.
Production", SME Annual Meting, Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Rech, W., Keskimaki, K. W., and Stewart, D. S. (2000)
Jofre, J., Yanez, P. and Ferguson, G. (2000) "Evolution in "An Update on Cave Development and Draw Control at
Panel Caving Underground and Drawbell Excavation, El the Henderson Mine", Proceeding of the MassMin 2000,
Teniente Mine" Proceeding of the MassMin 2000, pp 249 pp 495 505, Australasian Institute of Mining and
260, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Metallurgy, Brisbane, Australia.
Brisbane, Australia. Schriber, T.J. (1991) "An Introduction to Simulation Using
Jofre, J., and Blondel, J. (1993) "Geomecnica GPSS/H", John Wiley & Sons New York.
conceptual Proyecto Esmeralda", Internal report, Sturgul, J.R. (2000) "Mine Design Examples using
Departamento de Estudios y Mtodos, Codelco Chile simulation" SME.
Divisin El Teniente. Sturgul, J.R. (2000) "The Use of Simulation and
Karzulovic, A. (1998) "Evaluacin Geotcnica Mtodos de Animation for modeling Underground Mines", 3rd National
Socavacin Previa y Avanzada", Estudio DT-PE-99-003, Conference of Underground Constructions.
A. Karzulovic & Asoc., Chile. Sturgul, J.R.(2000) " Using Animation of Mining
Karzulovic, A. (1997) "Caracterizacin Geomecnica Operations as Presentation Models" Mine Planning and
Rocas Proyecto Esmeralda", Estudio DT-PE-97-001, A. Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos
Karzulovic & Asoc., Chile. (eds) 2000 Balkema, Rotterdam .
NCL, (2000) "Simulacin Capacidad de Produccin Sturgul, J.R.(1998) "Advances in Simulation and
Proyecto Esmeralda", Internal .report, Codelco Chile Animation for the 21st Century", Third Regional APCOM
Divisin El Teniente. Symposium.

466 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 12
Draw Management
468 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Extraction rate:
As an index of effectiveness
Francisco Carrasco J., Vctor Encina M., Soledad Maass V.
Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A., IM2

Abstract
Extraction rate in Block/Panel Caving mining method is analyzed as the so called Critical Technological Dimension that
represents a whole index of the effectiveness of the process, in this case the mining method. Extraction rate is critical for
mining business because it limits the production capacity in a given ore body. It can be distinguished three rates of
extraction in Block/Panel Caving as follows: Propagation rate of extraction during caving propagation period, Full rate of
extraction, when all material is broken and Mean extraction rate representing the global performance of the process
considering the total active area, both under propagation and full extraction of broken material.
This paper presents the relations of dependence among those three extraction rates with a discussion of the impact of
rock mass condition affecting propagation rate and the effect of fragmentation in full rate of extraction of broken material.
Also, it is presented an application to Conventional Block/Panel Caving Method using LHD, whose results set a structural
limit for its mean rate of extraction [t/m2-day]. This analysis includes the effect of interruptions of flow in draw points (hung-
up frequency) and restrictions imposed by the batch system of extraction (LHD).

1 INTRODUCTION Better advance taking from high grade blocks, allowing in

practice, an advance of fine ore output.
Development of innovative technological projects requires In the case of new mines, lower time is required to reach
an insight of technological evolution of processes under full production.
study. Toward this, it is convenient to identify the main focus
and targets to direct research and development efforts. Mean extraction rate results from a combination of several
This work intends to adapt the concept of Critical factors, including mine design and material handling or
Technological Dimension (CTD) to get a new tool for other unitary operations technology, and restrictions
management of innovation in mining industry. imposed by the ore body or originated in management
CTD is defined as a numerical index that reflects the practices.
technological effectiveness and/or competitiveness of any Two operational conditions controlling the ore extraction
process under evaluation. CTD has to have an aggregated can be distinguished: extraction done while caving process
character to represent the whole process, be universal to be is ongoing, also called propagation phase; and extraction
applied by/to any process user/application and variable in done when all material is already broken after propagation
time to allow monitoring its evolution. phase, when full extraction rate can be applied.
CTD concept is applicable to any process; being Propagation phase is the period when it is not convenient to
underground mining method only a particular one, however, extract more material than the "ground" delivers as caving
this work is dedicated exclusively to Block/Panel Caving. phenomena converts in situ material in broken material. It is a
Present work validates the use of mean extraction rate as common practice to accept that this process finishes when
Block/Panel Caving CTD, and useful application of this 30% of material has been extracted. During propagation
concepts are presented to actual state of the art in order to phase, it is necessary to operate at an extraction rate Tp,
outline its potential for innovation in underground mining named propagation extraction rate, whose value is usually
methods. much lower than the full extraction rate Tf.
Conventional LHD Block/panel caving technology is In full extraction rate stage, restrictions imposed in
deeply analyzed to emphasize how CDT can guide us to propagation stage are progressively abandoned and
look for high impact technological innovation. consequently, other process control enters into play, as the
occurrence of hangups that interrupt the flow through
2 MEAN EXTRACTION RATE AS CTD drawpoints.

For Block/Panel Caving methods, mean extraction rate 2.1 Full Extraction Rate Analysis
expressed in units of t/m2-d, has been identified as a CTD, In conventional Block/Panel Caving system with LHD, a
that is, a measure of global process effectiveness. CTD production module is usually composed of a production drift
strictly refers to technological key factors that determine the with 8 to 10 drawpoints each side and one ore pass. This
business value. means that each LHD extracts the ore from any of those 16
For this analysis, we will define the mean extraction to 20 drawpoints and dumps it to the ore pass.
rate (Tm) as the ratio between the total capacity of If the bucket capacity is 6 tons and the mean transport
production (t/d) and active area (m2) needed to obtain that distance is between 50 and 60 m, as it is frequent in
production. different mines of Codelco Chile, LHD productivity ranks at
Business impact is clear when greater rate of extraction 200 t/h, equivalent in the best case to 3,600 t/d (18 h/d). As
can be achieved as listed below: a result, for one module composed by 16 points with 225 m2
Greater productivity from active area can be achieved, of influence each, (drawpoint spacing 15x15 m), production
which means that equal active area yields greater will be carried out from 3,600 m2, meaning a maximum
production. structural capacity of 1.0 t/m2-d.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 469

 Even in conditions of maximum operational capacity, the Table 2: Impact of better unhangup productivity
mean extraction per drawpoint is 225 t/d, with 1.125 h/d of Case A.1: Conventional 6 t LHD, 16 drawpoints
LHD operation, so, drawpoints utilization is less that 5%. per drift, one half of standard unhangup time
This low utilization, which is remarkable by itself, becomes
even lower due to ore does not draw regularly through size hangup time for extraction rate
drawpoint, but intermittently due to hangups. frequency drift t/m2-day
In fact, depending on the size of broken ore, flow is change
intermittent due to hangups even when dealing with "fine
material". To face this situation, operational experience t per h drawpoint spacing in m
indicates that most convenient method to hold LHD hangup 15x15 13x13 11x11
productivity is to allow them shift the drawpoint each time
the flow is interrupted, and shift the drift every time that very coarse 80 4 0.57
module has completed 10 hanged drawpoints. This coarse 160 8 0.73 0.97
because secondary blasting crew can accomplish 10 medium 320 16 0.84 1.12 1.57
unhangups per shift, so under this work organization, almost
two modules are needed per LHD, therefore a lower fine 640 32 1.22 1.70
extraction rate will be achieved because the extra area very fine 1280 64 1.78
needed to face hangups. no hangups - - 1.00 1.33 1.86
Following the logic of this work organization for ore
extraction operation, the impact on the extraction rate can
be calculated for different ore quality and drawpoint spacing. Table 3: Impact of increase LHD bucket capacity
Results are presented in Table 1: Case A.2: 12 t LHD bucket, 16 drawpoints
per drift, 10 unhangup per shift

Table 1: Impact of hangup frequency size hangup time for extraction rate
Case A: Conventional 6 t LHD, 16 drawpoints frequency drift t/m2-day
per drift, 10 unhangups per shift change

size hangup time for extraction rate t per h drawpoint spacing in m

frequency drift t/m2-day hangup 15x15 13x13 11x11
change
very coarse 80 2 0.50
t per h drawpoint spacing in m coarse 160 4 0.80 1.07
hangup 15x15 13x13 11x11
medium 320 8 1.14 1.52 2.13
very coarse 80 4 0.40 fine 640 16 1.94 2.70
coarse 160 8 0.57 0.76 very fine 1280 32 3.13
medium 320 16 0.73 0.97 1.35 no hangups - - 2.00 2.66 3.72
fine 640 32 1.12 1.57
very fine 1280 64 1.70 done in one half of standard time, as it is shown in Table 4:
From analysis on extraction rate at full extraction rate for
no hangups - - 1.00 1.33 1.86 conventional LHD technology, it can be concluded that:
With flat infrastructure (drawpoint spacing of 15x15 m and
Table 1 shows that when material is medium sized the 13x13 m) in medium sized rock, extraction rates have a
possible achievable rate is 73% of ideal condition without structural limit of 0.7 to 1.0 t/m2-d respectively.
hangups. Former figures can be increased to 1.3 t/m2-d if 11x11 m
Extraction rate decreases because every time when a or less drawpoint spacing is used, for which infrastructure
change of drift is required, another one has to be available, design should be inclined or a Macrozanja type.
so to obtain the same production more active area is A technological improvement of unhangup operation to
needed. reduce the standard time to one half only implies 16%
Drawpoint production capacity is independent on its area extraction rate increase.
of influence, so extraction rate increases when drawpoint
spacing is small because module total area becomes
smaller. Table 4: Duplication of extraction rate
To evaluate the impact of unhangup performance, a Case B: 12 t LHD bucket, 16 drawpoints per drift, one
hypothetical exercise was done reducing unhangup time to half of standard unhangup time
one half of the standard, getting Table 2 results.
From Table 2 it is concluded that if unhangup could be size hangup time for extraction rate
done in a half of standard time, extraction rate in medium frequency drift t/m2-day
sized rock could increase since 73% to 84% of the ideal change
extraction rate, that is, approximately 15% more than with t per h drawpoint spacing in m
the standard unhangup performance. hangup 15x15 13x13 11x11
Another way for increasing the extraction rate is to
increase LHD bucket capacity. Results of an exercise with very coarse 80 4 0.80
12 t LHD bucket capacity are presented in Table 3. In this
coarse 160 8 1.14 1.52
case, the ideal rate (without hangups) is duplicated;
however extraction rate in medium sized rock only grows medium 320 16 1.45 1.94 2.70
56% compared to 6 t bucket (Table 1). fine 640 32 2.24 3.13
Then, to duplicate the extraction rate, considering the
very fine 1280 64 3.40
actual situation with hangups, not only LHD bucket capacity
has to be duplicated, but also unhangup time should be no hangups - - 2.00 2.66 3.72

470 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Double LHD bucket capacity implies only 56% increase of Where "n" factor is defined in such a way those times of
extraction rate extraction in propagation and full extraction rate time, could
To duplicate current extraction rate in all cases, both LHD be the same, so:
bucket capacity and unhangup performance should be
duplicated. In such a case, extraction rate Tf should reach 0, 3 * T f
at most 1 to 2 t/m2-d when flat infrastructure and wide n= (7)
drawpoint spacing design is applied in medium sized rock, 0, 7 * Tp
and when small drawpoint spacing (11x11m and
Macrozanja one) extraction rate could raise to less than 3 or:
t/m2-d.
7
2.2 Mean Extraction Rate Analysis T f = * n * Tp (8)
As formerly noted, mean extraction rate Tm represents 3
the link with business because it expresses the whole
production capacity per unit of active area. Where "n" factor also represents the relation that should
Given that propagation occurs while the first 30% of any exists between the area at propagation stage and the area
column is extracted, and in the remaining 70% full extraction at full extraction rate.
rate is used, the following relationship can be established: Mean extraction rate will be also given by:
Time in days needed to extract a column of ore:

Ap * Tp + Af * T f
Tm = (9)
0, 3 * T 0, 7 * T (1)
AT
time = +
Tp Tf
AT : Total area of system in m2
Ap : Propagation area in m2
T = tonnage per m2 of column Af : Full area in m2
TP and Tf = Extraction rate at Propagation and Full
production phases respectively in t/m2-d. With

Then, mean extraction rate Tm in t/m2-d is given by: AT = Ap + Af (10)

T From equations (8), (9) and (10) it is deduced that mean

Tm = (2) extraction rate Tm can be expressed as:
0, 3 * T 0, 7 * T
+
Tp Tf
10 * n * Tp (11)
or: Tm =
3 * ( n + 1)
1
Tm =
0, 3 0, 7 (3)
It can be observed that Tm is asymptotic to 10/3 of Tp,
+
Tp T f figure that is consistent with the one encountered in
equation 4. In this way, if one takes a reasonable value
Tp=0.40 t/m2-d, the maximum possible Tm will be 1.32 t/m2-
At the limit, when full extraction rate is as large as wanted, d.
it is noticed that mean extraction rate has an asymptote, Figure 1 shows values obtained for Tm and Tf in t/m2-d
which is proportional to extraction rate of propagation (main axis) according to different values of n and for
phase: propagation rate Tp=0.40 t/m2-d. Productivity of drawpoints
in t/h (secondary axis) is also plotted (dotted line).
Tp
lim v 2 (Tm ) = (4)
0, 3
A condition of production stability has to be set to assure
that any time the mine will produce the same amount of ore.
Toward this is necessary that each time an area is
exhausted, an equivalent one where its propagation period
has finished have to be ready to start extraction at full
production rate.

0, 3 * T
propagation _ time (5)
Tp
0, 7 * T
full _ time
Tf (6)

Condition of stability is verified when:

Figure 1: Relationship between mean extraction rate and
propagation time = n * full production time full extraction rate for Tp=0.40 t/m2-d

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 471

 It can be observed that: A combination of those factors will give a characteristic
Case A: For conventional system, is enough to maintain average output per drawpoint and the correspondent full
an area ratio on the order of n=0.76 to be able to replace and mean extraction rate. For example, if an LHD
opportunely the exhausted area. Full extraction phase producing 200 t/h is serving 16 drawpoints, the maximum
reaches extraction rates on the order of 0.7 t/m2-d (as output will be 12.5 t/h per drawpoint (225 t/d per drawpoint
mentioned earlier) so, mean extraction rate would be ). This value could decrease when considering all those
close to 0.57 t/m2-d. aspects formerly mentioned.
Case B: if conventional LHD system could be improved to Returning to analysis of Figure 1, technological output
achieve full extraction rates on the order of 1.45 t/m2-d, needed for each case are:
as in the case of Table 2, mean extraction rate should - Case A: Output slightly lower than 10.5 t/h per drawpoint,
increase to 0.80 t/m2-d, for which it will be required an a value that is consistent with the one analyzed.
area ratio close to n=1.55. - Case B: Output of 22.5 t/h per drawpoint.
Case C: In an hypothetical system able to reach a full - Case C: Output close to 45 t/h per drawpoint, that is, 4
extraction rate on the order of 3 t/m2-d, which accordingly times the conventional output.
to earlier analysis is not reachable with conventional LHD
system, mean extraction rate could raise to 1.0 t/m2-d, Considering the maximum technological output
with an area ratio higher than n=3.25. associated to materials handling and a hypothetical
situation in which rate of propagation is twice the limit set on
3 CTD ANALYSIS Figure 1, give us Figure 3:

In practice, in mines it is common to observe mean

extraction rate lower than those presented in Case A (Table
1) mainly due to:
The influence of propagation rate, which is the factor that
controls the process, as shown in Figure 2. In fact,
propagation rate average at first 30% of extraction could
in practice be lower to 0.40 t/m2-d for primary material,
being even closer to 0.30 t/m2-d or smaller in some
cases.

Figure 3: Relationship between mean extraction rate and

full extraction rate for Tp=0.80 t/m2-d

In case A, attainable mean extraction rate with

conventional technology is at most on the order of 0.7
t/m2-d, which is equal to full extraction rate that this
technology can reach. This happens despite "ground" can
delivers more than that.
On the other hand, if an improvement of material handling
Figure 2: Mean extraction rate curves for different system (Case B) were possible in order to increase 105%
propagation rate. the maximum output of Case A, improved technology
Note: It is assumed there is no technological limit could reach mean extraction rates on the order of 1.15
associated to material handling or another operational t/m2-d.
factor. Notice that in Case B mean extraction rate increase is
only near to 65%, that is far from being proportional to the
effort required to improve conventional technology.
Once restrictions due to caving propagation are over, full In Case C, a new technology as Continuous Mining or
extraction rate is mainly controlled by productivity of Macrozanjas or other is considered, attainable mean
material handling system (Secondary axis in Figure 1), extraction rate is close 1.63 t/m2-d, that is, 2.3 times
however, many factors are also involved in final full higher than obtained with current technology.
extraction rate as, among others: In Case C, it is clear that conventional LHD technology
- Secondary size reduction done in drawpoints and/or in (even the improved one) could hardly attain the required
ore passes. rates.
- Grizzly and ore pass dimensions.
- Productivity of size reduction equipment (pick hammers In an hypothetical exercise where propagation rate is
or crushers). completely unrestricted (Figure 4), the new propagation rate
- Productivity of main transport. will be fixed by production capacity of material handling
- Operational interference (undercut and new system and will be equal to mean and full extraction rate. It
area adding). is clear in this case that the grater the material handling
- Availability and preventive maintenance and repairing of system capacity the greater the advantage in mining
equipment and productive areas. process.

472 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Material handling technology for conventional and future
caving method.
Capacity for adding new area.
Production and development management.

Finally, present work has introduced a different approach

to innovation management in mining industry by means of
relatively simple analysis driven by business effectiveness
indexes, to focus the efforts of research and development
on those aspects that actually governing the mining
business behavior, instead of impulse partial improvements
increasing productivity of current technology, that only tends
to give us marginal results in mining process output.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are grateful to all their colleagues of IM2 that

Figure 4: Extraction rate by % extraction of varies helped them during the development of this work. Also, the
technologic scenarios authors want to acknowledge the permission given by
Tech1: Conventional technology with propagation limit Codelco Chile to publish this technical paper.
Tech2: Conventional technology without propagation limit
Tech3: Conventional technology improved without propagation limit REFERENCES
Tech4: Alternative technology without propagation limit
A. Karzulovic & Asoc., 1998. Evaluacin geotcnica
mtodos de socavacin previa y avanzada, Divisin El
Another interesting element to analyze is the behavior Teniente, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
of area ratio "n" that can be a management tool, which Bartlett, P. and Croll, A., 2000. Cave mining at Premier
allows the owner to choose the better system capacity Diamond Mine, in Proceedings MassMin 2000, pp 227-
compatible with operational complexity. The greater the n 234.
factor the greater the operation complexity. Also, as can Diaz, G. and Tobar, P., 2000. Panel Caving experiences
be seen in Figure 2, mean extraction rate increments due and Macrotrench- an alternative exploitation method at
to n increments are lower than mean extraction rate the El Teniente Mine, in Proceedings MassMin 2000, pp
increment due to jump to a different curve corresponding 235-248.
to a greater rate of propagation. One can guess that a IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
borderline value for area ratio should be between n=3 2001. Estudio sistemas traspaso de mineral, Divisin El
and n=4. Teniente, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
On the other hand, an increase of the mean extraction IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
rate implies necessarily that production area exhausts 2001. Tcnicas de manejo de materiales en el nivel de
faster. Hence, new area adding capacity could become a produccin, Divisin Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal
technological restriction of mean extraction rate. Report.
IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
4 CONCLUSION 2003. Diseo conceptual para Minera Continua, Divisin
Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
The main conclusion of this analysis is the relevance of IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
borderline that caving propagation process imposes to rates 2003. Estudio de metodologa de acondicionamiento de
of extraction. macizo rocoso para hundimiento, Divisin Andina,
Considering that mean extraction rate is the one Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
effectively linked with profitability of business; one observes IM2 Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A.,
that it makes little sense to have a technology capable to 2003. Estudio de minera alternativa en Tercer Panel,
reach high full extraction rates after propagation phase, if for Divisin Andina, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
being able to use it, a high area ratio is required, even Maass, S, 2003. Anlisis de competitividad de mtodos
though that mean extraction rate will not have a proportional de explotacin de minas mediante indicadores
increase. tecnolgicos, 118 p. Final Thesis to obtain Degree in
In fact, it was seen in the hypothetical situation when Mining Engineer, Universidad de Chile.
restrictions imposed by caving propagation were Metlica Consultores S.A., 2001. Ingeniera bsica del
eliminated, current material handling system does not take sector Inca Extensin Oeste, Divisin Salvador, Codelco
advantage from that condition and consequently it Chile. Internal Report.
becomes the critical technology that determines the NCL Ingeniera y Construccin S.A., 1998. Desarrollo
productivity of the whole system. With current technology, conceptual mtodo de explotacin Macrozanjas, Divisin
the expectation for increasing the productivity of the El Teniente, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
method is relatively limited, because it will be blocked at Rojas, D., Molina, R., Bonani, A. and Constanzo, H.,
currently levels, not exceeding 0.7 to 1.0 t/m2-d. If new 2000. The pre-undercut caving method at the El Teniente
technology could be able to get 2.0 t/m2-d (like Mine, in Proceedings MassMin 2000, pp 261-266.
Macrozanjas) or 3.0 t/m2-d (like Continuous Mining V.E Ingeniera Ltda., 1999. Informe de ingeniera
concept) as a full rate of extraction, expected profit would conceptual proyecto Extensin Inca Oeste, Divisin
be commanded by the ability to raise the rate of extraction Salvador, Codelco Chile. Internal Report.
during caving propagation phase. Waissbluth, M, 2000. Gestin de la innovacin
Future analysis will focus in finding new technological tecnolgica. Ctedra de Gestin y Economa Minera,
elements not included in this work, as well as determining Depto. Ing. Minas, U. De Chile. Notes.
the controlling factors of each of mentioned technological
borderlines as:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 473

 Controlled draw in block/panel caving
Francisco Raa, Mauricio Telias, Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia S.A., IM2
Mario Vicua, Superintendencia Planificacin, El Salvador Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
One of common paradigms in Block/Panel Caving set uniform draw as a rule to delay dilution entry, this is based on a
simplified description of the problem, that assumes ore-waste interface is an horizontal surface and that ore value
distribution is uniform.
This work presents, through theoretical analysis and simulation exercises applied to actual cases, that it is possible to
set non-uniform extraction schedules not only delaying dilution, but getting high value ore earlier.
The effect is achieved using a Dynamic Gravity Flow Simulator (DGFS), which is able to replicate any sequence of
extraction and allows knowing the broken ore configuration at any time. By using DGFS and an special algorithm of
optimization, developed at IM2, it is possible to get a significative improvement of global benefit using different
sequences of draw, each one adapted to each ore body and mining layout.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 DYNAMIC GRAVITY FLOW SIMULATOR

The goal of modeling gravitational flow on granular The model proposed for representing gravitational flow is
materials have been pursued long before mining industry very simple and based on mathematical modeling studies.
implemented block or panel caving as a mining method. It works as follows: the deposit is represented by
However, its massive use has contributed heavily to the preferably a small cubic block model (5x5x5 meters). Every
development of important studies on the matter. block takes as its main variable the density (proportional to
The most relevant development is the one achieved by the tonnage of ore material) and as a secondary variable the
D.H. Laubscher, who generate a mixed grades predictive ore grade inside the block. There are countless secondary
model based on the behavior of interactive flow, known as variables, as geomechanic or geologic data, but only
Volumetric Model. economical significant variables were used for this study.
Additionally to the studies about gravitational flow, arise
new alternative solutions for solving the problem of
premature dilution. Nowadays, uniform draw is considered
as the best alternative; however, it could be far from the best
choice.
Considering uniform draw as the best solution is a
simplification because it considers that ore-waste interface
is an horizontal surface and that all the ore has the same
value.
Nevertheless, experience shows that deposits are not
homogeneous and the ore body limit is just an economic
consideration.
This work introduces two essential planning tools.
First of all, it is considered a dynamic model for
gravitational flow problem, where every action in the present
causes an effect in the future; based on that, it was
developed a gravitational flow simulator which can
represents the deposit configuration, in every stage of
drawing.

WASTE

ORE

Figure 1: Simplification of the problem.

Secondly, it proposes an algorithm that finds a sequence

of extraction, which maximizes the global profit by Figure 2: When a block diminishes its density, the upper
considering each block with a different value. blocks contribute with material.

474 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Drawpoints are modeled as blocks with capacity to get
empty, that means to became blocks with density zero.
Process get started when drawpoint got empty and then
refilled with upper blocks material. The contribution of every
block is previously defined and becomes a parameter that
has to be calibrated.
Blocks that contribute to refill the drawpoint diminish their
density, so they have to be filled by their respective upper
blocks, repeating the process up to the upper level,
generally, surface.
During the filling process of blocks, there is a mix of
secondary variables, in the case ore grade. Resultant grade
is calculated as a weighed average, in this manner, every
time that a drawpoint is draw it is possible to determine its
exact secondary variables value (grade).
The model can be used for replicate the history of
extraction, determining for each drawpoint the grade
obtained after each draw.

3 DGFS APLICATION Figure 4: Result of replicating the real sequence in Inca

Central, with the Volumetric Model.
DGFS was tested with real data from Salvador copper
mine of Codelco Chile Corporation. There were made tests
in two different sectors, Inca Central and Inca Norte, both of
them mined with Panel Caving method.

Figure 5: Result of replicating the real sequence in Inca

Norte, with the Volumetric Model.

The explanation for these results is basically that the

Volumetric Model is only applicable when a quasi-uniform
exploitation has been performed. In actual case, there are
drawpoints that are early closed and others with over
exploitation. In the last case, the most probable is that
overexploitation is not only vertical but presents a horizontal
Figure 3: Layout of the drawpoints in the analyzed sectors. movement that this model is unable to represent.

DGFS Validation
The background information was a block model, which The solution for obtaining satisfactory results implies
provides density and grade of copper up to surface. Also, considering a dynamic model. The results obtained doing
there was available the drawpoints extraction history and the same test using DGFS are very promising, getting less
grade sampling record of both Inca Central and Inca Norte than 5% of total error on ore recovery.
sector which have been already exploited. In this case the model adapts itself to the extraction
Having this data it was possible to replicate the history and it considers the actual draw in every drawpoint
exploitation step by step, as it was actually achieved, as it is mixing the upper material grade following the actual
frequent, in a different way than scheduled. exploitation characteristics.
Volumetric Model Validation
As a reference, the results obtained by replicating the 4 OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
actual exploitation using the Volumetric Model were
compared. The results obtained were not as satisfactory as Using DGFS it is possible to know the deposit
it was supposed to be, getting more than 20% error in ore configuration in terms of secondary variables value in every
recovery estimation. In fact, actual ore extraction was more moment. In practice, we can control every drawpoint status,
than 20% of ore predicted by Volumetric Model when it is determining the copper grade value (or another variable) in
applied to actual sequence of extraction. the next extraction and also have an effect on the sequence

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 475

 reasoning above and the non-linearity of the problem makes
necessary the use of heuristics.
The heuristics based algorithm generates a list of
drawpoints with the amount of material to be extracted from
each one of them. It works as follows: at every moment
(everyday or every shift) it is determined the expected
benefit each every drawpoint. This expected benefit is an
average of the benefit generated by each one of the upper
column blocks, weighed by the probability of been extracted
through that drawpoint.
The geometry of the upper column and the weighing of
every block are parameters to be determined for each
deposit in particular. In practice, it can be assumed that the
material moves around successive ellipses and the
probability of being extracted decreases exponentially with
the distance from the drawpoint.
The advantage of this heuristics is that not only
determines the drawpoints with a better benefit but also the
Figure 6: Result of replicating the real sequence in Inca extraction combinations that contributes to generate a
Central, with the DGFS. greater global benefit, bringing forward the extraction of
higher grade ore and delaying dilution.

5 ALGORITHM CONCEPTUAL ANAYSIS

The optimization algorithm above introduced reverts the

paradigm of uniform draw as the best choice for extraction.
This, because such process only happens under special
conditions (homogeneous deposit and constant height of
mineralization).

WASTE
WASTE
WASTE

ORE
ORE ORE
Figure 7: Result of replicating the real sequence in Inca
Norte, with the DGFS.

Figure 9: Different cases of geometries in ore bodies.

To demonstrate this, it was performed a theoretical study

about draw behavior considering different geometries of ore
distribution and a typical layout of drawpoints.
In each case, it was compared an uniform draw against a
draw proposed by the algorithm.

Figure 8: Every block makes a contribution to the expected Figure 10: Drawpoints layout
benefit of drawpoint. In this way, dilution can be detected in
advance. The comparison was done between the ore recovered
before dilution percentage of every drawpoint were above 50%

of extraction, which is the most important. Changes in Case A: Horizontal Geometry

sequence may means bringing forward the closing of points This is a typical deposit geometry. Despite the intuitive
or extending overexploitation. The complexity of the proposing of a uniform extraction sequence as the best

476 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

solution, results of the algorithm, shows a different Case C: Intermediate Waste
sequence. This is not a very common geometry in massive deposits.
Algorithm proposed result is a consequence of the fact Nevertheless, it is possible to find it in some cases, for
that central drawpoints could have a greater interaction than example, when outstanding material from older mined
lateral drawpoints. Therefore, it is better draw them at a sectors on upper levels, or ore bodies having high grade in
lower rate in order to control premature dilution. lower and upper levels separated by a low grade zone.
It is important to analyze the algorithm behavior under
these circumstances. As we can see, the best draw strategy
is not easily determined. Intuitively uniform draw should
have a good performance, although ore recovering would
be notably influenced by grade difference among the layers.

Figure 11: Average percentage of activity in the drawpoint

during the mining stage. Case A

Quantitative result shows that global recovering for

uniform draw is 85%, whereas, for controlled draw,
recovering is 91%.

Case B: Inclined Geometry

In this case, conventional strategy was to have a uniform
draw in a first stage, followed by a second stage only
extracting from higher column drawpoints (right).
Algorithm proposes a solution where, at the beginning
only higher columns are extracted (drawpoints located to
the right) and then following stage, continue with an Figure 13: Average percentage of activity in the drawpoint
extraction like case A. during the mining stage. Case C
Briefly, the algorithm suggests a sequence of extraction
where the ore-waste interface is moved up to an horizontal The result proposed by the algorithm is very interesting.
status, where it applies the solution already known. At the beginning supposes the extraction like an horizontal
geometry deposit but when intermediate waste material
gets the drawpoints, it only extracts from some of them.
The reasoning is absolutely understandable, it assumes
that dilution is unavoidable but extraction from less
drawpoints implies a lower extraction of the waste material
and a faster flow from the upper high grade ore.
In few words, once the intermediate waste gets the
drawpoints and high grade ore is detected over itself, the
most advisable is a sequence that privileges the entrance of
the diluting material (in this case corresponding to high
grade ore). The roles get inverted and the sequence get
adapted to the change.
There is a random choice of the points that have to be
overexploited, because there is not big differences among
them. The uniform draw got a global recovering of 55% and
controlled draw, 72%.
In all cases above, the aim is to prove that despite that a
uniform draw gives good results, it is always possible to
have a better draw strategy.
Although these are fictitious examples, reality is just the
combination, in different proportions of those exposed
cases.
Figure 12: Average percentage of activity in the drawpoint
during the mining stage. Case B 6 SCHEDULING ALGORITHM APLICATION

It may seem that both extraction sequences are very In order to verify the true potential of scheduling proposed
alike, however, the order, in these cases, do alter the result, algorithm, it was applied on mine sectors presented before
delaying dilution much more when draw is controlled. (Salvador mine).
The global recovering result for uniform draw is 77% The same basic parameters applied in actual mining were
whereas controlled draw result is 89%. considered:

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 477

 Fixed tonnage for every year of exploitation. We have to be kept in mind that the given values
Opening of new areas identical to the reference case. correspond to benefits on ideal cases, where it has not been
Controlled rate of extraction. taken into account operational problems of the mining
method. So, they can be considered as the "ceiling" value.
Results obtained show that using the algorithm as However, the benefits margin is quite great, to recommend
sequence generator it would have been possible increase the use of this scheduling method in future plans.
near 20% of ore recovery compared with actual results.
The greater recovery obtained is result of bringing 7 CONCLUSIONS
forward the extraction of high grade ore, which, in particular
for these sectors, correspond to outstanding high grade Mining paradigm of uniform draw as "the best solution for
material in upper levels, that were not mined before. delaying dilution" is based on a simplification of the actual
problem.
Depending on the deposit, there are non uniform
strategies allowing greater ore recovery while delaying the
dilution entry.
DGFS, developed by IM2, provides the current status of
drawpoints in every moment of exploitation and it can
represents, according to obtained results, the behavior of
the gravitational flow.
As DGFS can be also a good simulator of ore draw in
Block/Panel Caving mines, optimization algorithm provides
a solution for scheduling depletion in a realistic way.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Codelco Chile Division Salvador that

supported all the steps of this research and provided data
from its exploitation to perform the validation.

REFERENCES

Alfaro, M, 2000. Modelamiento Computacional Predictivo

Figure 14: Result of applying the algorithm in Inca Central. del Flujo Gravitacional, Proyecto FONDEF 1037,
Santiago de Chile.
Gonzlez, G, 1999, Estudio del Comportamiento de un
Material Granular Mediante Modelos Computacionales.
Memoria Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile.
Goles, E y Pea, S, 1996, Modelamiento y Simulacin del
Flujo Gravitacional, Centro de Investigacin Minero y
Metalrgica (CIMM), Santiago de Chile.
Imenitov, V, Abramov, V and Gorbunov, V, 1969,
Probability Distribution for a Stochastic Model of the
Motion of Ore During Discharge, Moscow Mining Institute.
Yongjia, W, and Xinguo, L, 1981, Numerical Simulation of
Ore Drawing, Northeast Institute of Tecnology.

Figure 15: Result of applying the algorithm in Inca Norte.

478 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 A draw control system for
scheduling production in block caving
David Rahal, Research Scholar, Martin Smith, Senior Lecturer, JKMRC, University Of Queensland

Abstract
Block caving is an underground mining method that is suitable for low grade mineral deposits. One of the biggest factors
in determining the success of a block caving operation is the implementation of a rigorous draw control system.
This paper presents a scheduling system that allows the development of long term, tactical draw plans. The system is
based on the integration of a mixed integer linear programming scheduler (MILP) with a dynamic resource database. The
draw schedules generated are optimised for all production periods simultaneously. This life-of-mine optimisation offers the
advantage of having the production in each period being optimal with respect to all other periods. Once this tactical plan
has been implemented, actual production is used to update the panel contents before subsequent scheduling cycles.
The results presented in this paper show that the MILP model can be used for mine planning and tactical scheduling in
block caving mines.

1 INTRODUCTION decisions such as annual production rates, cave footprint,

progression of the undercut and production system
The JKMRC has developed the Integrated Draw Control capacities have already been determined. Still, as will be
System (IDCS) to provide the basis for optimal draw demonstrated, IDCS provides the means to evaluate the
practice and to minimize the impact of disruptions in the feasibility of strategic objectives and to compare the relative
production cycle. value of alternative mine plans.
Draw control, as referred to herein, relates to the The original concept for IDCS was derived from a draw
sequencing, scheduling and rates of draw from block and control scheduling system initially developed by De Beers
panel cave drawpoints. While the basic requirements of (Guest et. al, 2000) as shown in Figure 1. In its current
good cave management are well understood, they have version, IDCS includes several components: an Access
been difficult to implement. IDCS is designed to schedule database for the various production scenarios and a Mixed
production from drawpoints as close as possible to the Integer Linear Programming-based (MILP) draw
desired production targets while satisfying operational and optimisation module. IDCS also includes the option of cave
geotechnical constraints. Over the life of the panel, the draw simulation and material mixing as a component of draw
schedule provided by IDCS will maintain a smooth draw of optimisation. As envisaged in Figure 1, a fully integrated
the ore in order to minimise early dilution entry and thereby system would also include production/vehicle tracking and
maximise panel recovery. IDCS does not chase NPV at the short-term scheduling down to the level of a shift using the
expense of operational or geotechnical restrictions. In fact, monthly draw target coming from the MILP. Integration of
production targets exceeding operational or geotechnical short and long term draw control within the framework of
limits are not allowed. IDCS provides a rational approach to IDCS is planned for future releases.
cave management consistent with current draw control
practice.
Cave scheduling can be broken into two major components,
short-term and a long-term. Short-term scheduling is aimed at
guiding production towards the monthly plan. If variations
between the planned targets and the actual draw are
recorded, the daily scheduling system adjusts subsequent
calls so that the monthly plan is not compromised. Thus, short-
term scheduling consists of an iterative process of monitoring
draw, comparing to plan and correcting if needed. This is the
full extent of draw control at most operations and is insufficient
for guiding life-of-mine production.
Long-term (monthly to annual) scheduling aims at
meeting life-of-mine objectives such as retaining the
integrity of the cave while maximizing recovery or cash flow.
Production targets set by long-term draw scheduling should
dictate short-term and operational planning requirements.
The solution provided by IDCS includes the tonnage to be
drawn from each drawpoint by scheduling period, as well as Figure 1: De Beers scheduling system schematic (after
the deviation from the ideal production target. The objective Guest et. al, 2000).
of optimisation in IDCS is to find a sequence of solutions as
close to the ideal geotechnical draw profile and overall 2 DRAW OPTIMISATION
production requirements as possible. Therefore, IDCS is
primarily designed to be implemented as a tactical rather Draw optimisation is implemented in IDCS as an MILP. An
than a strategic mine planning system, i.e., basic strategic MILP is a Linear Program having binary variables controlling

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 479

the availability of drawpoints for production in a given data using SQL queries via ODBC connections.
scheduling period. It consists of linear equations describing The scheduling system is based on the concept of draw
constraints on production and an objective function that scenarios containing panel data for different operating
seeks to minimize the sum of the period deviations (the sum conditions. Creating a draw scenario consists of the
of the penalty weighted block deviations from ideal draw), following steps:
the deviation from the production targets and from external Importation of block names, coordinates, tonnage data,
sources such as dumps. The critical draw control and column heights.
constraints regulating long-term production in the IDCS are: Enter period definition (length in months and days, target
Relative draw rate between adjacent drawpoints Ensure production, economic discount factors), maturity rule
interactive draw by limiting the draw rate between definition, and rock type definition.
adjacent drawpoints. Interactive draw aims to pull Create the nodes and links in the materials handling
neighbouring drawpoints simultaneously to promote equal system (tunnels, orepasses, haulages, etc.) An example
draw down over the entire footprint. Controlling draw rates of this is shown in Figure 2 where a crusher is being
between adjacent drawpoints avoids early waste ingress connected to the shaft.
by maintaining a smooth ore/waste interface. Define the ideal draw profile as a series of relative
Minimum draw rate - Eliminate point loading by avoiding depletion lines. The ideal chevron profile shown in Figure
ore recompaction in the drawpoints. 3 was drawn in one of the three possible modes available
Maximum draw rate (Maturity Rules) Limit the maximum to the user.
draw rate to ensure that the cave advance rate does not Apply a weighted distance algorithm to calculate the
exceed the undercut rate. Also, the draw rate is chosen so relative depletion levels for each block
that the secondary fragmentation process within the cave Emulate ideal production by depleting the panel. The
(induced by mechanical interaction of the caved material) depletion algorithm determines the levels of ideal
reduces secondary breakage by blasting. depletion for each block in each period based on the
Waste limit Waste content in the plant feed cannot production targets specified in the period definition. This
exceed a percentage during a given period. This information is used with the remainder of the data to
constraint is imposed because processing plant efficiency generate the MILP formulation.
drops dramatically with increasing waste percentage. The model is then solved using the CPLEX MILP solver
Materials handling and Capacity constraints production and the optimum draw schedule is output for review.
cannot exceed the capacity of the materials handling
system including drawpoints, tunnels, orepasses, etc. An example of the results that can be obtained using this
through to stockpiles and other accumulation areas. system are presented below for the BA5 panel of the De
Capacities can also be applied to the processing plant Beers Cullinan Diamond Mine.
both in terms of tonnages by material category and as
allowable grade ranges.

The equations defining the objective function and

constraints are composed of variables for the sequencing of
drawpoints, drawpoint production, upper and lower bounds
on drawpoint production, and the flow of various material
grades and classes through the materials handling system.
The constraints define the values that these variables can
take in any feasible solution while the objective function
drives the values these variables take towards optimality.
The objective function takes the form of a Goal Program
in which there is a balance between multiple, and possibly
competing, objectives. In IDCS there is a balance between
maintenance of an idealized ore/waste interface or Ideal
Profile and obtaining the desired production targets. As
described in the following section, this Ideal Profile is
defined as a set of contours in the IDCS GUI that describes
the desired draw down of the ore across the panel as a
depletion surface. The premise is that deviation from this
Ideal Profile will result in premature waste entry and stress
concentration resulting in loss of reserves and drawpoints. Figure 2: Links in the materials handling system (BA5
Constraints in IDCS relate the desired depletion level into panel).
the tonnage of production required from a drawpoint in a
given period that will maintain an even draw down as
defined by the Ideal Profile. Deviation from this ideal
drawpoint production is represented by a deviation variable 4 CASE STUDY
in the objective function. Other deviation variables represent
the deviation of total production from user specified The BA5 cave, opened in 1990, has served as a major
production targets. testing ground for block caving. It has a lift height of 130 m
with ore drawn on the 630 m production level using both
3 DRAW CONTROL INTERFACE electric and diesel LHDs. The average monthly production
was on the order of 150,000 tons for the months between
The interface to the draw scheduling system is a C++ GUI January 1996 and April 2000. The panel layout is an offset
that interfaces with ILOG CPLEX (or AMPL) and Microsoft herringbone as shown in Figure 4.
Access. Access was selected as the production database Each production drift on the 630 level is bisected by
because it is a portable database that is available on most barricades and ventilation barriers which separates the
mine sites. However, links between the GUI and other panel into North and South ventilation districts. These
database software can be forged because the GUI extracts barricades restrict LHD movement such that each end of

480 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 the drift is treated as a separate tunnel for production
scheduling.
A schematic of the BA5 materials handling system can be
seen above in Figure 5. Rock is loaded at each drawpoint
and transported to a nearby orepass by LHD. The material
then gravity flows to the haulage level where it is transported
by train to underground crushers. The crusher product is
subsequently transferred by conveyor to the production
shaft for hoisting to the surface.
This materials handling system (also shown in plan view
in Figure 2), along with the BA5 data, was used to
demonstrate how the system can be used in mine planning
and for evaluating the feasibility of production plans. Its use
as a tactical planning tool for the recovery of a poorly
developed panel has been discussed in Rahal et al, 2003.
An important concern in planning an operation is the
effect draw strategy has on total production. This effect is
Figure 3: Ideal depletion profile definition.
explored by considering the results of the following four
scenarios:
Control, Baseline draw strategy in which all production
control constraints are active.
Maturity, Illustrates how draw maturity rules limit
production when no relative draw rate (RDR) constraints
are applied.
Reversed, Highlights how the system can be used to
determine effect that direction of advance has on
production.
Relative, Tightens the limit on the allowable RDR between
adjacent blocks.

The basic schedule definition for the trials and the

important differences between each trial and the Control
scenario are presented in Tables 1 and 2. It can be seen that
each schedule contains 35 periods with an "ideal"
production target of 150,000 tons.

Table 1: Schedule summary for all trials.

Schedule Length 35 periods

Schedule Duration 186 months (15.5 y)
Days Per Month 20
"Ideal" Production Target 150,000 tons/month
Maturity Rules 3 Levels
Rock Density 2.62 tons/m3
Mean Virgin Reserve
Per Block 76,340 tons
Mean Reserve Of Super 214,446 tons
Blocks (15 largest of 307 blocks)

Table 2: Scenario constraint parameters.

Figure 4: BA5 production level.
Profile Lower RDR Upper RDR
Direction

Control Normal a 0.25 4.0

Maturity Normal a * *
Relative Normal a 0.40 2.5
Reversed Reversed b 0.25 4.0

a Chevron advance from North-West to South-East.

b Chevron advance from South-East to North-West.
* Constraint dropped from optimisation.

A breakdown of the number of months in each period can

be seen in Figure 6. Table 1 also makes reference to a set
of "super blocks" which contain roughly three times the
average virgin reserve. This abnormally high reserve
Figure 5: Materials handling system schematic. causes these fifteen blocks to deplete more slowly than the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 481

remainder of the blocks in the panel. It will be shown how deviation is plotted as the sum of squared error (SSE). The
this slower depletion rate interacts with the RDR constraints deviation has been expressed as SSE because the total
to have a significant effect on panel production. positive and negative deviations for all blocks in the panel
Figure 7 shows the shape of the maturity rules production for each period must be represented. The deviation values
profile. Note that the ratio between the minimum (101 are squared to prevent positive and negative values from
mm/day) and maximum (404 mm/day) production rates is cancelling each other out.
4.0 (and conversely 0.25). The allowable production Figure 10 is rescaled in Figure 11 to show the SSE for the
difference between adjacent drawpoints, the lower and Control, Maturity, and Reversed trials.
upper relative draw rate ratios (0.25 and 4.0 respectively), A comparison of the Control and Maturity schedules
were set to reflect this characteristic of the maturity rules. shows that the maturity rules are a major factor limiting total
production. The cumulative production profiles for both are
similar.
However, Figure 11 shows that the two have different
profiles with time. Both trials deviate from the ideal during
production ramp up. The difference occurs in Period 10
when both achieve their ideal production target. The
Maturity trial assumes the ideal panel shape (zero deviation)
while the Control trial fails to achieve the target profile until
Period 26.
The difference between the two occurs because of the
presence of a number of "super blocks" in the panel. These
blocks each contain nearly three times the average block
reserve (Table 1) and as a result they are depleted at a
slower rate than the remainder of the panel (e.g. removing
one thousand tons from a super block depletes it only one
third as much as removing a similar amount from an
average block). Because these blocks deplete more slowly,
they restrict, and are restricted by, their relative draw rate
limit with adjacent blocks. This effect is illustrated in Figure
12 where the percentage of the total deviation generated by
Figure 6: Duration of each period in months. these fifteen blocks has been plotted.
A comparison of the Control (Figures 3 and 14) and
Reversed (Figures 13 and 15) trials show the following:
Super blocks are major contributors to the total deviation
in both trials after Period 10,
The super blocks contribute on the order of fifty percent of
the total SSE until they are fully depleted,
The RDR constraints interact with the super blocks to limit
production across the panel, and
The interaction between the RDR and panel production is
related to the larger footprint and slower depletion rates of
the super blocks.

The first three trials illustrated the effect that the RDR
constraints have on the cave profile when combined with
production from super blocks. What remains to be shown is
whether or not the RDR achieves its goal of maintaining a
smooth profile throughout the panel life.
A comparison of the Control and Relative trials shows that
the SSE deviation reflects a smooth profile in which the
super blocks and their neighbours lag behind the desired
depletion levels. Figures 14, 16, 17 and 18 show the amount
of material remaining in each block as a percentage of the
original content. Figures 14 and 16 are the panel profiles for
Figure 7: Three level maturity rule profile. Period 7 of the Control and RDR trials, respectively. Figures
17 and 18 show the same information for Period 20. In both
The total production achieved in each scenario compared pairs of figures it can be seen that distortions of the panel
to the "ideal" production target can be seen in Figures 8 and profile are tied directly to the location of the super blocks
9. Figure 8 shows that all of the scenarios initially lag behind (larger areas). However, the reminder of the panel maintains
the ideal production target. The Control, Maturity, and the ideal chevron profile.
Reversed schedules require a production ramp up of ten It can be seen that tightening the allowable lower and
periods (12 months) before achieving the ideal production upper RDR limits from 0.25 and 4.0 to 0.4 and 2.5 has
target for the remainder of the panel life. This delay in lowered production and increased the profile deviation in
achieving full production is not unexpected since the the Relative trial (Figures 8 and 9). The primary cause of
maturity rules restrict total production until the blocks are this reduced production is the delayed maturity of the
greater than 6.5% depleted. In contrast, the Relative super blocks. It can be seen in Table 3 that most of the
schedule only achieves the cumulative production target super blocks reached maturity (404 mm/day) one period
towards the end of the schedule, nearly 114 months later later in the Relative trail. The most dramatic of these
than the other trials. increases (Blocks 5, 6, and 7) had the greatest effect on
The deviation from the ideal panel profile (shape) for all total production because their peak production, along with
four trials can be seen in Figures 10 and 11 where the that of their neighbours, was delayed for between 21 and

482 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 8: Total cumulative production, Periods 1 to 10. Figure 11: Expanded section of Figure 10.

Figure 9: Total cumulative production, Periods 10 to 35. Figure 12: Contribution to total SSE of the fifteen super
blocks (Control Period 31, Maturity Period 11 and Maturity
Period 12, are outliers. They are a large portion of an
insignificant deviation from ideal targets).

Figure 10: Deviation from ideal plan as expressed by sum

of squared differences.
Figure 13: Design of reversed panel profile.
96 months (Period 4 to Period 13 and Period 5 to Period
27).
relative draw rate constraints have a significant impact on
5 CONCLUSIONS production rates. The draw maturity rules tend to limit
production early in the life of the panel. Once sufficient
The four scheduling trials presented in this case study drawpoints have matured, the ideal panel profile can be
have shown that both the draw maturity rules and the maintained.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 483

 Table 3: The delay in super block maturity caused by
tightening RDR limits.

Super Block Control Relative

1 PERIOD04 PERIOD05
2 PERIOD04 PERIOD04
3 PERIOD04 PERIOD05
4 PERIOD04 PERIOD06
5 PERIOD04 PERIOD13
6 PERIOD05 PERIOD27
7 PERIOD05 PERIOD22
8 PERIOD05 PERIOD10
9 PERIOD06 PERIOD08
10 PERIOD05 PERIOD06
11 PERIOD12 PERIOD13
12 PERIOD12 PERIOD12
13 PERIOD13 PERIOD13
Figure 14: Panel profile, Control, Period 7. 14 PERIOD17 PERIOD16
15 PERIOD31 PERIOD31

Figure 15: Panel profile, Reversed, Period 7.

Figure 17: Panel profile, Control, Period 20.

Figure 16: Panel profile, RDR, Period 7.

Figure 18: Panel profile, RDR, Period 20.
The effect of the RDR constraints is more complex. When ore
blocks are uniform in tonnage and area, RDR limits that are from their neighbours. This lower production level is
proportional to the initial and mature draw down rates (101 and 404 subsequently transferred across the panel because
mm/day versus 0.25 and 4.0 lower and upper bounds) will not adjacent blocks limit production from their adjacent blocks
have a significant effect on the panel profile. However, when large and so on. Tightening the allowed RDR exacerbates this
"super blocks" are present, production is restricted by the RDR. effect.
The lower production levels occur because the larger In planning production where the ore blocks have a wide
blocks take longer to mature and they restrict the production range of contained material and cross sectional areas, draw

484 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

control policy can mitigate the effect of non-uniform block Ongoing research includes development of an SLC
contents by relaxing the relationships between super blocks version of IDCS and a version that is integrated with cave
and their neighbours. This can be done in two ways, by simulation and mixing. The structure and function of the
ignoring the relationship during the optimisation (drop the SLC version is similar but optimisation seeks a draws front
relationship from the set of relationships) or by increasing across all sublevels that optimises either cash flow (in a
the allowable lower and upper limits on the RDR. Either of sequential optimisation across a series of planning periods)
these are suitable if it is accepted that super blocks or NPV (in a multi-period formulation). The version of IDCS
generally occur on the periphery of the panel and must that includes cave simulation also uses sequential
therefore lie outside of normal cave operations. optimisation as opposed to the multi-period formulation
The examples of draw control given herein demonstrate a described in this paper. It has the advantages of accounting
variety of applications for IDCS and the impact of for the non-linear relationship between draw and the state of
geotechnical constraints on production. Production targets the caved material and enables the optimisation process to
are commonly set based on the capacities of the materials account for vertical variability in material properties and both
handling system (LHDs) and the number of operational vertical and lateral mixing from period to period.
drawpoints, without sufficient consideration of draw
constraints based on sound draw control practice. Adhering ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to constraints such as drawpoint maturity and relative draw
rate limits between adjacent drawpoints will initially limit total Funding for this project was provided by the sponsors of
production, but the consequence of violation of these the International Caving Study (ICS II). The sponsoring
constraints has been shown in practice to lead to reduced companies are De Beers, Anglo American Technical
recovery at best and loss of the panel itself at worst. Services, Rio Tinto Technical Services, CODELCO Chile,
The case study has demonstrated the impact of the Sandvik Tamrock, LKAB, Newcrest Mining and WMC.
parameter values used in the RDR and maturity rules Special thanks are due to De Beers for the contribution of
constraints. While these constraints correspond to the BA5 panel data and to the JKMRC Draw Control Team
geotechnical requirements, their impact on production ramp including Alan Cocker and Kai Riihioja.
up demonstrates the sensitivity of production to these draw
control parameters. The MILP methodology provides the REFERENCES
means to find a balance between poor draw control and
overly constrained production. It also demonstrates the Guest, A.R., van Hout, G.J., von Johannides, A. and
need for continued research into flow and caving Scheepers, L.F., 2000. An Application of Linear
mechanics. Programming for Block Cave Draw Control. MassMin
The MILP optimisation technology incorporated into IDCS 2000, 461-468.
also provides the means to consistently quantify and Rahal, D., Smith, M.L., van Hout, G.J. and von
compare various design and production strategies. An Johannides, A., 2003. The Use Of Mixed Integer Linear
example is given of two different draw (or "Ideal") profiles Programming For Long-Term Scheduling In Block Caving
showing the potential advantages of a reversal of the Mines. Application of Computers and Operations
undercut and production direction. By creating alternative Research in the Minerals Industries, 123-132.
production or design scenarios, the life-of-panel production
and recovery results can be used to evaluate alternative
undercuts, rates of advance, panel footprints and production
level layouts.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 485

 Combining long term
scheduling and daily draw
control for block cave mines
Tony Diering, Principal Consultant, Gemcom Software International Inc.

Abstract
Daily draw control is an integral component of the cave management at an operating block cave mine. It requires the
routine gathering of actual production data such as tonnages and status per draw point as well as sampling information.
This information is required to be stored and processed as well as being made available for long term production
scheduling.
Some of the problems which have been encountered and overcome include the following: Allowances for time delays
in receiving daily actual data and the need to generate an order for the next day; the need to plan for the next month
before the current month is completed as well as the need for smooth data flow from one month to the next. Sole
reliance on Excel for such data manipulation is extremely error prone and risky.
This paper describes an effective methodology which has been established in the PC-BC and CMS programs. A key
component of this system is the effective manipulation of the large amounts of data generated on a daily basis. A
second important component is the assigning of responsibilities for the effective maintenance of this data in the long
term. The system is fully integrated into a SQL database for added data accessibility and security.
The transition between the daily draw order cycle and the keeping track with the long range plans can then be
established and reconciled. Benefits of the new methodology are discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION Nevertheless the operational and geomechanical

particularities of the mining method add several constraints
In principal, daily draw control in a block caving operation to the process of planning and scheduling the block cave. A
should be a simple process. An operator is required to set few relevant aspects of long term planning related to this
a tonnage target to be mined from each active draw point on paper are the following::
a daily (or shift) basis. Draw points which are lagging Overall cave shape
behind should have a higher tonnage order, while draw Controlled opening and development of draw points
points which are overdrawn should have a lower (or zero) Maximizing NPV to the extent possible subject to the
order. However, experience has shown that the full various geotechnical and other constraints
implementation of a daily draw order system is much more Generating monthly plans which can be fed to the daily
complex. draw control system
The objectives behind the draw control and draw order
process can be divided into two components, long term and Key functions of the daily draw control are:
short term. The long term objectives are to mine in such a Meeting the monthly target.
manner as to meet the long term mine plan, while the short Adapting the draw rapidly to compensate for localized
term objective is largely focused on dealing with over or under-draw situations.
geotechnical stability and with other practical operating Being responsive to safety considerations (For example:
considerations. wet muck draw points).
This paper presents the methodology and challenges Being responsive to geotechnical considerations such as
which were encountered during the development and over-stressed draw points.
implementation of a daily draw order system. The system is Being responsive to operational considerations such as
called CMS and resides within Gemcom Softwares PC-BC draw belling, tunnel capacities due to secondary blasting
system. CMS has been implemented and is operational at and maintaining even daily production.
the DOZ mine of PT Freeport Indonesia and is soon to be At a shift level, to enable dispatch of the LHDs to draw
commissioned at the De Beers Finsch mine in South Africa. points in an orderly manner and to best achieve the daily
The following overall aspects of the problem are draw order, with respect to both draw compliance and
discussed below: total tonnage produced.
The planning loop. Long term, daily and shift planning
Data collection and storage 2.1. From long term to daily draw order
The Catch up concept The key data required for daily draw orders from the long
Draw control. term plan are as follows:
Reporting Total tonnages for the month (separated into total,
Some lessons learned production, undercut and development tons)
Tonnage targets for each draw point for the month
2 LONG TERM, DAILY AND SHIFT TIME SCALES Maximum allowable draw rates per draw point per day
day which differs from the draw rate used in the long term
The objectives of long term plans for block caving are schedules and includes availability and utilization of the
similar in many respects to those for other mining methods. draw points

486 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The data required for routine generation of the daily draw
order can be broken into categories shown in Table .

Table 1: Data requirements for daily draw control

management.

Totals / Other By draw point

Setup Shift details Draw point areas
Priority info Report positions
Strategy "rules"
User status codes
Report format info
Occasional Min buckets/shift Best HOD
Ave. dpt availability Best HOD tons
Panel status
Monthly Total tons targets Target tons
Development tons Past tons
Production tons PRC limits
New draw points
Daily Target tons Order tons
Control dates Actual tons
Latest assays
Latest status
Dpt priorities
Special order dpts
Storage GEMS Profiles SQL workspace

Total tons mined per draw point to date In the first implementation of the CMS system at Freeport,
Draw point closure strategy which might be linked to a much of the information was stored in Excel sheets. These
NPV and/or a geomechanical sequence. had the advantage of allowing for easy data entry and
Total maximum tonnage per draw point (referred to as visualization, but obviously lacked the data security of a
Best HOD tons) SQL database. In a project with De Beers Finsch mine, the
CMS system was upgraded to utilize the GEMS database
Note that there are no direct NPV or grade targets sent (from Gemcom) running on the SQL Server platform.
from long term to daily. If the daily draw meets the monthly The current system is much more effective in producing
target, then the overall grade and NPV goals of the long daily orders as well as management of the transition from
term plan will be met. one period to another.
The above statement highlights one of the overall
strategies in setting up the CMS system. That is to clearly 4 CATCH UP PROCESS
identify and isolate the different responsibilities for the
overall process. We do not want daily operations personnel The overall strategy is that if the daily draw order can
trying to second guess the financial strategies in the long reasonably meet the monthly targets, that the monthly
term plan, or for the daily draw order to presume to know target, in turn, will drive the cave shape towards the long
how best to dispatch the LHDs to each draw point etc. term plan. Usually, this will not be achievable in a single

2.2. From daily draw order to shifts.

The key data required for each shift is as follows:
A list of active draw points
A tonnage target for each draw point. This is specified as
buckets
A tonnage tolerance for each draw point (called Extra
tons)
Overall draw point status (as available at the time the
order is generated)
deally, some indication as to the priority for the draw point

3 DATA COLLECTION AND STORAGE

In order to have an efficient system, we need ready

access to the appropriate information. In order for the
system to be robust, we need to be able to get by under a
number of conditions where we have insufficient, late or
erroneous data. There is little point in telling a draw control
operator that he cannot continue because of a lack of data,
when there is a deadline to generate an order. So, we have Figure 1: Example of progress with ten draw points
to work around these types of exception as best possible. illustrating the process of catch up.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 487

month, but may require several months, depending on the Then, a draw order can be assigned to each draw point,
extent of deviation from plan. starting with those draw points with the highest "points"
The process of steering the cave shape back to plan is rating. Further adjustments are required to ensure that the
called "Catch up" This is shown schematically in a 10 draw draw order can achieve the daily production target set by the
point example representing a cross section (Figure 1). In draw control officer.
general, the longer term constraints on minimum and This is described in more detail by Samosir, Brannon and
maximum draw point tonnages will limit how quickly draw Diering (2000).
shape can be restored.
Figure 1 illustrates how the initial irregular tonnage profile 6 REPORTING
is smoothed out as quickly as possible as permitted by the
maximum tonnage per period constraints. If the maximum If the right data is stored in an efficient database, then the
tonnage per draw point is reduced (say from 300 per period flexibility to generate useful production and management
to 250 per period), then it takes longer for the smoothing reports increases dramatically. The CMS system currently
effect to be completed. This is shown in Figure 2 below. generates the following reports on a daily basis:
Detailed draw order by draw point (an example is shown
in Table 1)
Summary of draw order with tunnel and draw point type
summaries (an example is shown in Table).
Comparison of Actual vs Order for previous day.
Compliance summary (Refer to the example in Table 2).
Summary of draw point by "condition" as follows:
- Overpull
- Underpull
- Hang up too long
- Over 100% drawn, but still active
- Other : For example, no monthly target set in LTP
- Inactive too long. (ie Draw point is active status, but tons
are not being taken from the draw point)
- Hang up or temporary closed for too long.
- Low grade warnings
Month to date summaries for Order and Actual tons and
draw point Status.
Month to date summaries for draw point assay samples.
(E.g. Cu and Au)
Detailed report by draw point for internal use by Cave
Figure 2: With reduced maximum tonnages, the speed at management department.
which catch can occur is reduced. Summary report for use by cave managememt
department.
Draw point closure analysis considering the following:
5 DRAW CONTROL - % draw (vs Best HOD tons)
- HOD for neighbours and this draw point
A methodology has been devised to define the daily - Grades, # low during last 30 days, latest and PC-BC
tonnage that is to be taken from each draw point, in order to slice file (reserve)
meet the monthly target. If an objective function can be - Current metal prices and shut-off grade
defined, then it is possible to use Linear Programming - Rock type
principals to derive a solution. Draw point sampling recommendation. Draw point may
A rating system has been set up for each draw point. be sampled for any of the following:
"Points" can be allocated to each draw point based on the - Tons since last sample
following: - Days since last sample
Extent of over- or under-draw relative to the monthly - Check up unusually high or low grade samples
target - Check up on unexpectedly large change in grade.
Number of days idle
The forecast grade of the draw point 7 SOME LESSONS LEARNED
Other factors such as whether the draw point is in
drawbell status 7.1. Draw point priority
Safety or other special operational requirements Determination of draw point priority is an interesting
challenge. There are various alternatives and each is likely
By using a points system, it is possible for each operation to have different appeal to different mines.
to assign relative degrees of importance to the above The draw point priority rating system in CMS tends to
components. Once the points have been allocated, we can assign priorities to draw points in the following order:
also assign the minimum and maximum tonnages allowable 1. Safety draw points. Usually wet muck draw point which
per draw point in a shift. The maximum tonnage is derived are required to be mined regularly to avoid moisture build
from the overall PRC (Production Rate Curve) for each draw up.
point. The minimum tons (if non-zero) is set as a minimum 2. Geotechnical considerations. Any draw point showing
number of buckets per shift which is considered reasonable signs of stress or high convergence gets high priority.
for each operation. 3. Draw bell status. It is important to give these draw
The maximum tonnage per draw point per day also points high priority to avoid delays to the development
has to be adjusted for the expected monthly and undercut process.
availability for the draw point, as well as some further 4. Under-drawn draw points.
adjustments for draw point which are heavily over- or 5. "Normal" draw points.
under-drawn. 6. Over-drawn draw points (in various categories).

488 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: Example of a detailed draw order Table: 3 Example of a draw order with tunnel and
draw point type summaries
Panel 15
Draw Point P15-01W P15-02W P15-03W P15-04W P15-05W P15-06W
Status CP CP CP CP CP CP
To Date 125189 139245 0 0 0 0
Order 0 0 0 0 0 0
Extra 0 0 0 0 0 0

Panel 16
Draw Point P15-01W P15-02W P15-03W P15-04W P15-05W P15-06W
Status CP CP CP CP A A
To Date 180162 0 0 195409 173457 155869
Order 0 0 0 0 0 3
Extra 0 0 0 0 0 0

Panel 17
Draw Point P15-01W P15-02W P15-03W P15-04W P15-05W P15-06W
Status A CP CP A A A
To Date 155334 168611 179781 173907 156208 147859
Order 0 0 0 0 0 0
Extra 0 0 0 0 0 0

Panel 18
Draw Point P15-01W P15-02W P15-03W P15-04W P15-05W P15-06W
Status A SP SP A A A
7.3. Adaptive vs shared shift orders
To Date 152146 160769 163615 170552 152393 147669
There are two basic strategies which can be followed at
Order 0 0 0 0 0 0
the shift level:
Extra 0 0 0 0 0 0
The daily order is divided equally amongst each shift.
This is probably preferable in a multi-shift environment
Table 2: Example Compance Report. which is not fully automated. Doing this provides each
shift with a more or less equal chance of meeting their
targets. However, the second and subsequent shifts are
not responsive to over or under-draw from the previous
shift.
The second (or third) shift must be adaptive to the results
of the first shift to best try to meet the daily order. This is
the system which will be used at Finsch and it will be
highly automated. This seems to be a better approach,
but there is an acknowledged draw back which needs to
be managed. The issue is that there may be a tendency
to mine the easier draw points in the earlier shifts and to
leave the harder ones for later on. This leads to there
being a higher risk of not making daily total tonnage
targets. Another factor is that if there is a large number of
draw points active, it may not be practical to try to mine
every draw point every shift.

7.4. LHD Dispatch sequence

Given that a draw point priority or rating system is already
included in the CMS draw order generation routine, it makes
sense to use that same rating system to try to dispatch the
LHDs in an optimal manner. This was tried at Freeport DOZ
with some success.
It makes sense to try to mine from those draw points
which are furthest behind, so that they have the best chance
to catch up. However, if production continually starts from
the "hardest" draw points, the risk that the total draw order
7.2. Hang up / secondary breakage priorities (in terms of tons) will not be met increases. At Freeport,
It turns out that the same drivers for the draw point during the initial tonnage build up, when daily tonnage was
priority for a daily draw order can also be applied to important, tons were generally scheduled from one side of a
assign hang up clearance or secondary breakage panel to the other. The starting side was the more
priorities. If a draw point has been idle (hung up) for too favourable ground. Once full production was achieved, LHD
long, then the priority to clear the hang up increases. Of dispatch on the basis of a priority rating was successfully
course, when these priorities are sent to the shift level, implemented.
additional shift based considerations may need to be There is a assumption in the above that the LHD dispatch
applied, such as how many draw points in a panel are system is sufficiently advanced to be able to facilitate this
hang up and the overall crew availability etc. type of optimization.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 489

7.5. Keep it simple Although hard to measure directly, there seems little
Perhaps the most important lesson learned in doubt that the current system has been proven to be
implementing CMS was to keep things simple wherever effective in facilitating a smoother operation with obvious
possible. This is achieved in part by keeping long term benefits to the bottom line.
planning considerations out of the daily draw order as far as
possible and only sending the information necessary to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
generate the daily order. The CMS system has a number of
scaling parameters which allow the relative importance of The author is grateful to PT Freeport Indonesia and De
various parameters to be adjusted to suit each site. Beers Finsch Mine for their assistance in the development
of the CMS system. Thanks are also due to Gemcom
8 CONCLUSIONS Software International Inc. for time and funding to complete
the work and submit this paper.
The CMS system has been successfully developed and
implemented at Freeport DOZ block cave. It is currently REFERENCES
being implemented at De Beers Finsch Mine for production
start up during 2005. Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC: A block cave design and draw
Initial development was done on site at Freeport. This control system, Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
was very useful in allowing the day to day exceptions to be pp. 469-484.
studied and accommodated in the system. Samosir, E, Brannon C and Diering, T, 2000.
At the same time, the interface between the daily draw Implementation of Cave Management System (CMS)
order and the monthly and longer term planning was Tools at the Freeport DOZ Mine. Proceedings MassMin
streamlined and is now operating smoothly at Freeport. 2004, Santiago, Chile.

490 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Status of draw control
practice and waste Management
at Cullinan diamond mine
Gert van Hout, De Beers Consolidated Mines, Technical Support Services, Operations Geotechnical
Stephen Allen, Mark Breed, John Singleton, De Beers Consolidated Mines, Cullinan Diamond Mine

Abstract
Cullinan Diamond Mine (previously known as Premier Mine) currently employs two mechanized block caves and plans
another extraction level at approximately 900 m below surface. As with all major block cave operations, challenging
situations and difficult events occurred during the implementation phase, unforeseen throughout the project feasibility
study. The panel caves in the kimberlite pipe have experienced problems of various types that caused deviations from the
original planned mining sequences. In combination with (the traditional) production pressures, numerous problems
resulted in not achieving good Draw Control practice. A drastic change to the weekly Draw Control planning was
introduced with the buy-in from production personnel and mine management. In conjunction with the improved Draw
Control practice, an innovative but simple waste determination process has been developed and implemented. Both the
Draw Control and the Waste Management at Cullinan Diamond Mine are currently based on back to basics principles,
straightforward and not controlled (yet) by impressive computer programs. This paper describes some of the geotechnical
and practical related difficulties that were encountered during the implementation phase and how those were tackled with
varying degrees of success. The importance and impact of Draw Control and Waste Management on the overall mine
performance is illustrated.

1 INTRODUCTION risks dictating Draw Control at many other sites are not
discussed.
Cullinan Diamond Mine (previously called Premier Mine)
started mining diamonds in 1903. The kimberlite pipe, the 2.1. Avoid premature gabbro dilution
largest in South Africa is cut by a flat dipping 75 m thick Draw Control is very crucial in avoiding early ingress of
gabbro sill at approximately 400 m below surface, shown in the overlying gabbro waste as this premature dilution would
figure 1, together with the position of current mining blocks. reduce the overall ore recovery and shorten the life of cave.
Mining above the sill was initially open cast mining, later Right from the Feasibility Study stage for BA5 and BB1E
long hole benching (early 60s) and block caving (late 60s). onwards, fragmentation of the kimberlite was predicted to
Below the sill, resources in the BA5 and BB1E mining blocks be coarse and that of the overlying gabbro sill to be fine
are currently exploited by retreat panel caving. BA5 and (Rood and Bartlett, 1994).
BB1E presently have a combined production of At Cullinan Diamond Mine, it is anticipated that a recovery of
approximately 13,000 tons per day. In BA5, mining started 85 percent of the in situ ore can be achieved if proper Draw
in 1988; 130 m below the gabbro sill and this mining block Control is exercised. Poor draw practice results in a much lower
has a current life of mine until 2005. It is anticipated that the ore recovery rate as drawpoints will be forced to close earlier
BB1E, where production started in 1996 approximately 230 than anticipated for two possible reasons. Firstly, cut-offs due
m below the sill, will cease operations in 2009. In 2005, the the influx of gabbro into the drawpoints adjacent to overdrawn
mine plans to start producing kimberlite ore from the BB1E drawpoints occurs much earlier than planned. Secondly,
Advanced Undercut Cave providing interim tons until the inconsistent draw practice stimulates migration of material over
Centenary Cut (previously referred to as C-Cut) commences considerable vertical and horizontal distances, inducing the
mining at approximately 900 m below surface and starts premature mixing of waste with ore, especially as gabbro
production in 2009. fragments are fine and would thus move through the column
Draw Control in the current block caves BA5 and BB1E quickly, (Bartlett, 1998). To compound matters, it was found that
has always been regarded as strategic (Rood & Bartlett, the kimberlite fines percentage (a function of kimberlite
1994, Bartlett & Nesbitt, 2000, Nesbitt & Vorster, 2000). A accelerated weathering) was underestimated at the time of
great deal of effort and capital have been spent over the initial block cave feasibilities in the mid 80s (BA5) and early
years on infrastructure, computer programs and other tools 90s (BB1E).
to monitor the drawn volumes from the cave blocks. There
are several reasons to understand why Draw Control is 2.2. Minimise gabbro into plant headfeed
considered important, not only at Cullinan Diamond Mine The gabbro not only sterilises the drawn ore but also
but also at most caving operations worldwide. causes problems at the Dense Media Separator in the
diamond recovery plant due to its high specific density.
2 VITAL REASONS FOR DRAW CONTROL
2.3. Reduce risk of ore recompaction
Cullinan Diamond Mine hasnt experienced serious mud Lack of good Draw Control results in static columns of
rushes or seismicity and therefore these two supplementary cave rock, resulting in ore re-compaction, generating point

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 491

 2.5. Optimal ore fragmentation
Uneven draw or drawing at too rapid a rate may lead to
very coarse fragmentation, poor grade control and severe
waste dilution. As mentioned before, coarse ore
fragmentation and fine waste fragments induce rapid
gabbro waste movement from the top, through the column,
to the drawpoints, thereby sterilising the drawpoint
prematurely and creating problems at the recovery plant.
It has often been observed that drawpoints with coarse
fragmentation were subjected to draw, far above the call
allowed by the maturity rules. If material is drawn too
quickly, there is not enough residence time for the
kimberlite material: there is a lack of mechanical interaction
between the ore fragments and insufficient communition of
primary fragments as material gravitates down the cave
column.

Figure 1: Diagrammatic plan and section of the kimberlite

pipe showing geology and mining blocks.

loads on the extraction level that damage the production

infrastructure. In kimberlite, if the draw of ore occurs more
than three months after the undercut has taken place, the
material in the drawbell and above the major apex may
compact. This ore re-compaction creates uneven loading
conditions on the extraction level or excessive localised
stresses that adversely affect tunnels. This becomes
apparent as support integrity worsens or when tunnels
collapse. Experience in the BA5 and BB1E caves shows
localised re-compaction of kimberlite becoming a major
issue when the drawpoint was closed for rehabilitation for
more than six weeks. Re-opening of compacted drawpoints
requires a high level of secondary blasting, further
damaging the brow area and in some cases it has taken as
long as eight weeks to re-open a drawpoint.

2.4. Maximum Draw Zone Interaction

In both the BA5 and BB1E, the offset herringbone
drawpoint layout (figure 2) was used with the drawpoint Figure 2: Interaction modes (a: isolated, b: interaction within
spacing across the major apex ranging between 24.2m to drawbell and c: interaction across minor apex)
24.7m, possibly creating interaction problems across the
major apex in some areas as the Isolated Draw Zone (IDZ)
varies from 9m to 11m, depending on the kimberlite rock Large blocks cause high hang-up frequencies in the
type. drawpoints, create problems in the ore handling system
Figure 2 shows the zones of draw at the three different and have a negative effect on the productivity as well as
draw interaction modes according to Laubscher (2000). If on the operating costs. Removal of drawpoint hang-ups
drawpoints draw in isolation, (the horizontal section of) the may result in long down-time and are costly because of
zone of material affected by this draw can be approximated the secondary breaking requirements. Oversized ore
by a circle with a diameter equal to the IDZ. If there is even blocks in the drawpoints must be reduced to reasonable
draw between the two drawpoints within the same drawbell, sizes that can be handled by the load-haul-dump (LHD)
the affected area has an elliptical footprint, one and a half machines.
times larger than the IDZ. When there is interaction between Back analysis of hang-up data during the period between
adjacent drawbells, the zone of influence enlarges another July 1998 and May 2000 (Rahal and Smith, 2000) revealed
one and half times. that in any given shift, 34 percent of the available

492 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

drawpoints are hung up and that the vast majority of these such as LHD availability, ore pass capacity, haulage and
hang-ups were cleared within one day. hoisting capability. The next draw control related concept
established was that of the ideal depletion surface. A
3 THE HISTORY OF DRAW CONTROL SYSTEMS predetermined ideal depletion sequence up until the life of
EMPLOYED AT CULLINAN DIAMOND MINE draw determines the short-term (week) draw schedule in
that the plan attempts to come as near to the ideal depletion
To impose Draw Control on the current mining blocks, state as possible. At any stage, mining is in function of the
various systems and software packages were implemented. ideal depletion profile and the call per drawpoint is
Some systems had more success than others. influenced by its draw history (corrective call when there
A comprehensive Draw Control system should at least was poor draw in the past).
consist of an integrated system of three major components: Planning on a monthly and weekly basis was also carried
an accurate and dynamically updated ore resource out using spreadsheets. These files produced satisfactory
database, a reliable vehicle monitoring system and a output as it catered for the input of all parties involved in
planning system. Draw Control. It was rather cumbersome to use but has
served its purpose to stimulate interaction between
3.1. Ore Resource database geotechnical, mining and mineral resource management
The very first version of PC-BC, developed for Cullinan departments. Regular meetings were held between these
Diamond Mine in 1988, was cumbersome to use: it took a departments to agree upon the monthly production plan
long time (2 to 3 hours) to deplete all drawpoint loads on a produced by these excel files but adherence to this plan
daily basis and it did not have the fine graphics displayed by could be improved.
the present version. After some time, mine personnel moved
towards spreadsheet type applications to store daily 4 DISCUSSION OF CURRENT
production data from the drawpoints. Later, a Microsoft DRAW CONTROL PRACTICE
Access database was employed to store the drawn volumes
in combination with the status of each drawpoint. A user 4.1. The Integrated Draw Control System
interface was then developed to present this data in a In 1999, the Integrated Draw Control System (IDCS) with
graphical format and to allow management to extract a Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) component
comprehensive summary reports. This application called described by Guest et al , 2000 was introduced on mine.
BLOCINFO, also permitted the user also to reconcile the The long and medium term schedule program based on
drawpoint production figures with the tons recorded by the the MILP was originally developed at Koffiefontein Mine for
treatment plant. its Front Cave (Hannweg and van Hout, 2001), and is
In 1999, MinRAS an SQL based product that also currently being used in the BB1E Advanced Undercut at
contained the mixing algorithms, enabling the Mineral Cullinan Diamond Mine. This scheduling module is the first
Resource Manager to derive a more accurate and auditable planning optimisation tool in block cave operations that is
ore reserve statement (Guest et al, 2000). able to optimise over the life of mine as well as over multi-
time periods. It incorporates all geotechnical, mining and
3.2. Vehicle Monitoring System financial constraints, in a unique way.
Reconciling tons, calculated from the loads that are Long term production planning for the older BA5 and
recorded by the vehicle monitoring system (VMS) with the BB1E blocks is still done by the use of spreadsheets and
tons from the weightometers at the plant is essential in any does not incorporate all ore flow constraints or geotechnical
good planning or effective Draw Control program to obtain a rules, except for the draw rate limits. The reason for the
correct and representative mineral resource database. implementation of the excel files instead of MILP is
Various VMS options have been trialled at Premier threefold. Firstly, those panel caves are considered too
including a beacon system using micro-wave technology depleted to optimise according to the principles within the
(Nesbitt & Vorster, 2000) followed by a gyroscopic based MILP. Secondly, the main focus of those caves currently is
monitoring system. None of the systems were a hundred avoiding tunnel collapses occurring from vertical loading
percent satisfactory due to technical problems, as well as and keeping porosity in the areas that hasnt experienced
resistance from production personnel who saw it as a destructive stress levels. And lastly, the MILP version
management policing tool. allowing remote access only became available late 2003.
A combination of the radio-based voice communication The current Draw Control system at Cullinan does not
(utilising the leaky feeder to establish contact between cater for planning based on maximising NPV as the grades
control room at surface and underground) and a manual in the ore columns are set to an average column value and
recording based information system, currently in use, yields the mixing algorithms do not cater for vertical mixing within
the best results. However, it requires production crews to an ore column. The choice of an average column grade is
buy into Draw Control. justified, as there is generally very little resolution in the
As Cullinan Diamond Mine has different size LHD units, assumed grade profile vertically across the massive
there is an issue with the average bucket factor applied to orebody.
derive tons mined from buckets loaded at each drawpoint An optimal (and in South Africa legally prescribed) plan for
and until recently, the total tons hoisted were consistently all mining operations should be based on maximum ore
larger than the value based on the recorded buckets. recovery, thus maximising tons instead of maximising NPV,
the last being a method relying rather on grade and revenue
3.3. Planning System per carat. Block cave mining is a massive mining operation
Up until 1998, Production planning at Cullinan Diamond where principles of selective mine planning, based on
Mine was founded on empirical geotechnical guidelines financial parameters, cannot determine the production plan.
(Bartlett and Nesbitt, 2000) and did not take into account the These principles may constrain the schedule but an optimal
full effect of resource and equipment availabilities. The plan is primarily based on geotechnical considerations.
empirical guidelines were derived from extensive block cave The mixing algorithms mentioned in section 3.1 were
experience at Cullinan Diamond Mine and have been developed on site to simulate the ore movements within the
described by Bartlett, 1998. cave and the parameters were calibrated successfully: the
A more pro-active approach was initiated in 1998 when predicted time of drawpoint closure in the BA5 cave was
the weekly planning also incorporated mining constraints within one month from the actual date of closure. These

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 493

mixing algorithms are still being used but it is expected that system daily (Bartlett & Nesbitt, 2000). This information, in
REBOP,(Pierce et al, 2004), will be used as the standard combination with daily production data, enables the Draw
tool to update the ore resource database. This tool should Control engineer to analyse the effect of the draw rates and
then also provide an accurate production waste ingress and draw history on the frequency and type of hang-up as well
grade profile (or carat production graph). as waste entry parameters.
Extraction rate limits at Cullinan Diamond Mine have
4.2. The back to basics approach hence been determined in terms of tonnage per day using a
Towards the end of 2002, a major drive from maturity classification, based on the accumulative
management, the back to basics principle occurred, not production or life of draw from a drawpoint. Four classes
only in terms of keeping it simple but of increased were established and the associated draw rates increased
adherence to the basic Draw Control rules outlined in the from a maximum of 50 tons per day for a new drawpoint to
Cullinan Diamond Mine Code of Practice, (Bartlett, 2003) a maximum of 200 tons per day for a mature drawpoint.
and ameliorating interaction between Draw Control and As can be seen in figure 4, since the end of 2002, adherence
Production Departments. Some of the simple but critical to Draw Control has improved significantly (the average
procedures for a successful Draw Control Practice are deviation in 2000 was approximately 73%). The graph displays
discussed in this section. With issues of interaction being the deviation (actual production - planned), averaged over all
inherited from design (see section 2), the main aim of the BB1E drawpoints with the weighting factor being the planned
current BA5 and BB1E Draw Control system is to draw tons. A value around 10% is considered to be very good. A
equally throughout the caves with all drawpoints in Production Factor (van Hout & Guest, 2000), based on this
production at one time and to minimise dilution from the data has not been implemented at the mine as it is felt that
gabbro sill. Future optimising codes such as the MILP are average weighted deviation is adequate enough to
seen to be not applicable simply due to the maturity status communicate how well Draw Control is adhered to.
of the BA5 and the BB1E and past Draw Control practices.
The key to the whole short-term Draw Control process
(figure 3) is the accumulation, storage, processing and
presentation of data. The key relationship is between Draw
Control and Production. The culmination of the whole
process is presented at the weekly meetings that are held
where all parties "strategise" key loading and tunnel or
drawpoint rehabilitation patterns around Draw Control.
Production and short-term planning understand that Draw
Control needs alignment to the official annual production
plan, therefore by applying correct Draw Control principles
long-term cave management and production targets can be
achieved.

Figure 4: Weighted Average Deviation (datapoints and

trendline) from the weekly Draw Control plan for BB1E cave.

Cullinan Diamond Mine personnel are confident that the

present recording, storage and presentation of actual mined
tonnages in the MinRAS is satisfactory. Initially, the actual
production per drawpoint was entered into the system on a
weekly basis. This data is now imported on a shift to shift
basis, in combination with other information associated with
the drawpoint status (produced volume, hang-up type,
waste content, remedial support status, etc.).
Presentation of the draw data is usually in graphical
format, accessible for all people involved in Draw Control to
get a clear idea of the mined tonnage profile over a user
defined period as well as of the actual drawpoint status.
Figure 5 shows an example of the weekly Draw Control plan
that has been derived on a Friday afternoon, after
consultation between Draw Control and Production. Copies
of this sheet are given to the Draw Control Officers (who
enter it into MinRAS) and Production Mine Overseers (who
distribute it to the Shift Bosses). The Mine Overseers also
write this information onto Draw Control loading
whiteboards and compare the planned tons with the actual
Figure 3: Process flow chart on Draw Control at Cullinan production data on a shift to shift basis.
Diamond Mine. Listed below are some of the more important Draw
Control production principles developed with the "back to
Draw Control Observers gather the occurrence and type basics approach" that are vigorously implemented with the
of drawpoint hang-ups and record it into the Draw Control aim of achieve correct block cave management:

494 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Drawpoints closest to the orebody perimeter (highly 5 WASTE CALCULATION ON SURFACE
depleted or not), are continually loaded, at a reduced rate
if necessary. This allows for porosity in the caves and 5.1. Current practice
prevents the movement of groundwater from the contact For the last five years the official measurement of global
areas to the centre of the ore body. waste percentage has been determined by taking a sample
A strict minimum (120 tons) and maximum (1,200 tons) of approximately 50 kilograms with a plough sampler per
weekly call per drawpoint is implemented with a maximum shift on the Sortex tailings stream. The size fraction on this
daily call of 300 tons. This prevents the loading of all belt is -65mm, +32mm. The sample is washed and hand-
planned production from a drawpoint in a single shift, with sorted into three different piles: internal waste, external
no loading during the remainder of the week. waste and kimberlite. The piles are then weighed and their
A target for the weighted average deviation (figure 4) has relative percentages calculated. Different tests have been
currently been fixed at ten percent with acceptance from carried out to ascertain that this process of waste
both production crews and senior management. determination is appropriate as the following underlying
It is strived to achieve equal draw across the major apex assumptions could be questioned:
and continuous production per drawpoint throughout the The waste percentage in the -65mm to +32mm range is
week. This ensures achieving a maximum zone of representative for the total size distribution of the
influence (as in figure 2c). headfeed.
Frequent interactions between Draw Control and One sample of 50kg material per shift is an adequate
production to communicate clearly the availability, waste representation of the entire volume fed into the plant
content and status of drawpoints to anticipate correct during that shift.
loading calls. The waste percentage does not depend on the person
Reducing the closure/maintenance time from six to three who performs the test.
weeks where possible, to avoid re-compaction.
The first test involved the waste analysis in the +4mm size
distribution classes. It is impossible to quickly and
accurately recognise rock types in fragments smaller than
4mm by manual visual methods. Results for this analysis
were very similar to those of the -65mm to +32mm range. It
can therefore be concluded that waste is evenly distributed
across the different size fractions and the current fragment
size range is adequate.
During the second test, samples were taken every 15
minutes from the -65mm +32mm stream. The results from
this test did not indicate that the current practice of one
sample per shift needed to be adjusted.
The last test consisted of an identical series of samples
given to four different laboratory assistants. As can be seen
in figure 6, results may vary depending on the lab assistant
but would not justify the extra cost of additional personnel.

Figure 5: Weekly Draw Plan for the BB1E block cave.

The implementation of above principles should

dramatically improve fragmentation across the caves,
creating further reductions in secondary blasting and the
possible achievement of monthly "production" targets at
acceptable waste percentage.
A secondary function of Draw Control was developed in
Feb 2002 and consists of a qualitative assessment of the
physical state of drawpoints. The system involved a monthly
rating of each drawpoint on the basis of condition, stress
damage, water and LHD damage. The ratings are
transferred onto mine plans for future analysis.
Fragmentation data in line with Laubschers, (2000), Rock
Mass Rating classification were added to the data Figure 6: Analytical bias due to different lab assistants
collection. The data is currently used in back analysis for the
fragmentation analysis programs in order to model future 5.2. Research and future technologies
block caves within the same ore body. Research was undertaken to identify technology that
Another Draw Control function is to maintain waste levels could recognise waste accurately in - and possibly remove
at twelve percent or below. Past sampling practices did not it from - the ore flow within a short time span. Providers of
record levels of gabbro in each drawpoint. A waste technology based on Microwave Attenuation, Infra red,
management system developed by the Mineral Resource Laser Induced Fluorescence, Natural Gamma Emission
Management department assists in the prediction of waste were approached and three different optical sorters
tons and is discussed below. underwent testing and extensive assessments.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 495

 All applications were successful in differentiating between which the plant recovery would be less optimal. Waste at
waste and kimberlite to some degree on surface (conveyor Cullinan Diamond Mine has become increasing challenging
belts) but none were suitable for underground application. over the last few years, as the current block caves become
Optical sorter technology, widely used in the food and glass older and the reserves in the block are depleting fast.
industries, proved to be the most effective method in Keeping the average waste content below a threshold has
recognising and ejecting waste from an ore stream. The historically been addressed by stopping underground
ability to eject waste from an ore stream offers obvious, drawpoints with waste content higher than 15% but this has
additional advantages in ore processing, allowing improved sterilised large portions of the kimberlite resource. Waste
flexibility, an increased ore extraction ratio by recovering problems can be controlled to some degree by blending, ore
more diamonds from previously considered non payable from various sources underground and on surface can
drawpoints, lower crushing costs and ultimately improved assist to draw higher waste drawpoints longer, thereby
revenues. maximising extraction.
Prediction and control of waste tons is a task performed
6 WASTE CALCULATION UNDERGROUND by Draw Control. Multiplying drawn tons per drawpoint with
a waste percentage and adding this for all drawpoints
To manage waste effectively, an accurate means of across the two caves represents a value that indicates the
measuring the waste percentage in each drawpoint must be expected waste tons. Initially (2002) there was an extremely
established but the following factors complicate this close match between the predicted waste tons and the
process: actual recorded waste tons. But of late, differences of 4% -
Dust, generated by LHDs, makes visual observations 5% have been observed, with the predicted values based
extremely difficult. on the underground results always exceeding the on
Washing the ore in the drawpoint with water to get rid of surface determined results.
the dust settled on the muckpile can result in rapid Benefits of the current waste management system are
disintegration of the ore, thereby biasing the sample taken listed below:
to determine the waste content. The greatest benefit from a mineral resource perspective
There are different types of waste and different is that more accurate forecasts and estimates can be
percentages of waste within different size fractions of ore, made. Financial contribution of drawpoints can be
making the derivation of an average waste value rather established and assist in the decision making process,
difficult. together with geotechnical factors, whether or not
The finer the fragment size the more difficult it is to drawpoints or tunnels need to be closed.
differentiate between the different waste and kimberlite When production planning is done, the expected waste
types. The ore fragment sizes depend largely on the rock tons can be calculated for each draw scenario. On the
type and the maturity of the cave. basis thereof, optimal draw and waste percentage can be
derived. The estimated waste percentage is of great value
At Cullinan Diamond Mine waste is classified as either to the metallurgical department as unexpected and
internal or external waste. Internal waste is that which excessive high density waste negatively affects recovery
slumped back into the pipe during volcanic emplacement of efficiencies.
the kimberlite pipe and consists mainly of felsite, Waterberg A third benefit lies in the improved understanding of the
quartzite, norite and metasediments. The internal waste migration of gabbro sill material as the cave depletes. The
also includes barren late stage carbonatite dykes. In the drawpoint waste data recorded since 2002 is still too
metallurgical process these "floats" are separated from the scarce but correlation between the column depletion
ore stream via a process of dense media separation, as status and waste percentage will be analysed to
these rock types have a lower specific gravity. determine waste ingress curves that can be used in future
External waste consists of the country rock norite and the ore depletion planning.
gabbro sill. These two rock types are mineralogically similar
and can differ only slightly in texture. The norite enters the 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
cave through the boundary drawpoints when country rock
blocks detach, slump down, and cuts off or sterilizes parts of Cullinan Diamond Mine has experienced Draw Control
the resource It also enters the ore flow through the tipping challenges, resulting in early waste ingress and serious
of waste development into ore passes. External waste loading onto production tunnels. After a drive from senior
fragments are known in the metallurgical process as "sinks". management for back to basics, Draw Control adherence
Their specific gravity is similar to that of diamond bearing and ground conditions have improved drastically. Several
kimberlite, and it therefore reports to the concentrate of the Draw Control procedures are outlined in this paper.
dense media separation. Waste is and always will be a mining and treatment
Before 2002, the waste content was measured by visually constraint requiring constant management to ensure
estimating the waste in each drawpoint on a daily basis. Loss optimum extraction of ore.
of historical waste data combined with the inaccuracy of visual The introduction of a system that recognises and can
estimates made it impossible to compare waste estimates from eject waste from the ore flow will reduce the constraint of
underground with the surface measurement of waste. waste on Draw Control and treatment efficiencies. Cullinan
The test work described in section 5 showed that the Diamond Mine and the greater De Beers Group are
sampling methodology used on surface yields adequate vigorously pursuing the implementation of optical sorting
waste percentage values. It was therefore decided to technology, having completed extensive testing. A full
change the underground waste determination process from feasibility study of the project is being undertaken.
the visual estimation to one similar as applied on surface.
This involves samples taken from a drawpoint, transported ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to a lab analysed and results are entered into a database.
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues who helped
7 WASTE MANAGEMENT UNDERGROUND and supported them during the development and
AND BENIFTS THEREOF implementation of this work, in particular AR Guest, M
As mentioned above, the waste percentage of the Preece, C Baltus, HP Grobler and PJ Bartlett. The authors
headfeed needs to be kept below a critical level, above acknowledge the permission of the Director Operations and

496 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the Cullinan Diamond Mine, General Manager to publish Nesbitt, K & Vorster, J.A. 2000. Premier mine Draw
this technical paper. Control and underground vehicle monitoring and control
system. Proc. VIth International Symposium on Mine
REFERENCES Mechanisation and Automation, SAIMM, 2000, Vol 1:pp,
93-96.
Bartlett, P.J. 1998. Planning a mechanised cave with Pierce, M., van Hout, G.J. & Singleton J 2004. Draw
coarse fragmentation in kimberlite. PhD. Thesis. Control of the BA5 cave Cullinan Diamond Mine: Back
University of Pretoria, South Africa. Analysis with REBOP. Proc. MassMin2004, Santiago.
Bartlett, P.J. & Nesbitt, K. 2000. Draw Control at Premier Rahal, D.C. & Smith, M.L. 2000. De Beers Site Visit,
Mine. Proc. MassMin200, Brisbane. Vol 1: pp, 485-493. unpublished internal report. Corporate Head Quarters, De
Bartlett, P.J. 2003. Block Cave Code of Practice for Beers Consolidated Mines.
Cullinan Diamond Mine. Rood, H.R. & Bartlett, P.J. 1994. Mechanized Caving at
Guest, A.R., van Hout, G.J., von Johannedis, A & Premier Mine. Proc. XVth CMMI Congress,
Scheepers, L.F. 2000. An application of linear Johannesburg, SAIMM, 1994, Vol 1: pp, 219-225.
programming for block cave Draw Control. Proc. van Hout, G.J. & Guest A.R. 2000. Production Factor and
MassMin2000, Brisbane. Vol 1: pp, 461-468. Draw Control Factor, presentation to the International
Hannweg, L.A. & van Hout, G.J 2001. Draw Control at Caving Study.
Koffiefontein Mine. Proc. VIth International Symposium on Malope, P. 2001, Waste distribution in different size
Mine Mechanisation and Automation, SAIMM, 2000, Vol fractions of the kimberlite ore at Premier Mine,
1:pp, 93-96. unpublished internal report, Premier Mine, De Beers
Laubscher, D.H.L 2000. Block Cave Manual. Consolidated Mines.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 497

 Draw point analysis using a marker
trial at the Perseverance Nickel Mine,
Leinster, Western Australia
Bradley Hollins, Mining Engineer, WMC Resources Ltd., Olympic Dam, S.A. (formerly of Perseverance Mine)
John Tucker, Production Engineer, WMC Resources Ltd., Perseverance Nickel Mine, Leinster, W.A.

Abstract
An important challenge when operating a sub level cave (SLC) is to optimise draw point performance against metal
recovery and ore grades. WMCs Perseverance Nickel mine (Leinster, Western Australia) has recently improved metal
recovery, whilst maintaining consistent grades from its SLC operations. To improve the recoveries, a series of steps was
followed culminating in the implementation of a formal draw marker trial. This draw marker trial deployed 1762 cement
filled steel markers across a series of 126 conventional production long holes. The aims of the trial were to determine
draw ellipse shape, ascertain the nature and extent of any interaction of draw, and analyse the effect of fragmentation on
draw performance. By doing this it was planned to assess the nature of material flow within the cave so that draw and
hence cave extraction horizons can be optimised.

1 INTRODUCTION Mining of this deposit is by sublevel cave (SLC) mining

method. Several smaller nickel lenses/pods are mined
Perseverance nickel mine is part of WMC Resources using a variety of open stoping mining methods.
Leinster Nickel Operations. Leinster is approximately In 2003 the SLC produced >1.5Mt. at 1.93%Ni., with an
645km northeast of Perth in Western Australia. The Leinster additional 118kt. at 2.29%Ni mined during stope
nickel deposit is located within the Agnew-Wiluna development. Current proven and probable SLC reserves
greenstone belt at depths of 375m to +1120m (Figure 1). total 14Mt at 1.77%Ni. (Cooper, 2004).
Forecasting of tonnes and conducting resource
reconciliations in the SLC have proven difficult in the past.
This was in part due to ore stocks being left in higher levels
of the mine, following a planned drop down strategy
(triggered by an inflexion zone in the orebody), and a
change from tonnage to grade based cutoffs (Wood et al.,
2000).
This paper discusses improvements in the understanding
of flow behaviour and in predicting the draw performance
within various areas of the SLC at Perseverance mine.

2 DESIGN PARAMETERS

In 2000, two major reviews of the sublevel cave

performance were undertaken at Perseverance (Bull, 2000;
Rosengren and Scott, 2000) from which several design and
operational changes were made. The most notable change
was a reduction in the centre-to-centre crosscut spacing
from 17.5 to 14.5 metres. This was based on the theory of
interactive draw as shown in Figure 2 below. Essentially the
theory supports a uniform draw down of the cave material,
reducing early dilution ingress, and hence improved metal
recovery.
The theory of interactive draw also required the
introduction of strict bogging practices for the SLC.
Interactive bogging involves retreating individual levels with
an aligned cave front and cycling the bogging of drawpoints
Figure 1: Perseverance Regional Geology between adjacent crosscuts on the level. Perseverance
rules were developed where bogging from individual
In 2003, 42,000 tonnes of nickel-in-concentrate were crosscuts was limited to a maximum of 300 tonnes per cycle
produced from the Leinster nickel concentrator and dryer. (with 100 tonne the optimum) and an absolute maximum of
Ore was sourced from Perseverance underground and 600 tonnes per shift. These measures were implemented in
Harmony open pit mines. The Perseverance underground an attempt to avoid surging of waste ingress. The shift
mine consists primarily of a disseminated nickel orebody. bogging limits have also assisted in providing a more

498 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2: Independent vs Interactive Draw (Bull, 2000)

consistent hoist performance by ensuring that problems in

an individual cross-cut are dealt with in a timely manner
rather than having all the adjacent cross-cuts stop and wait.
Prior to managing by interactive practices a difficult cross-
cut could be left for days or even weeks before being
addressed.
Some of the key design parameters currently used in the Figure 3: Cross section of 9715 crosscut (XC) 25 and 9715
SLC are summarised in Table 1 and shown in Figure 3. XC27 ring designs
Rings between adjacent crosscuts are staggered by 1.5
metres (looking in plan view) to avoid drilling into holes from
adjacent crosscuts. The drill holes are drilled past the ring
design tonnage outline in an attempt to fragment the
material between adjacent crosscuts.

Table 1: Typical Design Parameters

Parameter Value
Blasted drive width 5.1 metres
Blasted drive height 4.8 metres (with flat backs)
Level interval 25 metres, floor to floor
Blast ring rump 150 forward
Apparent ring burden 3.0 metres
Ring toe spacing 3.2 metres
Explosive type Powerbulk VE, density 1.0
Blast hole size 102 mm
Shut off grades 0.9% below forecast tonnes;
(grade at which 1.2% forecast tonnes to
bogging is stopped design tones; 1.4% above
and next ring prepared design tonnes
for firing)
Cut off grade 0.9% nickel
Production ring tonnage 3,500 tonnes (approximate)
75mm of fibrecrete; mesh
(floor to floor) pinned Figure 4: Movement of steel sets and red sand through the
with 2.4 metre long Perseverance mine
SLC ground support split sets; an additional
50mm of fibrecrete; rings
containing 15 debonded for ground support rather than draw markers, they have also
gewie bolts (3 metre long) provided an opportunity to follow the movement of large
on 1.5 metre burdens. structures over multiple levels. Figure 4 shows the movement
of these steel sets along with reported sightings of red sand
(which was originally used as backfill in old stopes).
3 HISTORICAL DRAW MARKERS Movement of the steel sets and sand has shown that the
drop down strategy pillar has broken up as planned. In
Steel sets were installed in sections of the 10030 level of addition, the steel sets are known to have moved 270
Perseverance mine. Although these steel sets were intended metres while deviating less than three degrees from a

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 499

vertical trajectory. The path of the red sand is less well
understood as there were three adjacent stopes filled on the
10000 level.
In 2001, unsuccessful attempts were made to use old
bogger tyres to study the flow of material through the cave.
Following this attempt, six concrete filled drums were bolted
into the sidewalls of the 9850mRL prior to production
blasting. These drums are yet to be recovered. The SLC is
now down to the 9740mRL.

4 DRAW MARKER TRIALS

A more formal approach to studying the flow of material

through the Perseverance SLC was commenced in 2002.
The aim of these draw marker trials was to further improve
metal recovery through gaining an understanding of the flow
characteristics in the SLC. The approach undertaken was
based on similar trials conducted at Ridgeway Gold Mine
(Power, 2002-2004).
The markers used in the trial were constructed of steel
pipe 250mm long and 45mm in diameter. This marker size
is consistent with measurements of fragmentation indicating
that around 90% of material is smaller than 0.4 metres
(Passmore, 2002). Each marker had an individual identifier
welded on the side and was filled with concrete to simulate
the ore density. The markers were finished with a spider at
the top to centralize it during insertion in the marker hole
and a red cap at the base to keep it in position.
The trials were conducted in five separate crosscuts on
three different levels of the mine. A total of 1762 markers
were installed at one-metre intervals. Half of the 126 marker Figure 5: Cross section looking west showing the marker
holes were grouted after the markers were installed. By trial results
varying the number and pattern of marker rings between
blast holes, the depth and width of draw could be studied.
After firing of production blast rings, markers were
primarily retrieved manually when ore was transferred by
loader to a designated inspection area. This method
accounted for 53% of markers found. During the period of
markers being recovered detailed records of the ring
material and visual flow characteristics were collected for
analysis at a later stage.
Secondary means of marker collection included
inspecting the draw point rill, bogger bucket and crosscut.
As a last resort, a magnet located adjacent to an
underground conveyor belt was used to collect any
remaining markers. When markers were collected using the
magnet (20% of the markers found), an estimate was made
of the tonnes that would have been extracted when the
marker reported to the draw point.
During the trials, there was no evidence of interactive draw
behaviour in any of the trial areas (figure 5). The maximum
width of draw measured through the recovered draw markers
was 11.5 metres (+/- 1 metre). This means a zone of blasted
material located between crosscuts and at the toes of blast
holes did not report to any of the draw points from which the
material was fired. During the trials, the measured size and
width of this zone varied, however generally 35% of the
blasted tonnes did not report to the crosscut from which they
Figure 6: Long section (looking north) showing marker trial
were fired or any of the adjacent crosscuts. As more than
results
100% of design tonnes were bogged from the marker trial
areas, material must have been travelling to the draw point
from outside the blast envelope. blasted (design) tonnes. This is consistent with early
To study the depth of draw, up to three marker rings were observations of barren ultramafic and felsic dilution entry
positioned between each apparent blast burden (3 metres). when crosscuts above were bogged to waste. At the time of
On the 9715mRL crosscuts, markers were recovered from writing this paper, markers were starting to appear in draw
positions up to 2 metres in front of the ring being fired (figure points on levels below the trial areas. The second stage of
6). There was no difference in results between areas where marker recovery confirms the observations of vertical piping
the markers were grouted into position and areas where of material from above (figure 6). Recovery has been from
they were not grouted. markers positioned directly above the crosscut in an area
The trials indicate that markers placed at the level above between the extraction draw zones of adjacent cross cuts
can flow into the draw point within bogging of 20% of the on the level above.

500 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The recovery of markers behind a freshly fired ring is
consistent with brow break back records throughout the
mine. At Perseverance, typical wear at the brow is
approximately 1.5 metres and in some cases up to 6 metres
of the brow has worn away during bogging. Brow wear and
shearing of blast holes occasionally means that remedial
work including cleaning out blast holes, redrilling blast holes
or slashing (heavily dumped drill rings) through existing
blast holes is necessary.
At the time of writing, 540 markers had been recovered.
The percentage of markers recovered ranged from 21% in
9740XC24 to 53% in 9715XC27. While this percentage of
markers recovered might seem low, the pattern of markers
recovered indicates that the collection methods were
successful. Rather, the low percentage of markers found to
date from the 9740 level trials is believed to be due to the Figure 8: Dilution Draw Curves showing the affect of hang-
production decisions made as a result of poor ground ups on recovery
conditions in the trial areas. In one of the areas, two
production rings (six marker rings) were fired together. In
the other crosscut, slashing rings were drilled and fired
through the area containing markers. While unplanned 5 PREDICTING OVERDRAW
events, the slashing and multiple ring firings actually
contributed substantially to the understanding of material In 2003, reconciliation of material extracted against the
flow at Perseverance. tonnes fired at that point in time was undertaken. This
In the 9715 level trials, 20% of the markers were showed that 94% of the tonnes bogged, 86% of the grade
recovered from behind the ring being bogged. Therefore, and 81% of the nickel metal contained had been recovered
without firing multiple rings together as occurred on the (Wood, 2003).
9740 level, a true indication of the depth of draw in front of Perseverance mine has historical records of draw point
a ring would not be gained. When two rings were fired observations at intervals ranging from 50 to 300 tonnes.
together, markers were initially recovered within one metre These observations provide detailed information on all
of the brow. In the crosscut where slashing was drilled aspects of the draw point performance. Using this
through marker rings, the flow of markers was information, block modeling of historical production
preferentially distributed around the position of the information was undertaken and is regularly updated. With
slashing holes. this block model and statistical analysis of the historical
Detailed draw analyses were undertaken for all the data, the impact on metal recovery of changes in design
marker trial rings. The results showed dilution entry (including crosscut spacing, level intervals and ring burden)
points occurred between 11 and 25% of the tonnes and varying draw point performance factors (such as hang-
extracted. Two of the crossucts which had early dilution up frequency, rock size and bogging rate) have been
entry points were affected by initial blasting related investigated.
issues. Figure 7 shows the recovery curves of the One of the best ring performance prediction tools was
marker trial rings. found to be the nickel grade left in the levels immediately
above a draw point. Areas where metal was left above
(indicated by higher last nickel grade calls) tend to perform
better than areas mined to the cutoff grade of 0.9% nickel.
This result was not unexpected and is consistent with the
vertical nature of the draw observed during the marker trials.
Using plots of the last nickel grade call recorded on a level
(Figure 9), the extent of a dilution blanket on new levels can
be studied in advance.

CONCLUSIONS

Metal recoveries at Perseverance are comparable with

those achievable using an open stope mining method.
The flow behaviour of material in Perseverance SLC is
now better understood, and future planning will make use
of this information to assist in optimising the extraction
process.
The discipline and implementation of rules for firing and
bogging practices associated with interactive draw have had
a substantial positive impact with regards to metal recovery.
Figure 7: Draw Recovery Curves from the marker trial rings The theory of interactive draw and the associated
interaction of material between cross-cuts does not appear
The analysis of the data confirmed a correlation to be true.
between hang-ups in the drawpoint and waste surging The ongoing recovery of markers below the initial trial
(Figure 8). From visual observations of the hang-ups it areas will add to our knowledge, and allow ongoing
appeared that waste ingress was coming from the front of incremental improvements in the modeling of flow
the ring as opposed to dilution from above the blasted behaviour.
ring. When a hang up did occur, markers from deeper,
wider, and lower down in the blast envelope were
retrieved.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 501

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to all their colleagues at Leinster

Nickel Operations for their assistance and interest shown
during the trial, in particular the support from Chris Stone,
Geoff Booth, and Andrew McDonald is greatly appreciated.
Also, the authors want to acknowledge the permission given
by WMC Resources Ltd to publish this technical paper.

REFERENCES

Bull, G, 2000. WMC Leinster Nickel Operation, Sublevel

cave review. Internal report, September 2000.
Cooper, A, 2004. Ore Reserves December 2003, Leinster
Nickel Operation. Internal report, January 2004.
Passmore, A, 2002. Sub-Level Cave Fragmentation
Study, WMC Resources Perseverance Geology Internal
Report, October 2002.
Power, G, 2002-2004. Personal Correspondence.
Rosengren, K, Scott, A, WMC Resources, Leinster Nickel
Operations Sublevel cave, Review of Drilling and Blasting
Operations, Internal Report, October 2000.
Wood, P L, Jenkins, P A, and Jones, I W O, 2000.
Sublevel Cave Drop Down Strategy at Perseverance
Mine, Leinster Nickel Operations, in MassMin 2000
Conference Proceedings, Ed. Chitombo G., ISBN 1
875776 76 9, AusIMM, Melbourne, pp. 517 - 526.
Wood, P, 2003. Perseverance mine sublevel caving,
internal presentation, October 2003.

Figure 9: Block model slice of 9780 level showing last nickel

grades

502 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 13
Caving Propagation
& Subsidence
504 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Continuous modelling
for caving exploitation
Octavio Araneda Oss, Sergio Gaete Becerra,
Gerencia de Recursos Mineros y Desarrollo, El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Based on the mineral stock balance equations, relations for the active area and production capacity are deduced; these
equations are solved in closed form. The models represent the mining dynamics in terms of extraction and development
rate. The models allow to estimate capacities and its variations, in tonnage and cash flow.
The lost due to approximation error is overcompensated by the obtained simplicity and the insight.
The models do not replace the detailed final calculations, but allow wider analysis saving detailed case evaluations.

1 BASIC MODEL FOR CAVING EXPLOITATION In this case the area evolves according to
AT
Planning and improving planning requires a vh ph phv (t tm )
A (t ) = 1 e e
ph
representation of the processes easy to understand faithful
enough and easy to use. We will present a model class that v
,in the authors opinion, fulfills the requirements.
AT
Let us consider a sector with constant height h, v ph
1 e
h ph
undercutting rate y extraction velocity , the production area t tm
satisfies the following relation v
A (t ) =
AT
T vh ph phv (t tm )
d A = Vhdt dt 1 e ph
e t tm
ph v


The production rate is T = A ,then
The exploitation is designed whit a constant steady area
vA Ar less than the maximum, to maintain it constant A = 0 is
d A = Vhdt dt required and
ph
% r
vA
The production area satisfies the differential equation = v%h
ph
vA
A+ = vh
ph Since
Vh ph
This equation has a closed form solution Ar <
v
v v
d ph t ph
t we obtain v%h vh
e A = Vh e <
dt v% v%
The solution is So, if the extraction velocity is constant the steady state
undercutting rate is less than the maximum..
v v
vh ph t t
A (t ) = 1 e + Ao e
ph ph
The steady state is reached when
v v
v ph tr
The solution with initial condition is Ar = A ( tr ) = h 1 e ph
v
v
vh ph t
A (t ) = 1 e
ph
The undercut area until tr is htr , the total undercutting
v time, tT satisfies

v
t vhtr + v%h ( tT tr ) = AT
T ( t ) = Vh ph 1 e
ph

AT + ( v%h vh ) tr
tT =
v%h
Considering a finite total area At the undercutting rate in
zero after tm such that
htm = AT

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 505

 For a exploitation with steady state area Ar the solution is The solution for Aq is similar for the basic model
vq
v ph v
t vh ph t

h
1 e
ph
t tr A (t ) = 1 e ph
3vq
A ( t ) = v
v ( t tm )
Ar e ph t > tT If Aqr , Alr are the steady state areas, and k = 3 , we have

3vq Aq 3vl Alr

Model including broken and unbroken material v%h = =
ph 2 p ( h + hs )
h
Let us consider a sector with solid height hs and a height vl Alr = 2 1 + s vq Aq
of broken material above the solid, let pq the broken material h
density. A simplified model for caving propagation can be
built assuming that the process propagates filling the The steady state production capacity is
cavities generated by extraction. let Vq the extracted solid
volume, the broken volume, the balance equation is T = vl Alr + vq Aq
pq ( vq + ve ) = pVq 2h
T = vq Aq 3 + s
pqVe h
Vq =
p pq In term of the steady undercutting rate

If caving propagates vertically let the extraction height, 3vq Aq

the limit for the breaking process, the base area v%h =
ph
pq Bhe
B ( hq he ) = 2h
p pq T = phv%h 1 + s
3h
he p pq 1
= = The production capacity is strongly dependent on the
h p k undercutting rate.

When the whole column is broken, so the extraction

required to complete the process is OPERATION VARIATIONS EFFECTS

he p pq Undercutting rate variation

= If the undercutting rate decreases this results in a flow
h p production lost and the steady state starting is delayed.

The broken material density varies between 1.8 and 2.1 , Let us suppose that since ti and during t the
the in situ material density is 2.7, hence undercutting rate is vh d vh , during the period the break-
ing area evolves according to
2 0.6 he 0.9 1
= = & vA%
9 2.7 h 2.7 3 A% = vh dvh
ph
In practice the column is assumed totally broken when the
extraction is one third of the in situ column. The original area satisfies
vAq
Let Aq , Al , vq , vl the area and extraction velocity for the A& q = vh
breaking zone, the broken height over the in situ material. ph
The breaking area satisfies
So the difference A = A A satisfies
v A
Aq + q q = vh vd A
h d A& = dvh
p ph
k
vq Aq k The complete solution is
Aq + = vh phdv 3vq

ph ( t ti )
h
1 e ph t ti
The broken area satisfies 3vq

d A (t ) = t i < t t i + t
vq Aq k vl Al
3vq 3vq
Al = t ( t tit )
phdvh
ph pq ( h + hs ) 3v 1 e ph
e ph t > t i + t
q
506 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 The steady state starting time satisfies Assuming zero initial condition for Aq , Al and applying to
the differential equations, we obtain
A ( tr + dtr ) Ad ( tr + dtr ) = Aqr
L ( vh )
by definition tr > + tr + t , then the variation is L ( Aq ) =
3v
a+ q
ph dv 3vq ti 3vq t ph
dt r = log 1 + h e ph e ph 3vq 3vl
3vq vh L ( Al ) = a + a +
ph 2 p ( h + hs )

The general rule for calculating the effects of a variation is
L ( vh ) = vh
(1 e ) + 3v Av
0 ar
q qr e0 ar e0 aT
to compare the differential equation with and without the
variation and to derive a equation for the difference. a ph a

Present values calculation
h q vq 3vq hl vl
v= + ch L ( vh )
The continuous version for present value for a flow (t) is 3vq ph 3vq 3v
a + 1
a + ph a + 2 p h + h
ph ( s )
L ( f ) = f ( s ) e as ds
0
Let q , l , c h , the net revenues per ton and the Since all the relations are linear the present value
developing cost per square meter the net flow is variation is the present value of the variation, for example to
evaluate the impact of decreasing de undercutting rate
before the steady state we only need to calculate
u ( t ) = h q vq Aq + hl vl Al ch vh

The present values is

0 t ti
V = h q vq L ( Aq ) + hl vl L ( Al ) ch L ( vh )
dvh ti < t ti +t

vh dvh = 0 ti + t < t tr
3v q 3vv A
tr < t < tT vh q qr t r < t t r + dt r
ph
vh = ph
0 0 t > t r + dt r
e oai
e 3v A e oar e a(tr +dtr )
a ( t1 + t )

t > tT L (dvh ) = dvh + vh q qr

a ph a
We recall that Aq , Al satisfy

hv 3v hl vl
vA dv = q q + q ch L (dvh )
3vq ph 3v
A& q = vh q a + a + q a +
3v1

ph ph ph 2 p ( h + hs )
3vq Aq 3vl Al
A&l =
ph 2 p ( h + hs ) CONCLUSIONS

If we denote the flow derivative then The continuous models for a caving exploitation allow to
build explicit formulae for the evolution of mining parameters
L () = (0) + L() and their variations, additionally explicit formulae for the
present values were built. This way the economical
evaluation is simplified and the analysis ability increased.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 507

 Propagation of a caving zone, A case
Study from PT Freeport, Indonesia
T. Szwedzicki, E. Widijanto, F. Sinaga, PTFI Freeport Indonesia

Abstract
Time Domain Reflectometry was used to delineate changes in size, shape, cave ratio and to define a caving rate of
progressive caving over the Deep Ore Zone Mine at PT Freeport Indonesia. The mine was designed to block cave 600
m with subsequent caving to the surface making the total caving height in excess of 1200 m. TDR cables were monitored
and analyzed against rock mass properties, undercut sequence, production rate and total production.
It was found that the cave rate was related to the rock mass rating (RMR) and on average varied from 0.15 to 1.10
meters per day with an average for three years being 0.6 meter per day. From a time and space distribution of breakage
it was inferred that caving took place in cycles with relatively large caves-in randomly progressing in isolated areas. The
period between cave-ins depended on rock mass properties and varied from one to six weeks.
It was also found that large scale rock mass fracturing took place periodically forming a dilation zone around the cave.
Fracturing extending from tens to hundreds of meters took place in more than six months intervals.

1 INTRODUCTION

PT Freeport Indonesia block caving mines are located

within one geological complex and are divided into three
vertically stacked ore bodies which have been mined by
Gunung Bijih Timur (GBT) Mine, Intermediate Ore Zone
(IOZ) Mine and Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) Mine (Fig. 1). The
GBT Mine was in operation from 1980 to 1993 and
produced 60 million tonnes of ore. The GBT cave (300 m
high) reached the surface in 1986 (Barber et al, 2000).
The IOZ mine started in 1994 and ceased operations in
2003 producing over 50 million tones of ore. The IOZ
cave superimposed on the GBT cave. The vertical
distance between production level of the GBT and IOZ
mines was 200 m. The DOZ mine started in 2000 and by
the end of 2003 produced 22 millions tones. The total
amount of ore mined from the three mines exceeded 132
million tones. The area of the DOZ undercut was 79,300
m2 and the perimeter of the undercut was 1.6 km
(January 2004). The designed height of draw of DOZ
mine was over 600 m with the total cave height from the
production level to the surface being in excess of 1200 m.
The shape of the DOZ mine caving zone was ellipsoidal
with the short axis being 200 m and 400 m (width and Fig. 1. PTFIs Underground Mines Complex
length of the undercut) and the long axis being 600 m
(height of draw). The DOZ cave zone merged with the
GBT and IOZ cave and reflected on the surface in 2003.
Fig. 2 shows surface reflection of the GBT, IOZ and DOZ
block caving mines in January 2004.
Caving reflection on the surface termed subsidence area
was more than 1 km wide and 1.2 km long with the total area
estimated to be 1.2 km2. Area of caving influence i.e. within
a crack line limit was 1.7 km2 (January 2004).
Caving and subsidence monitoring using TDR cables was
carried to:
define a draw rate
determine an air gap between broken ore and the crown
pillar above, and to
determine the shape of the caving zone, caving rate and
the effect of caving on rock mass fracturing.

The shape of the caving zone was crucial from a draw

control point of view. The caving rate and rock mass
fracturing was important to determine the effect of caving on
surface facilities such as main exhaust fans and access
Fig. 2 Subsidence area over block caving mines
roads.

508 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

2 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS AT THE DOZ MINE measure a location of a break along the cable. When caving
intersects the cable, the cable forms an open circuit
The Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) mine is situated within the modifying the internal impedance of the cable.
Ertsberg East Skarn system (EESS) and consists of skarn Consequently the breaking point can be identified in a
assemblages locally intruded by variably altered Ertsberg space by reading the distance from the collar to the
Diorite. Ertsberg diorite forms the footwall with forsterite intersected location. The accuracy of the reading is
skarn, magnetite-forsterite skarn, magnetite and DOZ estimated between 5 to 10 m.
Breccia and marble in the hangingwall (Coutts et al, 1999). TDR cables were installed on the DOZ undercut level (1200
Along the footwall the main diorite body was intruded by m below the surface), the IOZ production level (900 m below
the skarn producing local alternation which resulted in poor the surface) and from the surface (Rachmad, 2002). At IOZ and
ground conditions. The DOZ Breccia zone forms a lenticular DOZ, 33 and 70 cables were installed respectively, making the
zone that can be traced continuously across the western total length of monitored cables to over 14,000 m. At the DOZ
half of the DOZ mining block. The zone contains both diorite TDR holes were drilled up dip at an angle varying from 10 to 30
and skarn fragments within clay-carbonate matrix. degrees. At the IOZ TDR holes were drilled sub horizontally,
Ground conditions within the EESS system are highly with the dip angle varying from 10 to 30 degrees. Fig. 3.
variable. Within good to very good ground conditions there
are elongated zones of very poor ground conditions
characterized by low strength, low core recovery and low
RQD values. The values of the Uniaxial Compressive
Strength (UCS) and Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
together with Rock Mass Rating (RMR) classification are
given in Tab. 1.

Tab. 1. Geotechnical classification

of major rock types, Deep Ore Zone Mine.

Rock type UCS RQD RMR

[MPa] [%]

Forsterite Skarn 127 84 Very good

Forsterite - Magnetite Skarn 56 67 Fair
Magnetite Skarn 97 71 Good
Diorite 111 80 Good
Fig. 3. 3-D view of the TDR cables located around the DOZ
Breccia 2 22 40 Very poor cave zone
Breccia 4 41 45 Poor
In each location, the TDR cables were installed in an
Marble - Sandstone 22 65 Poor
array of 8 15 stations in a fan like manner to cover a large
area so that the cave progression could be determined, Fig.
Caving and fragmentation is a function of geotechnical 4.
properties. The fragmentation distribution for the East side On the DOZ undercut level the TDR cables monitored
of DOZ is shown in table 2. cave initiation and horizontal progression of caving and
fracturing. On the IOZ production level the TDR monitored
Table 2. Average fragmentation in the DOZ east vertical and horizontal propagation of the DOZ caving zone.
The TDRs installed from the surface aimed at assessment
Block size Percentage Cumulative of vertical propagation of the cave zone. However, till
(m) (%) percentage (%) January 2004, the caving zone did not progressed far
enough to the West to be detected by the cables installed
<0.05 38.7 38.7 from the surface.
0.05 0.5 24.9 63.6
0.5 1.0 9.4 73.0
1.00 - 2.00 9.6 82.6
>2.00 17.4 100.0

The rock mass across the DOZ layout consists of diorite

(brittle, massive and competent) rock at the south part of the
layout, breccia (plastic and weak rock) in the middle of the
layout, and marble (friable, low strength) at the north side of
the layout.

3 TDR MONITORING

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) monitoring is widely

used in mining especially for monitoring of cave propagation
(OConnor et al, 1994). Monitoring of TDRs breakage
provides information on timing and volume of the rock mass
affected by cave propagation either by fracturing or caving. Fig. 4. Plan view of the TDR cables location around the DOZ
TDRs consist of coaxial cables that allow to identify and mine caving zone

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 509

4 PROGRESSION OF CAVING of the mine with the purpose of monitoring the effect of the
advanced undercut sequence on weak and plastic breccia
For analysis of the obtained results three series of TDR rock.
cables were selected. Two series were installed at the
bottom part of the cave in the south and north part of the ore
body and the third one at 330 m above, at the IOZ
production level.
Results obtained for a period of over two years were
analyzed i.e. from the first detected TDR breaks surrounding
the DOZ mine until the cave back propagated to the surface.
Results of TDR breaks were calculated as the absolute
length of cables, their horizontal component and their
vertical component. The vertical component of the breaks of
the cables installed at the IOZ mine were used to determine
propagation of the cave to the surface. The horizontal
component of the breaks of the cables installed at the DOZ
mine were used to determine lateral cave propagation. The
absolute length of the breaks were used to determine the
extend of individual collapses of ground.

4.1 Vertical progression of the cave

Nine out of the 33 cables installed at IOZ were used to
estimate the vertical cave progression of DOZ. The original
length of the cables varied from 290 m to 470 m.
The absolute length of broken off cables varied from 10 m
to 120 m. Out of 21 measured cable breaks, four were
longer that 60 m and it could be assumed that these breaks Fig. 6. TDRs break vs. monthly production at the North side
represented rock mass fracturing i.e. formation of a dilation of a caving zone
zone. Four cables broke at the length 25 to 60 m. The
remaining 13 breaks were less that 20 m. 4.2.1 Horizontal progression, South Side
Thirteen out TDR cables that were installed at the south
side of the DOZ undercut level reported breaks. In total 28
breaks were reported and analyzed. Fig. 7 shows the
absolute length of broken cables in time. There were 17
breaks shorter than 30 m, four between 30 m and 60 m and
seven longer than 60 m. The average length of the broken
cables was about 36 m.

Fig. 5. Periodical break of the TDR cables positioned over

the progressive cave zone

During caving cycles the TDR cables were broken in

series over a period from two to four months. Fig. 5
indicates that the caving process was cyclic. The periods of
caving activities were intertwined by periods of stability,
lasting from a month to over two months. Values of the
vertical components of the length of broken cables vs.
monthly production of the panels underneath the
progressive cave are shown in Fig. 6. It can be concluded Fig. 7. Periodical break of the TDR cables at the South side
that it was not the production rate which controlled cave of the DOZ Mine.
progression but rather the total volume of removed rock.
TDRs breakage progressed cyclically. The cycles lasted
4.2 Horizontal progression from a day to about a month, with periods between the
Two sets of TDRs cables were installed on the undercut breakages being about three weeks. Values of the
level of the DOZ East. The first set was installed at the horizontal component of the length of broken cables and
South side of the layout with the purpose of monitoring the position of the advancing cave line vs. monthly production
effect of the advanced undercut sequence on competent from the drawpoint in the immediate vicinity are shown in
diorite rock. The second set was installed at the North side Fig. 8.

510 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The intensity (the average period between breaks of the
cables) and the length of the breaks decreased with time.
There was an indication that caving progressed to the east
of the ore body (in the direction of the undercut). After
undercut passed the over the cables, the cables did not
indicate any ground movement or fracturing. Production rate
from the draw points on the north side of the ore body was
kept steady at the same level and caving was progressively
induced, Fig 10.

Fig. 8. TDR breaks and advancement of the undercut line vs.

monthly production at the south side of the caving zone

The breakage indicating rock mass fracturing took place

in front of the approaching caving face.

4.2.2 Horizontal progression, North Side

Eighteen cables were installed at the undercut level at the
North part in breccia zone (weak and plastic rock) of the Fig. 10. TDR breaks and undercut line vs. monthly
DOZ mine. The length of cables varied from 120 to 160 m. production at north side of DOZ mine
The cables faced the caving front approaching from the
southwest.
Fig. 9 shows the absolute length of broken off cables in 5 ROCK FRACTURING AROUND THE CAVE ZONE
time. In total 20 breaks were recorded. Two cables broke off
at a distance of 50 60 m indicating the large-scale Fig. 8. and Fig. 10. show the position of the undercut in
movement possibly across faults or shear zones and 18 relation of to the breaks of the cables. Analysis indicated that
breaks shorter than 30 m with an average length of a broken some of the TDRs installed at the sides of the DOZ mine broke
off cable being 15 m. Fig. 9 shows the absolute length of the in front of the undercut line and some behind. Breaks located
breaks in time. The cables broke cyclically, as at the South in front of the undercut line indicated rock mass fracturing in
side with cycles of ground movement / caving lasting for a advance of the created void. As the result of that fracturing a
period of four weeks. Periods of rock mass stability varied dilation zone was formed. Breaks located behind the undercut
from two to six weeks. line indicated rock mass disintegration by caving
Rock mass fracturing started immediately over the
undercutting front and advanced in front up to 50 m.
In a few cases the final cracks / fractures were
established in line with the undercut line. However the most
of TDRs revealed that caving behind the advancing face still
took place after stoping undercut and the cave line was
"catching up" with the undercut line.
After the undercut lines reached their limits and advance
stopped, some stress adjustments in the rock mass still took
place with formation of new fractures continued up to six
months, Fig. 10.
In a number cases, a few TDR cables broke at the same
time. With a wide coverage of the cables and large length of
breakages, it can be assumed that the volume of cyclically
fractured rock mass might have exceeded million of tones.
In a case of caving the volume could easily exceed tens of
thousands tones.

6 CAVE RATIO

Cave ratio is defined as the ratio of the cave back height

and the height of draw. The cave rate was estimated based
on TDR breaks and production data. The result proved that
Fig. 9. Periodical break of the TDR cables at the North side the cave ratio was not constant but increases as the cave
of the DOZ Mine. propagates.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 511

 Fig. 11. indicates that for the cave height less than 200 depended on rock mass properties and mining activities and
meters, the range of the cave ratio is between 1 and 4, and in some cases lasted for a few weeks. The periods of caving
at the cave height more than 200 meters the range is were intertwined by periods of rock mass stability. In poor
between 4 and 6. ground conditions an average length of broke cables was 15
Cave growth or cave rate dictates the production rate. m and frequency of caving was higher. In good to very good
When caving slows or stops the production must slow down ground conditions the average length of broken cables was
or stop. It was found that cave rate was related to the class 36 m and the frequency of caving was sparser. The results
of rock mass (RMR): of TDR monitoring proves that most of the caving happens
for marble cave rate was from 0.25 to 1.10 m per day in relatively large fall of ground. The volume of cave in rock
for magnetite skarn was from 0.15 to 0.95 m per day, and as well as time intervals between fall of rock did not depend
for forterite skarn was from 0.08 to 0.30 m per day. on a production rate but rather on the total volume of
production.
Long cable breaks indicated rock mass fracturing and
formation of a dilation zone rather than caving. Cables
installed at the upper part of the mine indicated that the
dilation zone immediately above the void could reach 120
m. The TDR cables installed at the perimeter of the cave
zone indicated that fracturing of the rock mass could take
place in front of progressing undercut to the distance of 50
m. Fracturing in some cases continued even after undercut
stopped progressing.
Propagation of rock mass fragmentation and caving
above the undercut depends on rock mass properties. The
calculated average cave rate (for a period of three years)
was 0.6 m per day. The TDR cables installed in different
geotechnical domains showed that the rate varied from 0.08
m very good ground conditions to 1.1 m in poor ground
conditions.

8 REFERENCES

Barber J, Thomas L, Casten T, 2000, Freeport Indonesias

Deep Ore Zone Mine. Proc. AusIMM MassMin 2000 Conf.
Brisbane, 29 Oct 2 Nov.
Fig. 11. Change in cave ratio with caving height Coutts BP, Susanto H, Belluz N, Flint D, Edwards A, 1999,
Geology of the Deep Ore Zone, Ertsberg East Skarn
For breccia and diorite cave rate was not determined. For System, Irian Jaya. Proc. AusIMM PACRIM Conference,
a period of three years, starting from the first cave after October 10-13.
reaching the hydraulic radius, the cave propagated vertically OConnor KM, Wade LV, 1994, Application of Time
for estimated 645 m i.e. the average cave rate was 0.6 m Domain Reflectometry in the Mining Industry. Proc. Symp
per day on Time Domain Reflectometry in Environmental,
Infrastructure, and Mining Applications. Northwestern
7 CONCLUSIONS University, Illinois, September 17-19.
Rachmad L. Sulaeman A. Cave Management practices at
An analysis of breaks of the TDR cables proved that PT Freeport Indonesias block caving mine. Proc.
caving took in large periodical falls of ground at various NARMS-TAC, (ed Hammah at al). Balkema, 2002
parts of the mined out void. Periods of active caving

512 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Implementation of cave management
system (CMS) tools at the Freeport
DOZ Mine
Eddy Samosir, Project Engineer, Strategic Planning, Freeport-McMoRan Inc
Charles Brannon, Manager, Strategic Planning, Freeport-McMoRan Inc
Tony Diering, Principal Consultant, Gemcom Software International Inc

Abstract
A daily draw order system called CMS has been successfully implemented at the DOZ mine to assist with the cave
management process and to help manage the daily data generation and storage requirements. An effective interface
between CMS and the Modular Dispatch system used for LHD dispatch has been developed. Monthly cumulative figures
are used to deplete the draw column reserves, providing the ability for long-term plans to be adapted accordingly.
Management of the cave shape requires effective control of the ore pulled from the drawpoints. This depends on the
rock type, the drawpoint condition, the height of draw (HOD), the cave profile, the water content, and many other
constraints. The overall process requires effective underground monitoring of drawpoint status, fragmentation, wet muck
draw points and interaction between different panels. Related forecasting tools that have been implemented include PC-
BC applications that produce schedules of ore grades, fragmentation, and rock type distribution.

1 INTRODUCTION 4000 meters, and the DOZ lift of the EESS is located on the
3100 meter level.
The Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) Mine is in the Ertsberg Mining Current operations in the district include the Grasberg
District in Papua, Indonesia. The operation is run by P.T. open pit (200,000 tpd ore) and the DOZ block cave mine
Freeport Indonesia (PTFI) under contract to the Republic of (40,000 tpd).
Indonesia. The PTFI project site is located approximately The DOZ mine is a mechanized block caving operation.
4o-6'S latitude, 137o-7'E longitude (Figure 1), in the The eight cubic yard loader is utilized in DOZ production. In
Sudirman Mountain range of Papua, the eastern most addition, the oreflow system, due to the coarse nature of the
province of Indonesia which occupies the western half of the fragmentation, utilizes truck loading from chutes filled from
island of New Guinea. ore passes from the extraction level, and direct dumped into
The ore deposits, discovered in 1936 and then acquired and a 54 inch gyratory crusher. The DOZ is the third lift of the
developed by PTFI beginning in 1967, are located block cave mine that has exploited the East Ertsberg Skarn
approximately 96 kilometers north from the southwest coast, complex since 1980, and design and operation has
between elevations of 2900m and 4000m above sea level. benefited from the previous experience gained while mining
Access to the project is through the PTFI portsite of the upper lift (GBT) and the intermediate lift (IOZ).
Amamapare on the Tipoeka River, and from the international There are four main levels at the DOZ mine, from top to
airport of Timika, some 43 kilometers north Amamapare. The bottom they are; undercut level, extraction level, exhaust
mine site is 118 kilometers from Amamapare. An access road level, and the truck haulage level. An advanced undercutting
to the mine project site connects the portsite to the mill, passing system is employed at DOZ.
by the Timika airport en route.
DOZ is a copper-gold skarn deposit located on the 2 CAVE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (CMS)
northeast flank of the Ertsberg diorite intrusive body. It
comprises the lower elevations of the East Ertsberg Skarn 2.1 Draw Control at DOZ
System (EESS). The EESS outcropped on surface at about Draw control at the block cave operations has become
progressively more sophisticated over time as the operation
has proceeded through the successive lifts of the mine.
Effective draw control has many goals:
minimize the dilution
prolong the drawpoint life
control convergence at a safe level
control water influx and wet muck
maximize ore recovery

Today a system is in place at the DOZ mine that

addresses these goals by fully integrating production
forecasting, draw control, cave management, draw order,
and compliance to the draw. The Cave Management
System (CMS) is a sub-system of the PC-BC block cave
planning software. The end results from CMS include the
daily draw orders, which are exported directly to the
dispatch system which in turn interfaces with the LHDs. The
Figure 1. Location of PTFIs mining operations. LHD operator is able to read the draw order for the current

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 513

drawpoint from the Modular Dispatch system (Prasetyo, et
al, 2004). CMS thus provides a seamless two-way
connection.
The following sections will discuss the procedures for
implementing the CMS system.

2.2 PC-BC to CMS

PC-BC is a program used by Freeport for studies and
activities ranging from pre-feasibility through to detailed
daily draw control (Diering, 2000).
The ultimate basis for the daily draw order is the
production forecasts generated in PC-BC. The production
forecast schedule is run in PC-BC in "catch-up" mode. The
catch-up concept provides a mechanism for the draw order
to be adjusted so that the actual tonnes can be brought back
in line with the longer term target cumulative tonnages.
One of the PC-BC main objectives with catch-up mode is
to smooth the cave back profile from month to month. The
benefit of the smoother cave back is to avoid a premature
ground water inflow or dilution due to a cave spike or
"chimneying" created. The cumulative tonnes to date, the Figure 2: PC-BC to CMS interaction
latest active drawpoints, and the opening sequence are the
input into this run to create a medium term plan. is in turn based on how long a drawpoint has been idle, the
The long term planner will run PC-BC and generate a percentage drawn for the month, allowable draw rate and
production schedule in which the monthly target tonnage is draw point grade, and geotechnical input. The draw order
generated using the "catch-up" mode. The target tonnes emphasizes an even draw and respects the overall cave
are stored in a SQL database table for shared access by development strategy and long term plan.
PC-BC and CMS users. CMS users will then retrieve the
target tonnes bucket for developing the draw orders. Figure 2.3 CMS Data Process
2 is a simple diagram showing the work flow for getting a At the beginning of the each month, the CMS is set up
new target tonnage for CMS from PC-BC at month end. with the actual historical data (i.e. the monthly development
A monthly draw order is calculated at the beginning of tonnes and grades through the previous month).
each month. The order is based upon the total tonnage The daily actual tonnage per drawpoint is downloaded
requirements but also considers a drawpoint priority which from the Dispatch system and from regular LHD reports of

Figure 3: CMS data processing flowsheet.

514 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 4: Production Rate Curve adjustment due to stopped temporarily condition

the development and undercut tonnage. The Modular 2.5 Drawpoint Priority
Dispatch system will record all of the data from the loader at When generating the daily draw order, drawpoints are
the drawpoint, while the other tonnage will be reported categorized into groups of descending importance or priority
manually by the operator for production from undercut muck as follows:
or development muck to the CMS operator for input into the
Modular system manually (Prasetyo, et al, 2004). The sum Wet Muck
of all these tonnages together is calculated as the actual The highest drawpoints priorities to be pulled are those that
daily tonnage. are wet. Wet drawpoints must be pulled in order to minimize
The CMS operator also inputs the daily drawpoint assay wet mud rush hazards by continually removing water form the
data as an actual grade into the CMS which allows for the caved muck, and to minimize spreading of the wet areas to
assay to be compared against the model grade in the PC- additional drawpoints. The daily or monthly target for the active
BC "slice file". The slice file is essentially a block model of wet muck drawpoints is set up before start of the month. But for
the deposit but with tonnes and grade allocated to individual the new wet muck drawpoint, the daily or monthly target needs
drawpoints in slices, as opposed to blocks in a model. The to be adjusted as soon as it is classified as wet.
slice file grades are derived (per drawpoint) from the
geological block model. Convergence/Geotechnical Stability
Another input into the CMS is the drawpoint status. This The next highest priority drawpoints are those related to
status is one of many CMS parameters used to determine the panel drift convergence. Unfavorable convergence is
the buckets order per drawpoint. These parameters are often related to the mucking history. By prioritizing the
shown in Figure 3 below. mucking plan, the stress is more evenly distributed and
Beside the inputs, as shown above, within CMS there are convergence mitigated. As with the wet muck drawpoints,
other inputs that need to be completed while running the unfavorable convergence drawpoints must be mucked
through the process, such as current date, total order for the out regardless of whether month-to-date tonnage has been
day, etc. achieved or not.
Sometimes the daily order will vary from the average
remaining tonnage of the month, for instance on crusher Drawbell
preventive maintenance (PM) schedule, oreflow system PM Newly blasted drawbells are pulled hard until production
schedule, production demands, etc. For these particular reaches the first 6,000 tonnes, the theoretical blasted
types of cases, a "manual tonnage adjustment" is utilized quantity of material in the drawbell. This is the next priority
that allows CMS to force a higher or lower daily draw order to provide enough space to propagate the cave.
than its calculated remaining tonnage.
Underpull Drawpoints
2.4 The Principal of the Daily Order Calculation The PRC for the underpull drawpoints need to be adjusted
The basic driver for the draw order calculation is the from day to day in the draw order to catch the tonnage target
required tonnage target for the month. If the drawpoint is for the month.
hung up for a period of time, or if another temporary
production interruption occurs, the production rate curve Normal Drawpoint
(PRC, inches/day) will be adjusted for the subsequent daily These will have a regular order limited by daily maximum
order. The conceptual diagram in Figure 4 illustrates the PRC.
philosophy. After a period of time in which a drawpoint is
behind target production, the PRC is adjusted by CMS, Ovepull Drawpoint
within limits, to allow the drawpoint to catch up to the The overpulled drawpoints, those where the month to
monthly target. date production is above the plan, in the normal condition

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 515

Figure 5: Drawpoint type based on CMS priority hierarchy

will typically be ordered as idle. These drawpoints can be example of part of one daily draw order summary. The
pulled only if there is insufficient tonnage available from output highlights drawpoints that may require attention by
other drawpoints due to hung up or other temporary stop the operations group, such as drawpoints that have been
condition. Figure 5 below shows the drawpoint priority idle too long, newly hung-up, newly released, etc.
hierarchy for the conditions described above. When CMS is run, an ascii data file of the draw order
is created automatically. Then with one "import"
2.6 Output command this file is imported directly into the Modular
CMS produces a daily draw order, as well as tabulations system and ready to use as a daily draw order. This daily
of compliance to the draw, drawpoint status, comparisons of draw order will be available at the LHDs using the
actual grade versus model grade, etc. Figure 6 shows an Dispatch System.

DOZ-Draw Order (3 Shifts)

Panel Bucket WMT DMT %Cu ppm Au

P26 144 16.27 1.557 0.82 0.62

P27 27 305 292 1.07 0.45
Sub-total 4.269 48.240 46.162 1.15 0.74
Develop - 2,986 2,857 0.80 0.30
Total 4,269 51,225 49,019 1.13 0.71

Description Status Description Status

Dry Coarse A 214 Hang up (A) A/H 0

Dry Fine B 5 Temp Close (A) A/T 1
Wet Coarse C 0 Hang up (B) B/H 0
Very Wet Coarse D 2 Temp Close (B) B/T 0
Draw Point D/P 0 Close Permanent CP 18
DrawBell DB 2 Temp Close (D) D/T 1
Wet Fine E 0 Temp Close (E) E/T 0
Very Wet Fine F 0 Temp Close (F) F/T 0
Overpull OP 0 Temp Close (C) C/T 1
Special Order SP 18 Hang up (C) C/H 0
Total Active DPTS 241 Total Close DPTS 21

DP_id require action Daya idle %Drawn Status New Hangup New released

Temp closed draw points-Idle too long

P13-04W 16 0% CP P21-07W P18-009E
P13-06W 7 0% A/T P19-10W P19-09W
P16-02E 20 0% CP P17-11E

Figure 6: Daily Draw order summary.

516 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Drawpoint closure tracking is another output. This
analysis is based on the current height of draw (HOD)
compare to its best HOD and the average grade for the
month. If the actual grade for a month is consistently lower
than the reserve grade, CMS will recommend the closure of
the drawpoint. Final decisions on closure involve other
criteria in addition to grade, such as geotechnical
(convergence) considerations.
Production tonnes and grade daily outputs of the actual
and the reserve grade, results from CMS. The outputs are
produced in various formats that can highlight individual
drawpoints, panels, or mining areas. The month to date
tonnage and historical grade information is also available
from the CMS, and once finalized and reconciled becomes
the official production data.

3 QUALITY CONTROL AND RESULTS

3.1 Field Inspection

Figure 7: DOZ historical compliance to the draw order.
To ensure that the draw order is executed and reported
well, a field inspection of the drawpoints is conducted daily.
This field inspection takes place at the same time that the 3.3 Results
draw control crew collects drawpoint samples for assay. One of the objectives of the CMS is to maintain as
The muckpile in the drawpoint is marked with the date by consistent and smooth a cave back as possible. Figures 8
spray paint when the draw control personnel take the grab and 9 illustrate the monthly progress of the draw profiles for
samples. This is a mark reviewed on the following day by two more mature panels in the mine. Each curve represents
the draw control crew. The crew will make sure that there is successive months.
no tonnage reported from the drawpoint if the mark is still in Panel 16 East, for example (Figure 8), at the beginning
the drawpoint. If there is production reported, then the draw drawpoint 3E had excessive draw, relative to adjacent
control supervisor will report this to the production drawpoints. As the draw order was controlled over the
supervisor and remove the recorded tonnage from the last 10 months, the cave profile gradually smoothed out
modular mining. The marked drawpoint also alerts the draw and height of draw variances controlled. Panel 18 East
control crew for over-idle drawpoints so that they can be (Figure 9) is similar, except that the draw profile was
brought to the attention of the operations staff for action. maintained smooth since initiation of mining and was well
maintained.
3.2 Compliance
To evaluate the mucking performance to the daily order, 4 SUMMARY
the draw compliance is analyzed daily. The draw
compliance is a degree of expectation of how close the The CMS was installed at the DOZ mine in late 2001.
actual tonnage is to the daily draw order. Compliance is Since that time the overall draw compliance at DOZ has
calculated on individual drawpoint basis rather than the total improved significantly. The man-hours required to
tonnage. Perfect compliance would give a value of 100%. generate the daily order is greatly reduced, and more
The formula below shows how the compliance is calculated: importantly, the draw order and compliance to the draw
is now more independent of individual operator
% Compliance = 1 - (S abs (order-actual)/S order) preference. Finally, the real benefit of the CMS system
is in the improved draw profile which will help to reduce
Where, dilution, improve draw point stability, maximize ore
% Compliance is degree of the expectation recovery, and greatly assist development of accurate
absolute (order-actual) is sum of absolute order to actual production forecasts.
order is sum of the order

There are other ways this calculation could be done, but

experience has shown that this formula works well for DOZ.
DOZ compliance shows a continual improvement over
time since it has been used. Figure 7 below shows the
historical compliance from January 2002 through December
2003 on a monthly basis.
Initially, the compliance target was set to 60%.
Gradually, the target was increased by 5% per month,
up to the current 90% target. Some months had worse
compliance compared to the previous month. Usually
there was a reasonable explanation, i.e. unexpected
loading point problems or unexpected longer hung-up
period, etc.
In the beginning the compliance implementation was
not so easy. The habit of production personnel was to
produce as much ore as possible, regardless of the draw
order. Now, however, there is a better general
understanding of the benefits of good compliance, so that
the draw order process is well followed right through to
the dispatch system. Figure 8: Panel 16 East cave height of draw over time.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 517

 5 REFERENCES

Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC: A block cave design and draw

control system. Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
pp. 469-484.
Diering, T, 2004. Combining long term scheduling and
daily draw control for block cave mines. Proceedings
MassMin 2004, Santiago.
Prasetyo, et. al. Use of the Modular Dispatch System to
Control Production Operations at the DOZ Block Cave
Mine. Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago

Figure 9: Panel 18 East cave height of draw over time.

518 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Development and measurement
of the subsidence zone associated with
SLC mining operations at Perseverance
WMC, Leinster Nickel Operations
Duncan Tyler, Geotechnical Manager, Nickel Business Unit,
Andrew Campbell, Geomechanics Engineer (Planning), Leinster Nickel Operations,
Stephen Haywood, Senior Surveyor, Leinster Nickel Operations,
WMC Resources Ltd, Western Australia

Abstract
The Perseverance mine is located 15 km north of Leinster and 370 km north of Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. The mine
produces approximately 40,000 tonnes of nickel per annum with the majority of the ore extracted from the sub level cave
(SLC). All development and infrastructure is located in the hanging wall and current mining is at the 9715mRL (805m
depth). The mine has ongoing reserves for a further 12-years of extraction, with extraction of the SLC scheduled to
9400m RL (1122m depth).
The first signs of surface failure as a result of underground extraction were observed in December 1995. The ongoing
use of the SLC mining method has lead to wide spread discontinuous subsidence and toppling failure in the area
surrounding the previously completed open pit. The proximity of the mines surface infrastructure to the ore body makes
it likely that almost all major surface infrastructures will ultimately be subjected to some level of cave related
displacements. This paper discusses the observations made using the cave monitoring systems at Perseverance and
discusses the potential impacts of surface subsidence on critical mine infrastructure.

1 INTRODUCTION 1. The majority of the critical infrastructure required for the

operations was sited prior to the development of the
The Perseverance mine is located 15km north of Leinster Perseverence pit and the use of SLC mining methods.
and 370km north of Kalgoorlie. The deposit comprises a
disseminated nickel sulphide resource of approximately Table 1: Mining timeline for the Perseverance
45Mt nominally grading at 2% nickel and several smaller main disseminated ore body
orebodies comprising narrow veins of massive nickel
sulphide grading to 8%. Since 1994, the majority of the Date Depth, m Mining Method
disseminated orebody has been mined by the sub-level
caving method. The cave broke through to surface in 1995. 1989 to 1995 0 to 190 Open Cut
This paper documents the progression of the cave front and
1978 to 1986 190 to 375 Post Pillar (AMC)
the methods of monitoring employed.
June 94 to June 1998 375 to 500 Sublevel Cave
2 MINING OPERATIONS N/A 500 to 600 Un mined
(temporary pillar)
The Perseverance orebody was discovered in the 1970s
and was initially mined by the Agnew Mining Company June 97 to Present 600 to 805 Sublevel Cave
between 1978 and 1986 when the mine was mothballed due
to difficult ground conditions and a low nickel price. The 3 GEOLOGY AND GEOMECHANICS
lease was purchased by WMC Resources Ltd in 1989 and
an open cut pit was established above the existing mine 3.1 Geology
workings (Perseverance pit) whilst underground The Perseverance nickel deposit is situated in the
development and rehabilitation continued in preparation for Archaean Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia. The main
full scale underground mining. The Perseverance pit was disseminated ore body occurs within ultramafic komatiite
completed at a depth of 190m in 1995. and dunite rocks set in the intensively deformed eastern part
Most of the nickel in the Perseverance resource is of the Agnew-Wiluna greenstone belt. The nickel
contained in the ultramafic hosted disseminated ore body mineralisation occurs as massive and disseminated
which, apart from remnant mining around old stopes, WMC sulphides hosted by ultramafic-serpentinite lithologies
Resources has mined exclusively by sub-level cave (SLC) (Barnes et al, 1988).
methods since 1995. The Perseverance deposit is bounded to the west by
However, the disseminated ore body at Perseverance has deformed felsic meta-sedimentsand to the east by barren
not been mined exclusively by means of SLC. Historically, ultramafics. The disseminated ore body is defined by a one
several mining methods have been used, as shown in Table per cent Ni grade boundary and is typically about 80m wide

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 519

(east-west) and 150m long, see Figure 1. The dip of the 3.2 Geomechanics
disseminated ore body is sub-vertical towards the west with The vertical stratigraphy can be summarised as 80m of
an inflection zone between the 10100 and 9900mRls (420m sapprolite, a 40m transition then fresh rock below.
to 620m below surface) where the dip flattens to around 45 The indicative UCS for the fresh meta-sediments is
before steepening again below the 9900mRl (Figure 2). The 150MPa and for the ultramafics 90MPa.
ground surface is taken as 10520mRl. Stress measurements have been undertaken down to
9400mRl using HI cells and hydraulic fracturing (AMC
2004). The results of the measurements within the hanging
wall felsic metasediments can be summarised as:
Sigma 1 = 0.0642z MPa, dip 22 towards 112
Sigma 2 = 0.0367z MPA, dip 28 towards 010
Sigma 3 = 0.0250z MPa, dip 53 towards 235
Z is the depth below original surface in metres.

There are several major structural features close to and

passing through the ore bodies at Perseverance. These
include a proterozoic dolerite dyke that dips north at
approximately 60, a gabbro dyke that passes between the
Progress and 1A ore bodies, and a hanging wall sheared
contact between the main disseminated ore bodies and the
felsics, see Figure 1.

Seven joints sets are identified in the felsic waste, three of

which are combined to create rhombic blocks:
J1 80 / 286 Foliation, occ faulted
J2 73 / 200 Planar joints, occ sheared
J3 22 / 196 Planar joints, often faulted

4 SURFACE CAVE CHARACTERISATION

The surface deformation due to caving can be defined

into three zones; the cave zone, the fracture zone and the
stable zone. At Perseverance, each of these zones displays
characteristic modes of failure as described below.

Cave Zone
Defined in terms of absolute deformation and rates of
movement. The current cave front along the western
margin is essentially defined by a 20m high scarp. Survey
Figure 1: Geology plan on 9700mRl. prisms within the cave zone have generally moved at a
rate >25mm/year, with prisms moving at up to
1500mm/year. The interface with the fracture zone
generally represents a discontinuity both physically and in
terms of deformation rates.
Fracture Zone
Defined in terms of absolute deformation and rates of
movement. Cracks up to 50mm wide are evident but
these are often discontinuous. Prisms within the fracture
zone generally move at a rate of 10 to 20mm/year.
Onset of the stable zone
Onset of the stable zone is defined in terms of rate of
movement. GPS stations tend to be used and the rates
are typically < 10mm/year.

5 CAVE MONITORING

Since 2000, significant resources have been allocated to

measuring and monitoring the surface expression of the
cave and its effect on the surface/sub-surface infrastructure.
This was driven by the acceleration of obvious surface
movement towards critical items of infrastructure including
the main shaft, F93 vent shaft and southern vent shaft
(SVS).
Prior to this only qualitative methods had been used to
monitor the cave. The most enduring of these has been
photogrammetry, which can be traced back to the early
1980s. A basic manual prism monitoring program was
established along with surveying a number of points using
Figure 2: Geology section looking north. Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS located around the pit.

520 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Neither derived any useful data that could be used for future 5.2 Quantitative ground monitoring
reference. GPS
Since 2000, rigorous monitoring programs have been A series of sixty six GPS stations are strategically placed
implemented, including an extensive GPS program outside the cave zone in a series of nominally radial lines.
capable of recording true movements down to 5mm and Stations are also concentrated around the SVS. The GPS
survey prisms with an accuracy of 20mm. The types points are used to monitor deformation up to 100mm. A
and effectiveness of monitoring systems currently in use high resolution Leica SR530 GPS receiver and AT 503
at Perseverance are shown in Table 2 and discussed "Choke ring" antenna combination is used to record point
below. positions. Each point consists of a concreted solid
stainless steel shaft with a machined 5/8th inch thread to
force center the antenna. Two control base stations
Table 2: Appraisal of monitoring systems located 4km apart enable dual differential solution for the
roaming rover unit. Each reading takes approximately 30
Element Strengths Limitations minutes, after which the receiver is moved to the next
station. The point accuracy obtained using this method
Photography Low CapEx./OpEx. Non quantitative has been found to be in the order of 5mm in the
Quick, easy, Image only horizontal plane and 10mm in the vertical plane.
instantaneous record Prisms Monitoring
Sixty one prisms are located within the western and
Surface mapping Low CapEx/OpEx. Time consuming southern margins of the cave and fracture zones.
Quantitative, Interpretational These are surveyed on a daily basis, via an automated
details detected. Leica Total Station TCRA1100. The instrument is linked
via radio, to a PC based software program
GPS High precision & High CapEx./ (QuickslopeTM) located at the survey office several
accuracy in X,Y OpEx. kilometers away from the instrument station. The
& Z planes. Extensive setup system has an average sighting error of 20mm in both
Millimeter detection. required the horizontal and vertical planes, with a distance error
Early warning Long term. of 2mm. The prisms are positioned in areas where
Intensive monitoring displacements are expected to be >100mm/yr, many
are now well within the cave zone. All readings
Survey prisms Mod CapEx./OpEx. Limited Accuracy automatically have reference corrections applied to
Program easy to Atmospheric them via the software for atmospherics.
setup - fully automated conditions Bi-axial inclinometer
Centimeter detection A single 80m long bi-axial inclinometer was comissioned
near to the SVS in January 2003. This instrument is read
Inclinometers Low Cap Ex./Op Ex. Reading error on a monthly basis.
Continuous data Discrete X, Aerial Photogrammetry
with depth Y points This has been undertaken 6 times since the cave broke
through: 1995, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004. Initially
Aerial Low CapEx. High OpEx. fly-overs were not undertaken with measurement of
Photogrammetry Cover large areas Limited subsidence in mind and the resolution on contour plots
quickly resolution was 500mm. Since 2001, flyovers allow subsidence
(quoted 200mm) resolutions of 200mm. This information is otho-scaled and
digital terrain models created.
Laser & tape Low CapEx./OpEx. Limited coverage
extensometer High accuracy Localised result 5.3 Quantitative surface infrastructure moniting
Laser & tape extensometer
Precise leveling High CapEx. Low OpEx. These methods have been used to monitor differential
Early warning Intensive monitoring foundation movements.
Sub millimeter Weather variant Precise leveling
detection This is conducted on all the critical infrastructure within
the potential region of the fracture zone. This includes the
main shaft, F93 vent shaft and SVS.
A Leica NA3003 precise level, capable of measuring to
5.1 Qualitative surface & underground monitoring 0.01mm is used in conjunction with fixed invar strips
Photography and a 4m bar-coded staff. Individual traverses are
Photographs have been taken progressively of the open performed around each of the structures to detect
pit, starting in 1995. They are taken from specific locations settlement. A linking traverse connects each of the
on a routine basis. No effort has been made to ortho-scale structures to a dual benchmark (common reference
them. point). The quality of results allows detection of sub
Surface Mapping millimeter movements.
Since July 2000 the surface effects of caving have been Multi point extensometers
mapped on a six monthly basis. New or continuing cracks Wire extensometers have been installed in deep
are marked and surveyed using RTK GPS and added to boreholes to monitor key strucures.
a composite map.
Underground Mapping 5.4 Quantitative underground monitoring
Since June 2000 the effects of the cave on 3 Level (3L) Multi point extensometers
infrastructure (10030mRl) has been mapped on an Rod and wire borehole extensometers have been
approximately annual basis. This is recorded on a installed at various levels in the hanging wall to monitor
composite underground level map. the cave development.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 521

Figure 3: Surface cave history with mined footprint to 1997.

522 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 4: Surface cave history with mined footprint 1998 to 2003.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 523

 Figure 5: Prism monitoring data, prism 17

6 CAVE HISTORY quadrant of the pit. To date, approximately 1.4 Mt of waste

has been tipped.
6.1 Surface The limit of the stable zone to the west of the pit has not
The history of SLC mining and cave propogation at the been established conclusively. GPS stations over 500m
surface is summarised in Figures 3 and 4. These plans are from the pit show movements of 5mm/year towards the
based on interpretation of air photographs, walk-over cave. Fine cracking of less than 2mm has been observed
surveys and GPS / prism data. parallel to the cave front 300m to the west.
SLC mining commenced on the 10145mRl in August 1994 To date the SVS inclinometer has not indicated any lateral
and the cave broke through into the floor of the pit in 1995. movement. However, a GPS point directly on it indicates
The initial cave break-through was closely related to the 15mm movement toward the cave to date. The discrepancy
mined foot print of 1994/95. In the following two years the
cave zone moved rapidly to the south and west before
extending north west. The fracture zone expanded ahead of
the cave zone at a rapid rate. By 1998, a distinct nose
remained in the northwest; this corresponded to an unstable
wall feature in the pit that had been buttressed during pit
mining.
Interpreted expansion of the cave zone in 1999 prompted
increased monitoring.
Cave zone advance slowed significantly on the western
margin after 2000 but acclerated to the south over the
period 2001-04. The western limit of the fracture and cave
zones have remained largely unchanged since 1999 and
2001 respectively. This is consistent with the westerly dip of
the orebody steepening to near-vertical below 9920mRl
(extraction completed in 1998) and increased mining
towards the south. Mining is currently advancing on the
9740, 9715 and 9690mRls (780 to 830m depth). In general
there appears to be a one to two year lag between mining
levels and the development of associated surface damage.
However, there is a direct relationship between mining and
cave movement in the cave zone. During 2003 a shaft re-fit
was carried out between 30 Sept and 31 Oct leading to a
significant reduction in SLC production. During this period,
movement as recorded by prisms in the cave zone almost
ceased. This response to reduced mining was detected
within 48-hours (see Figure 5). However, corresponding
prism movement in the fracture zone was unaffected.
Buttressing of the F93 shaft area has been undertaken
since 2001 by tipping mine waste into the north western Figure 6: Cave zone development on 3 Level.

524 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

is attribuited to inclinometer casing failure at 80m depth, GPS stations are routinely replaced with prisms once the
which is just above the fresh rock interface. total movement exceeds 100mm and/or when access for
The has been no evidence of wall instability on the east reading is deemed to be unsafe. The GPS stations are then
wall of the pit. relocated. New automated GPS stations are to be trialled
with solar panel power supply and modem connection to the
6.2 Underground base station. Gyroscopic surveys of the shaft guide rails are
Observation of caving underground is difficult as proposed.
production levels are generally barricaded shortly after Biennial reviews of the cave zone will be carried out by
completion of mining. However, access is possible on 3L to external consultents.
a ventilation drive that was developed to the west of the
cave zone in 2000, prior to the collapse of 3L access drive. 9 CONCLUSIONS
Multi-point wire extensometers were installed from the vent
drive to monitor cave development. Visual assessment can The implementation of robust surface and underground
also be made on the north and south ends of the cave zone. monitoring systems has allowed routine measurement of
The interpreted 3L cave zone is shown in Figure 6. both the cave and fracture zone development associated
Expansion of the cave zone over the period 2001-04 is with the Perseverance SLC.
between 10 and 25m. The least expansion has been to the Monitoring should ideally commence prior to development
west and is greatest at the northen and southern ends, of the cave as the data gleaned from the systems is vital
consistent with surface cave deformations over that time. to allow for long term strategic planning.
Development and implementation of monitoring systems
7 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS & PREDICTION is time consuming and requires site champions to ensure
their long term survival.
Review of Laubscher cave cones was undertaken by SRK At Perseverance there is a one to two year lag between
Consulting in 2002 and shown is in Table 3. level completion and its impact on the surface. However,
prisms in the cave zone indicate that there is negligible lag
between SLC production and movement in this zone. This
Table 3: Laubscher Cave Angles (after SRK, 2002)
suggests elastic continuity between the surface and the
production horizons through the caved material.
mRl Factor MRMR Cave Angle
Cave and fracture zone development is not impacted by
10520 10400 0 30 35 rainfall events.
The cave zone was defined by a Laubscher cone to the
10400 10360 0.2 37 52 north and west in July 2002. This work will be reviewed
10360 10330 0.5 39 64 and updated in May 2004.
At present, the main shaft is not expected to be impacted
10330 10200 3.2 42 80 by the cave zone when SLC production reaches
10200 10030 11.8 40 83.6 9400mRl.
10030 9960 17.2 39 84.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
9960 9900 22.9 37 85.2
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues at the
9900 9760 40.8 29 87.0
Perseverance Mine who provided aid and assistance to this
9760 9715 47.5 29 87.5 paper. The authors acknowledge the permission given by
9715 9615 64.5 29 88.4 WMCs Nickel Business Unit to publish this paper.

9615 9490 89.0 29 89.5 REFERENCES

9490 - 9415 104.3 30 89.9
AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, 2004. Rock Stress
Measurement 9590 Progress Incline. AMC report
The method was calibrated to both site monitoring data 103127, issued to WMC Resources January 2004.
and cave observations for the west and northern cave zone. Barnes, SJ, Gole, MJ, Hill, RET, 1988. The Agnew Nickel
It is noted that the east wall of the pit is stable and that a line Deposit, Western Australia: Part I. Structure and
projected up along the east edge of the mined areas to the Stratigrphy. Economic Geol., 1988 Vol 83., 524-536.
surface suggests that the cave angle is at least 75 in the SRK Consulting, 2002. Assessment of possible
ultramafic. subsidence zones Perseverance SLC 6 to 11 level,
The SRK report indicated that the main shaft will not fall Hanging wall inclusive. SRK report WM212, issued to
inside the cave zone when scheduled SLC extraction to the WMC Resources July 2002.
9400mRl is completed.

8 FUTURE MONITORING & ANALYSIS

Additional monitoring is planned for areas around the

main shaft and the F93 vent shaft. This will consist of 200m
deep inclinometers sited to the south east of each shaft.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 525

526 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 14
Rock Mass
Pre - Conditioning
528 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Hydraulic fracturing used
to precondition ore and reduce
fragment size for block caving
Enrique Chacn, Victor Barrera, El Salvador Division, Codelco Chile
Rob Jeffrey, CSIRO Petroleum, Australia
Andre van As, AVA Mine Geotechnical Services, Australia

Abstract
A full-scale experiment was carried out in a block of primary ore from the 2600 level of Salvador mine to investigate the
use of hydraulic fracturing to precondition the ore for caving. A reduction in the size of rock fragments produced during
caving is the main concern in this orebody. Ten monitoring boreholes were drilled around a central injection hole at the
site to allow fracture pressure, growth rate, opening and stress change to be measured. Seismic cross-hole velocity
mapping was carried out before, during and after the hydraulic fracturing and two of the fractures were mined and
mapped on the undercut level below the site. The site was extensively characterized by conducting overcore stress
measurements and microfrac breakdown measurements. Rock property and geological data was obtained from the mine
database. From direct measurement of fracture intersection with monitoring holes the fracture growth rate and orientation
was determined. Stress change monitoring was used to measure the maximum stress change caused by the fractures
and helped in orienting the fractures, which were sub-vertical. Microseismic events at 1 to 3 per second were recorded
during the growth phase of the fractures and cross hole seismic measurements made before and after the treatments
revealed a significant change in compressional wave velocity, corresponding to a change in rock strength.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Salvador block caving copper mine, a division of

Codelco, is located in the northern part of Chile, in the
Atacama desert, about 800 km north of Santiago. Much of
the ore extracted from the mine over past years has come
from the oxidized zone of the porphyry copper orebody.
However, much sulfide primary ore remains in the deposit
and is of mineable grade, but the panel caving operations
result in a significant amount of oversized rock blocks that,
in turn, cause production delays and increase mining costs.
Therefore, methods to precondition the primary ore in order
to increase fragmentation during mining are being
investigated by the mine.
Salvador mine therefore offered the International Caving
Study II a site on the 2600 level of the Inca east sector of the
mine where the project described in this paper could be
carried out. Figure. 1 shows a 3D view of part of the
Salvador mine with the shaded cube corresponding to the
experiment site. HF02 was the injection borehole and was
drilled downward into the 100 x 100 x 100m block of ore
beneath the 2600 level. A caving operation was approaching
Figure 1: Overview of site at Salvador mine.
the site from the east, as indicated in Figure. 1.

2 DESCRIPTION OF SITE The contact between the oxidized and primary ore cuts
across the site just south of overcore stress measurement
The injection borehole, HF02, was drilled to the east at holes OC3 and OC2. Stress measurements, made in the
59 degrees dip. Around HF02, ten monitoring boreholes primary ore at OC4, were therefore relied on to site the
(also nominal 60 degree dip to the east) were drilled from boreholes. In addition, a vertical HQ-size hole was drilled
this area of the mine previously used as an underground (HF01 in Figure. 2) and, during March 2002, five hydraulic
garage and workshop. A grid-work of shotcreted tunnels, fractures were placed in it at depths of 27 to 49 m below the
about 5m x 5m in cross section, made up the garage and collar. This work was undertaken to test the operation of the
allowed easy access for the drilling and pumping new fracturing pump and to verify the orientation of the
equipment and for instrumentation activities. Figure. 2 fractures formed so that HF02 and the monitoring holes
contains a plan of the experimental area, showing the drilled around it were correctly positioned. The fracturing
tunnels and collar positions of the boreholes used. work in HF01 produced fractures that intersected the garage
Overcore stress measurement sites are also shown in tunnels 10 m to the east of HF01. Acoustic scans of HF01
this figure as OC-01 etc. showed nearly vertical fracture traces that left the hole with

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 529

Figure 2: Plan view of site on 2600 level showing injection
and monitor holes.

a west dip. As a result, the monitoring and injection holes at

the main experimental site were drilled dipping at 60
degrees to the east. This orientation allowed more
consistent isolation of the fractures formed using inflatable
straddle packers.
Figure 3 shows one of the post-fracture acoustic scans of
the injection borehole HF02. The trace of the hydraulic
fracture on the borehole wall can be clearly seen. The
fracture has initiated, because of stress concentrations
Figure 3: Acoustic scan log of the fracture at 57.5m in HF02.
around the hole, as an axial fracture and then rotated to
align with the far-field stress. The strike of the fracture is
north-south, based on the trace in the borehole and the single connected features for 30 to 50 m from the injection
fracture is turning from the borehole dip of 590 E to a dip of point, or for farther if higher injection rates or more fluid is
about 750 W (based on intersection data and stress change used in each treatment. The in-situ stress field is changed
interpretations). As the fracture realigns itself with the stress by the fracturing, as reflected in part by microseismic
field, a number of en echelon branches formed. These activity, and by residual opening locked into the main
multiple fractures increase the fluid friction losses as the fracture channel. Shearing of natural fractures will tend to
fracturing fluid is pumped through them, but they are reduce stress differences while the locked in deformation
expected to only extend for a short distance near the can increase the minimum principal stress and, eventually,
borehole. lead to changes in the hydraulic fracture preferred growth
The initiation along the borehole axis also gives the direction.
fracture an S-shape for a few meters near the hole, which in In the rock mass at Salvador, the mine through data
turn means the two wings of the fracture are offset slightly collected and discussed later in this paper, clearly
above and below the depth of the straddle section. demonstrates that the hydraulic fractures cross most veins
Development of such offsets results in less control of the and filled joints and form new fractures through unbroken
exact placement of the fractures along the hole and the rock. Interactions are with weaker sheared joints which can
effective spacing between fractures may vary. Some be taken to form the primary block size in the ore before the
fracture treatments may open existing natural fractures that introduction of hydraulic fractures. Therefore, the spacing
are favorably oriented at the borehole. In these cases, the between the hydraulic fractures should have a strong effect
offset that is suggested by the trace in Figure 3 may be on final fragment.
small or non existent. The fracture traces observed in HF02
were fairly consistent and would be expected to produce 4 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
similar offsets from the straddle, implying that the effective
fracture spacing away from the hole may not be severely Hydraulic fractures are initiated in a borehole by
affected by the offsetting. Modification of the straddle pressurizing an isolated section of the hole. The fracturing
packers to allow the pressure to load the borehole axially fluid, which can be water or a thicker water-based gel, is
and notching of the borehole ahead of fracturing could be injected into a straddle section between two inflatable
implemented to better control the fracture initiation and packers. The pressure in the hole induces tensile stresses
effective spacing. along the hole axis that eventually exceeds the tensile
strength of the rock, initiating a fracture there. This fracture
3 FRAGMENTATION is extended by the fluid entering and pressurizing it.
Alternatively, natural fractures that intersect the borehole
Primary fragmentation is determined by the rock structure may be opened by the fluid injection. In some cases the
and strength interacting with the stress acting during caving hydraulic fracture may follow along a succession of natural
(Brown, 2003). Hydraulic fracturing can modify all of these fractures, extending them and linking them up into a
main controlling parameters. Hydraulic fracturing forms continuous fracture plane.
new fractures through the rock mass, connects and In either case, the hydraulic fracture tends to grow in the
weakens existing natural fractures, and modifies the plane of the maximum and intermediate in-situ principal
strength (by pressurizing and resulting shearing) of natural stresses and to open against the minimum principal stress.
fractures and joints in the rock on either side of the main The pressure to extend the fracture must exceed the
hydraulic fracture path. The hydraulic fractures extend as minimum principal stress magnitude. In addition, an excess

530 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

pressure above the minimum stress magnitude must exist 3.2 Fracture Growth
that produces fracture opening and stress concentration at Intersections with extensometers and piezometers
the leading edge of the fracture that are sufficient to break grouted into monitor holes M2 and M7 and with holes
the rock as the fracture extends. monitored with packers (M1 and M8) provide a direct
measure of the fracture growth in the rock mass at Salvador.
3.1 Fracture Treatments Figure 5 contains a summary of the fracture growth data
An electric-driven triplex pump capable of pumping 215 from several treatments. A power law curve fits the data and
liters per minute at up to 35 MPa pressure was used to provides an empirical fracture size versus time relationship
produce the fractures at Salvador. The injection string that can be used to design fracture treatments in this rock
consisted of BQ drill rods with an inflatable open-hole mass.
straddle packer used to isolate 0.5 m long sections of the The growth relationship is:
hole for each treatment. R = 7.56t0.55 (1)
Fractures were initiated in borehole HF02 at depths down
the borehole of from 50 to 70 m below the collar. The two The relationship given by equation 1 is for water fracturing
fractures that were mapped during mining were placed 112 fluid injected at 215 lpm. A numerical model that fits the
and 118m below the collar. The treatments produced growth data can be used to consider the effect of changing
fracture intersections with monitoring holes located to the the fluid, injection rate or injected volume on the fractures
north and to the east of the injection hole, but not in monitor produced.
holes located south and west of HF02. Fracturing fluid was
usually noted coming from the tunnel floor and walls 15 to 3.3 Fracture Stress Change and Orientation
30 m east of HF02, consistent with a 70 dip of the fractures Stress change monitoring cells were installed in BQ
to the west. The fracture treatments are summarised in boreholes located about 7m north and south of HF02. Two
Table 1. ANZI stress change cells (Mills, 1997) were installed in
A typical treatment record is contained in Figure 4 for each hole at about 40m from the collar. During each of the
fracture treatment 1. In addition to the treating pressure and fracture treatments, the stress change sensed by these
injection rate, the plot shows pressure response at monitor cells was logged every 15 seconds. Analysis of this data
holes M1 and M8. The rapid rise in pressure at these holes, gives the 3D stress change tensor induced by the
located about 25m from HF02, is associated with arrival of hydraulic fracture. The maximum stress change
the hydraulic fracture and provides a measure of the component is a reflection of the pressure inside the
fracture growth rate and of the pressure in the fracture at hydraulic fracture and also provides information about the
that point after arrival. fracture orientation since this stress change vector points
Extensometers in monitor holes M2 and M7 measured toward the plane of the fracture. A more detailed
average fracture opening of 0.3 to 0.5 mm during the water presentation of the stress change results is contained in
treatments and up to 0.5 to 1.0 mm for crosslinked gel Mills and Jeffrey (2004).
treatments. Numerical fracture models predict fracture The stress change analysis indicated sub-vertical
openings that are larger by about a factor of two compared fractures were formed with a general north-south strike and
with these measurements. The extensometers used dipping at 75 to 80 degrees to the west. This orientation
measured deformation over 10 and 20m intervals and the agrees with the directly observed intersections of the
elasticity of the rock between the anchors is expected to fractures with the tunnel to the east of HF02. Planes were
have reduced the deformation measured by up to 30 fitted through the intersection data recorded at the monitor
percent, which does not explain the smaller than expected holes around the site using a least squares method. Table 2
opening measured. In addition, the shut-in pressures summarises the orientation obtained from this fit to the
measured up and down the injection hole revealed a stress monitor hole intersections, which agree with the stress
gradient that favors fracture growth up dip over the down dip change orientation data.
direction. Asymmetric growth of the fractures would move The magnitude of the maximum principal stress change,
the maximum fracture opening up dip, which should during the injection, was in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 MPa for
produce more opening at M7 and less at M2 than what the water based fractures and 1 to 2 MPa for the crosslinked
would be measured for symmetric fracture growth. The gel fractures. These stresses decreased with time after
measured displacements did follow this trend. The shut-in but limitations of the instrumentation logging system
displacements are consistent with opening width in opening did not allow for monitoring this decay for more than a few
mode fractures and provide fracture growth data and hours.
residual opening information. The change in maximum and intermediate stress
recorded is consistent with sub-vertical fractures dipping to
the west and propagating as opening mode fractures rather
than shear fractures. The mine through observations
confirm the fractures formed are opening mode.

4 MINE THROUGH OF TWO FRACTURES

Two hydraulic fractures were placed in HF02 at depths

of 111.5m and 117.5m from the hole collar. These fractures
were therefore at the depth of the undercut level. Red
plastic chips were mixed into the crosslinked gel fluid used
for the fracture at 117.5m and yellow plastic was mixed
into the linear gel fluid used for the fracture at 111.5m.
During the treatment, crosslinked gel containing red plastic
was seen leaking from an overcore stress measurement
hole on the extraction level, indicating this fracture had
intersected the end of this short hole. This intersection
point is consistent with the dip of the red propped fracture
Figure 4: Summary of fracture 1 at Salvador. mapped on the undercut level. Red plastic containing gel

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 531

 In contrast to the shallower fractures at the
preconditioning experiment site, these two fractures both
dipped slightly to the east. The change in dip with depth may
be the result of stress rotation caused by interaction with the
approaching cave front. The east dip also caused the two
fractures to be closer to each other than otherwise. A 250 E
dip results in the 6m separation along the hole direction
becoming a 0.5m perpendicular separation between the
fractures.
The red propped fracture was mapped on both the south
and north sides and across the back of the tunnel. Both
fractures grew through most veins and natural fractures they
encountered without any visible interaction or offsetting of
their path. Some more weakly cemented natural fractures
produced minor offsets in the hydraulic fracture path. For
Figure 5: Measured fracture growth in Salvador rock mass. example, the fracture near the roof line on the north side
(Figure 7) caused an offset of about 20mm in the hydraulic
fracture path. This natural fracture had undergone shear
deformation previous to the placement of the hydraulic
also leaked from the zone on the 2600 level located 120m fracture. The hydraulic fracture mined at Northparkes (van
east of HF02. As and Jeffrey, 2002) interacted with most of the natural
In January 2003, a tunnel was driven near the bottom of fractures it crossed and contained many small and several
HF02 on the undercut level, intersecting the two plastic- larger offsets in its path. Mineral filling and cementing is less
propped hydraulic fractures. Figures 6 and 7 contain prevalent or absent in the rock mass at the Northparkes site
drawings of the fractures mapped on the north and south and comparison between the Salvador and Northparkes
walls of this tunnel. mined fractures demonstrates the effect of natural fracture
Both the yellow and red propped hydraulic fractures were shear strength and permeability on the type of crossing
mapped. Because much less yellow plastic was mixed with interaction that develops. As the natural fractures become
the lower-viscosity linear gel fluid, the trace of this fracture stronger in shear and less permeable, few offsets and other
was only visible on the south wall near the borehole. The interactions develop when a hydraulic fracture grows toward
borehole was not directly intersected by the tunnel but is and through them.
estimated to lie less than 0.5 m into the rock on the south In contrast, the widely spaced more permeable and weak
wall of the tunnel. shear zones at the Salvador site, which were spaced at from
meters to tens of meters apart, interacted strongly with the
hydraulic fractures, In some cases, the hydraulic fracture
Table 1: Summary of fractures at site. growth was stopped in that direction by these shear zones.
Average spacing of major structures such as these should
Fracture Straddle top Fluid Vol. be determined at preconditioning sites so that the spacing
(metres) (m3)

1 57.55 water 6.3

2 66.55 water 6.5
3 51.55 water 5.1
4 51.55 xlinked 3.6
5 54.55 Linear 4.9
6 60.55 water 4.2
7 63.55 xlinked 3.8
8 117.55 xlinked 5.5
9 111.55 linear 5.2
10 57.55 xlinked 4.4

Table 2: Fracture strike and dip from intersections.

Fracture Strike azimuth Dip

(degrees)

1 02 81 W
2 343 90
3 07 75 W
4 07 75 W
5 10 78 W
6 356 85 E
7 02 82 W Figure 6: Fracture trace on south side of tunnel.

532 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 growth and serves to verify the fracture size used in the
design.
5 SEISMIC DATA

Microseismic events were recorded during several of

the treatments using 12 hydrophones and a
seismograph system. Event locations cannot be
determined from this type of logging, but the number of
events during different phases of the treatments was
measured. During the initiation of the fracture, about 20
events per second were recorded. Later, during the
fracture growth stage, this rate dropped to 1 to 3 events
per second. Even at this lower rate, the 20 to 25 minute
long treatments were associated with several thousand
microseismic events each.
Cross hole seismic surveys were carried out between
holes M9 and HF01 before and after the fracture treatments
in HF02. Figure 8 shows the before and after compressional
wave velocity for the rock between M9 and HF01. The
velocity change was 2 to 4 milliseconds over the 60m
distance, reflecting a significant change to the rock mass
strength.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Ten hydraulic fracture treatments were carried out at the

Salvador preconditioning experimental site. Two of these
fractures were mined on the undercut level to obtain
information about fracture geometry and interaction with
natural fractures in the rock mass. Monitoring of the other
eight fractures included measuring pressure and opening,
and stress change during each treatment. Cross hole
seismic surveys were carried out before and after the
Figure 7: Fracture mapped on north side of tunnel. fracturing.
Stress changes of up to 2 MPa were measured. The
between the injection boreholes can account for the stress change data also provided a measure of the fracture
possibility of impeded fracture growth across them. It is also orientations and indicated they were sub-vertical, dipping
useful to plan for monitoring of intersections with pre-drilled about 75 degrees to the west. This orientation was
injection holes around the borehole being treated. This supported by intersections with monitoring holes and with
monitoring provides direct feedback of fracture extent and the tunnels on the 2600 level and is in agreement with the

Figure 8: Cross hole seismic survey geometry and velocity changes measured.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 533

stress field measured during the characterisation phase. REFERENCES
Hydraulic fractures 40 to 50m in radius were produced by
injecting 4,000 to 6,000 liters of fracturing fluid at 215 litres Brown, E.T., 2003. Block Caving Geomechanics, JKMRC
per minute. Growth occurred to the north and east of Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral Processing 3,
injection hole HF02 with only limited growth to the south and University of Queensland.
west. A conductive fault or shear zone is believed to have Mills, K.W. 1997 In situ stress measurement using the
acted as a barrier to growth to the south and west. ANZI stress cell. Proceedings of the International
The mined hydraulic fractures on the undercut level Symposium on Rock Stress, 149-152. Rotterdam:
crossed most pre-existing joints and natural fractures. Small Balkema.
offsets in the fracture path occurred at weaker natural Mills, K.W. and Jeffrey, R.G. 2004. Remote high
fractures. Most of the hydraulic fracture path was through resolution stress change monitoring near hydraulic
fresh rock. fractures, Proceedings of the MassMin 2004 symposium,
Cross hole seismic data demonstrated a large change in Santiago.
seismic velocity occurred as a result of placing 8 fractures in van As, A., Jeffrey, R.G., Chacon, E., and Barerra, V.
a 20m zone of the 60m ray path. A significant reduction of 2004. Preconditioning by hydraulic fracturing for block
rock mass strength can be inferred to have occurred in the caving in a moderately stressed naturally fractured
treated zone. orebody, Proceedings of the MassMin 2004 symposium,
Santiago.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS van As, A. and Jeffrey, R.G. 2002 Hydraulic Fracture
growth in naturally fractured rock: Mine-Through mapping
The authors acknowledge the International Caving Study and analysis. NARMS-TAC 2002, Mining and Tunnelling
II (ICS-II), Salvador mine and CSIRO for support of the work Innovation and Opportunity. Pp 1461-1469.
described in this paper.

534 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Preconditioning by hydraulic fracturing
for block caving in a moderately
stressed naturally fractured orebody
Andre van As, AVA Mine Geotechnical Services, Australia
Rob Jeffrey, CSIRO Petroleum, Australia
Enrique Chacnn, Victor Barrera, El Salvador Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Preconditioning by hydraulic fracturing is a tool with the potential to modify the caveability and fragmentation of an
orebody prior to and during mining. A field-scale experiment was carried out in the Lift 2 orebody at Northparkes E26
mine near Parkes, NSW to measure hydraulic fracture growth and assess the affect of the fracturing on rock mass
strength and in-situ stress.
The 9700 level exploration drill drive located near the top of the Lift 2 orebody provided an ideal site for the experiment.
Eight fan arrays of NQ-size exploration drill holes had already been drilled laterally and down into the ore from this level.
These holes provided excellent access for placing fracture-monitoring instrumentation across the hydraulic fracture
growth path. Site characterisation work included, geology, rock properties, overcore and micro-frac stress
measurements, and seismic velocity profiling. In addition, a microseismic monitoring array was extended to the site by
adding to the existing mine microseismic array. Cross-hole seismic measurements were conducted before, during and
after the hydraulic fracturing period. In addition, the fracture geometry and hydraulic fracture volume were also remotely
monitored using eighteen sensitive tiltmeters. Stress change associated with the fracturing was recorded using three
ANZI cells located 15 to 40 m above the hydraulic fracture plane.
When combined with previous data from mining and mapping a hydraulic fracture placed into the country rock ahead
of development tunnels, the experiment provided a comprehensive data set to define and understand hydraulic fracture
growth in naturally fractured rock. The effect of hydraulic fractures on rock mass caveability and resulting fragment size
during caving is being assessed using this data.
This paper summarises the measurements made and important results obtained that will assist in future design and
implementation of hydraulic fracturing as a preconditioning tool for cave mining.

1 INTRODUCTION International Caving Study (ICS II), and formed a major

component of the ICSII research. The experiments were
In the past the use of cave mining has been limited to specifically designed to measure hydraulic fracture growth
massive ore bodies characterised as having a fairly uniform in competent and well jointed rock masses and examine
grade distribution, large aerial extent (i.e. foot print) and their influence on the rock mass.
relatively weak rock mass strength (such as kimberlites). In This paper describes the Northparkes Mines site
recent years several low-grade, massive ore bodies have experiments, provides an overview of the findings and
been discovered at depth, which due to low metal prices, discusses the implications for cave preconditioning.
can only be exploited profitable through the adoption of the
block cave mining method. Unlike the typical caving ore 2 WHAT IS HYDRAULIC FRACTURING?
bodies of the past, many of these new deposits comprise
highly competent rock masses and their geometrical Hydraulic fracturing involves isolating a section of a
dimensions (i.e. foot print and block height) are often borehole, often by means of a straddled packer system.
dictated by their economic viability. Hence, the rejuvenated Once sealed, fluid is pumped into this straddled area
interest in cave mining of more competent ore bodies has causing the fluid pressure to rise, generating tensile hoop
forced the industry to reassess the suitability of current stresses along the axis of the borehole which eventually
caveability predictive tools for stronger rock masses whilst exceed the tensile strength of the rock, causing a fracture to
simultaneously investigating the prospect of rock mass form. The orientation of the fracture plane is defined by the
preconditioning and its potential to enhance the caving orientation of the minimum principal stress whilst the
characteristics of these deposits. propagation of the fracture into the rockmass will continue
The successful hydraulic fracture cave inducement as long as the pumping rate exceeds the rate of fluid loss
program conducted at Northparkes Mines has lead to a into the rock and as long as the pressure in the fracture
considerable interest in the technique with respect to its exceeds the far-field minimum stress magnitude..
application to cave mining. van As and Jeffrey (2000) have
demonstrated the technique to be an extremely cost 3 PRECONDITIONING EXPERIMENTAL SITE
effective means of cave inducement and state that it also
has the potential to be applied to cave preconditioning, Two site experiments were conducted at Northparkes Mines,
ultimately reducing the risks associated with caving hard the first involving mapping a hydraulic fracture by mining it and
rock orebodies. the second, the main preconditioning experiment, involved a
Recent site experiments were conducted at both multiple fracture treatment within a well instrumented region of
Northparkes and Salvador Mines, partially supported by the the proposed E26, Lift 2 block cave.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 535

 The Mine-Through experiment involved placing two indicate a horizontal major principal stress of approximately
hydraulic fractures well ahead of an advancing tunnel. The 40 MPa whilst the minor principal stress is subvertical with
fracture fluids contained fluorescein and plastic proppants a magnitude of around 10 MPa. It should be stated however
which enabled the fractures to be visually traced and that these measurements are slightly different to those
inspected upon mine through. The objective of mine- measured elsewhere in the mine and this is thought to be
through experiment was to map the hydraulic fractures, attributed to the presence of the diorite sill.
recording their orientation, residual width and interaction
with the natural jointing. More detail on this experiment can 5 MONITORING AND INSTRUMENTATION
be found in the paper by van As and Jeffrey (2002).
The main preconditioning experiment involved creating Hydraulic fractures were propagated from a central
several hydraulic fractures at various intervals within a injection hole out into the rock mass, intersecting the
region of the proposed E26, Lift 2 block cave. The site adjacent monitoring holes as the fracture grew. The arrival
location was selected primarily due to its abundance of time and pressure provided by the intersections measured
diamond drill holes which would allow for a dense array of the fracture growth rate, pressure and orientation, including
monitoring instrumentation to be installed in and around the their variation over time. The effectiveness of different
hydraulic fractures. A single HQ hole, drilled between these fracture fluids and proppants in inducing changes to the
existing monitoring holes, was used as the injection hole rock mass was also investigated.
along which all of the hydraulic fractures were placed. The experiment site was located on the 9700mRL level,
which is 250m above the Northparkes E26 Lift 2 extraction
level. The 9700mRL level was previously used as an
exploration drilling level and hence contains numerous NQ
diamond drill holes, drilled from eight cuddies spaced at
25m centres along a north-south oriented drill drive (refer to
Figure 2). Each cuddy contains a fan of holes drilled with
varying dips yet with roughly the same bearing. The
injection hole used to place the hydraulic fractures was
located centrally such that all of the surrounding holes could
be effectively used to monitor the hydraulic fractures. The
instrumentation was grouped into near-field and far-field
monitoring systems with most of the near-field
instrumentation installed in the drill holes nearest to the
injection hole. The far-field instrumentation included the
seismic monitoring system, the downhole seismic system
and an array of tiltmeters located throughout the mine.
The positioning of these instruments is illustrated in
Figure 3, and is summarised as follows:
The injection hole was an HQ hole drilled from cuddy 5
with a dip of 560 towards 1180 east.
ANZI stress cells were installed in a hole directly above
the injection hole with the cells located between 15 25m
from the nearest fracture to 40 48m from the furthest
fracture.
Piezometers and extensometers were installed in 4 holes,
one hole immediately below the injection hole in cuddy 5,

Figure 1: Location of the preconditioning experiment site

with respect to the Northparkes block caves.

4 GEOLOGY AND GEOTECHNICAL

The Lift 2 orebody generally comprises four main rock

types. Central to the orebody is a quartz monzonite
porphyry body around 70 metres wide, to the east is a biotite
quartz monzonite which is a massive equ-granular unit that
comprises the greater proportion of the rock mass within the
Lift 2 block. To the west of the monzonites is a volcanic
sequence, dominantly porphyritic lavas, through which a
coarsely crystalline, diorite sill has intruded. The diorite sill
measures up to 80 metres thick, dips into the orebody at
approximately 35 to 45 degrees and is the main unit in
which the preconditioning experiment was conducted.
In general the rock mass is well jointed and rock type is
the dominant control on variations in rock mass properties.
The rock mass has been classified using Laubschers
MRMR system, Laubscher, (2000), with the Rock Mass
Rating (RMR) ranging from a minimum of 41 in the volcanics
to a maximum of 64 in the biotite quartz monzonite. The in Figure 2: Plan of the 9700 mRL level, showing the site
situ stress measurements conducted at the experiment site layout and drill holes.

536 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 two in the steepest holes in cuddy 4 and one in the Table 1: Summary of hydraulic fracture
steepest hole in cuddy 6. preconditioning treatments at Northparkes.
Packer systems, each containing down-hole pressure
transducers, were lowered down four holes. Single Fracture Straddle top Fluid Vol.
packers were installed 30m from the collar in one hole at (metres) (m3)
cuddy 6, one in cuddy 4 and one in cuddy 3. A straddle
packer system with a 25m long straddle was installed in 1 79.76 water 11.6
D284 in cuddy 6 with the top of the straddle located
initially at 81.5m. 2 79.76 water 6.4
A geophone used as a receiver for the down-hole seismic 3 99.36 water 7.9
measurements (during the fracturing process) was
lowered down the steepest hole in cuddy 3. 4 93.76 water 10.6
All of the remaining drill holes were used simply as open 5 96.56 water 9.3
holes. Any intersection of the hydraulic fractures with
6 110.56 water 10.3
these holes resulted in water flowing from the hole collars
and provided useful information on both the geometry of 7 79.76 xlinked gel 10.8
the fracture and its propagation rate. 13 96.56 gel/water 12.5
The mine microseismic monitoring system consisted of 16
tri-axial accelerometers and five uni-axial geophones.
Sampling rates for all accelerometers was set at 6 KHz so tiltmeter monitoring and from the stress change cells.
as to ensure the detection of extremely small events. Analysis of the tiltmeter data also provides information
Finally, an array of 19 tiltmeters were installed, 13 were about the fracture volume while the stress change
located on the 9700 mRL level, 5 were located on the monitoring provides information about the stress change
9800mRL level and one was located in a conveyor drive induced by each fracture and the type of fracture growth
on the 9770mRL level. (opening or shear).

6.1 Fracture Pressure Analysis

Analysis of the treating pressure response can be used to
determine the general mode of fracture growth, the amount
of fluid lost from the fracture during the treatment via leakoff,
the pipe friction and fracture entry loss, and the minimum
principal stress magnitude. For example, fracture 13 (Figure
xx) has been analysed in detail. Figure xx contains a G-
function plot of the falloff data from which the pressure
associated with closure of the natural fractures and of the
hydraulic fracture have been determined. Closure of the
natural fractures causes a decrease in the fluid loss rate.
The closure of the hydraulic fracture is a measure of the
minimum principal stress in this part of the rock mass. A
value of 19.2 MPa for the closure stress is indicated.

Figure 3: Isometric view of the 9700 mRL level depicting the

instrumentation layout

6 MONTORING RESULTS

The hydraulic fractures were placed using a straddle

packer tool that exposes 0.5m of the open hole to fracture
pressure. A down hole pressure transducer is located at the Figure 4: Summary of fracture 13 showing bottom-hole
top of the top packer in this tool and measures the fluid pressure, injection rate, and pressure in monitor hole D284.
pressure as it enters a 20mm diameter mandrel tube that
carries it into the straddle section. A small pressure drop,
therefore, occurs between the transducer and the open hole The pressure declined throughout the treatment which is
section. an indication of continued fracture growth with an
Table 1 provides a summary of the 8 fracture treatments approximate radial geometry. The sharp increase in
carried out during the preconditioning experiment. Fractures pressure a D284 corresponds with arrival of the hydraulic
9 through 12 are not listed since injection was limited to a fracture at this monitor hole and provides a direct measure
few litres per minute and a higher rate treatment was not of the fracture growth rate. The pressure in D284 after the
carried out for these injections. fracture arrival gives a measure of the pressure in the
Intersections were recorded for most treatments with hydraulic fracture at this location away from the injection
several piezometer, extensometer, and packer monitoring point. However, loss of fluid from the hole into other
points. The fracture orientation was obtained from the fractures acts as a pressure regulating mechanism which

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 537

means the recorded pressure is only a lower bound on the
pressure in the fracture itself.

Figure 6: History match of fracture treatment 1.

fracture is predicted by the model to grow to a radius of

about 30m and a maximum width at the injection hole of 2.2
mm. Figure xx shows the model-predicted shape of the
fracture, with the center of the fracture moving east of the
Figure 5: Pressure falloff after shut-in of fracture 13. injection point

The efficiency of a fracture treatment is defined as the

ratio at any time of the injected volume to the volume stored
in the fracture itself. Based on analysis of the falloff data, the
fracture efficiency at shut-in for fracture 13 can be estimated
as (Nolte, 1989)

Gc
= , (1)
2 + Gc

where Gc is the value of the G-function at fracture

closure. Using this relationship, an efficiency of 52 percent
is found.

The fracture closure pressure implies a minimum principal

stress of 19.2 MPa which is about 7 MPa higher than the
minimum stress measured by overcoring at the 9700 level
tunnel. Fracture 13 is 84m vertically lower than the elevation
of the overcore test, which is expected to result in an
increase in the sub-vertical minimum stress by about 2.2
MPa. Furthermore, the fracture site is located inside the
diorite dyke which may be acting as a stress concentrator
because of its higher elastic modulus.
In contrast to these effects, there is a decreasing Figure 7: Plan view of fracture 1 showing biased growth to
minimum stress trend across the 80 to 110m interval the east.
fractured. The ISIP (Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure) values
recorded after each fracture show a gradient in the minimum
principal stress exists at this site. The ISIP values are upper 6.2 Tiltmeter Monitoring of Fractures
limits for the minimum stress but will reflect the change in An array of 19 tiltmeters was deployed to monitor the
minimum stress with position. The ISIP measured gradient hydraulic fractures formed in the rock mass. Each tiltmeter
in stress is minus 0.06 MPa per meter into the hole. Such a measures the horizontal gradient of the vertical
strong gradient is expected to significantly affect the displacement at its location. Tiltmeter monitoring of
hydraulic fracture growth, causing the fractures to grow hydraulic fractures is a commercial service in the petroleum
more in the direction of lower stress. Hence, the fractures industry and Pinnacle Technologies provided the tiltmeters
created are expected to have grown along their strike at the site.
direction and more to the east than to the west. The As a hydraulic fracture grows and opens, it induces
existence of the measured stress gradient is consistent with displacements in the surrounding rock. A tiltmeter located
a stress shadow caused by the overlying Lift 1 abutments remote from the fracture will measure the tilt associated with
and mined area (see Figure 1). these displacements. Analysis of such tilt data is an inverse
Fracture 1 at the site has been history matched using a modelling problem. The goal of the inverse modelling is to
pseudo 3D hydraulic fracture model. Figure 6 contains a plot find a fracture with opening and orientation that produces
comparing the modelled and measured data for this tilts at all measurement points that are the best fit to the
treatment. measured data.
Measured pressure and fracture size are shown on this The instruments at Northparkes were located more than
plot with a reasonable match obtained. A minimum stress of three fracture radii from the hydraulic fracture which means
20 MPa and a rock modulus of 77 GPa were used in the only fracture volume and orientation can be determined (not
model, perhaps reflecting the stiffer diorite dyke. The fracture length, width, and height) (Lecampion et al., 2004).

538 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 2: Tiltmeter analysis results. The best fit line, using a power law model, is given by:
L = 8.15t 0.46 (2)
Frac Depth Dip Strike Efficiency
(metres) (deg) (deg) % where L is the fracture half-size (radius for a circular
fracture) and t is pumping time in minutes. Hydraulic fracture
1 80 18 E 57 29 growth for ideal geometry models follows a power law
behaviour which is motivated using a power law fit to the
2 80 16 W 136 30 measured data. Equation 2 can be used to determine a
3 99.6 26 E 27 56 pumping time that will produce fractures of a desired size at
Northparkes. This empirical approach can be improved by
4 94 23 E 32 47 fitting individual fracture treatments. A numerical model with
5 96.7 23 E 32 51 parameters that fit the average growth curve can be used to
vary the injection rate and volume as part of a
6 110.7 11 E 80 49
preconditioning design exercise.
7 80 11 E 71 30 Extensometers measurements recorded 0.15 to 0.2 mm
13 96.7 17 E 59 34 of opening during treatments with water and 1 to 1.9 mm of
opening for the crosslinked gel treatment. Measured
maximum pressure response at monitor holes was 19 to
Results from analysis of the tilt data are given in Table 2. 20.4 MPa, which is about equal to the estimated minimum
The Pinnacle and CSIRO analysis of the data gave stress at each depth. It appears likely that other fractures in
essentially similar orientation results and CSIRO results are each monitor hole opened at about this pressure and acted
shown. as pressure regulators. These pressure measurements then
The fractures were found to be subhorizontal and dipping serve to confirm the minimum stress value determined from
to the east in all cases except for fracture 2 which was falloff data and provide a lower limit for the pressure in the
interpreted to dip to the west. However, fracture 1 and 7, at fracture.
the same depth as 2 were both found to dip to the east. The
azimuth strike of the subhorizontal hydraulic fractures is less 6.4 Stress Change Monitoring
well defined by the tilt data than is the dip. A strike to the NE Stress change was measured during each treatment
is consistent with the overcore stress data for the site and using three ANZI stress change cells (Mills, 1997) installed
with local failures in tunnels observed nearby the site. The in a BQ-size borehole drilled just to the north and above the
fracture volume determined from the tilt analysis allows the injection hole. Each cell contains 18 strain gauges on an
fracture treatment efficiency to be calculated. The efficiency inflatable packer that is cemented to the borehole using a
listed in Table xx is the volume of the fracture at the end of special epoxy. More detail of the use of these cells can be
pumping divided by the total fluid volume injected. The found in Mills et al. (2004) in these proceedings.
numerical fracture model history match provides an The stress changes displayed consistent responses to the
estimate of fracture treatment 1 efficiency of 26 percent, start and end of injection for each fracture treatment. The
which compares well with the 29 percent calculated from the magnitude of the maximum stress change observed varied
tiltmeter analysis. from 0.5 to 1.4MPa for distances of 15-40m from the
Tiltmeter monitoring of the fractures provides a reliable fracture plane during the treatments using water. The
method to remotely determine the fracture orientation and maximum stress changes measured for the cross-linked gel
can be used to provide rapid feedback during treatment varied from 2.3 to 3.3MPa at 15-25m from the
preconditioning operations. Fracture growth rate and size fracture plane.
must still be determined by direct measurement at Water treatments resulted in a residual stress change,
monitoring boreholes combined with fracture modelling. measured several hours after the treatment, of about
0.5MPa (0.2-0.6MPa). The cross linked gel treatments
6.3 Fracture Monitoring by Borehole Instruments. resulted in a residual stress change of about 1.5MPa (1.0-
Packers were used to monitor pressure in four holes and 2.1). These residual stresses are expected to have
grouted-in extensometers and piezometers were used in decreased further with time but logging system signal drift
four other holes at Northparkes. These instruments provided did not allow for longer term monitoring.
data on fracture growth rate, pressure and opening. The maximum stress change vector can be used to help
Figure 8 contains a summary of the fracture growth data determine the orientation of the hydraulic fracture. East
obtained from the direct intersection data. dipping subhorizontal hydraulic fractures were consistent with
the orientation of these stress change vectors provided the
hydraulic fractures grew more to the east than west. This
fracture growth mode is supported by the ISIP measurements
and stress gradient discussed in section 6.3 above. The
numerical modelling of fracture 1 took account of this
measured stress gradient, with the result that the fracture
grew more in the east direction as shown in Figure 7.

6.5 Micro Seismics

The flurry of seismic activity associated with hydraulic
fracturing was unexpectedly high and in some cases the
intensity of the activity lead to communication bottlenecks
in the acquisition system resulting in a loss of data. In
addition the system rejection rate (i.e. the number of
associated waveforms defined as noise) proved
significantly higher during the injection period, where a
large number of associated waveforms appeared to
contain more than one event, making processing
Figure 8: Measured fracture growth at site. ambiguous and consequently leading to the rejection of

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 539

the events. Nevertheless a large number of events were have demonstrated strong correlations between rock mass
recorded and processed leading to the following findings, characteristics and seismic P-wave velocities (VP) and have
De Beer and White (2003): subsequently derived equations which can be used to verify
Seismic activity tended to lag breakdown. and validate both individual rock mass parameters and their
The spatial distribution of seismic events do not seem to cumulative affects.
cloud along a discrete fracture zone but exhibit a large Barton (1991) established a correlation between Q and
degree of scatter, thus suggesting that the fracturing VP, for hard rock below 500m depth where:
results in stress redistributions and inelastic deformations
over a large volume (hundreds of metres from the Vp = 5.0 + 0.5logQc (3)
source). This finding alone holds considerable
implications for preconditioning and particularly the Other relationships established between VP and rock
benefits of hydraulic fracturing as a preferred technique, mass parameters include those with RQD and fracture
but may in part arise because of multiple events close to frequency, e.g. Sjogren, et al. (1979), Palmstrom (1996),
the fracture being rejected by the system. and Tanimoto and Ikeda (1983). In general, VP decreases
There was a continuation of elevated seismic activity for with increasing fracture frequency, decreasing RQD,
approximately 10 days after the hydraulic fracturing. increasing porosity, decreasing density and increasing fluid
The calculated Apparent Volume (measure of inelastic content.
deformation of the rock mass) increased substantially Results from the hydraulic fracturing preconditioning
during fracturing and continued to do so for up to a week experiment at Northparkes Mines revealed a decrease in
after fracturing. This high deformation rate has since the post fracturing VP of around 15%. This equates to a
proved similar to that experienced during the Lift 2, block increase in the fracture frequency of between 5-8
cave undercutting process. fractures/m, a drop in RQD of around 25-30 and a reduction
The calculated Apparent Stress (measure of stress in Q from around 3.8 to 1.2. A similar change could be
change in the rock mass) revealed large stress changes demonstrated using the MRMR system where speculated
induced to the rock mass although small when compared changes to the various indices reduced the IRMR from
to those associated with undercutting. around 58 to 46. It must be emphasised however that these
induced changes are dependant on the character of the
6.6 Down-hole Seismics initial rock mass to begin with, i.e. a highly fractured, weak
Down-hole seismic measurements of the treated rock rock mass is less likely to be influenced by preconditioning
mass were conducted before, during and after hydraulic than sparsely fractured, homogenous hard rock. Boadu
fracturing. (1997) suggested that once a rock mass has fractured such
Measurements taken during fracturing revealed that the that the VP has decreased by approximately 25% of its
travel-time increased, over a distance of 91 metres, by 2.0 intact rock value, it becomes insensitive to further increases
ms (ie 6.7 %), De Beer and White (2003). Thus the concept in fracture density. Thus with respect to preconditioning this
of a fracture zone where the fracture fluid penetrates, finding implies that there is a critical fracture frequency
opens, shears and propagates surrounding fractures and\or joint condition value below which preconditioning is
stemming off the primary conduit fracture/s seems to ineffective. However, in terms of improving the caving
provide a more plausible explanation than a discrete characteristics of a rock mass one may argue that a rock
fracture. However in contrast to this observation, the mass insensitive to preconditioning is one which does not
propped fracture at the mine through site was mapped as a require preconditioning.
primary single fracture 1 to 2 mm wide at most locations.
Measurements conducted after fracturing continued to 8 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.
show a reduction in velocity around the fracture zone
although not as pronounced as those measured during The fracture treatments produced subhorizontal fractures
fracturing. The implications of these low velocity regions is that extended from 30 to 50m from the injection point. The
expounded further in subsequent sections. orientation of the fractures formed was consistent with the
measured stress field. Growth of the fractures was affected
7 INDUCED ROCK MASS CHANGES by stress gradients, lithology, and structure in the rock
mass. Borehole monitoring of fracture growth was the only
Quantifying induced changes to the rock mass as a method tested that directly verified the size of the fracture
consequence of hydraulic fracture preconditioning can be created. Microseismic monitoring should be able to be used
demonstrated through various rock mass classification for this purpose with modifications to event logging and
schemes. The parameters most notably affected are :- analysis. Tiltmeter monitoring provided the best data on
joint frequency (through the introduction of new hydraulic fracture orientation, which was confirmed by stress change
fractures), monitoring after accounting for non-symmetrical fracture
joint condition (through the breaking of rock-bridges, growth effects. Stress change monitoring provides a direct
induced shear and the introduction of pressurised fluids), measure of the induced stress around the fractures and can
and be used to discriminate between shear and opening mode
the stress regime (through increasing pore pressures, the fracture growth.
opening and closing of fracture systems, shearing along There is no doubt that the measured changes induced to
fractures and a reduction of in-situ stress differences ). the rock mass as a direct result of hydraulic fracture
preconditioning are significant and should consequently be
Although much effort has been made to measure the realised through a reduction in primary fragmentation,
changes to each individual parameter it is difficult to improved caveability and enhanced caving rates. Figures 9
attribute exact changes to specific parameters. Thus and 10 demonstrate examples of the anticipated effects of
calculating a preconditioned rock mass rating from preconditioning calculated for the Northparkes experimental
individual parameters, although instructive, is in most cases region, from either the introduction of discrete fractures or a
speculative. However, quantifying the cumulative affects fractured zone, as discussed in the preceding section.
induced to the rock mass can be reliably accomplished The next stage of preconditioning research should
through the application of seismic data, namely seismic therefore focus on acquiring cave performance data that
profiling and microseismic emissions. Several researchers can be used to validate these rock mass changes.

540 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Unfortunately the mining industry, with a few exceptions, Ltd for their work on the seismic profiling and microseismic
has yet to invest in adequate cave propagation and monitoring, Ken Mills for his analysis of the ANZI cells,
fragmentation monitoring tools and resources from which Pinnacle Technologies and Brice Lecampion for their
cave performance can be evaluated analysis of the tiltmeter data and Tim Fergusson, Kevin
Quinlan and Anthony Coleman for all their work installing
and monitoring the instrumentation and operating the
pumping equipment.

REFERENCES

Barton N, 2002. Some new Q-value correlations to assist

in site characterisation and tunnel design, International
Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002)
185216
Laubscher D H, 2000. The Block Cave Manual, Internal
Report: International Caving Study (ICSI).
Tanimoto, C., Ikeda, K., 1983. Acoustic and mechanical
properties of jointed rock. Proceedings of the 5th
International Congress for Rock Mechanics, pp. 1518.
Palmstrom A (1996) Characterizing rock masses by the
RMI for practical rock engineering. Part 1: The
development of the rock mass index (RMi). Tunnelling
Underground Space Technol ll:l75-188.
Sjgren B. Ovsthus A, Sandberg J (1979) Seismic
classification of rock mass qualities. Geophys Prospect
27(2):409-414
Figure 9: The effects of preconditioning demonstrated on van As, A. and Jeffrey, R.G. 2000. Hydraulic fracturing as
Laubschers Stability Chart (2000). a cave inducement technique at Northparkes. In
Proceedings of MassMin 2000 Conference pp 165-172.
van As, A. and Jeffrey, R.G. 2002 Hydraulic Fracture
growth in naturally fractured rock: Mine-Through mapping
and analysis. NARMS-TAC 2002, Mining and Tunnelling
Innovation and Opportunity. Pp 1461-1469.
De Beer, W and White, H. (2003), Final Report:
Characterisation of the hydrofracture process using
seismic techniques, Northparkes Mine (ICSII). Internal
Report: International Caving Study ICSII.
Mills, K.W. (1997) In situ stress measurement using the
ANZI stress cell. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Rock Stress, 149-152.
Rotterdam:Balkema.
Mills, K.W., and Jeffrey, R.G. (2004) Remote High
Resolution Stress Change Monitoring near Hydraulic
Fractures, Proceeding of the MassMin 2004 Symposium,
Santiago.
Lecampion, B., 2004. Mapping hydraulic fractures from
tiltmeter measurements at Northparkes E26 mine, CSIRO
Petroleum confidential report No. 04-015, March, 2004.
Nolte, K.G. 1989. Fracturing-pressure analysis, Ch. 14 in
Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing. J. Gidley et al.
Figure 10: The effects of preconditioning demonstrated on editors, Monograph 12, SPE, Richardson.
primary fragmentation predictions. Boadu, F.K. 1997. Fractured rock mass characterization
and seismic properties: Analytical studies, Journal of
Applied Geophysics 36, 1-19.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge Northparkes

Mines, CSIRO Petroleum and the International Caving
Study II for supporting this research. Thanks also to iGeo

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 541

 New Vision in Caving Mining
in Andina Division, Codelco Chile
Jorge Sougarret, Luis Quiones, Ricardo Morales, Reinaldo Apablaza,
Gerencia de Recursos Mineros y Desarrollo, Andina Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Andina Division has a world class ore deposit, with relevant reserves of competent rock. Their mining may be performed
in two ways: one, by conventional mining methods; another, by trying to innovate a different mining option.
Competent rock mining by conventional method shows low productivity at high costs. In this regard
Andina Division has decided to reconsider caving mining in order to make it more attractive at a long term period. A
question comes to our mind, how can we operate over the rock mass previously to the caving in order to get a more
manegeable final product?
Under this scope, we are introducing the experience of Andina Division in the use of a preconditionning technique of the
rock mass by blasting over a competent rock mass. This technique should enable us to develop in a close future from the
present traditional mining method to a high productivity mining method.

1 INTRODUCTION sized equipment, investing in relevant resources in order to

measure the phenomena involved in this mining, like the
Divisin Andina, disposes of potential reserves at a world demonstration of efforts and the occurrence of seismic
level. Approximately 70% of these are located within a events.
competent rock environment. This fact should influence the In this environment, mining engineering areas have
production capacity of the future mines, comparing it to the worn out efforts and in a certain way they have inhibited
present mining from low to medium competent rocks. the actions that may bring a different point of view from
This influence shold be reflected mainly in the folowing the knowledge reached in this new reality. In fact, the
aspects: idea to check the factors involved in competent rock
- Low caving of the rock mass. mining arises. At first, this has produced a technological
- Low speed in caving propagation. break in the way of facing competent rock mining. This
- Thick fragmenttion. sort of new paradigm for mining, puts into operation the
- Less productivity. concept of operating on the rock mass before its mining
- Operational cost increasement. and work on it at a point such as to count on a material
that may allow to take up again the standards of a low
So far, the efforts to face the challenges shown by cost and large volume mining. Therefore, reach a high
competent rock mining, have been oriented to affect the economical afficiency. We can visualize that the point is
mining designs, aiming to strengthen the pillars by to go back to the beginning of the concept of the mininf
increasing the extraction network and incorporating large method by block caving. This means to take up firmely

Figure 1

542 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2

the utilization of the gravitational flow in the different The experimental place selected, emerges as a strategic
stages of the extraction systems. measure, to perform a previous process on the rock mass
within a demarcated area, so as to insure its caving.
2 DEVELOPMENT This place is located in the Southwest extreme of the
Third Panel under the following characteristics:
This project can be found in the program of Technological
Innovation in Underground Mining from Codelco. It was Experimental area : 7000 m2
developed by Andina Division and the Mining and RMRL : 65
Metallurgy Investigation Institute IM2, Filial of Codelco, Veins frequency : 3 4 (ff/m3)
Chile. Lithological Units : Granodiorite Ro Blanco and
It is important to emphasize that this operational process Granodiorite Breccia
on the rock mass is focused in identifying the relevant Ro Blanco
factors and then affect them through an action that may Height of the Rock
provoke a weakening of the competent condition. Figure 1 Column Competent : 100 to 150 meters.
This way, through the action of explosives, it is intended
to achieve the weakening of the rock mass. It is not This effort for technological innovation should develop a
expected to be fragmented, as it happens in a "forcing" process that should have a maginal cost, regarding the
operation through free face blastings. It rather leaves the technological alternatives available nowdays.
"processed rock mass" in the proper conditions so that the Within the operational aspects, the project faced the lack
next coming caving may favour the caving propagation. of experience at a national level in the requirement of drilling
Figure 2 in an upwards direction from an underground work, lengthes
over 120 m in a diameter over 5 1/2" .

Figure 3. Figure 4.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 543

 Another relevant challenge concerned the explosives Amount of Explosives : 29500 Kg.
cargo in an upwards direction. This explosive must Length of the Cargo : 85 m
guarantee the maximum efficiency in the reconditionning Length of the shots : 100 y 112 metros
process and it must be safely loaded in vertical drillings over Area to be covered : 7000 m2
100 m length. Time of the blasting : 26 ms
For this purpose a group of tests at a pilot scale were
performed. The main purpose was to determine the principal Evaluation of Preconditionning of the Rock Mass.
parameters that rule the blasting process in a confined
environment, calibrate the numerical models of the blasting Fragmentation
process, visualize and measure the interaction effect of the The evaluation of this project was focused in the
stress waves, check and calibrate the electronic blasting fragmentation, which is the most representative variable to
system selected, and improve the blaster system designed measure the impact, in order to settle a comparisson base.
for this process. The evaluation of the fragmentation, consisted on a
The criteria used to design the preconditionning blasting photographic sample of the draw points in the sector located
was to maximize the energy available from the waves of in the extreme south of the streets of preconditionning, as
stress. This indicated to measure a multiple blasting well as in a competent mineral sector not preconditionned
strategy along the column of explosives and select a located in the streets 61 and 63. Figure 6.
sequency of start that would allow a wave-wave interaction
and/or a wave crack interaction, and finally for safety
reasons, direct the front of reinforced waves towards the
zones distant from the mining substructure.

Figure 6.

These lifts show the following results:

Figure 5 Interaction wave-crack.
Total tonnage sampled : 1.000.000
In the process of understanding the interaction N of draw points sampled : 32
mechanisms of the stress waves produced by the blasting of Streets evaluated : 4
a column of explosives, and besides configurating the
optimus blasting strategy, it was necessary to face an Figure 7 shows the average curves obtained for each
exhaustive study to introduce a numerical tool that could production street, bearing in mind that the experimental
allow to simulate at its best accuracy the blasting sector was formed by four production streets, 69, 71, 73, 75
phenomenon in terms of propagation and interaction of the into which streets 71 and 73 are located in the centre of
stress waves. This was achieved based on an important the preconditionned zone. Additionally to this graphic a
number of controled experiences that enabled to calibrate representative curve of competent rock not preconditionned
and validate the numerical tool introduced. (FLAC 2D and was included as a reference.
FLAC 3D). Note that in relative terms, the curves associated to the
As an explosive, an emulsion especially formulated to streets 69 and 75 are more displaced towards the referring
fulfill the requirements of this process, diminishing its curve, and represent the limits of the experimental area.
density to1.15 gr/cm3, in order to reduce the hydrostatic The representative size D80 for the preconditionned rock,
load was selected. according to Figure 7, varies in a range from 0.70 m to 0.80
The optimal distance between the starting points was m, which is approximately 50% of the size of D80 of a not
determined by a numerical simulation for the emulsions preconditionned material.
used in this project. The starting points must be placed Figure 8 shows a typical digital image of the
every 8 m along the column of explosives. Regarding the preconditionned material of the experimental sector.
starting time between them, the most convenient According to the results obtained, it is necessary to mention
determination should be that every detonation point in the in this part, that, there is a 20% of primary rock which
column should start simultaneously. exceeds the value of the result desired of 0.70m or 0.80 m
Nevertheless, the remarkable fact is that no hangings in
3 INDUSTRIAL TEST height were recorded, as it frequently happens in not
preconditionned materials. The obstructions recorded were
Area processed : 7000 m2 just at a floor level by the interaction of 3 or 4 rubble stones
Amount of shots : 19 with sizes that could be handled and reduced without
Diameter of the shots : 5 1/2" important operational problems. The image was obtained
Explosive of the Column : Emulsion RS-5 from CP-73, Trench 22-W, after approximately 18,000 Tons
Density: 1.15 gr/cm3 passed by the draw point. . The size D80 of this image is
System of Initiation : electronic blasting machine 0.83 m, nevertheless, there is one sole rubble stone whose

544 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 7.

commonly cover a big part of the draw point, generating in

these cases, hangings at different heights. This brings
difficulties while trying to achieve its reduction. Figure 9
shows a typical digital image obtained from the not
preconditionned sector. In this case the value of the size
D80 is 1.82 m, and the maximum visible size is 2.3 m.
Other measures correspond to the reduction of the
burnings and the light blasts in the draw points. This
diminished in 50%.

Figure 8.

Figure 10.

Figure 9.

largest size is 1.6 m, corresponding to 20% of the oversize

expected.
On the other hand, opposed to the characteristic that
shows a preconditionned competent rock, the not Figure 11.
preconditionned material is usually found in big blocks that

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 545

 Another indicator sampled, coresponds to the entry of the a 6.7 m (22 ft) bench. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. Rock
dilution of this preconditionned area. This is shown in Fragmentation and Blasting, eds W. Fourney and R. Dick.
Figures 10 nd 11. As it may be noted, a delay in the entry of Soc. Exptl. Mech., 1987, 210-223.
the dilution regarding similar areas in competent rock takes Chiappeta, R.F., Precision detonators and their
place. applications in improving fragmentation, reducing ground
vibration and increasing reliability A look into the future.
4 CONCLUSIONS. Fourth High-Tech Seminar, Blasting Technology,
Instrumentation and Explosives Applications, Nashville,
The main results of this experience correspond to: Tennessee, U.S.A. 20-25 June 1992.
- The preconditionning technique of a rock mass is possible. Pyrak-Nolte L. J. And Nolte D. D. Frecuency dependence
- The results of this project show the possibility to get of fracture stiffness. Geophys. Res. Lett. 3(19), 325-328
important reductions in the fragmentation expected. (1992).
- It helps the caving of a competent rock mass. Chacn E., E. Lagos, y L. Quiones, Plan Maestro
- It delays the entry of dilution. Proyecto Pre-Acondicionamiento Macizo Rocoso
- At the beginning of the year 2005, Andina Division starts its Primario, Informe interno Divisin Andina / IM2 (2000)
application in a massive way in the extreme North of the Chacn E., y V. Barrera Plan Maestro Proyecto Pre-
III Panel. Besides, it will evaluate aspects that have not Acondicionamiento Macizo Rocoso Primario, Informe
been deeply discussed, such as the handling of extraction interno, Divisin El Salvador / IM2 (2001)
speed and the impact over the abutment stress. INFORME FINAL PROYECTO IM2 18/99 073/01 - 251
- It is important to emphasize that the application of this - Revisin A Jeffrey R. Hydraulic Fracture Test at El
technique will require a higher control and accuracy in the Salvador Mine Internal Draft Report, Divisin El Salvador
planning and operation of this additional front, which is / IM2 (2002)
connected to fronts of development, construction, caving Blair D., Minchinton A. (1997), "On the damage zone
and extraction. surrounding a single blasthole",International Journal of
Blasting and Fragmentation (1): 59-72.
There is no doubt that according to these data, the Daehnke A., Rossmanith H.P., Schatz J.F., "On dynamic
expectations and the potentiality of this technique will lead gas pressure induced fracturing", International Journal of
to a higher efficiency in the productive system, generating Blasting and Fragmentation (1): 73-97.
mechanization alternatives that will favour the productivity Hustrulid W. (1999), "Blasting principles for open pit
of mining by Panel Caving. mining. Volume 2. Theorical foundations", A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1013p.
REFERENCES Itasca Consulting Group (1998), "FLAC: Fast Lagrangian
Analysis of Continua, Users manual, Version 3.4",
Amadei, B., and O. Stephansson, Eds. (1997) Rock Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Stress and its Measurement. London: Chapman & Hall. Kouzniak N., Rossmanith H.P. (1998), "Supersonic
Whittaker, B.N., R.N. Singh, and G. Sun, Eds. (1992) detonation in rock mass Analytical solutions and
Rock Fracture Mechanics, Principles, Design and validation of numerical models Part 1: stress analysis",
Applications. Amsterdam: Elsevier. International Journal of Blasting and Fragmentation (2):
Persson, P., R. Holmberg, and J. Lee, Eds. (1994) Rock 449-486.
Blasting and Explosives Engineering.Boca Raton: CRC Liu L., Katsabani P. D. (1997), "A numerical study of the
Press. effects of accurate timing on rock fragmentation", Int. J.
Ouchterlony F., Prediction of crack lengths in rock after Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No 5, pp. 817-835
cautious blasting with zero interholedealy. FRAGBLAST Lorig L. (1997), "Fundamentals of mining geodynamics",
International Journal of Blasting and Fragmentation SIMIN 97 (Proceedings of the Conference, August 1997),
1(1997):417-444 Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Departamento de
Stagg, M.S. and J.N. Michael, Influence of blast delay Ingeniera de Minas, Santiago, pp 161-174.
time on rock fragmentation: onetenth-scale tests. Bureau Minchinton A:, Lynch P. M. (1997), "Fragmentation and
of Mines Information Circular IC 9135, Surface Mine heave modelling using a coupled discrete element gas
Blasting proceedings: Bureau of Mines Technology flow code", International Journal of Blasting and
Transfer Seminar, Chicago, IL, April 1987. Fragmentation (1): 41-57.
Liu, L. And P.D. Katsabanis, A numerical study of the Rossmanith H.P., Uenishi K., Kouzniak N. (1997), "Blast
effects of accurate timing on rock fragmentation. Int. J. wave propagation in rock mass Part I: monolithic
Rock mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 817-835, 1997. medium", International Journal of Blasting and
Stagg, M.S. and S.A. Rholl. Effects on accurate on Fragmentation (1): 317-359.
accurate delay on fragmentation for single-row blasting in

546 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Remote high resolution stress change
monitoring of hydraulic fractures
K.W. Mills, SCT Operations Pty Ltd, Australia
R.G. Jeffrey, CSIRO Petroleum, Australia

Abstract
This paper describes the use of strain gauge based borehole instruments to monitor stress changes associated with the creation
and extension of hydraulic fractures in massive rock strata at Northparkes Mine in Australia and Salvador Mine in Chile. This work
was conducted as part of the International Caving Study ICSII. These instruments proved very sensitive to the stress changes
induced by the hydraulic fractures close to the fracture plane. Analysis of the stress changes observed allowed the fracture
orientation and non-symmetric fracture growth to be constrained sufficiently that a clearer insight into fracture behaviour could be
obtained at both sites, particularly when combined with other observations. Recognition of the elastic stress reorientation about
an opening mode hydraulic fracture has proved to be an important element in the interpretation of stress change monitoring data.
The nature of the stress reorientation is useful in discriminating between opening and shearing mode fracture growth. A technique
of identifying a range of possible solutions of fracture orientation and non-symmetric fracture growth consistent with the stress
changes observed on multiple instruments has been developed. Unique definition of fracture orientation from the stress change
instruments is possible if the instruments are sufficiently distributed relative to the hydraulic fracture plane.

1 INTRODUCTION

This paper describes the use of strain gauge based

borehole instruments to monitor stress changes associated
with the creation and extension of hydraulic fractures in
massive rock strata at Northparkes E26 Mine in Australia
and Salvador Mine in Chile.
The stress change monitoring described in the paper was
one of several monitoring systems used to measure the
behaviour of hydraulic fractures at two field sites as part of
the International Caving Study ICSII. The stress change
monitoring described is a new method to monitor hydraulic
fracture growth to obtain stress change and fracture
orientation information. Further details of the other work
conducted at the two sites are presented elsewhere in these
proceedings (van As et al. 2004, Chacon et al. 2004).
The operation of the stress monitoring instruments, their
in situ calibration and analysis procedure are common to
Figure 1 (a): Epoxy cement being applied to one of the two
both sites and these are described first. The installations,
ANZI cells installed in each hole.
results and implications for the hydraulic fracture behaviour
are then described for each site.

2 INSTRUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

ANZI stress cells are strain gauge based stress change

monitoring instruments. Their operation is described in
detail by Mills (1997). Each instrument comprises eighteen
electrical resistance strain gauges of various orientations.
The instrument is internally inflated using air pressure to
press the strain gauges into contact with the rock until an
epoxy cement coating applied to the outside of the
instrument has cured. Figure 1 shows a photograph of one
of the instruments during installation at Salvador Mine.
ANZI stress cells are able to be tested in situ prior to the
commencement of monitoring, and subsequently if required,
to check their correct operation and determine the
equivalent stiffness of the rock into which they were
installed. This process gives a field calibration that takes
into account cable lengths, temperature effects and the data Figure 1 (b): Installation of the instrument into the
logging system. monitoring hole
The internal pressure of the instruments is incremented
in stages from the initial set pressure and back again while case a high initial set pressure was necessary to inflate the
the instruments are being continuously logged. In each instrument against the hydraulic head in the water filled

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 547

borehole plus provide sufficient pressure to bond the strain
gauges to the rock.
Figure 2 shows the pressure test results for one of the
instruments installed at Northparkes as an example. The
pressure test shows that the instrument is operating
correctly. The six circumferential gauges go into tension
and the axial gauges going slightly into compression as the
pressure was incremented. Any individual gauges that are
identified as being not properly bonded to the rock or
bonded across joints can be ignored in the subsequent
analysis.

Figure 2: Pressure test results - NPK7.

The thick black line in Figure 2 indicates an equivalent

stiffness or modulus for the instrument. The monitoring
results have been analysed using this equivalent modulus.
It should be recognised that the equivalent modulus can not
Figure 3: Location of stress change monitoring instruments
be determined with a high degree of precision because of
at Northparkes.
the low strain magnitudes involved. The effect of an error in
the modulus reflects on the magnitude of the stress changes
determined but not the orientation of the stress tensor. Three ANZI stress cells were installed in a single BQ hole
The strain changes measured on the data logger during drilled from Drill Cuddy 5 on 9700 Level. The instruments
each hydraulic fracture treatment were recorded at a were installed at depths of 83m, 76.3m and 69.7m
resolution of 1V and a signal noise level of about 5V with respectively in a borehole dipping at 39 from horizontal at
occasional electrical interference spikes of 100V. an orientation of 112-115GN.
The data was prepared, before analysis, in four stages. A The hydraulic fracture treatments were conducted in a
reference gauge located within each instrument but not hole collared 0.75m from the stress monitoring hole, dipping
subject to any strain changes was used to eliminate 56 and oriented at 119GN.
systematic strain changes in the cable and data logger Table 1 summarises the timing of the hydraulic fractures
system. Electrical spikes were then removed from the and the injection details. Injections not listed either did not
record and replaced with the strain values from the previous result in breakdown or were associated with reopening
scan. A triangular, moving average filter of two minute existing fractures to allow intersections in monitoring holes
duration was applied to the smooth out random variation. to be located. The stress cells were not monitored during
The stress changes were then determined every 10 minutes these injections.
by averaging strains over a four minute interval. The three stress monitoring instruments are located 14-
The determination of the stress field uses a standard 48m above and 5-20m laterally from the initiation point of
multiple linear regression analysis. Multiple strain readings the hydraulic fractures.
are analysed statistically to give a best fit estimate of the The full three dimensional stress field had previously been
stress field. This process is standard for reduction of measured at the site using ANZI stress cells and the
borehole strains to determine stress changes. An important overcoring method of stress relief (Mills 2002).
characteristic of this process is that a statistical correlation The results of these measurements indicated that at this
between redundant strain gauges gives an indication of the site the major horizontal stress is dipping 5 at 132GN with
confidence that can be placed in each result. the minor principal stress dipping 67 at 235GN. The
vertical stresses are slightly less than the anticipated weight
3 STRESS CHANGE MONITORING AT of overburden consistent with the proximity of the site to the
NORTHPARKES MINE extraction in the overlying block cave.

3.1 Site Description 3.2 Results

Figure 3 shows the locations of the stress change Figures 4 and 5 summarise the results from one
monitoring hole, the instruments and the hydraulic fracture instrument (NPK5) for two treatments, Fracture 1 and
treatments conducted at Northparkes Mine. Fracture 7. Both these treatments were conducted at the

548 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: Summary of the Hydraulic Fracture Treatments

Frac Date Injection Period Straddle Interval Injection Fluid

(m)

1 25/09/2002 11:09-11:45 79.76-80.26 Water

3 27/09/2002 12:56-13:37 99.36-99.86 Water
4 28/09/2002 17:42-18:12 93.76-94.26 Water
5 29/09/2002 10:36-11:08 96.56-97.06 Water
6 29/09/2002 16:19-17:02 110.56-111.06 Water
7 1/10/2002 9:50-10:34 79.76-80.26 x-linked gel
13 3/10/2002 9:24-10:02 96.56-97.06 water/broken gel

Figure 4: Stress changes measured by NPK5 during Hydraulic Fracture 1 at Northparkes.

same location in the injection borehole, one using water as In each treatment there are four clearly defined stages.
the injection fluid and the other using cross-linked gel. Each There is a steady state of essentially zero stress change
of the figures is plotted on a consistent time base. before the treatment starts.
Figure 4a is a record of the hydraulic fracture treatment. The vertical stress increases almost immediately after
Figure 4b is a record of the strain readings on all the strain each treatment commences. Changes in strain are
gauges after pre-processing to remove electrical spikes and apparent within one minute of the commencement of
application of the moving average filter. Figure 4c shows pumping.
the vertical stress change calculated for the strains A peak is reached and the stress change induced in the rock
averaged over a four minute interval every ten minutes. remains steady. The peak is typically in the range 0.7-1.4MPa
Figure 4d shows the horizontal stress change components for the water treatments at a distance approximately normal to
plotted as they would appear if projected onto a horizontal the fracture plane of 15-30m. When this distance is greater
plane at the same stress scale as the vertical stresses. than about 30m, the peak vertical stress is consistently lower at
These stress monitoring results show a high degree of 0.5-0.8MPa. In the gel treatment (Fracture 7), the peak vertical
internal correlation with the correlation coefficient stress indicated is 2.3-3.3MPa with the stress change
approaching 1.00 once the stresses begin to change. Other decreasing with distance away from the fracture plane.
characteristics that increase confidence in the results are: Once pumping stops, there is a gradual decay in
The timing of the stress changes correlates closely with pressure. The rate of the pressure decrease reduces over
the start and end of the hydraulic fracture treatments. time in the form of a classical decay curve. Logging typically
The orientation of the stress changes is consistent across only continued for 1-2 hours after pumping stopped. By the
all three instruments. time logging is discontinued, the residual vertical stress is in
The alignment of the stress vectors appears to be broadly the range 0.4-0.6MPa for the water treatments and 1.1-
consistent with the expected orientation of the hydraulic fracture. 2.1MPa for the gel treatment.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 549

Figure 5: Stress changes measured by NPK5 during Hydraulic Fracture 7 at Northparkes.

Table 2 summarises the maximum principal stress Figure 6 shows the compressive principal stress vectors
orientation for the last stress change calculated prior to the that would be expected from modelling of a hydraulic
cessation of pumping for each treatment that was fracture in an elastic, isotropic, homogeneous half space.
monitored. These measurements give an indication of the Close to the centre of the hydraulic fracture, the
hydraulic pressure in the fracture and the orientation of the compressive stress change component is oriented normal
hydraulic fracture. to the fracture plane. However, toward the fracture tip and
The observation that the major stress change is sub- at greater distance from the fracture plane, there is a
vertical, while the horizontal stress changes are small by tendency for rotation of the stress change component
comparison, is consistent with the hydraulic fractures outward and therefore away from the fracture plane.
forming on a sub-horizontal plane. A plane of this The hydraulic fractures at Northparkes are estimated to
orientation is consistent with the measured in situ stress have grown to a maximum radius of 30 to 50m. Assuming
field at the site and further corroborated by borehole a 40m radius fracture, the stress cells are located on the
intersection and tiltmeter measurements. diagonal shown in Figure 6 at the time of maximum fracture
extent (assuming the hydraulic fractures are sub-
3.3 Fracture Orientations Based on Stress Orientations horizontal).
The orientation of the major stress change vectors is A process of matching the stress changes measured with
expected to provide an indication of the dip and dip direction the stress changes modelled allows a number of admissible
of the hydraulic fractures once the fracture becomes large orientations to be determined. The number of admissible
relative to the distance of instruments from the fracture orientations based on the stress change measurements is a
initiation point. function of the spatial relationships of the stress change

Table 2: Summary of Measured Stress Changes at Nearest Time Period Analysed

Prior to Maximum Extent of Each Hydraulic Fracture Being Reached

Frac Time NPK5 NPK6 NPK7

Stress Dip /Brg Stress Dip /Brg Stress Dip /Brg
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

1 11:40 1.41 74/244 0.93 81/212 0.69 86/253

3 13:30 1.27 75/103 1.08 64/114 0.50 60/117
4 18:10 1.43 80/65 1.34 71/100 0.78 68/109
5 11:00 1.28 77/73 1.22 67/98 0.61 66/105
6 17:00 0.84 64/133 1.38 53/125 0.57 51/123
7 10:30 3.27 67/291 2.90 77/301 2.25 77/261
13 10:00 1.59 86/122 1.67 71/113 0.92 72/123

550 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 3: Admissible Hydraulic Fracture Orientations
on a Plane Striking 117GN Based on Stress Change
Measurements

Frac Assumed Fracture Plausible

No Radius Offset Fracture
(m) To East 1 Orientation
(m) ()

12 40 0 7W
40 8 2E

3 40 0 50W
40 26 10E
25 21 3E

4 40 0 42W
40 26 7E
25 20 10E

5 40 0 47W
Figure 6: Compressive stress vectors about a horizontal
40 26 7E
hydraulic fracture.
25 17 10E
instruments to the hydraulic fracture, the size of the 6 40 0 No fit possible
hydraulic fracture and the symmetrical or otherwise growth 40 24 30E
of the hydraulic fracture about the initiation point. 60 0 60W
Table 3 summarises some of the admissible orientations
indicated by the stress change measurements for each of 7 40 0 7E
the hydraulic fracture treatments. These orientations are 40 14 29E
based on the assumption that the fracture plane passes 60 0 11E
through the injection point (i.e. there are no bypasses 25 No fit possible
through other holes or fracture cross-over).
While there are other combinations of fracture size, fracture 13 40 0 34W
orientation and non-concentric growth that would fit the stress 40 20 5E
orientation data from each measurement, other independent 25 7 50W
information narrows the possibilities. For instance, a fracture
radius of about 40m is indicated by intersection and modelling
data, so this is assumed as a first pass. 1 The fracture offset is a measure of the degree of non-
The fracture orientation that would fit the stress symmetric growth of an assumed circular fracture relative
orientation assuming concentric fracture growth is shown in to the injection point along the plane of the fracture.
the first instance. The fracture orientation that would fit 2 There is significant component of dip out of the projection
assuming some non-symmetric growth of the hydraulic plane for Fracture 1 so the dips in the plane are less
fracture about the injection point is also shown for a fracture meaningful.
plane that is dipping slightly to the east. The orientations
that would be consistent with other different sized fracture If only concentric fracture growth is assumed, then the
are also shown. stress change orientations from all the deeper treatments
The results presented in Table 3 suggest that in general (all those except Fracture 1 and Fracture 7) are not
the stress changes measured support an east dipping consistent with east dipping hydraulic fractures. The data
fracture only if there is some possibility of non-concentric would only be consistent with west dipping fractures at dips
fracture growth. Only the stress changes observed during of between 34 and 50. There does not appear to be any
Fracture 7, the crosslinked gel treatment, are consistent other observations that support fracture growth of this
with an east dipping fracture without there being a orientation so the implication is that the water fractures did
requirement for some non-concentric (or possibly non- not grow symmetrically about the injection point.
circular) fracture growth. Independent measurements using tiltmeters (van As et al.
In a pre-mining stress environment, the vertical stress 2004) indicate that fractures formed were sub-horizontal
would tend to increase with depth and therefore the with an east dip, but the size and shape of the fractures
preferred fracture growth direction would be to the west (up cannot be determined independently from the tiltmeter data.
dip in an east dipping fracture), although it is recognised that Fracture 7 is not particularly sensitive to the size of the
the effect would be small in a shallow dipping fracture. hydraulic fracture and this fracture appears to have grown
However, at the trial site, the extraction of the Lift 1 orebody concentrically about the injection point. The stress change
above is expected to have significantly lowered the vertical data supports a fracture radius of about 40m, but the
stress to the east of the trial site. fracture radius could be as low as about 30m (no match was
In fact, measurements of fracture shut-in pressure, after possible at 25m) or upwards of 60m. The concentric growth
each treatment at the site show a reduction in the shut-in is thought likely to be a consequence of the higher viscosity
pressure with increasing depth down the hole. This data of the cross-linked gel fluid.
implies a stress gradient exists with lower stress occurring Principal stress change magnitudes shown in Table 3
down dip and to the east (van As et al., 2004). Therefore, it indicate that the water injections generate smaller stress
is considered quite likely that a hydraulic fracture would changes in the rock mass than did the gel injections as
preferentially grow toward this lower stress (i.e. in an would be expected. It should be noted that the hydraulic
easterly direction). pressure in the fracture may be slightly greater than

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 551

indicated because of the distance the monitoring points are
from the plane of the hydraulic fracture.

4 STRESS CHANGE MONITORING

AT SALVADOR MINE CHILE

4.1 Site Description

Figure 7 shows the layout of the monitoring site at 2600
Level in Inca East sector at Salvador Mine. The locations of
the stress change monitoring holes, the instruments and the
hydraulic fracture treatments are shown.
Four ANZI stress cells were installed in two BQ boreholes.
These instruments were installed at depths of 37.39m and
39.90m in borehole S1 and 41.13m and 44.31m in borehole
S2. Hole S1 dips at 59 from horizontal at an orientation of
85GN. S2 dips 58 from horizontal at an orientation of
89GN.
The hydraulic fracture treatments were conducted in a
hole HF02 collared midway between the stress monitoring
holes. This hole also dips 59 and is oriented at 87GN.

Figure 8: Stress changes measured by CODI during

Hydraulic Fracture 10 at Salvador Mine (Chile).

Table 4 summarises the timing of the hydraulic fractures

and the injection details.

4.2 Results
Figure 7: Location of stress change monitoring instruments Figure 8 summarise the stress changes measured during
at Salvador Mine (Chile) Fracture 7 on COD1.

552 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 4: Summary of the Hydraulic Fracture Treatments

Frac Date Injection Period Straddle Interval (m) Injection Fluid

1 26/11/2002 10:50-11:20 57.55-58.05 Water

2 27/11/2002 14:44-15:15 66.55-67.05 Water
3 28/11/2002 11:28-11:52 51.55-52.05 Water
4 29/11/2002 11:13-11:30 51.55-52.05 X-linked gel
5 29/11/2002 14:22-14:45 54.55-55.05 Linear gel
6 30/11/2002 10:56-11:16 60.55-61.05 Water
7 1/12/2002 13:07-13:25 63.55-64.05 X-linked gel
8 2/12/2002 16:12-16:41 117.55-118.05 X-linked gel
9 3/12/2002 13:13-15:00 111.55-112.05 Linear gel
10 4/12/2002 12:08-12:31 57.55-58.05 X-linked gel

The stress monitoring results show a high degree of fractures except Fracture 7 are dipping to the west (normal
internal correlation with the correlation coefficient to the plane oriented at 87GN) at about 15 from vertical.
approaching 1.00. The fracture plane orientations appear to be much more
The observation that the major stress change is sub- consistent in the vicinity of stresscells COD1 and COD2
horizontal, while the vertical and other horizontal stress than in the vicinity of the other two instruments.
changes are small by comparison, is consistent with the Nevertheless, the average orientation indicated by COD3
hydraulic fractures forming in a sub-vertical plane. There is and COD4 is still essentially the same as indicated by COD1
corroborating evidence from other measurements made at and COD2, and the scatter may be a result of more variable
the site that this is indeed the case. behaviour in the rock mass in the vicinity of COD3 and
The hydraulic fractures at Salvador Mine are estimated to COD4. However, other measurements indicate only limited
have grown to a maximum radius of approximately 40 to growth of the hydraulic fractures occurred to the south of
50m based on the length of injection and the timing of HF02 (Chacon et al., 2004)
various intersections. The principal stress changes are The different orientation observed in Fracture 7 is
expected to be approximately normal to the plane of the apparent in all four instruments. Fracture 7 was a new
hydraulic fracture when the fracture is at maximum extent. hydraulic fracture using cross-linked gel as the injection fluid
Table 5 summarises the maximum principal stress and it would appear from the stress monitoring results that it
orientation for the last stress change calculated prior to the grew predominantly in a northerly direction toward COD1
cessation of pumping. These measurements give an and COD2.
indication of the maximum hydraulic pressure in the fracture Fractures 1, 2, 3 and 6 are all water treatments and the
and the orientation of the hydraulic fracture. maximum stress change from these treatments are all
No stress changes were perceptible in the results for closely aligned dipping 12 at 80GN 4 in the vicinity of
Fractures 8 and 9. These treatments were conducted at a COD1 and COD2.
much lower horizon for other purposes. The correlations on Fractures 4, 5 and 10 also show similar alignment to each
some of the results from COD4 were too low to give other. These are either linear gel treatments (Fracture 5) or
meaningful indications of the stress orientations. cross-linked gel treatments injected into pre-existing
Assuming that the maximum stress changes are oriented hydraulic fractures. These tend to be aligned more easterly
approximately normal to the plane of the hydraulic fractures, with the stress changes dipping 13 at 90GN. Fracture 7 is
the measured stress changes indicate that all the hydraulic a cross-linked gel treatment injected into a previously

Table 5: Summary of Measured Stress Changes (_1) at Nearest Time Period Analysed Prior
To Maximum Extent of Each Hydraulic Fracture being Reached

Frac Time COD1 COD2 COD3 COD4

1 Dip 1 Dip 1 Dip 1 Dip
MPa /Brg MPa /Brg MPa /Brg MPa /Brg

1 11:20 0.47 11/80 0.93 12/84 0.85 12/90 1.0 4/80

2 15:10 0.95 14/79 0.97 11/84 0.54 8/78 -
3 11:50 0.97 15/85 1.2 16/89 0.90 22/110 1.6 6/113
4 11:30 1.8 15/90 2.1 13/94 1.6 11/103 2.1 3/107
5 14:40 1.5 15/92 1.7 12/96 0.39 23/61 0.98 29/75
6 11:10 0.92 17/81 0.90 13/84 0.67 29/73 0.46 12/56
7 13:20 0.59 49/85 0.91 43/86 0.34 37/50 0.42 42/38
8 16:40 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -
9 15:00 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 -
10 12:30 1.8 12/89 2.0 9/92 1.7 7/87 2.0 9/71

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 553

untreated section of the borehole. This fracture dips at 30 at which the stress change is measured. Figure 9 compares
from vertical with the normal aligned at 87GN. the measured and modelled data after applying equation 2
The average results for all four instruments indicate to obtain a time from the start of fracture growth for the
westward dipping hydraulic fracture that dip at an average modelled data. The model assumes the fracture strikes
of about 15 from vertical. north-south and dips at 80o to the west. A uniform pressure
of 2MPa was used inside the model fracture to obtain the fit
5 FRACTURE GROWTH AND STRESS CHANGE shown. Pressure falloff after shut in is not modelled. The fit
to the stress magnitudes is reasonable considering the
The stress change around a hydraulic fracture can be assumptions used and the orientation fit to the orientation of
obtained from analytical solutions for certain fracture the maximum stress change is quite good and also shows
geometries. The stress change around a circular or penny- the sensitivity of this measured parameter to fracture growth
shaped fracture that is uniformly pressurised (Sneddon, and flow back. The magnitude of the secondary principal
1946) has been used in this section to compare the stress change, which corresponds to the north-south stress
modelled and measured stress change. change, is overestimated by the model suggesting the
If the fracture growth is assumed to occur symmetrically Poissons ratio used for this calculation may be too high.
about the injection point, then the stress change at the
location of any instruments is easily found as the fracture 6 CONCLUSIONS
grows from an initially small radius to a radius much larger
than the distance separating the instruments from the The stress changes observed are consistent in terms of
injection point. The stress change for such symmetric timing and magnitude with the commencement and
growth is found by tracking along a straight line running from cessation of pumping in all the hydraulic fracture treatments.
the centre of the model fracture outward at an angle to the The stress changes orientations are consistent across the
fracture plane that passes through the location of the instruments at both sites when elastic stress distributions
instrument. This line is shown in Figure 6. When the about hydraulic fractures are taken into account.
fracture is small relative to the distance to the instrument, At Northparkes, the initial stress monitoring results
the stress change corresponds to points located at large r/R indicate that the hydraulic fractures have formed in a sub-
on this line. Conversely, as the fracture grows r/R horizontal plane, consistent with the in situ stress
decreases. measurements made at the site using the overcoring
method of stress relief. The orientations of the hydraulic
fractures are not able to be uniquely defined using only the
stress monitoring information because of the locations of the
instruments relative to the fracture plane and the directions
that the fractures have grown.
Nevertheless, the stress change monitoring constrains
the possible fracture orientations to only a few possibilities.
Using other information, these possibilities are further
constrained to give a unique result. The measurements
indicate that all the hydraulic fractures dip gently to the east
at an orientation consistent with the in situ stress field at the
site, but the fractures have grown non-symmetrically in a
down dip direction consistent with the stress geometry
expected about the overlying block cave.
The magnitude of the stress change measured is
consistent with the nature of the injection fluid. For water
treatments, the magnitude of the stress change observed
was about 0.5-1.4MPa for distances of 15-40m from the
fracture plane. For the cross-linked gel, the stress changes
Figure 9: Stress changes measured and modelled for measured were 2.3-3.3MPa at 15-25m from the fracture
Fracture 10 at Salvador Mine (Chile). plane.
The pressures locked into the fracture at the completion
of the treatment were also reflective of the nature of the
The stress change can be calculated along such a line injection fluid. In water treatments, the residual stress
and both the stress change magnitude and orientations can change observed several hours after the treatment was
be compared to the measured stress changes. Such a complete was typically about 0.5MPa (0.2-0.6MPa). For the
calculation has been carried out for Fracture 10 at Salvador cross linked gel treatments, the residual stress change was
and is shown in Figure 9. about 1.5MPa (1.0-2.1).
The relative distance r/R has been translated into a time At Salvador Mine, the initial stress monitoring results
by using the fracture growth relationship established by indicate that the hydraulic fractures are generally westward
direct measurement of fracture growth at this site. The dipping at an average dip of about 15 from vertical.
growth relationship is: A detailed model of the stress change associated with
Fracture 10 produced a good fit to the measured data and
R = 7.56t 0.55 (1) illustrated the sensitivity of the orientation of the maximum
stress change vector to fracture growth relative to the
Equation 1 can be rewritten as: position of the stress change monitoring instruments.
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
R 0.55
t = (2)
7.56 The fieldwork described in this paper was conducted as
part of the International Caving Study (ICSII) with additional
The model results are calculated in terms of r/R, where r support provided by Salvador Mine and Northparkes Mine.
is the distance between the injection point and the location The analysis of the stress change data undertaken to date

554 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

has also been supported by CSIRO Petroleum and SCT Symposium on Rock Stress, edited by Sugawara and
Operations Pty Ltd. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Obara, Kumamoto 7-10 October 1997, published by A.A.
support of all of these groups. Balkema. pp 149-154.
Mills, KW, 2002. SCT Report to Northparkes Mine In Situ
REFERENCES Stress Measurements 9700 Level and Lift 2 Decline.
Sneddon, IN, 1946. The distribution of stress in the
Chacon, E, Barrera, V, Jeffrey, RG, and van As, A, 2004. neighbourhood of a crack in an elastic solid, Proceedings
Hydraulic fracturing used to precondition ore and reduce Royal Soc. Of London, 229-260.
fragment size for block caving, Proceedings of the van As, A and Jeffrey, RG, 2004. Preconditioning by
MassMin 2004 symposium, Santiago, August 22-25. hydraulic fracturing for block caving in a moderately
Mills, KW, 1997. In situ stress measurements using the stressed naturally fractured orebody, Proceedings of the
ANZI stress cell, Proceedings of the International MassMin 2004 symposium, Santiago, August 22-25.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 555

556 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 15
Seismicity & Rock Bursts
558 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Design and implementation
of seismic monitoring systems
in a block-cave environment
Hylton White, Willem de Beer, Hamish White, iGeo Ltd, P O Box 58-598, Greenmount, Auckland, New Zealand
Andre van As, AVA Mine Geotechnical Services, Kenmore, Queensland
David Allison, Northparkes Mines, Australia

Abstract
Seismic monitoring provides quantitative information on the rock mass response throughout the various stages of the
block-caving lifecycle. This includes the monitoring of:
seismicity which may effect the stability of excavations during the early development and construction phase,
pillar stability and abutment stresses during the undercutting phase,
seismically active structures,
cave propagation and,
subsidence effects (i.e. cave angle) as the cave walls break back, possibly influencing surrounding excavations.
Due to the significant role that seismic monitoring can play during the various phases of the cave lifecycle, it is imperative
that mine development and seismic system installation be done in parallel. Consequently, system design must be
undertaken very early in the mine-planning stage, with close interaction between mine planners and seismologists to
ensure adequate access for the system installation. System design must consider all aspects of the evolution of the
mine, including relocation of subsystems as requirements change, as well as shadowing effects of the cave itself. This
includes sensor selection (geophone and/or accelerometers), sensor placement (which controls location accuracy and
system sensitivity), communications and cabling requirements, hardware and software selection, and system
documentation and reporting procedures. In particular, it is imperative that documentation systems (both during
installation and operation) provide a traceable and auditable record of the seismic system performance and operational
status in addition to recording the mine seismicity. This is of paramount importance in the mining environment, as system
performance (availability of seismometers and sensors) can influence the perceived levels of seismicity. Such system-
related effects must be taken into account to ensure the accurate quantitative interpretation of seismic source
parameters related to the mining activity and rock mass behaviour.

1. INTRODUCTION Seismic monitoring allows one to quantify the rock mass

response to mining, and can yield the following information:
Seismic monitoring provides a direct method for rock mass
characterization during the various stages of mining in a block- 2.1. Location and magnitude of seismic events
caving environment. Section 2 of this paper discusses the At the very least, seismic monitoring indicates the
information that can be gleaned from seismic monitoring at the magnitude and location of seismic events within the mine.
different stages of mining. Section 3 discusses the system This is the most common application for seismic monitoring;
design and implementation principles essential to achieving a however magnitude is at best a summary number that
robust monitoring environment, both from a Health and Safety, conveys the relative intensity of a seismic event.
and a rock mass characterization perspective.
2.2. Largest Likely Event
2. WHAT DOES SEISMIC MONITORING ACHIEVE? Seismic event magnitudes can be quantified in terms of
the Gutenberg-Richter Distribution (GRD). In equation form
Specific objectives of seismic monitoring in a block-caving this reads:
environment include:
Monitor seismic events related to induced stress LogN ( mL) = a bmL (1)
concentrations on the undercut level, extraction level
pillars and major excavations in a block cave mine at N ( mL) is the expected number of events greater than
different stages of mining. local magnitude mL, and a and b are constants (Gutenberg
Monitor seismic events related to cave propagation and and Richter (1949)). Equation (1) states that a seismic event
the definition of the active seismogenic zone above the larger than magnitude mL is 10b times more likely to happen
cave back. than a seismic event with magnitude larger than mL + 1.
Monitor seismic events related to preconditioning or Typically, b U1.5. Therefore, an event of magnitude would
possible cave induction. be times more likely to occur than an event of magnitude

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 559

mL 0 would be 101.5 U 31 times more likely to occur than Table 1: Rock mass behaviour during undercutting
en event of magnitude mL 1.
The value where N = 1, is the (extrapolated) one event Period mm/yy Observation
with expected largest magnitude. In other words, if
everything else stays the same, this provides a measure 03/03 d - and b -values oscillate, not
of the possible "largest" event to be expected within the necessarily in phase: First changes
mine. in stress redistribution
04/03 05/03 Substantial increase in d - and b -
values, and activity rate. Increase in
rate of cave development. The initial
redistribution of stress in the intact
rock surrounding the cave causes the
stiffness to increase.
05/03 09/03 d - and b -values decreasing.
Reduction in stiffness accompanied
by events having comparatively
greater seismic moments
(i.e. larger deformations).
10/03 d - and b -values increasing,
coincident with ramp-up in
undercut firing.
11/03 02/04 d - and b -values decreasing together
with activity rate as undercut firing
ceases.

2.4. Time series

Several other source parameters can be used to monitor
the rock mass response to mining. These include the
Cumulative Apparent Volume (CAV) and Energy Rating. The
CAV provides a measure of the deformation within the rock
Figure 1: Gutenberg-Richter distribution of seismic activity. mass. It is intuitive that generally the greater the amount of
The extent of the linear best fit line (mL = 2.6 and mL = 0.5) seismic activity, the more deformation there will be. This is
provides the magnitude limits in which seismic events are evidenced in Figure 3 by increasing CAV coincident with
accepted for further analysis. peaks in activity rate.
Energy rating gives a measure of the amount of energy
released by a specific seismic event having a given moment
2.3. Rock mass stiffness
Apart from magnitude, a seismic event can be further
quantified in terms of numerous "source parameters". Table 2: Characterisation of rock mass response
Among these are the Radiated Seismic Energy and the based on comparison of energy rating and CAV
Seismic Moment . It is possible to fit a straight line to the as a function of time (derived from Mendecki
energy-moment distribution: (1996) and Mendecki et al (2000)).

LogE = dLogM + c (2) Energy Rate of Characterization

Rating change of CAV
Seismic Moment provides a measure of the deformation Increasing Little or "Brittle" or
associated with a seismic event, while Radiated Seismic no change / very stiff
Energy provides a measure of the stress release at the decreasing
source. Therefore the -value can be viewed as a modulus
or stiffness (Mendecki et al (2000)). Increasing Constant, Creep / soft:
The slope of the GRD (b-value) indicates the higher rate Linear regime
proportion of small to large events and is also an of change where stress
indicator of system stiffness. An increasing d -value release is
together with an increasing b-value indicates a stiffening accompanied by
regime, where stress release is by comparatively more concomitant
small fractures. Conversely, a decreasing d-value deformation
together with a decreasing b-value slope may indicate a Decreasing Increasing Plastic:
softening regime, where stress release is by Successively
comparatively more large fractures. smaller stress
Figure 2 shows the changes in b-value, d-value and drop events
activity rate as a function of time for an 11 months period of are accompanied
monitoring a block cave. The overall character of the rock by increasing
mass response in Figure 2 has a cyclical pattern of deformation
stiffening followed by softening, mimicking the phases of
mining. Initiation of the undercut began at the very end of Decreasing Little or no Quiet or stress
February 2003. Table 1 describes the rock mass behaviour change build up. To be
after the undercut was initiated. compared with
system availability

560 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2: Example plot of b-value, d-value and activity rate for an 11 month period. All trends have been derived from seismic
events larger than for the whole mine volume of interest. In this example, undercut advancement firing began on 27
February 2003.

Figure 3: A plot of activity rate, CAV and energy rating for the undercut and extraction volume of interest, for a period of 17
months. The activity rate and energy rating trends have been calculated in a moving 14-day window, in increments of 12
hours. The minimum magnitude filter is set at .

as compared to the average energy radiated by events of energy rating as a function of time indicate different regimes
that moment. An increase in energy rating suggests larger of rock mass response (see Table 2).
than expected stress releases are being observed for a
given amount of deformation. Conversely, decreases in the 2.5. Post-firing activity analysis
energy rating are indicative of lower than expected stress Post firing activity analysis shows:
releases. The decay time of seismic activity after firing sessions in
In the most basic terms CAV is a strain related parameter, a volume surrounding the undercut and extraction levels
whilst energy rating is a stress related parameter. as a method for statistically quantifying the re-entry time
Essentially, the relationship between the trends of CAV and into the mine;

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 561

Figure 4: Activity rate (per 10 minutes) for 6 hours after undercut advancement firing, comprising 666 events. The curve fitted
to the decay is approximated by .

The difference in decay time of seismic activity after 2.6. Peak particle velocity and magnitude
blasting between phases of mining activity. Since magnitude is merely a summary parameter by
which to characterize a seismic event, it is useful to find a
An example is shown in Figure 4, where the activity rate relationship between the damage potential of a seismic
is plotted vs. time. Here a large number of blasts have been event and its magnitude. In practice, this means finding a
stacked together, to give a statistically relevant indication of relationship between the magnitude and estimated peak
activity rate immediately after blasting. This can be used to particle velocities (PPVs) at different distances from the
determine safe re-entry times. event. A direct mathematical relationship between the

Figure 5: Plot of relative changes in stress from a hollow inclusion cell ( , , ) including the energy rating trend, for a period of
two weeks. There appears to be a correlation between decreases in the energy rating slightly preceding an onset of changing
stress, indicated by the thick black vertical lines.

562 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 6: Plot of anchor node displacements for an extensometer for a period of three months, including CAV and energy
rating. Only events larger than have been used in creating the CAV and energy rating trends.

magnitude of a seismic event and PPV does not exist. a strength degradation (decreasing energy rating indicating
However, it is possible to establish an empirical relationship lower stress release through seismic activity) in the
between the energy, moment and the PPV. seismically active zone.

2.7. Blast characterization 3. SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Where and when firing takes place, it is possible to FOR A ROBUST MONITORING ENVIRONMENT
evaluate
Conformance to blast design; 3.1. Design
The effect of the blast on nearby mine infrastructure. System design must be undertaken very early in the mine-
planning stage, with close interaction between mine
At minimum, data from sensors in the firing district and planners and seismologists to ensure adequate access for
those close to infrastructure provide waveforms, PPVs, the system installation. System design must consider all
Peak Particle Accelerations and ground motion response aspects of the evolution of the mine, including relocation of
spectra. subsystems as requirements change, as well as shadowing
effects of the cave itself.
2.8. Seismic and geotechnical data sets The system specification must ensure that (at all stages of
Seismic sensors can be installed remotely from active mining) the required accuracy of event location and sensitivity
mining areas consequently it is practical to install a (i.e. minimum event magnitude that can be reliably recorded)
seismic system in the early stages of mine development. On is achieved. It is possible to model both the sensitivity and the
the other hand, geotechnical sensors (e.g. extensometers location error. Sensitivity can later be checked by referring to
and hollow inclusion cells) have to be installed after the Gutenberg Richter Distribution once sufficient events are
development as their measurements focus on the nature of recorded. In the example in Figure 1, the GRD can be seen to
the rock mass response surrounding the mine taper off for events having.
infrastructure. Consequently, geotechnical sensors will
generally be installed much later than seismic sensors. It is 3.2. Installation
now possible to integrate the data from seismic and System design for block caving must provide for future
geotechnical datasets in quasi-real-time. An example of this shadowing effects by the void. It is therefore necessary (as
is shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, where outputs from far as possible), to surround the ore body with sensors. This
hollow cells and extensometers respectively are integrated poses several challenges:
with the seismic time series. Several holes of hundreds of metres in length need to be
drilled;
2.9. Analysis Sensors have to be lowered to the required depths and
During the undercut progression, the advance of the Grouting performed in stages, with sensor tests at every
undercut could be followed very clearly by visualising induced stage.
seismicity. Activity followed the line of advance, clustering
mainly in the crown of the cavity. An initial redistribution of 3.3. Sensor selection
stress in the intact rock surrounding the cave caused the Accelerometers have higher sensitivity than geophones at
stiffness to increase and was followed by an apparent higher frequencies. The frequency at which accelerometers
relaxation to an equilibrium phase. In turn, it appears as if this become more sensitive than geophones is usually of the
was interrupted by a ramp-up of development. order of a few hundred Hertz. Very small seismic events
Combination of seismic and geotechnical data points associated with caving have high frequency content and
towards stress increases in undercut pillars correlated with require accelerometers for accurate measurement.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 563

Nevertheless, it is common to have mixed networks than a specified amount (typically 3% of the average hypo
comprising (for example) triaxial accelerometers (for source central distance). Accepted events must also approximate
parameter calculation) and uniaxial geophones (for expected values of moment and energy for their given local
improved location accuracy). magnitudes.

3.4. Communications 4. SUMMARY

The communications infrastructure is potentially the single
most expensive subsystem in a seismic monitoring system. 4.1. The outputs of seismic monitoring
Consequently, the design must contain sufficient From a short term perspective, seismic monitoring
redundancy to allow relocation of seismometers as required enables up-to-date information to be provided on the state
during the various stages of mining. In particular, it must be of the rock mass response. If these results are to be used
possible to accommodate unforeseen requirements. as a means of determining procedures underground then
the information must be available to mine staff in a readily
3.5. Documentation updated form that presents the important facets of rock
Because of limitations imposed by mine development, it is mass response quickly and clearly.
usual to phase the installation of sensors as mining The long term benefits of seismic monitoring include
progresses. The consequence of this is that system providing a knowledge base concerning the nature and
sensitivity changes with time as more sensors are installed, pattern of rock mass response to mining in mass mining
causing an apparent rise in activity rate. environments. These results form the constraints and
Documentation systems are put in place which ensures empirical limits for numerical models of the caving
that apparent levels of seismic activity can be correlated process. As modelling of the mechanics of caving
easily with seismic system status and performance are becomes more complex more detailed empirical
essential. information recorded from active mines will be
necessary to verify these.
3.6. Operation
It is imperative that documentation systems (both during 4.2. System design and implementation
installation and operation) provide a traceable and auditable Seismic monitoring systems are by their nature extremely
record of the seismic system performance and operational complex distributed systems. Careful evaluation of system
status in addition to recording the mine seismicity. This is of issues is required when analyzing data, to ensure that
paramount importance in the mining environment, as correct conclusions are drawn regarding the rock mass
system performance (availability of seismometers and response to mining.
sensors) can influence the perceived levels of seismicity. The scale and resolution of monitoring required in a mass
Such system-related effects must be taken into account to mining environment means that system design and
ensure the accurate quantitative interpretation of seismic implementation must be an integral part of the mine
source parameters related to the mining activity and rock development process.
mass behaviour. During normal mining operations, parts of
the seismic system may be offline temporarily due to ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
maintenance or because of inadvertent damage. Apparent The authors wish to acknowledge the support provided by
activity rates will thus rise and fall depending on the system Northparkes Mines in the preparation of this paper.
status. Careful management of the data is required to
prevent false conclusions being drawn about the activity REFERENCES
rate related effects
During monitoring, an adequate amount of quality Gutenberg, B. and C. F. Richter 1949. Seismicity and the
verification needs to be conducted. This includes regular (at Earth, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
least daily) detailed checks of system status. Any changes Mendecki, A.J., ed. 1996. Seismic Monitoring in Mines.
to monitoring parameters should be accompanied by a Chapman and Hall, London.
detailed analysis of possible consequences, and properly Mendecki, A. J., G. van Aswegen and P. Moutford 2000.
recorded in the system documentation. Chapter 9: A Handbook on Rock Engineering Practice for
Data quality verification is undertaken at the processing Tabular Hard Rock Mines. A. Jager and J. A. Ryder, Ed.,
stage. All accepted events must have a location error of less SIMRAC, Johannesburg.

564 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Seismic monitoring of
block cave crown pillar
Palabora Mining Company, RSA
Stefan Glazer, Palabora Mining Company, RSA
Neil Hepworth, Somincor, Portugal

Abstract
With mining operations taking place concurrently in the open pit and underground, it was considered prudent in mid 2002
to establish a 200m high crown pillar, or exclusion zone, between the base of the open pit and the cave back. This pillar
had two functions, firstly safety of the open pit operations due to potential instability of the pit walls as a result of caving
and secondly to prevent rapid ingress of rainfall water into the underground workings before adequate protection
measures were in place. By the end of 2002 this pillar had become fractured and de-stressed to the extent that there was
a hydraulic connection between surface and underground despite the indicated cave back being about 200m below the
pit. This paper describes the history of this pillar as revealed by seismic data analysis, which became the principal means
of monitoring the cave progress when other means and instrumentation were lost..

1 INTRODUCTION made up of magnetite-rich svite with minor amounts of

apatite, dolomite, chondrodite, olivine and phlogopite.
Initiation of the block cave undercut at a depth of Barren dolerite dykes with a steeply dipping northeast trend
approximately 1200m below surface, commenced at the are present and account for about 8% of the ore reserve
end of 2000 and by the end of 2002 the area of undercut (Calder et al, 2001). The average uniaxial strength of the
had reached 60,000m2 which is considerably more than carbonatites is about 120 MPa. Dolerite is a strong, brittle
that predicted to achieve caving. Despite significant rock with a uniaxial strength of up to 320 MPa. Adjacent to
rockmass fracturing around the undercut and in the cave the major faults, dolerite is extensively jointed and locally
back above the undercut, which by definition is associated weathered with marked reduction in strength to around 80
with seismicity, up to the end of 2002 Palabora was not MPa.
experiencing a seismic hazard in the working places. The underground mine exploits the ore below the open pit
Seismicity was taking place remote from the production and using mechanized block caving. The undercut level is at
development beneath and immediately around the cave elevation 800m (1200m below the surface) and
footprint. By mid 2002, when the critical hydraulic radius of approximately 400m below the open pit base. The
the producing area was reached and the caving process production level with its drawpoints is located 18m below the
was initiated, the situation changed, as more of the seismic undercut.
events started to concentrate on the geological The Palabora cave back monitoring facilities during
discontinuities. This clustering of events was investigated 2002 consisted of a digital seismic network and four
and the seismically active faults and dykes were identified. open holes. In addition there were five TDR holes. By
At that time the depth trend of the larger seismic events was the end of 2002 all the open holes were lost due to
that the large events were migrating upwards away from the movements along the dykes and faults. In fact the only
undercut level and the working places. As from the reliable measurements of the cave back position and
beginning of 2003 this situation changed and the depth the expansion void height were achieved from one open
trend of these relatively large seismic events was no longer hole located in the open pit. The other open holes were
upwards. During 2003 Palabora mine experienced several lost due to hole dislocations before the cave back had
large seismic events with associated damage in the reached them. On the other hand the TDR holes
workings, which meant that Palabora become a seismically measurements were very successful in confirming the
active mine. cave back position and assumed swell factor. Seismic
The aim of this paper is two fold. Firstly to document the data had been used to estimate the cave back position
observed changes to the character of the seismicity that and to chart the progression of the cave back relative to
took place and secondly to relate these changes to the the tonnage of ore drawn.
mining and development operations in order to understand By the end of 2003 the Palabora seismic network
the likely cause of the changes. consisted of 21 recording stations located around the cave
on several levels. Nine of these stations are located on the
PALABORA MONITORING FACILITIES production and development levels. Four stations are
The Palabora copper body is an elliptically shaped, situated in the open pit. The eight remaining ones are
vertically dipping volcanic pipe. The pipe measures 1400m located in the old and abandoned Exploration Shaft and in a
and 800m along the long and short axes. The ore reserves deep borehole. The latter were installed as part of the
are proven to a depth of 1800m below surface. Copper network upgrade to give better coverage close to the pit
grades of approximately 1% are found in the central core of base. After completing the network upgrades the area of
the ore body and decrease gradually towards the maximum sensitivity and location accuracy of the network
peripheries with no sharp ore-waste contact. Three main encompasses the entire production area of the mine. The
rock types host mineralization. Trangressive and banded network accuracy is important not only for locating events,
carbonatites form the central core of the ore body and are but also for calculating the source parameters. From the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 565

data interpretation viewpoint it is important to know the the second mode can be of magnitude up to 2.1. The first
weighting that has to be attached to each set of data. mode of events is associated with rockmass fracturing
At Palabora the cave monitoring devices installed in immediately ahead of the undercut and in the propagating
boreholes were lost with time not only due to rockmass cave back. The second mode of events locate at geological
response to mining, but also because of interference from discontinuities some distance from the mining. Events of
the mining activities themselves. As it is not always this second mode are connected with stress redistribution
convenient or possible at a later stage, to install additional ahead of the undercut abutment and around the cave. Due
TDRs or drill new open holes, the seismic network might be to their locations and amounts of emitted energy these
the only cave back monitoring option remaining after some events are considered a negative feature of the block caving
point in time. It is the Palabora experience that it is important and result in seismic hazard (Gibowicz and Lasocki, 2001).
to fully implement the seismic system right from the outset On the other hand seismicity of mode one events is the
with some redundancy to allow for the inevitable equipment principle manifestation of the cave progress and can be
downtime and losses. used to monitor and manage the cave and thus are
considered as a positive feature.
2 FRACTURING MECHANISM The progression of the cave generates fractures in the
more competent (intact) rock immediately ahead of the
The tonnes extracted from the cave result in the cave fracture zone, which changes the rock properties and lowers
back propagating upwards, towards the surface. At its load carrying ability. As the cave back approaches the
Palabora the fracturing zone is located about 60 to 80m fractured rock it will yield under the increased load and
above the cave back with an aseismic zone of already increased shear movement between the blocks of rock will
fractured rockmass between the cave and the ongoing create further propagation of fractures. The cave
fracturing (Figure 1). progression will also result in the breaking of asperities and
other locking mechanisms in the fractured rockmass,
creating a favorable environment for shear movement and
more growth of the fracture zone around the cave back.
In addition to the fracturing around the cave back resulting
in mode one seismicity, there is another mechanism of rock
failure that is taking place. This mechanism is aseismic
deformation, which is the process of either extension of
already existing shear fractures, or creation of new fractures
with little or no seismicity. While the asperities on the joint
surfaces are being broken down there will be sliding and
opening of the joints. This firstly does not produce significant
seismic energy during movement and secondly inhibits
propagation of seismic energy through this zone of fractured
rock. The seismic and aseismic deformation of the
rockmass around the cave will result in stress redistribution,
which in turn will lead to further fracturing. These fracturing
mechanisms are very similar to the one described for de-
stress blasting used to reduce the seismic hazard for
underground excavations (Rorke and Brummer, 1990).

3 CROWN PILLAR MONITORING

Figure 1: Aseismic zone around the cave With mining operations taking place simultaneously in the
open pit and underground, it was considered prudent in mid
As the thickness of this aseismic zone during 2002 was 2002 to establish a 200m high exclusion zone, or crown
relatively constant over several months, the location of this pillar, between the base of the open pit and the cave back.
zone could be used to monitor the cave back position. This This crown pillar had two functions, firstly to minimize the
was by assuming that the increase in the average elevation risk to the ongoing operations from destabilizing the pit walls
of recorded seismic events followed the increase in by the cave undercutting them and secondly to provide a
elevation of the cave back. This progression of the aseismic barrier to prevent rapid ingress of rainfall water into the
zone was also used to estimate the natural cave expansion underground workings before adequate measures to control
rate. If the cave was pulled at a rate above this, then an the water were in place.
excessive expansion void would occur increasing the risk of Analysis of the seismicity recorded in this pillar was carried
air blasts. Below this rate the expansion void would not out in mid-February 2003, when the crown pillar was
develop sufficiently and would impede cave progression and estimated to be 180m thick. For several months preceeding,
possibly reduce fragmentation. This natural cave expansion a very low amount of seismic activity was observed above the
rate value was compared with extrapolated natural cave back maximum elevation. Initially it was thought that this
expansion rate of mines with lower rockmass quality and low amount of seismic activity above the cave back was
then used as the Palabora protocol target draw rate. Other because of poor network configuration, but in January 2003
seismic information recorded by the end of 2003 confirmed additional seismic sensors were installed in the open pit, and
that this target rate was a reasonable estimate and that this did not change this pattern of seismicity. Figure 2 shows
because of the lower cave draw rates, there was no all of the seismic events recorded during the month following
significant expansion void. At the beginning of 2004 it is the installation of the additional open pit sensors. The cave
expected that the cave break through into the open pit will profile in Figure 2 is for February 2003. The cave back
be slow and that there will be no significant air blast hazard. maximum elevation is about 600m and the open pit
Seismic data recorded at Palabora displays bimodal minimum elevation is 417m, so the crown pillar is 183m thick
patterns typical for mine induced seismicity (Gibowicz and at worst, with the exclusion zone top just above the pit base.
Kijko, 1994). While for the events belonging to the first mode At this time ramp scavenging operations are taking place well
the maximum magnitude is in range 0.0 to 0.5, the events of above the pit base and were not considered at risk.

566 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 4: Cumulative energy and seismic activity.

Figure 2. The 200m exclusion zone. Figure 5 presents the time histories of the energy index
and the moment fragmentation index. Interpretation of these
plots is as follows: the increase in the values of the energy
Figure 3 shows a volume above the February 2003 cave index at the end of June 2002 indicates the start of the
back elevation with all seismic data recorded between fracturing process with associated seismicity. At this stage
January 2002 and mid- February 2003. There are only 77 the rockmass is assumed to be sufficiently intact to be able
such events. to emit seismic energy. By the end of October 2002 this
process is completed and the energy index plot flattens.
Figure 4 shows time histories of two independent
parameters of seismicity for the rock volume in Figure 3 -
the cumulative seismic energy and the monthly seismic
activity rate. The activity rate shows a sharp increase during
the period August to October 2002, but due to two relatively
large events (February and December 2002) the trend of the
cumulative energy is not so clear. Still there is a visible
increase during September 2002 followed then by a more
flat shape by the beginning of 2003.

Figure 5: Energy and moment fragmentation index time

histories.

The rockmass is fractured and further fragmentation

results in seismic events that emit only very small amounts
of energy. The moment fragmentation curve indicates the
same process. Energy index is a function of seismic
moment and energy, while moment fragmentation index is
cumulative seismic moment normalized over a rockmass
Figure 3: Volume above the cave. volume. For this reason these two parameters are related
and in general should indicate the beginning and the end of
this same process. The energy index difference between its
background and maximum values is very small. This
indicates that the actual seismic fracturing process was in
already relatively fractured rockmass. It was concluded that
this small amount of recorded seismicity could be accounted
for by the essentially aseismic deformation taking place in
the rockmass volume below the open pit and above the
cave.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 567

 Figure 6 shows the monthly seismic activity rate and its 4 CONSEQUENCES OF THE CROWN PILLAR FAILURE.
average depth. This data is recorded in a rockmass volume
centered around the middle of the February 2003 cave The premature fracturing of the crown pillar has changed
footprint. the stress distribution around the mine on a regional scale.
This failed rock restricts the passage of horizontal stresses
through it. As indicated by Figure 7 this has tended to
increase the vertical stress relative to the horizontal stress
acting on the subvertical structure in, and immediately
adjacent to, the cave zone. In consequence Palabora
become a seismically active mine and during 2003
experienced several damaging seismic events, of which the
first took place already in mid January 2003.

Figure 6: Monthly activity and average depth.

From July 2001 to December 2002 the average elevation

of seismicity recorded above the cave migrated upwards at
a rate of about 15m per month, from about 750m to
460m. This upper limit is assumed to be at the depth of the
fractured zone below the pen pit, which would not emit or
transmit seismic energy for the same reasons as the
aseismic zone. For this reason the seismicity could not
migrate any higher in the area below the pit base. The Figure 7: Redistribution of stress.
average location of seismicity during 2003 is characterized
by monthly average depth increases, but with a new Comparison of seismicity recorded during 2002 with
characteristic, namely the increase of the horizontal seismicity recorded during 2003 shows very significant
migration of seismicity around and away from the pit base. differences. The stress change influenced not only the small
The second trend displayed by this figure is the change in scale jointing in the rockmass, but also the large scale sub-
the number of events recorded per month. There is a distinct vertical geological features close to, and in the cave zone.
decrease in seismic activity from October 2002. These two The decrease in horizontal stress reduced confinement on
trends in depth and activity rate could be best explained by the planes and increased shear movement, which is
the aseismic zone around the cave reaching the fractured confirmed by the seismic data. Analysis of the source
zone located below the open pit base sometime during the parameters of seismic events recorded in 2003 indicates a
last quarter of 2002 significant increase in the shearing component, in addition
Based on the above it was concluded that the 180m thick to a major increase of released energy per moment. Another
crown pillar between the top of the cave and the base of the important change is nearly a three-fold increase in relatively
open pit is fractured and de-stressed. The majority of large seismic events.
fracturing that took place in 2002 was aseismic deformation. There remains a significant difference between the
A contributing factor to the early failure of this pillar is the seismicity recorded on the west and east sections of the
geometry of the dolerite fractures and of the carbonatite mine. The seismicity on the west side is much deeper and
joints. closer to the development and production levels than
At the time it was made clear that this rock volume is seismicity on the east side. This is attributed to the more
fractured but has not caved. This differentiation is important vertical cave profile on the west as well as the progress of
for the stability of the pit walls and the safety of the open pit the cave footprint towards the Mica Fault, which is a major
operation, as the crown pillar continues to act as a relatively structure. For this reason seismic hazard precautions were
stable foundation for the pit walls. For the underground issued for the west side of the mine in June 2003. Additional
operations, however, there will be a substantial increase in support was installed as deemed necessary. During the last
permeability for both situations. New protocols and actions quarter of 2003 further stress redistribution took place due
had to be put in place to account for the water hazard. to the cave shape. The west side of the mine is experiencing
At the beginning of March 2003 the town of Phalaborwa low stresses, while there is a significant stress build-up in
experienced its first strong rain fall of the season. Over the east side of the mine. In consequence, as from
60mm of rainfall was recorded for the open pit. The recent September 2003 the east side of the mine is experiencing
water management study examined a range of values from more seismic events with the potential for damage than the
1.00E-02 m/s, 1.00E-04 m/s, but the assumed permeability west side. This is indicated by the difference in the seismic
was 1.00E-03 m/s, which would result in the first rainwater source parameters of events recorded in the west and east
arriving at the production level in 4.4 days. In reality the sides of the mine.
rainfall water was observed in the underground excavations The slow development of the cracks in the open pit, which
after only six hours close to the most pessimistic started to be apparent from February 2003, confirmed the
prediction. Fortunately the rainfall was only 20% of that for crown pillar was indeed fracturing and de-stressing by the
the 100 year designed storm. This rainfall has verified that end of 2002. The slow development of the cracks and the
the crown pillar is fractured, as evidenced by seismic absence of seismicity indicated that the rockmass at the
analysis. bottom of the pit is in a process of relaxation. The ramp

568 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

mining in the open pit was successfully and safely continued Evaluation of swell factor. This estimate was done by
until the beginning of November 2003. The first wedge comparing the cave back profiles with different applied
failure in the pit wall close to the bottom of the pit took place swell factors with the recorded space distribution of
at the end of November 2003. Observations of the open pit seismicity. The assumed swell factor was then confirmed
in January 2004 indicate that a second wedge failure can be by the TDR measurements.
expected soon. According to January 2004 estimations it is Recording the initiation of the caving process when the
calculated that the cave back is less than 40m from the base critical hydraulic radius was reached. This is important
of the pit and production rates are indicative that there is no information for comparison with the theoretical
expansion void above the cave. The absence of significant considerations and future design.
instability of the lower pit walls tends to confirm that the Estimation of the natural cave expansion rate. This allows
progression of the cave is gradual with no large collapses control over the size of the expansion void, which is
into high expansion voids. important for maintaining the correct cave profile and
reducing the risks inherent with too large an expansion
5 CONCLUSIONS void.
Establishing the expansion void existence. This is done
Mine induced seismicity is both site and time dependent. by establishing the relationship between the cave
Site dependent means that the seismicity depends on production and the resulting seismicity. This is an indirect
properties like depth, ore body geometry, geology and assessment, but very useful when confirmed by other
mining methods and their unique interdependency. This geotechnical observations.
interdependency is dynamic and practically never repeats Stress distribution around the cave and underground
itself in either time or space. As a result, the mine induced excavations.
seismicity characteristics defined for one mine, or its part, at Seismic hazard monitoring.
a specific mining stage are not necessarily applicable to
other mines, or even to the same mine in the future. The The real challenge for the future is full application of mine
failure of the crown pillar and the consequent redistribution seismology for the purpose of cave management. This can
of stress and seismicity is a very good example of how and be achieved only with proper network configuration and very
when the mine induced seismicity can change. good quality of recorded data. It must be also understood
The understanding of mode one seismic events is that mine seismology, as any other geophysical method, on
important for understanding the processes of the block cave its own cannot solve all problems. It must be supplemented
mining. Mode one seismicity is a natural process indicating by other data. At this stage it is planned to implement
that the cave is progressing and should not only be seismic passive tomography as an additional tool for cave
monitored in a passive way to confirm the cave progress, monitoring and management. In this way information about
but should be also used in an active way to manage the the seismic source parameters will be supported by data
cave development. The space and time distributions of relating directly to the conditions of the rockmass.
mode one seismicity, as well as the changes of their source
parameters with time, are directly associated with what is ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
happening in the rockmass around the cave and
underground mining infrastructure. The authors wish to thank the Palabora Management for
By nature, mode one seismic events are relatively small granting permission to publish this paper, especially Keith
events and as such difficult to detect and record. For this Calder, now at North Parkes, for his support and
reason seismic networks installed at mines using the caving encouragement in the early stages.
method must have good sensitivity and accuracy. From
Palabora experience it seems that the minimum sensitivity REFERENCES
would be all events from magnitude about 2.0 and above
with five stations. The XYZ location accuracy should be Calder, K, Townsend, P, Russell, F,2001 Palabora
within 10m. Underground Project. Underground mining methods:
Several applications of seismic monitoring at Palabora Engineering Fundamentals and International Case
have proved that it is a very valuable and useful tool for cave Studies ( Ed: W A Hustrulid and R s Bullock) Society for
mining. Apart from the monitoring and management of the Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc. Colorado, USA,
cave progress it was used to solve the following problems: pp 405-409
Gibowicz, S, and Kijko, A, (1994), An Introduction to
Allowed continuous underground operations during Mining Seismology, Academic Press, New York
blasting operations in the open pit. In 2002 the network Gibowicz, S,J, and Lasocki, S (2001) Seismicity Induced
allowed analysis of the ground motions at the by Mining: Ten Years Later, Advances in Geophysics, Vol
development level resulting from the blasts in the open pit. 44, Academic Press, New York.
A maximum charge per delay was established that Rorke, A, J, and Brummer, R, K, (1990) The Use of
resulted in much lower PPV values than those expected Explosives in Rockburst Control Techniques, Rockbursts
to result in damage to the underground excavations. The and Seismicity in Mines, (Ed: Fairhurst)pp. 337-385,
increased underground production time on its own from Balkema, Rotterdam.
this single application of the network resulted in recovery
of all capital expenses connected with purchasing and
installation of the network.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 569

 Strain energy control for the
Big Bell longitudinal sublevel cave
John Player, PhD Student, Western Australian School Mines

Abstract
The Big Bell longitudinal sublevel caving operation had a production tonnage of 1.8Mtpa prior to the onset of seismic
activity in 1999. During 1999 and 2000, substantial damaging seismic events resulted in a suspension of mining
operations in late 2000. Major mine redesign work such as; extraction principles, development location, ground control
systems, and man access to working areas, were undertaken to develop a safe and stable seismic environment. This was
achieved in mid 2002 once all design principles were implemented. Due to rising costs from the lower production rate of
0.7Mtpa the mine closed in mid 2003.

1. INTRODUCTION rockmass for mining.Energy changes in a mine domain

arise from generation and displacement of excavation
Big Bell had a history of rockbursts from 1999 until mine surfaces and energy redistribution accompanying seismic
closure in 2003. During this period the mine had to develop eventsthe strain energy changes which arise from the
suitable mining front geometry, development locations, way in which surface forces are applied as part of the mine
ground control systems, and automated equipment usage, structure" are considered to be the dominate source of
to minimize the potential hazard to the underground work energy.
force. According to Brady and Brown 1994, two factors need to
Other papers by Player 2004a, Player 2004b, Barrett and be considered in relation to energy changes, "increase in
Player 2002, Turner and Player 2000, Player 2000, Sandy static strain energy occurs in areas of stress concentration
and Player, 1999 describe the rockmass properties, ground (stress concentration occurs around all underground
response, mining environment, and mining methodology. openings).sudden excavation of a surface causes an
These papers were written over a number of years when the energy imbalance in the system". This can lead to a
ground response to mining changed from non-seismic to dynamic stress component related to the volume of material
seismic. They detail the progressive understanding of that is rapidly removed / blasted. It should be noted that
strategic factors involved in combating mine seismicity. local rock fracturing around openings would consume some
This paper will examine the driving factor for the mine of the released energy. The rapid excavation of a mining
seismicity and the performance of the hangingwall cave. In void applies a dynamic stress to the ground closest to the
particular, it updates the approach to mining the orebody excavation then spreads into the rockmass. When this
published by Turner and Player 2000. encounters a static stress field concentration the sum of the
stresses can result in damage to the rockmass by
2. SEISMIC GEOTECHINCAL ISSUES exceeding the rockmass strength.
For mining environments, the energy released from the
It is difficult to determine when a mine changes from a excavation of the rock can be considered as an index for the
non-seismic to a seismic environment. The relative induced potential local degradation of the rockmass. The
stress compared to the rockmass strength, and how the degradation, or yielding, can either by non-violent or violent
rockmass stores and releases the energy are some of the (i.e. bursting conditions). Hence the energy released by an
most important controlling factors. excavation can be used as a design principle. It is better to
How the rockmass releases strain energy from stress have a consistent energy release rate from a mining
change is a function of; the rock matrix, discontinuities geometry and sequence, rather than one which has sudden
present, the regional / mine wide loading system, and the energy changes.
amount of work that the rock does before and after failure. This can be succinctly explained by the illustration of three
The loading system is considered to be influenced by the different excavation sequences in Figure 1 from Whittaker et
mining front rate of advance. al 1992. Sequences one and two have a rapid energy
Beck 2000, takes the approach, "seismic induced release during the excavation cycle. This makes the
events can be described from numerical modelling utilising sequences more susceptible to a rockburst than sequence
Mohr Columb slip criterion for events on discontinuities and three, which has a regular energy release. Sequences one
the relationship between for seismic events not associated and two could be related to;
with deviatoric mechanisms". To undertake this work a mining geometry utilising primary and secondary open
requires quality processed seismic events from the mine stopes (with pillar removal and fill compared to a pillar less
micro-seismic monitoring system. The method is applied as sequence with the use of paste fill),
a back analysis of known mining steps and associated or a longwall mining face (that uses an arrow head rather
seismic activity. It is possible to allocate seismic criteria to than a flat face),
future mining steps or sequences, if it can be assumed that or the release of strain energy along a fault (clamping a
the seismic criterion remain consistent. fault and mining towards it compared to releasing the fault
Brady and Brown 1994, provide the following definitions, and moving away).
"Rockbursts arise from unstable energy changes in the host

570 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 another location. However, the approach should be able to
describe at which zones rockbursts wont occur. Work by
Wiles 2002, and Wiles 2004, examines a combination of
modelled rockmass properties, released energy and loading
system stiffness, to determine conditions for rockburst
occurrence from the back analysis of previous bursts.
The reliance of back analysis techniques to determine
future rockburst potential implies early rockbursts will be
unexpected hence good mining practices must always be
applied during the life of a mine. Good mining practices
should use suitable geometry and sequences that
redistribute the induced stresses as uniformly as practical.
This is the first step in controlling a potential rockburst
problem and should be used in combination with an
advance rate that controls strain energy buildup in the
rockmass.
There are a number of tactical issues that need to be
considered when evaluating the geotechnical needs of a
Figure 1: Example energy release rate mine once a strategic decision has been made to assess
seismic activity;
When does seismicity present a problem, or is there
Strain energy release into the mine environment is already a problem?
controlled by the displacement of the excavation surface Can the seismicity be represented or restricted to a rock
and the creation of new surfaces. The mechanisms will unit, mine sequence, mine geometry or development
depend on the loading system stiffness and rockmass location?
strength to stress ratios. The creation of the hangingwall Which personnel are available to assess the seismic
cave has a very high potential energy release. The cave activity including processing of the data, recording mine
effectively increases the excavation size and available geometry change and maintenance of the seismic
energy to the mining environment from the formation of new system?
surfaces. Rather than a mining environment that has
controlled displacements of the hangingwall, from fill There are specific issues relating to geotechnical
placement or partial extraction by leaving pillars. The properties and mine seismic that are worth further
additional energy needs to be accounted for as part of the expansion (Section 2.1 to 2.3).
mine design.
The Big Bell operation utilised rapid advancing 2.1. Rockmass, Local and Global Issues
longitudinal mining front with limit retreat pillars from 1997 The following list of local and global rockmass items have
to 2001, Barrett and Player 2002. The use of pillars and a shown to have an that influence the geotechnical seismic
flattening of the mining front, promoted a non-uniform potential and properties;
energy release. Intuitively the performance of the Many attempts at determining a rock burst index from
hangingwall strata (particularly from rockmass variations rock samples have been made. However, the factor that
between strata), would be expected to influence the caving influence a potential rock burst have complexity in their
process in conjunction with; mining geometry, dimension, geological and non-geological controls,
and rate of advance of the mining front. These factors Rock mass characterization across the mine
probably contributed to rapid changes in the energy release environment,
in the rockmass, similar to sequence one or two of Figure 1, Rock mass stiffness and post peak properties,
rather than the gradual release of sequence three. Rock P and S wave velocity calculation then undertaking
Brady and Brown 1994, define the potential energy of the a site survey to provide greater accuracy for the seismic
loading system upon the rockmass as unstable, when it will system,
lead to unstable deformation i.e. seismic events from an Regional structures that will influence stress, can be a
instability source. source of seismic activity. They could also damp seismic
There are two modes of unstable rockmass deformation energy transmission from an event, and
that lead to instability and mine seismicity. Method One Insitu stress levels and background seismic activity.
typically involves the crushing of rockmass in pillars, and
around excavations at both development and stope scale. 2.2. Mine Sequence and Geometry Issues
These events are modelled by relationships of the The following list of mine sequence and geometry items
monitored seismic events in a process that is explained by have shown to have an influence on the geotechnical
Beck 2000 and Wiles 2004. Method Two involves the slip of seismic potential and properties;
structures, which could be natural, or mining induced. Slip The stress path from mining sequence, Beck and Sandy
on a structure can be defined by the Mohr Columb criteria, 2002, examines ground performance changes with
Beck et al 1997. Beck 2000, assesses both modes of different loading conditions,
rockmass deformation from monitored micro-seismic events Extraction rate from areas of the mine, a number of South
for the period April to August 2000 at Big Bell. The criterion African reports refer to square meters exposed, some
does not describe the potential magnitude for a seismic operations with an extended life have been able to
event, but rather defined when conditions exist for a seismic develop critical benchmarks. This forms the basis of the
event to occur. This was based on previously monitored Energy Release Rate principal that is discussed by Brady
seismic events. At Big Bell five criteria were developed for and Brown 1994, Brink et al 2000, Spottiswoode et al
and Mohr Columb modes of rockmass instability. 2000, and Spottiswoode and Milev 2002, and
The above approach relies on the results of micro-seismic The presence of pillars in the mine layout, and the
monitoring, stress modelling and rockmass properties. It is overall geometry of the mining front. Both of these
unlikely to be sensitive enough to provide why one location influence the hangingwall response in a sublevel cave
will burst within a zone that meets a criteria, as opposed to operation.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 571

2.3. Development Location and Support Criteria Issues footwall contact between the granite and the mine
The following list of development location and support sequence. Distinct activity was also located in the
criteria have shown to have an influence on the hangingwall about the granite contact. Both areas were
geotechnical seismic potential and properties; several hundred meters to one thousand meters from the
Drive orientation and location relative to geological nearest workings.
structure and the stress fields, both insitu and mining
induced, 4. MINE SEQUENCE AND GEOMETRY
Support / reinforcement installed, yieldable reinforcement,
strong surface support that wont fail, quality integration of Sequence and mine geometry effect stress
the two systems, and redistribution around mine openings. A poor initial mining
Appropriate design criteria for the determination of geometry and / or poor mining sequence may bring about
support and reinforcement. unstable pillars, extensive linear mining fronts, or
pendants being developed. These shapes can lead to
3. REGIONAL STRUCTURES AND SEISMICITY very high localised stress. If a longwall mining sequence
is not correctly progressed, then an increased proportion
At Big Bell the examination of damaging seismic events of the mining front will be more highly stressed compared
showed that the graphitic shear acted as a dampening to a good geometry. Morrison and Beauchamp 2002,
barrier. This observation applied for events occurring within explore geometry and seismic proneness principals. A
the ore zone or the footwall amphibolite, Figure 2. It was not numerical approach can also be in conjunction with
established whether the graphitic shears reflected energy seismic data.
away due to fractures, or whether the brecciated material
reduced the amplitude of a wave travelling through the 5. ROCKBURST HISTORY
shear zone. Damage only occurred within the zone that the
event sourced. Damage would not cross the lode graphitic Barrett and Player 2002, fully describe the history of
shear to influence closer parallel development but rather rockbursts from 1999 to 2002. Damaging seismic events
occurred along strike, up and down dip, to effect other high from 1999 to 2000 had a reduced association to specific
stress areas. production blasts. This most likely occurred because of a
Improvements to the seismic monitoring array in 2001 and change to flatten the mining front. As a consequence of the
2002 clearly identified seismic events occurring on the flattened geometry any particularly firing had less influence
graphitic shears. The implementation of additional triaxial on the stress field.
sensors and a higher number of accepted triggers The flattened geometry contributed to the complete mine
dramatically reduced the scatter in location of processed front becoming highly stressed rather than just an abutment
events about the lode graphitic shear. Due to the nature of stress around each production heading.
the brecciated graphitic shear, it was possible that recorded Figure 3 is a long section through the cave profile showing
seismic events occurred very small distances off the shear the damaging event locations (each event is represented by
along parallel fractures, local splays, or rock asperities in the an individually shaded rectangle), and change in mining
shear. fronts from February 1999 to July 2000. Mining in the lower
Far field footwall activity, often resulted in events felt on grade southern extension was undertaken, from September
the surface. These occurred on what has been termed the 2000 to December 2001 as shown in the right side of Figure
Big Bell Fault. Grinceri 2002, proposed this as being the 4. Figure 4 also shows, has the change in mining profile in

Figure 2: View in cross section showing damage transmission from rockbursts.

572 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 3: Change in mining front with major rockburst locations February 1999 to July 2000

Figure 4: Change in mining front with major rockburst locations from February 2002 to July 2003

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 573

Figure 5: Sequence of stope extraction to achieve good mining front angles from

the lower levels with corresponding damaging seismic Limit retreat pillars are ore strike pillars from one level to
events from December 2001 to July 2003. Each damaging the level above at the last cross cut location. Figure 3
seismic event area is again shown by individually shaded shows an example of a limit retreat pillar. Ore strike
rectangles. development occurred from the crosscut to the end of the
The principal damage morphology was similar for all ore zone, where a slot was put up and the stope / cave was
moderate to significant damaging seismic events. The then retreated to the pillar, which was mass blasted.
observed principal mechanism was shear rupture along The flattening of the mining front changed the mining
foliation planes and intact failure of the rock on the footwall induced stress inturn modifying the ground response and
of the rupture plane. Occasionally minor damaging events seismic activity. This change was only realised in hindsight
exhibited different morphology. through analysis of a sufficiently large seismic event
An assessment of the principal damage mechanism database.
indicated that a specific foliation place was not responsible Comparative seismic activity analysis should only be
for these events, rather any number of foliation planes from undertaken on similar mining geometries for a mining
one meter into the hangingwall shoulder of the drive, to operation. The changing geometry of the mining front made
halfway across the drive. The breakout location was most it difficult to correctly evaluate the changes in the seismic
likely controlled by local factors such as; drive orientation, response to mining. Differences in the seismic response
the presence of the foliation plane, rock mass properties, should be expected when there is a variation in the mining
and the stress field. geometry.
Numerical modelling of the mine geometry did not With hindsight, the data processed in 2000 was influence
distinguish significant differences in stress concentration by mining decisions that were made many months if not a
between the southern and northern ends of the mine. year before hand.
However, seismic activity and the rockburst damage were The establishment and maintenance of a favourable
different between the northern and southern ends. The mining front angle was a key criterion in the management of
largest damaging events of local magnitude greater than 2.0 seismic activity for the lower levels of the mine from 2002.
only occurred north of 3750mN. The planned scheduled sequence to achieve a good
The papers by Barrett and Player 2002, and Player 2004a geometry from March 2002 is shown in Figure 5. This
provide detail on the ground control system utilised at Big required a slow production rate. The established mining
Bell to control rockburst damage. Surveys of contained front and mining front angles at October 2002 are shown in
rockbursts showed displacements of 300mm to 700mm in Figure 6.
the ground control system. The schedule from March 2002 could not be maintained
exactly due to ground control problems and additional
tonnage draw at the northern end of 535 and 560 levels in
6. THE IMPORTANCE OF MINE FRONT the middle of 2002.
GEOMETRY ON CAVING However, the 45 angle was maintained at the
northern end of the mine as shown in Figure 6. This
During a review of access development in 2000 the was due to the higher seismic activity level and
mining front angle was also examined. The mining front was magnitude that occurred at the north when compared to
flattened during 1999 and 2000 due to; the south. Seismicity was considered to be strongly
the production rate exceeding the required development influenced by the hangingwall conditions. The
rate, hangingwall conditions included more competent
failure to open up the 535 slot in a timely fashion, rockmass that would have altered the local loading
damage from seismic events restricting development rate, and system and potentially stored additional strain energy
use of limit retreat pillars (Barrett and Player 2002) at the from the caving process. The caving process was also
final cross cut location. likely to be less regular.

574 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 6: Base of Cave Geometry October 2002

The 45 angle for mining front had been determined to important where the principal stress is sub horizontal and
be the ideal angle, for it was expected to minimise not parallel to the orebody.
seismicity. This was mainly due to the horizontal and Improved management strategies may then have
vertical lengths to distribute mining induced stresses included; a slowing of the advance rate, changes to the
being maximised. mine development layout, and the implementation of the
The 45 angle was maintained at the northern end until required heavy ground control scheme. Short term pain for
the mining sequence required the 535 and 560 stope a long term gain.
numbers 78 and 80 to be extracted to enable the opening of These changes could have preserved additional levels
the 585 slot. As expected, this increased seismic activity and enabled a higher production rate than the 0.7Mtpa that
and resulted in deteriorating ground conditions at the was possible from 2001-2003, thereby improving the mining
northern end of 535 and 560 levels. economics. Mining in a very high induced stress field, using
The 585 level was opened slower than scheduled, due to longitudinal sublevel cave methods proved to be
blasting and geotechincal problems. Blasting problems, operationally and technically possible during 2002-2003.
sub-optimal slot design resulted in bridging. Geotechnical,
oversize development and levels less than 25m apart
resulted in increased ground damage. These delays ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
required ore from the southern side of the mining to be The author would like to thank Harmony Gold for
sourced with out excessively flattening the mining front permission to publish this paper, and my colleges and
angle. operators at the mine and within the mining industry for the
A mining front angle of 20 was observed to be effort involved in understanding and working with damaging
satisfactory in mid 2002, and as such mining continued with seismic activity.
this angle. The satisfactory performance of the flatter angle
was probably due to principal stress orientation (assessed REFERENCES
as sub-horizontal and from the north east, slightly shielding
the southern cave faces) and weaker hangingwall Barrett, D. and Player, J. 2002. Big Bell, High Stress at
conditions (allowing softer loading system around the Shallow Depth. International Seminar on Deep and High
bottom of the cave and more regular caving). During the Stress Mining, Perth, Australia. Australian Centre for
last months of mine operation, the extended level Geomechanics.
separation created by the 20 mining front resulted in Brady, B and Brown, E. 1994, Rock Mechanics for
ground deterioration and seismicity on the 560 and 585 Underground Mining, Second Edition, Kluwer Academic
levels, therefore efforts were being made to steepen the Publishers. ISBN 0412475502
angle. Beck, D. 2000. Big Bell Gold Mine Quantification of
Seismic Mechanisms.
7. CONCLUSIONS AMC200099 :August 2000.
Beck, D., Brady, B. and Grant, D. Induced Stress and
The principal factors controlling hangingwall cave Microseismicity in the 3000 Orebody, Mt Isa.
performance include rockmass properties, mine geometry, Geotechincal and Geological Engineering,1997, V15,
and mine sequence. By understanding the caving pp221-233
mechanism in 1999, it could have been realised earlier that Beck, D and Sandy, M. 2002. Mine Sequencing for High
the more competent hangingwall promoted strain energy Recovery in Western Australian Mines. International
build up in the rockmass with the potential to generate larger Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining, Perth Australia.
rockbursts. The mining technique also allowed additional Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
energy input into the mining environment when compared to Brink, A. Hagan, T. Spottiswooode, S. Malan, D. Glazer,
non-hangingwall caving techniques. This is particularly S. and Lasocki, S. 2000. Survey and Assessment of

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 575

 Techniques used to Quantify the Potential for Rock Mass Release for different Geotechincal Areas. GAP612c.
Instability. GAP608. SIMRAC. South Africa. SIMRAC. South Africa.
Grinceri, M. 2002. Structural and Spatial Controls to Mine Spottiswoode, S and Milev, A. 2002. A methodology and
Seismicity at the Big Bell Mine. Unpublished computer program for applying improved, inelastic ERR
Undergraduate Honours Thesis, University of Western for the design of mine layouts on planar reefs. GAP722.
Australia, 81 pages + appendices. SIMRAC. South Africa.
Morrison, D, Beauchamp, K. 2002. Stope Design and Sandy, M., and Player, J. 1999, Reinforcement Design
Sequencing Under Deep Mining Conditions. International Investigations at Big Bell, Rock Support and
Seminar on Deep and High Stress Reinforcement Practice in Mining. International
Mining, Perth, Australia. Australian Centre for Symposium Kalgoorlie 1999.Balkema, Eds Villescusa,
Geomechanics. Thompson, Windsor.
Player, J., 2000. Longitudinal Sublevel Caving, Big Bell Turner, M., and Player, J. 2000. Seismic Reinforcement at
Mine. Underground Mining Methods Engineering Big Bell Mine. Proceedings of MassMin 2000 Brisbane
Fundamentals and International Case Studies. Ed W. A. Australia.
Hustrulid and R. L. Bullock. SME Whittaker, B.N., Singh, R.N., Sun, G., 1992, Rock
Player, J., 2004a. Field Performance of Cone Bolts at Big Fracture Mechanics; Principles, Design, and Applications,
Bell Mine. Ground Support 2004. Perth. Australia. Elsevier, 570 pages
Balkema, Eds, Villescusa and Thompson. Wiles, T. 2002. Loading System Stiffness a Parameter to
Player, J., 2004b. Reinforcement and Support Evaluate Rockburst Potential. . International Seminar on
Investigation for Static and Dynamic Loading Conditions Deep and High Stress Mining, Perth Australia. Australian
at the Big Bell Sublevel Caving Operation. Unpublished. Centre for Geomechanics.
Masters of Engineering Science Geomechanics Thesis. Wiles, T. 2004. Map3D Course Notes. Mine Modelling
Curtin University, West Australia. 256pages Pty Ltd.
Spottiswoode, S. Napier, J. Milev, A. and Vieira, F. 2000.
The Relationship between ERR and Seismic Energy

576 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 A methodology for seismic risk
analysis of mining facilities
Jorge E. Crempien, Laborie Dean, School of Engineering, Universidad de los Andes

Abstract
This work presents a methodology to estimate the seismic risk and design spectrum determination for mining installations
in seismic areas such us the northern part of Chile. The methodology developed is applicable to any area. First the
seismicity of the area is studied, looking at the frequency of events and their geographical distribution in order to establish
a model of temporal and geographical occurrence for events of different magnitudes. The temporal occurrence model
is based on the Gutemberg and Richter law which is determined using maximum likelihood. Also a law of attenuation for
earthquake ground peak accelerations is determined for Chile; the attenuation law and the Gutemberg and Richter law
are used to determine the probability of occurrence of accelerations for different design levels.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DATA BASE

In general, Chile is well known as an earthquake country, In any seismic risk study the first thing to do is to review the
and since the arrival of the Spanish conquerors there exists data available. The typical data needed for the analysis are:
the records of historic earthquakes that produced abundant the date of occurrence, the latitude and longitude of the
loss of lives and great economic damages in the past. It is not epicenter, the depth of the hypocenter and magnitude. This
strange to have earthquakes with Richter magnitudes over means that if any of this data is missing in any record it should
7.2 in any place of Chile, as an example of this some be discarded from the data base. In the case of the present
earthquakes with magnitude over 7.2 that have been reported work the methodology developed has been applied to a zone
in the northern town of Arica are consigned in table 1. nearby the town of Arica, establishing for this zone an
influence area of 500 km radius with center in Arica, the
Table 1. Earthquakes with Ms>7.2 relevant data of earthquake occurrences in this area was
in the last 150 years. obtained from the USGS catalog. From this catalog complete
records and with magnitudes over 4.5 were selected only.
Year Lat. Lon. Prof. Km. Ms Effect Therefore, from an initial number of 4065 records of
earthquakes from 1570 up to December 2002, only 2311
1868 18.5 70.3 ? 8.5 Tsunami reported events were selected to perform the study.
1877 19.6 70.2 ? 8.3 Tsunami
2. Model of tTemporal Occurrence
1950 23.5 67.5 100 8.0 ----
Earthquake occurrence can be modeled as a Poisson
1995 23.3 70.3 37 7.5 Marejada random process model, where the arrival of earthquakes
are events independent of each other. The model of
Also, Fig. 1 shows a sample of the heavy seismic activity in occurrence is given by the law of Gutemberg and Richter
the northern part of the country. In this figure the epicenters of that relates the number of earthquakes in a year within the
the reported earthquakes since 1960 are plotted. influence area that have magnitudes Ms greater that a
minimum Magnitude Mmin. This law is given by:

Log10 (N) = a bMs (1)

In this last expression and are constants that are

determined from the data gathered for the specific area for
a certain time. In the case of Arica, the occurrence in time
of earthquakes can be observed in Fig. 2

Fig. 1: Epicenters for different magnitudes in Arica.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 577

 From figure 2 is easy to see that the data is homogeneus
starting from the year 1960, and that the data obtained
before that year is a small fraction of the total data and can
be neglected.
The distribution of earthquakes by magnitudes can be
observed in Fig. 3 for the same area

Fig. 3: Distribution of Earthquakes by Magnitude

3. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD
ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DATA Fig. 4: Comparison between observed data and Gutemberg
and Richter law
Several authors have proposed methods to determine the
parameter b using maximum likelihood methods. The first
work is due to Aki1 , in latter works Bender2 and Weichart3
improved Akis work by adding the possibility to have data in 4. SPACE DISTRIBUTION OF HYPOCEN-TERS.
different time spans. In this work we adopt the method
proposed by Aki, because it is simpler and also because the The space distribution of hypocenters is studied to
size of the data base. The maximum likelihood estimation of establish a space model of occurrence The distribution of
after Aki is given by: epicenters in the earth surface can be seen in figure 5
where the shore line is also shown. In this plot no difference
log10 e is made for magnitude in contrast to Fig 1.
b= (2)
M MMin

Where M is the mean magnitude of the observed

samples.

Parameter a is obtained from the condition that for the

lowest magnitude in the observed period of time, the
computed number of earthquakes N should be consistent
with the total number of events in the data base. This is:

a = log10 N log10 T + b MMin (3)

Where T is the time length of the data base in years and

N is the total number of earthquakes in the data base.

For the observed zone in Arica the values obtained for a

and b are:

a = 5.92400
b = 0.92966

In figure En la figure 4 it is shown the fit of the predicted

curve obtained by the Gutemberg and Richter law and the
one obtained from the observed data for the region.

Fig. 5: Distribution of epicenters in the studied region.

578 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In figures 6 to 8 it is possible to see the distribution of 5. ATENUATION LAWS FOR MAXIMUM ACCELERATION
hypocenters in a view from east to west for different
latitudes. These figures clearly show the Benioff plane, The important thing in seismic risk procedures for
where the Nazca Plate takes contact with the Continental earthquake resistant design is that the maximum
Plate. The Nazca Plate is subducting beneath the acceleration that can happen in a place con be related with
Continental Plate, for this reason all the hypocenters the occurrence of earthquakes of expected magnitudes, in
appears clearly grouped close to the Benioff plane. the zone where a structure is being designed. What is
needed is to obtain the probability of occurrence of an
acceleration greater than a certain minim acceleration
Amin. To obtain this relation it is necessary to know how
varies the maximum acceleration in a point with the distance
of the point to the hypocenter of the earthquake and also
with the magnitude. These are the so called attenuation
relations for a given region or zone.
Many of these relations have been proposed in the past,
and some of them have been plotted and can be observed
in figure 9. In this work, the attenuation relation initially
proposed by Arias and Crempien4 and latter modified by
Crempien5, for Chilean data was adopted. In general,
attenuation relations have a general form given by:

c1 e c2M

amax = (4)
(D + C3)c4

Fig. 6: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters. Where c1, c2, c3, y c4 are constants. In this case, the
values of the constants obtained by Crempien in the
corrected model are:

c1 = 422.0
c2 = 0.79
c3 = 60.
c4 = 1.42

In eq. 4 M is Richter magnitude and D the epicentral

distance in kilometers (km).

6. SEISMIC RISK MODEL AND DESIGN EARTHQUAKE.

To compute the seismic risk of a zone, the procedure

suggested by Cornell6, and modified by Algermissen and
Perkins7, is used. The attenuation law is jointly used with
the all the Gutemberg and Richter law of temporal
occurrence determined for the different seismic sources
within the influence area. In the case of the zone being
Fig. 7: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters evaluated near the of Arica, we can observe in Fig. 1 that
epicenters are well distributed almost all over the influence
area, so the model of space occurrence adopted was a
continuous source distributed over the influence area. This
area was divided into square elements that form a mesh,
and for every element i in the influence mesh the ratio of
earthquakes happened in them to the total number of
earthquake in the influence zone was computed.

Ni
i = (5)
NT

this ratio gives the earthquake productivity of that

particular element in the mesh relative to the total area. This
procedure was suggested by Der kiuregian and Ang8 for
linear sources and extended to area sources by Arias and
Crempien4. Then, for a certain level of acceleration that can
happen in the point where the earthquake risk is being
evaluated, the necessary magnitude to produce that level of
Fig. 8: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters acceleration is computed for all the squares defined in the
mesh, and the total number of earthquakes that produce
magnitudes equal or larger is computed. The probability of
occurrence of the acceleration A grater than a minimum
acceleration Amin is defined as the ratio between favorable

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 579

 The maximum credible magnitude for this study was set
to Ms = 8.75 based on observed data.

The probability excedence curves obtained for Arica are

shown are shown in figure 10. This figure shows the
probability of excedence of four localities near Arica for
small mining facilities. Because these localities are so close
together the probability curves obtained for each one of
them differ very little from each other.

Fig 10. Excedence probability for accelerations

In Fig. 11 the period of return of accelerations in years is

given for the same localities close to Arica.

Fig. 9: Atenuation Relations for Subduction Zones.

outcomes and total outcomes, the probability of excedence

of a is defined as the total number of earthquakes that
produce the acceleration divided by the total number of
earthquakes in the influence area. In this computation the
actual number in each square that produce acceleration
greater that Amin is multiplied by the factor to take into
account the productivity factor of each element in the mesh.
This is
m

a xE {N ( A < a / M M )}
i Min
F (a) = i =l (6)
E { N ( M M )}
T Min

where E {%} indicate expected value. The return period

of this acceleration is computed as

Fig 11: Return period for accelerations

1 1
F (a) = (7)
1 F (a) E {N (M Mmin) per year }

580 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

7. SELECTION OF DESIGN EARTHQUAKE
8. CONCLUSSIONS
According to Standard design practice it is recommended
to use to levels of design earthquake. The first level is the A method for estimation of the seismic risk and for
operation earthquake, this is an earthquake that is likely to defining design levels was developed and applied to the
happen during the life span of the facility and that the facility zone northern zone taking the town of Arica as center for the
have to withstand with no loss of functionality. For example study. This methodology is portable, and can be used in any
if it is decided to use an earthquake with a return period of location or zone for both studying seismic risk and defining
250 years, then from Fig. 11 the maximum horizontal the design level of mining facilities.
acceleration is Amax = 0.18g. The second level is the shut
down earthquake. This is an earthquake that has low 9. ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
probability of happening during the life span of the facility
and it can cause its loss of functionality. For example, if it Support for this research was granted by FAI project
is decided to use an earthquake with a return period of 600 CING 001-99, this support is deeply acknowledged.
years, the maximum horizontal acceleration obtained from
Fig. 11 is Amax =0 .25g. 10. RERENCES

The next step is to obtain the design response spectra. 1. Aki, K., "Maximum Likelihood Estimate of b in the
This can be accomplished using the design response Formula and its Confidence Limits.", Bulletin of The
spectrum given in the design code, or using the response Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokio, Vol.
spectra of representative earthquakes that have happened 43, pp. 237-239, 1965.
in the region. In this case, the spectra of the acceleration 2. Bender, B., "Maximum Laikelihood Estimation of b Values
records obtained during the 1985 earthquake are used. for Magnitude Grouped Data.", Bulletin of the
These spectra are usually normalized so that he maximum Seismological Society of America, Vol. 73, pp. 831-851,
acceleration of the ground be 1.0g. Therefore it is June 1983.
necessary to scale them to be usable, for this reason they 3. Weichert, D., "Estimation of the Earthquake Recurrence
are multiplied by the maximum acceleration obtained for the Parameters for Unequal Observation Periods for
operation and shutdown earthquake respectively, the Different Magnitudes.", Bulletin of the Seismological
outcome is shown in figure 12 where the average design Society of America, Vol. 70, pp 1337-1346, 1980.
response spectra for the earthquake records obtained in the 4. Arias, A. y Crempien J., "Aislacin ssmica de equipos
1985 central valley earthquake is plotted for both levels elctricos de la sub-estacin de Endesa en Alto Jahuel",
design and shutdown. V Jornadas Chilenas de Sismologa e Ingeniera
Antissmica, Vol. 1., pp. 1075-1083, 1989.
5. Crempien, J., "Un modelo de Atenuacin para
Aceleracioneas Mximas de Terremotos en la Zona
Central de Chile", Documento de Trabajo No. 44,
Universidad de los Andes, 2001.
6. Cornell, C.,A., "Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis,"
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 58,
pp. 1583-1606, 1968.
7. Algermissen, S.T., and Perkins, David M., "A probabilistic
estimate of maximum acceleration in rock in the
contiguous United States," U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report OF 76-416, 45 p. 1976.
8. Der Kiureghian, A., Ang. H.S., "A Fault-Rupture Model for
Seismic Risk Analysis", Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, Vol. 67, pp. 1173-1194, 1977.

Fig. 12: Design spectra showing shutdown and operation

level.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 581

582 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 A methodology for seismic risk
analysis of mining facilities
Jorge E. Crempien, Laborie Dean, School of Engineering, Universidad de los Andes

Abstract
This work presents a methodology to estimate the seismic risk and design spectrum determination for mining installations
in seismic areas such us the northern part of Chile. The methodology developed is applicable to any area. First the
seismicity of the area is studied, looking at the frequency of events and their geographical distribution in order to establish
a model of temporal and geographical occurrence for events of different magnitudes. The temporal occurrence model
is based on the Gutemberg and Richter law which is determined using maximum likelihood. Also a law of attenuation for
earthquake ground peak accelerations is determined for Chile; the attenuation law and the Gutemberg and Richter law
are used to determine the probability of occurrence of accelerations for different design levels.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DATA BASE

In general, Chile is well known as an earthquake country, In any seismic risk study the first thing to do is to review the
and since the arrival of the Spanish conquerors there exists data available. The typical data needed for the analysis are:
the records of historic earthquakes that produced abundant the date of occurrence, the latitude and longitude of the
loss of lives and great economic damages in the past. It is not epicenter, the depth of the hypocenter and magnitude. This
strange to have earthquakes with Richter magnitudes over means that if any of this data is missing in any record it should
7.2 in any place of Chile, as an example of this some be discarded from the data base. In the case of the present
earthquakes with magnitude over 7.2 that have been reported work the methodology developed has been applied to a zone
in the northern town of Arica are consigned in table 1. nearby the town of Arica, establishing for this zone an
influence area of 500 km radius with center in Arica, the
Table 1. Earthquakes with Ms>7.2 relevant data of earthquake occurrences in this area was
in the last 150 years. obtained from the USGS catalog. From this catalog complete
records and with magnitudes over 4.5 were selected only.
Year Lat. Lon. Prof. Km. Ms Effect Therefore, from an initial number of 4065 records of
earthquakes from 1570 up to December 2002, only 2311
1868 18.5 70.3 ? 8.5 Tsunami reported events were selected to perform the study.
1877 19.6 70.2 ? 8.3 Tsunami
2. Model of tTemporal Occurrence
1950 23.5 67.5 100 8.0 ----
Earthquake occurrence can be modeled as a Poisson
1995 23.3 70.3 37 7.5 Marejada random process model, where the arrival of earthquakes
are events independent of each other. The model of
Also, Fig. 1 shows a sample of the heavy seismic activity in occurrence is given by the law of Gutemberg and Richter
the northern part of the country. In this figure the epicenters of that relates the number of earthquakes in a year within the
the reported earthquakes since 1960 are plotted. influence area that have magnitudes Ms greater that a
minimum Magnitude Mmin. This law is given by:

Log10 (N) = a bMs (1)

In this last expression and are constants that are

determined from the data gathered for the specific area for
a certain time. In the case of Arica, the occurrence in time
of earthquakes can be observed in Fig. 2

Fig. 1: Epicenters for different magnitudes in Arica.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 577

 From figure 2 is easy to see that the data is homogeneus
starting from the year 1960, and that the data obtained
before that year is a small fraction of the total data and can
be neglected.
The distribution of earthquakes by magnitudes can be
observed in Fig. 3 for the same area

Fig. 3: Distribution of Earthquakes by Magnitude

3. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD
ANALYSIS OF SEISMIC DATA Fig. 4: Comparison between observed data and Gutemberg
and Richter law
Several authors have proposed methods to determine the
parameter b using maximum likelihood methods. The first
work is due to Aki1 , in latter works Bender2 and Weichart3
improved Akis work by adding the possibility to have data in 4. SPACE DISTRIBUTION OF HYPOCEN-TERS.
different time spans. In this work we adopt the method
proposed by Aki, because it is simpler and also because the The space distribution of hypocenters is studied to
size of the data base. The maximum likelihood estimation of establish a space model of occurrence The distribution of
after Aki is given by: epicenters in the earth surface can be seen in figure 5
where the shore line is also shown. In this plot no difference
log10 e is made for magnitude in contrast to Fig 1.
b= (2)
M MMin

Where M is the mean magnitude of the observed

samples.

Parameter a is obtained from the condition that for the

lowest magnitude in the observed period of time, the
computed number of earthquakes N should be consistent
with the total number of events in the data base. This is:

a = log10 N log10 T + b MMin (3)

Where T is the time length of the data base in years and

N is the total number of earthquakes in the data base.

For the observed zone in Arica the values obtained for a

and b are:

a = 5.92400
b = 0.92966

In figure En la figure 4 it is shown the fit of the predicted

curve obtained by the Gutemberg and Richter law and the
one obtained from the observed data for the region.

Fig. 5: Distribution of epicenters in the studied region.

578 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In figures 6 to 8 it is possible to see the distribution of 5. ATENUATION LAWS FOR MAXIMUM ACCELERATION
hypocenters in a view from east to west for different
latitudes. These figures clearly show the Benioff plane, The important thing in seismic risk procedures for
where the Nazca Plate takes contact with the Continental earthquake resistant design is that the maximum
Plate. The Nazca Plate is subducting beneath the acceleration that can happen in a place con be related with
Continental Plate, for this reason all the hypocenters the occurrence of earthquakes of expected magnitudes, in
appears clearly grouped close to the Benioff plane. the zone where a structure is being designed. What is
needed is to obtain the probability of occurrence of an
acceleration greater than a certain minim acceleration
Amin. To obtain this relation it is necessary to know how
varies the maximum acceleration in a point with the distance
of the point to the hypocenter of the earthquake and also
with the magnitude. These are the so called attenuation
relations for a given region or zone.
Many of these relations have been proposed in the past,
and some of them have been plotted and can be observed
in figure 9. In this work, the attenuation relation initially
proposed by Arias and Crempien4 and latter modified by
Crempien5, for Chilean data was adopted. In general,
attenuation relations have a general form given by:

c1 e c2M

amax = (4)
(D + C3)c4

Fig. 6: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters. Where c1, c2, c3, y c4 are constants. In this case, the
values of the constants obtained by Crempien in the
corrected model are:

c1 = 422.0
c2 = 0.79
c3 = 60.
c4 = 1.42

In eq. 4 M is Richter magnitude and D the epicentral

distance in kilometers (km).

6. SEISMIC RISK MODEL AND DESIGN EARTHQUAKE.

To compute the seismic risk of a zone, the procedure

suggested by Cornell6, and modified by Algermissen and
Perkins7, is used. The attenuation law is jointly used with
the all the Gutemberg and Richter law of temporal
occurrence determined for the different seismic sources
within the influence area. In the case of the zone being
Fig. 7: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters evaluated near the of Arica, we can observe in Fig. 1 that
epicenters are well distributed almost all over the influence
area, so the model of space occurrence adopted was a
continuous source distributed over the influence area. This
area was divided into square elements that form a mesh,
and for every element i in the influence mesh the ratio of
earthquakes happened in them to the total number of
earthquake in the influence zone was computed.

Ni
i = (5)
NT

this ratio gives the earthquake productivity of that

particular element in the mesh relative to the total area. This
procedure was suggested by Der kiuregian and Ang8 for
linear sources and extended to area sources by Arias and
Crempien4. Then, for a certain level of acceleration that can
happen in the point where the earthquake risk is being
evaluated, the necessary magnitude to produce that level of
Fig. 8: East-West Distribution of Hypocenters acceleration is computed for all the squares defined in the
mesh, and the total number of earthquakes that produce
magnitudes equal or larger is computed. The probability of
occurrence of the acceleration A grater than a minimum
acceleration Amin is defined as the ratio between favorable

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 579

 The maximum credible magnitude for this study was set
to Ms = 8.75 based on observed data.

The probability excedence curves obtained for Arica are

shown are shown in figure 10. This figure shows the
probability of excedence of four localities near Arica for
small mining facilities. Because these localities are so close
together the probability curves obtained for each one of
them differ very little from each other.

Fig 10. Excedence probability for accelerations

In Fig. 11 the period of return of accelerations in years is

given for the same localities close to Arica.

Fig. 9: Atenuation Relations for Subduction Zones.

outcomes and total outcomes, the probability of excedence

of a is defined as the total number of earthquakes that
produce the acceleration divided by the total number of
earthquakes in the influence area. In this computation the
actual number in each square that produce acceleration
greater that Amin is multiplied by the factor to take into
account the productivity factor of each element in the mesh.
This is
m

a xE {N ( A < a / M M )}
i Min
F (a) = i =l (6)
E { N ( M M )}
T Min

where E {%} indicate expected value. The return period

of this acceleration is computed as

Fig 11: Return period for accelerations

1 1
F (a) = (7)
1 F (a) E {N (M Mmin) per year }

580 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

7. SELECTION OF DESIGN EARTHQUAKE
8. CONCLUSSIONS
According to Standard design practice it is recommended
to use to levels of design earthquake. The first level is the A method for estimation of the seismic risk and for
operation earthquake, this is an earthquake that is likely to defining design levels was developed and applied to the
happen during the life span of the facility and that the facility zone northern zone taking the town of Arica as center for the
have to withstand with no loss of functionality. For example study. This methodology is portable, and can be used in any
if it is decided to use an earthquake with a return period of location or zone for both studying seismic risk and defining
250 years, then from Fig. 11 the maximum horizontal the design level of mining facilities.
acceleration is Amax = 0.18g. The second level is the shut
down earthquake. This is an earthquake that has low 9. ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
probability of happening during the life span of the facility
and it can cause its loss of functionality. For example, if it Support for this research was granted by FAI project
is decided to use an earthquake with a return period of 600 CING 001-99, this support is deeply acknowledged.
years, the maximum horizontal acceleration obtained from
Fig. 11 is Amax =0 .25g. 10. RERENCES

The next step is to obtain the design response spectra. 1. Aki, K., "Maximum Likelihood Estimate of b in the
This can be accomplished using the design response Formula and its Confidence Limits.", Bulletin of The
spectrum given in the design code, or using the response Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokio, Vol.
spectra of representative earthquakes that have happened 43, pp. 237-239, 1965.
in the region. In this case, the spectra of the acceleration 2. Bender, B., "Maximum Laikelihood Estimation of b Values
records obtained during the 1985 earthquake are used. for Magnitude Grouped Data.", Bulletin of the
These spectra are usually normalized so that he maximum Seismological Society of America, Vol. 73, pp. 831-851,
acceleration of the ground be 1.0g. Therefore it is June 1983.
necessary to scale them to be usable, for this reason they 3. Weichert, D., "Estimation of the Earthquake Recurrence
are multiplied by the maximum acceleration obtained for the Parameters for Unequal Observation Periods for
operation and shutdown earthquake respectively, the Different Magnitudes.", Bulletin of the Seismological
outcome is shown in figure 12 where the average design Society of America, Vol. 70, pp 1337-1346, 1980.
response spectra for the earthquake records obtained in the 4. Arias, A. y Crempien J., "Aislacin ssmica de equipos
1985 central valley earthquake is plotted for both levels elctricos de la sub-estacin de Endesa en Alto Jahuel",
design and shutdown. V Jornadas Chilenas de Sismologa e Ingeniera
Antissmica, Vol. 1., pp. 1075-1083, 1989.
5. Crempien, J., "Un modelo de Atenuacin para
Aceleracioneas Mximas de Terremotos en la Zona
Central de Chile", Documento de Trabajo No. 44,
Universidad de los Andes, 2001.
6. Cornell, C.,A., "Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis,"
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 58,
pp. 1583-1606, 1968.
7. Algermissen, S.T., and Perkins, David M., "A probabilistic
estimate of maximum acceleration in rock in the
contiguous United States," U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report OF 76-416, 45 p. 1976.
8. Der Kiureghian, A., Ang. H.S., "A Fault-Rupture Model for
Seismic Risk Analysis", Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, Vol. 67, pp. 1173-1194, 1977.

Fig. 12: Design spectra showing shutdown and operation

level.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 581

582 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 16
Transition from Open
Pit to Underground
Mining
584 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Caving and fragmentation at Palabora:
Prediction to Production
Allan Moss, Principal Consultant Geotechnical Engineering,
Frank Russell, Principal Consultant Underground Mining, Rio Tinto Technical Services
Colin Jones, Consultant Mining Engineer

Abstract
Palabora Mining Company has successfully transitioned from an open pit operation to an underground block cave mine.
The transition faced a number of technical challenges, not the least caving and fragmentation of a competent rock mass.
Initial predictions made during the feasibility study were that, due to the overall quality of the rock mass, oversize and
drawpoint blockages would exert a major constraint on production build-up and cave progression. The actual
fragmentation, while still coarse relative to other block cave operations, has been finer than predictions. There a number
of reasons for this, the most important being the impact of cave induced stresses. Because of problems in dealing with
hang-ups, initial draw rates were low. It is believed that this provided time for caving induced stresses to pre-condition
the rock mass by extension of existing joints and the creation of new ones. The results of numerical modeling and micro-
seismic monitoring are used to substantiate this view.

1 INTRODUCTION greatest and the cave column the least. Sustained caving,
once regarded as a major project risk, is now occurring.
Palabora Mining Company is bringing into production a Fragmentation, which was also identified as a major risk, is
30,000 t/d block cave operation below the now closed open generally finer than originally predicted. Because of
pit. The rock mass being caved represents some of the problems dealing with large number of drawpoint blockages
most competent ground in which cave mining has been the initial draw rate has been low, allowing, it is conjectured,
carried out, as is evident from the pit that has one of the caving induced stress to pre-condition the rock mass.
deepest and steeply sloping excavations in the world. The
caving process therefore relies very much on the generation 2 OVERVIEW
of stresses of sufficient magnitude to induce fracture in the
competent rock mass. This process provides the impetus 2.1 Geology
for cave propagation. Equally important, it reduces the The Palabora copper ore body is an elliptical shaped
naturally occurring joint bounded blocks down to a size that vertically dipping volcanic pipe. The pipe measures 1400 m
can be managed on the extraction level. and 800 m in plan with resources identified to 1800 m below
Cave breakthrough has occurred above the central surface. Transgressive and banded carbonatites form the
section of the production footprint where the draw height is central core of the ore body with the banded carbonatites

Figure 1 Plan of Extraction Level Showing Dykes and Faults

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 585

and transgressive carbonatites dominant in the western shows the relative position of various caving operations in
sector and eastern sectors of the orebody, respectively. terms of rock quality, intact rock strength, induced stress
Barren dolerite dykes dipping steeply to the northeast are and a simple assessment of cave performance. Palabora is
present as are a number of northwest and northeast positioned at the upper bound of experience.
trending faults, refer Figure 1.

2.2 Geotechnical Properties

The uniaxial strength of the carbonatites ranges from 60
MPa to 180 MPa with an average value for the
transgressive carbonatites of 120 MPa and 95 MPa for the
banded carbonatites. The dolerites are very strong with
uniaxial compressive strengths in excess of 300 MPa.
Stress measurements indicate that, away from the
influence of the open pit, the stress regime is hydrostatic
and equivalent to the overburden load of approximately 38
MPa at the extraction level.
There is substantial structural variability within the
orebody. The central section of the production footprint is
extensively faulted and is intersected by a number of closely
jointed dolerite dykes. The west section has only a few
minor dolerites dykes while the east section has a single
major dyke.
Two major moderately spaced relatively continuous sub-
vertical joint sets are evident throughout the orebody.
These trend north-south and east-west, approximately
parallel to the major mine development. Other sub-vertical Figure 2 Relative Cave Performance
sets occur but are not as dominant. A widely spaced sub-
horizontal discontinuous set exists. Joint spacing ranges The principal method used to predict the size of
between 1.2 and 12 m. During the geotechnical drilling footprint required to initiate and sustain caving was the
programme long lengths of unbroken core were obtained MRMR approach developed by Laubscher (Laubscher,
underlining the relatively un-fractured competent nature of 1994) The hydraulic radius (HR) required to initiate
the ore. caving was predicted to be 35 m and was based on the
The orebody was classified using Laubschers MRMR results of core logging and mapping in an exploration
system. Values vary between 48 and 76 for the various rock drive and in the pit. Because of natural variability of
types with an "average" of 61. geotechnical properties, it was realised that this number
For reference the footprint has been divided into West, was not absolute but represented the central estimate
Central and East zones that approximate to structural and of a range of outcomes. Numerical modeling (FLAC3D
geotechnical domains (note these zones are also coincident and 3DEC) was also undertaken to provide further
with zones of different seismic signature). insight to the caving process and to allow an
assessment of likely ground conditions as the cave
2.3 Mining developed.
The production level (see Figure 1) is located about 1200 Undercutting and drawbell development commenced
m below the surface and 400 m below the final pit bottom. approximately in the centre of the footprint where the
The undercut level is located 18 m above the production ground was weaker due to the presence of a number
level. Crosscut drives in the undercut are excavated at 4 m of major faults and more intense jointing. Though not
wide by 4m high at 17 m centres above the 34 m spacing of ideal from a construction or operating perspective, it
the extraction drives (Calder and Russell, 2000). was considered that this strategy provided the lowest
Undercut mining was based on the extraction of a overall project risk with regard to caving and the
diamond shape undercut with four fronts advanced impact of caving induced stresses on mine
simultaneously. Mining was initiated from a central slot infrastructure.
drive and retreated to the north and south rim drives in each Cave development was monitored in a number of ways,
crosscut. North and south access drives are located 20 m including changes in ground conditions, seismic activity
from the orebody. Average crosscut length is 200 m, with (Glazer and Hepworth, 2004) and observations of wall
undercut east-west width of 700 m. behavior in the overlying pit. Key milestones are shown in
Drawbells were developed below the horizontal drill rings, Figure 3. Five stages of cave development can be
with the major apex pillar and extraction drive beneath identified:
inclined drill rings. The undercut was advanced ahead of
drawbell development. Originally 21 production crosscuts Stage 1 Undercutting: Prior to production mining when
were planned. However, due to poor ground conditions undercutting was the major extraction activity, the amount of
associated with a major fault in the western extremity, only seismic activity was reasonably consistent with the
20 crosscuts have been developed at present. In all 166 elevation of this activity increasing with time as undercutting
drawbells will be available for production. proceeded. This is believed to reflect the impact of stress
There are four crusher stations located along the northern re-distribution due to the undercutting process. The
side of the production footprint. Because of the anticipated overlying ground, while experiencing changes in stress, did
coarse fragmentation LHDs dump directly into these not cave during this stage.
crushers thus obviating passes.
Stage 2 Initial Pull: Once production mining
3 CAVE DEVELOPMENT commenced, there was an increase in the number of
seismic events and a decrease in elevation of this
The Palabora orebody is one of the most competent rock activity. This removal of significant volumes of rock
masses in which caving has been attempted. Figure 2 results in stress change adjacent to where the ground is

586 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 3 Seismic monthly activity and average depth of seismicity

removed, hence the lower elevation of seismic activity footprint. Local anomalies have occurred related to
in Q4 2001. structure.
All of the foregoing experience underlines the need for
Stage 3 Cave Initiation: Caving was initiated upon further investigation into caving mechanics.
the production footprint reaching a critical dimension
(HR=45 m). This was marked by a substantial increase 4 FRAGMENTATION
in seismic activity and increasing elevation of this
activity (Q1 2002). The mine is in the initial years of production and though
cave breakthrough has occurred, the maximum height of
Stage 4 Initial Cave Breakthrough: The pillar cave draw is only some 60 m (less than 15% of column
between the cave and the pit floor failed marking the on- height). During Q2 2004 production rates approaching
set of cave breakthrough and a major re-distribution of 30,000 t/d have been achieved. The main constraint to
stress (HR~ 60 m). This was accompanied by an production has been secondary breaking of drawpoint
increase in seismic activity together with a trend of blockages. Drawpoint hang-ups, blockages and oversize
decreasing elevation of seismic events (Q1-2 2003). In are common with, on average, a yield of some 350 t per
addition, survey monitors in the pit showed an increase hang-up event. Secondary breaking is therefore a critical
in rate of movement. component in achieving full and sustainable production.

Stage 5 Breakthrough: Evidence of cave break- 4.1 Predicted Fragmentation

through can be seen in the pit with the advent of wedge During the feasibility study it was recognised that the
failures associated with general caving induced rock competence of the rockmass would result in a high
mass dilation. This demonstrates that the production proportion of oversize and the need for secondary breaking.
footprint has reached the critical size to allow sustained At the time of the study, however, there was little experience
caving to occur. This probably occurred during stage 4 with caving of competent rock masses and no tools were
at an HR of around 60 m. available for predicting cave fragmentation. A model for
Comparison of the predicted hydraulic radius to induce predicting block cave fragmentation (BCF) was therefore
caving with the actual value shows an under-estimate of developed in conjunction with Premier Mine (Esterhuizen,
some 30%. Though it is possible to adjust the prediction 1994)
process to more accurately reflect observed conditions, it is BCF is a mixed analytical model and expert system that
considered that the error is a measure of uncertainty in considers the effects of both primary and secondary
empirical approaches to what is a complex engineering fragmentation to predict the fragmentation range reporting
problem. Results of numerical modeling predictions were to the drawpoints. Input data to the BCF model includes a
close to actual cave initiation. measure of rock mass quality (RMR), cave geometry, rock
Conversely, ground conditions during cave development jointing and in-situ stress regime. Blocks are generated from
have been surprisingly benign in contrast to the predictions the joint set data and the effects of stresses and orientation
made with numerical modeling. Ground control problems in are considered in determining the manner in which blocks
the undercut were only encountered after about 80% of the separate from the cave back. This information is used to
total undercut area was developed. Similarly, on the determine primary fragmentation
extraction level ground problems have generally only These blocks form input to the secondary fragmentation
occurred once cave draw took place over about 80% of the module, in addition to geometry, height and specific gravity

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 587

of ore columns. Accounted for in this module is the oversize were identified as a major risk to the project,
probability of blocks splitting according to their aspect ratios particularly high hang-ups where the technology was
or from temporary arching. The comminution of corners and limited. Much work was carried out during the feasibility
the effect of cushioning fines are also considered. study, even to the extent of fabricating a prototype, to have
Output from the second module is the size distribution of a capability of dealing with hang-ups up to 16 m in height.
material reporting to the drawpoint. Any rocks that are Despite this effort and preparedness it is perhaps fortuitous
greater than 2 m_ are considered oversize. This cut-off that no high hang-ups have occurred!
volume is based on the largest rocks that can be efficiently The current secondary breaking fleet (see Table 1)
handled by the 6 m_ LHDs. Figure 4 shows the percentage consists of a mixture of medium reach rigs (MRR) capable
oversize predicted during feasibility over the life of the cave, of reaching up into the drawbell a distance of 12 m, oversize
while Figure 5 shows the predicted numbers of high and low rigs that use non-explosive technology to break oversize
hang-ups over mine life. rocks on the floor of the drawpoint and water cannon and
percussion rigs used to ensure hang-ups are stable before
attempting to remove the hang-up using the medium reach
rig.

Table 1 Secondary Breaking Fleet

Equipment Purpose No
Medium reach Hang-ups and 7
rigs (MRR) blockages up to 12 m
Commando rigs General purpose 2
Robust rigs Breaking oversize 7
(RR) in drawpoint
Water cannon Stabilise hang-ups 2
prior to use of MMR
Concussion rigs Bombing of blockages 2
prior to use of MMR
Figure 4 Predicted Percentage Oversize by Year
The type and number of secondary breaking equipment is
different to that originally envisaged. The changes are part
of an ongoing exercise to resolve secondary breaking
issues of suitability, reliability and organisation.
Suitability is not just related to change in fragmentation
but also to the fact that hang-ups now occur in a different
location to that expected. For example, many hang-ups
occur as "jumbles" of rock in the throat of the drawpoint
and original equipment fleet was only capable of drilling
either a 100 mm diameter hole inside the drawbell or
oversize lying on the floor of the drawpoint.
Reliability was a problem with the original fleet,
particularly in the demanding environment of production
ramp-up. In addition, despite the use of water cannons
and concussion rigs to stabilise hang-ups, boom
damage has been high resulting in lower than expected
availability.
Organisation of secondary breaking has been
continuously improved by the use of multi-discipline
Figure 5 Predicted Hang-ups by Year process management teams. Current practice is to carry
out sequential passes with the water cannon, concussion
A second model was also developed to provide an rig, medium reach rig followed by the oversize rig.
estimate of the frequency and location of hang-ups and
oversize. This model compared the fragmentation range to The foregoing demonstrates the importance of good
the cross sectional area of the drawbell to determine if a estimates of fragmentation and hang-ups together with
hang up would occur. High hang-ups were defined as reliable estimates of hang-up clearance times. With this
occurring at more than 9 m from the floor of the drawpoint information the appropriate type and number of equipment
and low hang-ups were defined as those occurring up to 9 can be selected prior to the start of production.
m from the floor. Oversize refers to rock greater than 2 m3 In terms of operations management, each unit maintains
that has to be broken before loading. Information generated a record what work is done and where. Thus, a
from the fragmentation and hang-up models were then input comprehensive database exists of secondary breaking
into a discrete event simulation in order for production rates events across the entire production footprint. This
and equipment requirements to be assessed. information demonstrates the impact of fragmentation in
production terms and provides an indirect measure of
4.2 Observed Secondary Breaking fragmentation. The tonnage yield per hang-up event or the
One of the critical issues with respect to predictions of frequency of hang-ups is directly proportional to the size of
fragmentation is matching the secondary breaking fragments reporting to the drawpoint.
requirements. Methods of dealing with all hang-ups and The results show that geology, location within footprint,

588 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

and draw height are key factors in the number of hang-ups subsequent rendition for image analysis in the course
and oversize that has to be dealt with and, by inference, the category. Over the six-month period since fragmentation
distribution of fragmentation. The following summarises sampling commenced at Palabora a total of 30 sampling
secondary breaking achievements to the end of Q1 2004: sessions have been completed using the flip chart method,
Overall average yield = 409 t sampling a total of 6031 drawpoints.
Average yield in the Eastern area = 248 t
Average yield in the Central area = 736 t
Average yield in the Western area = 433 t

In the Central and West mining zones, yield begins

increasing from a height of approximately 45 m draw height
. The East zone has not reached this height and is showing
a relatively unchanging yield in the range 20-45 m in situ
cave height.
The numbers of hang-ups varies by mining area and,
more importantly, by draw height as summarised in Table 2
and illustrated in Figure 6

Table 2 Tonnes/Hang-up and Draw Height

Figure 7 Fragmentation Analysis Photo and resultant
image Category C "Coarse" ore
Zone In Situ Draw height (m)
15 30 40 60
The general fragmentation tends to mirror the secondary
breaking pattern. The following summarises findings to
East 238 193 170 -
date:
Central 6861 457 448 621
The coarsest material is in the East followed by the West
West 440 318 374 833
and Central zones.
The percentage of larger material (>2 m3 in size) is
The overall average oversize blast rate is 80 t/oversize remaining steady with height.
blast though, like hang-ups, this varies by draw height and The amount of fines is increasing with height, with a
mining area. The rate of oversize drops beneath the change being observed in the East and West zones at
average from heights of 40 m and above. Again, however, greater than 35 m draw height. This is much less than the
this trend may change as the East zone begins caving in 100 m predicted by BCF and is possibly due to enhanced
this height range. Oversize is more frequent in the East secondary fragmentation and preferential movement of
than in the Central and West zones, but the difference is not fines.
as great as for hang-ups.
On a monthly basis there has been an increase in the
amount of coarse material underground. This fits well
with the production data, which describes a reduction in
yield over Q4 2003 to Q1 2004. This increase in the
amount of coarse material underground is a general
trend explained by the reduction in material coming from
the undercut as a percentage of total material mined from
underground. There is as yet insufficient material coming
from a high draw height to counteract this reduction in
undercut tonnage.

4.4 Discussion
Caving was initiated in the more faulted weaker centre section
of the footprint. Stronger transgressive carbonatites
predominate in the eastern sector and weaker banded
carbonatites in the western sector. In addition, the Mica Fault,
located at the western extremity of the footprint effectively
concentrated stress within the western sector while by contrast
a large dyke at the eastern extremity may have acted as a stress
Figure 6 Average Tonnes/Hang-up Relative to Position in riser. The concentration of stress in the west induced additional
the Footprint (shown West to East) fractures in the rock mass creating smaller blocks and thus finer
fragmentation. Fewer fractures were generated in the east due
4.3 Observed Fragmentation to stress sheltering and a stronger rock mass. This resulted in
A site specific classification system ("flip-chart" method) is larger blocks and an increased incidence of hang-ups. There is
used to measure the distribution of fragment size across the support for this hypothesis from the results of seismic monitoring
production footprint. This system is based on an approach that indicates relaxation (softening of the rock mass due to
developed as part of the International Caving Study where fracturing) in the West and increasing stress in the East (the less
image analysis is used to derive the distribution of the fractured rock mass able to attract more stress) together with
particle size reporting to the drawpoint. The method the results from monitoring of secondary breaking and
involves the determination of like fragmentation size ranges fragmentation.
and then, by using a typical image, classifying the drawpoint A number of fragmentation zones can be identified.
into one of five size categories. This process enables data These are:
to be collected both simply and rapidly. With routine Zone of undercut influence (0 to 20 m draw height): A
drawpoint inspections this data is easily merged with draw rapid increase in fragment size as ground influenced by
data. Figure 7 shows a photograph of a drawpoint and the the undercutting process is pulled.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 589

 Zone of primary fragmentation (20 to 40 m draw height): Though fragmentation is substantially finer than predicted,
Coarsest fragmentation, lowest yield per hang-up. Zone the ability to identify the magnitude of the problem was
least impacted by caving induced stresses. remarkably good given the limited knowledge at the time of
Zone of initial fining (40 to ? m draw height): Initial the feasibility study. Experience has shown that substantial
reduction in fragment size due to factors such as stress demands are placed on secondary breaking equipment and
conditioning (as indicated by micro-seismic activity), and that maintenance and task organisation are key factors in
comminution in the draw column. achieving breaking targets. Nevertheless, better methods
are required for predicting fragmentation and the associated
Ongoing monitoring of secondary breaking performance hang-up rates.
and of drawpoint fragmentation will allow better definition of
these and subsequent zones as the cave progresses ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

5 CONCLUSIONS The paper presented here is the result of all those who
participated in the Palabora Underground Mine Project and
Block caving at Palabora is at an early stage. Break- the role of the authors has simply been to report this work to
through into the overlying pit has occurred clearly a wider audience.
demonstrating that competent rock masses can be The permission of Palabora Mining Company and Rio
successfully caved. However, there was a 30% under Tinto Technical Services to publish this paper is gratefully
estimate in the size of footprint required to induce caving. acknowledged.
The magnitude of this estimating error is large (particularly
when the demands of feasibility studies are to estimate REFERENCES
capital and operating costs to within +/- 15%) underlining
the need for further work on cave prediction. Laubscher, DH, 1994. Cave Mining - the State of the Art.
Though the production ramp-up to 30,000 t/d is well J S Afrr Inst Min Metall, 94(10);279-293.
underway it has been constrained by the secondary Calder, K, Townsend, P, and Russell, F, 2000. The
breaking process. This has resulted in the draw rate to be Palabora Underground Mine Project. Proceedings
in balance or less than the caving rate. It is considered that MassMin 2000. Brisbane (Ed: G Chitombo) 219-225.
in terms of cave performance this has been beneficial in Esterhuizen, G S, 1994. A Program to Predict Block Cave
allowing stresses to build and pre-condition the rock mass Fragmentation, Technical Reference and Users Guide.
resulting in the creation of new joints and the extension of Glazer, S and Hepworth, N, 2004, Seismic Monitoring of
existing joints. The prediction of fragmentation allowed the Block Cave Crown Pillar. To be published Proceedings
critical nature of secondary breaking to be identified. MassMin 2004. Santiago.

590 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Geotechnical challenges of the
transition from open pit to
underground mining at
Chuquicamata Mine
Germn Flores, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Chuquicamata mine is an open pit operation located in the northern part of Chile. This mine went into production in 1915,
mining 1,000 tpd of oxide ore. Today it is a large scale operation mining 186,000 tpd of mainly sulphide ore. The present
mine plan is for open pit operations to cease in year 2013 at a depth of 1100 m. Although the orebody continues below
the bottom of the final pit shell, the cost increments associated with a deep pit operation do not allow for further open pit
mining, therefore it become necessary to initiate a transition from open pit to underground mining. The underground
operation will be implemented at depth, in a hard and massive rock mass and in high stress environments. To make this
project economically viable requires application of a large scale and low cost underground mass mining method in order
to achieve the required high production rates. The only methods that can achieve these requirements are block and panel
caving. The transition from a large scale and deep open pit to underground cave mining at Chuquicamata will face with
several geotechnical challenges. These include the presence of the large and deep open pit which will produce zones of
stress concentrations and zones of low confinement, the magnitude of induced stresses due to the pit depth, cave
propagation, simultaneous open pit and underground operations, the presence of the West fault and the shear zone,
subsidence and water inflows. This paper discusses these geotechnical challenges identified at the scoping engineering
stage of Chuquicamatas project for a transition from open pit to underground mine by caving and describes technical
strategies to reduce and manage associated risk at all stages of project development.

1 INTRODUCTION in Figure 1. This mine is part of Codelco Norte Division

which has three open pit operations with Chuquicamata
Chuquicamata mine lies at approximately 3,000 m being the biggest, as shown in Figure 2. Currently,
elevation in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, some 16 Chuquicamata is one of the largest open pit mines in the
km from Calama city, in the Province of El Loa, and some world, as shown in Figure 3, with a strike length of 4.5 km in
250 km north-east of Antofagasta city, II Region, as shown NS direction, a width of 2.7 km in EW direction and a depth

Figure 1: Map showing the location of Chuquicamata Mine

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 591

Figure 2: Aerial view of Codelco Norte Division

Figure 3: Aerial view of Chuquicamata mine looking to the North

592 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 4: Reserves and geological resources at Chuquicamata orebody

Figure 5: Conventional panel caving method

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 593

of 850 m. This mine started in 1915 and currently mines 88 Fortuna granodiorite

Granodiorites
Mt of ore and 115 Mt of waste. The current mine plan is to
reach a depth of 1,100 m in year 2013. Although the ore Moderately sheared zone

Waste
body continues below of the final pit bottom the open pit, the Highly sheared zone
operational cost at that depth will not allow for continued
mining by the open pit method. Therefore, it has become
necessary to initiate a transition from open pit to
underground mining. This transition phase will require suc- -------------- West fault -----------------------------------------------
cessfully overcoming a number of technical and economic
issues (Arancibia and Flores 2004). The technical issues Quartz-sericitic rock / Highly sericitic rock

Increasing grade
include the geotechnical challenges which must take into

Porphyries
account the re-gional West Fault and its shear zone as East porphyry with sericitic alteration
shown in Figure 4, the presence of a large and deep open
pit which will produce zones of stress concen-trations and East porphyry with chloritic alteration
zones of low confinement, a hard and massive rock mass
and the depth of the un-derground excavations. It should be East porphyry with potassic alteration
evident, therefore, that the decision on transition from open
pit to underground mining should take into account the
number of geotechnical factors which control the rock mass Table 1: Geotechnical Units
response during this phase. This is particularly crucial when
simultaneous surface and underground operations are Geotechnical UCS FF RMRL GSI
considered. Unit (MPa) (fract./m)
The scoping study of this project has indicated that the
most suitable underground mining method is panel caving Quartz-sericitic
based on the characteris-tics of the Chuquicamata deposit rock 20 1 to 5 55 to 65 70 to 85
and the eco-nomic and business requirements of the Highly sericitic
project. Panel caving, illustrated in Figure 5, is considered to rock 10 > 10 35 to 45 25 to 40
be the only method that could achieve high production rates
East porphyry with
and low operational costs.
sericitic alteration 31 1 to 5 60 to 70 55 to 70
This paper presents and discusses the geotechni-cal
challenges which may have a significant im-pact on the East porphyry with
economic of this transition project from a large and deep chloritic alteration 84 1 to 10 55 to 65 55 to 65
open pit to underground cave mining at Chuquicamata mine East porphyry with
potassic alteration 85 1 to 10 55 to 70 55 to 75

2 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL UCS Uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
SETTING AT CHUQUICAMATA FF Fracture frequency (including weak veinlets)
RMRL Laubschers rock mass rating
The Chuquicamata porphyry copper orebody is GSI Geological strength index
rectangular in plan, and dips vertically. The
mineralization was controlled by the West Fault which is
located at the toe of the West wall. From the fault to the The stress field at Chuquicamata has been measured
West is waste and from the fault to the East is ore, as using a hydro-fracturing technique in deep vertical down
illustrated in Figure 4. holes. The in situ stress field is defined by a vertical stress
About 2,470 Mt of ore, averaging 1.54% Cu, have being proportional to the depth, with a magnitude in the range of
mined out from the Chuquicamata ore body since 1915, and 35 to 40 MPa at the elevation of a future UCL. The hori-
870 Mt will be mined out from 2004 to 2013 (final pit). zontal stresses are defined by minimum and maximum
However, the ore body is open at depth, with geological stress ratios, KMIN and KMAX, respec-tively. KMIN ranges from
resources estimated to be 1,500 Mt at an average grade of 0.5 to 1.0, with a direc-tion of N20E and KMAX varies from
0.65% of Cu for the underground mining, as shown in Figure 1.0 to 1.7, with a direction of N70W (Torres et al 2003).
4. These values will be verified using the CSIRO hollow
At the Chuquicamata mine the predominant rock types inclusion technique to perform stress measurements from
are granodiorites and porphyries, whose western contact is the exploration tunnels which will be available below the
defined by the West fault, a large regional fault with a NS final open pit shell at the end of the year 2004.
trend, 4 to 6 m thick, and defining a 150 to 200 m wide shear
zone on its western side. This shear zone has a poor to very 3 THE TRANSITION PROCESS
poor geotechnical quality, and is located in the lower third
part of the West Walls slopes. In the upper part of these There are many near surface deposits that have
slopes the rock is Fortuna granodiorite. On the eastern side considerable vertical extent. Although they are initially
of the West fault appears a massive quartz-sericitic rock, exploited by open pit mining, there is often a point where
and beyond that porphyries with different types of alteration. decisions have to be made to either continue deepening the
Hence, from West to East the main rock mass types at pit or mining the same deposits by underground methods. At
Chuquicamata are: pre-sent several open pit mines are planning, or are in the
The engineering geology at Chuquicamata is such that process of implementing, a transition to underground
twelve geotechnical units have been defined (Torres et al mining. They include Bingham Canyon in USA,
2003), as shown in the plan view of Figure 6 and the EW Chuquicamata and Mansa Mina in Chile, Grasberg in
and NS cross sec-tions shown in Figures 7 and 8, which Indonesia, Palabora and Venetia in South Africa, Argyle,
also shown the main geological structures, as also the Mount Keith and Telfer in Australia.
current and final pits. The main geotechnical units in the The decision to make the transition from open pit to an
sector of interest to the transition project have the underground operation is often based on a simple
characteristics summarized in Table 1 (Flores et al 2004c). determination of the NPV of the next feasible open pit

594 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

pushback. Underground mining is only contemplated when
a further pushback is shown to be uneconomic. However,
any decision to go underground also requires consideration
of a wide range of technical factors, and careful planning,
which means a significant amount of time for achieving
underground mining (up to 20 years has been suggested by
Stacey and Ter-brugge 2000). This is in addition to the
thorough assessment of the risks associated with the rock
mass failure that accompanies underground cave mining,
and its interaction with the open pit and the surrounding
infrastructure.
Perhaps one of the most important decisions, in the initial
stages of a project for a transition from open pit to
underground mining, is the definition of the most suitable
underground mining method based on the characteristics of
the deposit and, at the same time, the economic and
business re-quirements of the mining company. If the busi-
ness requires high production rates and low op-erational
costs, then underground cave mining methods, such as
block or panel caving, are the only methods through which
these main objec-tives can be achieved. In such cases, it is
desir-able that the open pit continues its operation during
the first stages of underground mining, and that the
underground mine gets to a high productivity quickly and Figure 7: Section 3900 N illustrating the geotechnical units
before closure of the open pit operation. This means that and the major structures (Torres et al 2003)
there will be a period of simultaneous open pit and under-
ground mining operations.
This simultaneity implies an interaction between the open Additionally, there are many other factors or po-tential
pit and the underground mining which makes the problem hazards that could make the problem even more difficult if
more complex than the typi-cal open pit or underground they are not identified prior to making the transition from
mine designs, be-cause the presence of the deep open pit surface to under-ground mining.
will af-fect the stress field in which the underground mine will Some of the major hazards that could be expe-rienced in
be developed and, conversely, the propagation of the caving a transition from open pit to under-ground cave mining are:
will affect the stability of the surface crown pillar that defines 1. mining by caving in relatively massive rock masses will
the bot-tom of the open pit. induce seismicity which could trigger rockbursts;
2. if the caving propagation is arrested by the formation of a
metastable cavity, a sudden failure of the cave back may
occur which could trigger an air blast (de Nicola and
Fishwick 2000);
3. an early break down or failure of the surface crown
pillar, in simultaneous surface and un-derground
operations, may cause an unex-pected end of the open
pit operations, affecting the production plan and, if
sudden, could put at risk the safety of the entire mine
operations;
4. subsidence, which begins once the caving reaches the
pit bottom, could affect not only the surface infrastructure
close to the pit, but also the location of the main
underground ac-cesses and infrastructure; and
5. the open pit could act as a catch-basin for heavy rainfall,
increasing the risk of sudden water inflows and/or
mudrushes into the un-derground mine.

Even if these potential hazards are identified, it is difficult

to assign a probability of occurrence to each one and to
determine the potential safety risk/cost associated with it.
This makes the issue of transition even more complex and
challenging.
It should be evident, therefore, that the decision on
transition should not only be based on eco-nomic indicators,
but must also take into account the number of technical
factors which control the rock mass response during
transition. This is par-ticularly crucial when simultaneous
surface and underground operations are anticipated.
The behaviour of a rock mass in a transition from open
pit to underground mining by caving has been shown to be
a subject of interest to todays mining industry, because of
the number of mines planning to start implementing the
Figure 6: Geological units present in Chuquicamata Mine first engi-neering stages of such a transition. In addition,
including lithology and alteration (Torres et al 2003) there are still a number of unknowns to be ad-dressed in
order to solve key geotechnical issues associated with

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 595

Figure 8: Section 3300E illustrating the geotechnical units and the major structures (Torres et al 2003)

such a transition, and the follow-ing questions must be For example, if the layout design was based on a certain
addressed: fragmentation finer than the actual one, the occurrence of
1. What is the optimum height of the ore column that can be hangouts would become a serious operational problem, and
mined safely from a economi-cal/geotechnical/ operatio- the need for secondary blasting and draw point repairs will
nal perspective? be larger than expected.
2. Will the cave propagate upwards through the entire block As the evaluation of the cavability of the rock mass is
height? commonly based on Laubschers chart, the MRMR
3. What is the minimum thickness of the surface crown pillar estimates must be as reliable as possi-ble, as illustrated by
required to allow simultaneous surface and underground the following example:
operations? If the data available indicates that Laubschers RMR
4. When is it no longer safe to be mining in the open pit could vary from 55 to 65, a Monte Carlo simulation indicates
while caving is occurring? How long could both mines that a value of 57 for MRMR have a 15% probability of
operate simultaneously? exceedance, and caving initiation would require a hydraulic
5. Will the subsidence generated by the under-ground radius, HR, equals to 38, which corresponds to a 23000 m2
mining affect the surface infrastructure surrounding the square area.
pit ? When? If the data indicates that RMR varies from 45 to 65, the
6. What are the main geotechnical hazards, and how should same analysis would indicate that a 22000 m2 square area
they be dealt with? is required (HR = 37).
On the other hand, if the data indicates that RMR varies
The potential consequences of an ill-defined transition from 55 to 75, the same analysis would indicate that a
project can be large, not only economi-cally but also 37000 m2 square area is required (HR = 48).
environmentally, and even politi-cally. Hence an overestimation of the lower bound for RMR has
In addition, many aspects of the transition prob-lem are a minor effect on the project (-4%), but a underestimation of
beyond the ranges of applicability of known solutions. For the upper bound for RMR could have a major impact on the
example, the simultaneous operation of the open pit and project (+61%).
underground mines by caving methods requires a stable Therefore, any additional cost incurred improving the
surface crown pillar between the cave back and the pit reliability of the geotechnical data must be considered a
bottom. However, at the same time, cave propagation very good investment and, at the same time, an insurance
requires the failure of this pillar to connect to ground against changes from the expected geotechnical setting.
surface, so the definition of crown pillar failure is not the The key geotechnical issues that are considered relevant
usual. Furthermore, the span of this surface crown pillar is in a project for a transition from open pit to underground
much larger than the maximum span of surface crown pillar mining by caving are:
used in open stope mining. 1. The selection of the undercut level, which defines the
The answer to this and other questions requires an block height. Proper selection of the block height is
improved understanding of the behaviour of the rock mass, particularly important when there is the potential for
the mechanics of caving propagation, and the effects of a simultaneous open pit and underground operations.
simultaneous surface and underground mining by caving 2. The cave initiation and propagation through the rock
methods. column to be caved. This is important to determine if the
The quality and reliability of the geotechnical data is of rock mass will cave or stall.
paramount importance for the engineering of a transition 3. The minimum crown pillar thickness required for
project, and factors such as the strength, cavability and simultaneous open pit and underground operations.
fragmentation of the rock mass could have a large impact 4. Subsidence due to the failure of the pit slopes after the
on the project. connection of the cave back with the pit bottom, with a

596 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 9: Diagram illustrating the different stages of caving propagation in a transition from open pit to under-ground mining
by caving

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 597

 zone of influence with an important width. Knowledge of need, and it should be implemented when the initial
the extent of the subsidence zone is crucial for the developments of the underground mine begin.
location of the main accesses to the underground mine 3. Cave initiation and propagation. The initial stage of the
and the underground infrastructure. This is in addition to underground mining will be in a hard and massive rock
assessing the likely impact of the subsidence zone to the mass, where cave ini-tiation and propagation may be difficult.
existing surface infra-structures, which eventually would As the cave propagation approaches the pit bot-tom the rock
have to be relocated. mass above the cave back would be affected by the higher
5. The presence of a large open pit above the underground stresses associated with the presence of the open pit, which
mine increases the likelihood of water inflows/mudrushes may affect the rate of the caving propagation by either
because the open pit could act as a catchment for heavy accelerating or arresting the process. The main factors
rainfalls, and the water could seep into the underground affecting cave propagation in a transition from open pit to
mine through fractures induced by the caving and the underground cave mining are shown in Figure 11. Also, it
broken rock above the UCL. This may cause disruptions becomes important to define and implement an
in production and, worst, safety risks for the underground instrumentation system to monitor the de-velopment of the
operation. cave. Considering the expe-rience at El Teniente (Rojas et al
2000) and Palabora mines (Glazer and Hepworth 2004), this
Figure 9 illustrates the different stages of the caving system would include seismic instru-mentation, TDRs and
process in a transition for open pit to un-derground mining. borehole camera ob-servations.
The detail and mechanisms associated with these issues 4. Simultaneous open pit and underground mine operations.
have been discussed in an accompanying paper (Flores et The economic and business re-quirements of
al, 2004b). Chuquicamata are such that a period of simultaneous
open pit and under-ground mining would be required.
Hence, at least for a certain period, a stable crown pillar
4 MAIN GEOTECHNICAL must be maintained between the cave back and the pit
CHALLENGES AT CHUQUICAMATA bottom. This period must be defined considering the
stability of the crown pillar and the fact that its thickness is
The planned transition from a large scale and deep open reducing due to the ore draw from the underground mine,
pit to underground cave mining at Chuquicamata is as illustrated in Figure 13. A longer period of simultaneity
expected to face a number of unique geotechnical requires a larger block height. A low block height would
challenges, as illustrated in Figure 10. Given their potential lead to a very short period of simultaneous operation,
impact to the transition project these need to be addressed which could be non practical. Once the period of
dur-ing the early and subsequent design stages of the simultaneity has been established it is pos-sible to define
project. These main geotechnical challenges are: when the underground mining should begin.
1. The presence of the large and deep open pit, which will 5. The presence of the West fault and the shear zone. The
produce zones of stress concentra-tions and zones of low West fault forms an abrupt contact between the ore and
confinement. These in-duced stresses will likely affect the the waste. The waste is a soft, weak and highly fractured
propaga-tion of caving and must therefore be consid-ered rock mass which potentially could become a source of
in evaluating the likelihood of caving propagation through early dilution of the ore if the cavity reaches the West fault
the whole ore column to be cave, as illustrated in Figure before connecting with the pit bottom. Hence, a rib pillar
11. is required between the West fault and the undercut area
2. The level of induced stresses due to the pit depth in as illustrated in Figure 10. If this rib pillar is too thin it could
addition to the height of the block to be caved. When the fail and early dilution may occur. On the other hand, if it is
final pit is reached in 2013 with a depth of 1,100 m, the too wide some high grade ore would not be mined. Figure
undercut level will be located at a depth of around 1,500 14 il-lustrates the rib pillar at Chuquicamata.
m from surface. Therefore, the induced stresses are likely 6. Subsidence. Once the caving connects to the pit bottom the
to be high and induced seismicity will be expected during pit will become a subsidence crater with a zone of influence
under-ground mining, which eventually could gen-erate extending be-yond the pit perimeter. Of course, this condi-tion
rockbursts. Figure 12 illustrates the con-sequences of a will evolve with time, and due to slope failures and the
rockburst phenomenon in a caving operation. Due to this extension of the undercut area this crater will grow. The
a seismic monitoring system is considered an absolute geometry of a subsidence crater at Chuquicamata will be
defined by the crater depth, H, and the angle of break, a,
which is the angle between the edge of the undercut level and
the start of discontinuous deformations (large tension cracks).
The influence zone adjacent to the crater perimeter is defined
in terms of the in-fluence width, dIZ. The a and dIZ terms de-
pend on the rock mass quality and the pres-ence of major
geological structures. The morphology of the subsidence
phenomenon at Chuquicamata is illustrated in Figure 15. The
importance to define the a and dIZ is due to the requirement
to determine the location of the main accesses to the
underground mining and the location of the underground
infrastructure which must be outside of the influence zone. In
addition, it is necessary to know if the subsidence due to the
under-ground mining will affect the current surface
infrastructure related to the open pit opera-tions.
7. Ground water. Due to the presence of ground water in the
slopes of Chuquicamatas open pit and some rains during
the Bolivian winter (January and February), there is a non
zero probability of inrushes of water or mud into the
Figure 10: Geotechnical challenges associated with a underground mine. These inflows/mud-rushes could be
transition project at Chuquicamata facilitated by the presence of major geological structures

598 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 11: Induced stresses affecting the caving propagation

Figure 12: Consequences of rockburst phenomenon in a panel caving operation

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 599

 Figure 13: Diagram illustrating the surface crown pillar developed in a transition
from open pit to underground cave mining

and/or the frac-tures and the cave generated by the the near future a number of large open pit operations which
caving. Water inflows and/or mudrushes can cause include Bingham Canyon and Grasberg will be undergoing
damage to underground mines by caving methods due to similar transition. As a result, the subject of transition was
the sudden inflow of wa-ter/mud from drawpoints, ore included as one of the major research topics in the ICS-II.
passes or other underground openings. Figure 16 This research was focussed on developing guidelines on
illustrates the consequences of a mud rush in a mine by rock mass charac-terization, caving propagation, surface
caving. crown pillar, subsidence and water inflows, all of which are
important geotechnical issues for consider-ation in a
transition project.
5 CONCLUSIONS The outcomes of this research will be used in the
Chuquicamata transition project as part of the overall
The geotechnical challenges associated with the planned Codelco Norte strategy to ensure the suc-cessful transition
transition from open pit to underground cave mining at from open pit to underground cave mining given the
Chuquicamata have been identified at the early stage of the geotechnical challenges identified.
project (scoping study), and Codelco Norte Division is
developing appropriate technical strategies to reduce and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
manage the potential risks associated with the geotechnical
challenges identified. These strat-egies are now being The author acknowledges the Division Codelco Norte for
incorporated into the ongoing engineering studies of the the permission to publish this paper. He wishes to also
transition project. thank the Geotechnical Group of Codelco Norte Division for
Hence, and as an integral part of the overall tran-sition having provided material used in the paper. Special thanks
project at Chuquicamata, a worldwide benchmark study and are given to Professor E T Brown AC and Drs. Antonio
literature review on transi-tion from open pit to underground Karzulovic and Gideon Chitombo for their encouragement
mining by caving was undertaken (Flores et al 2004a). This and technical discus-sions.
was carried out through the International Caving Study
Stage II (ICS-II), managed by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral REFERENCES
Research Centre, Brisbane, Australia, of which CODELCO
is one of the sponsors. Arancibia, E and Flores, G, 2004. Design for under-
The benchmark concluded that there is currently neither ground mining at Chuquicamata orebody. Scoping
sufficient experience in transition for deep pits nor available engineering stage. Proceedings MassMin 2004,
design methodologies in spite of the topics importance to Santiago, (Ed: A Karzulovic and M Alfaro).
mining in-dustry. The only documented transition involv-ing de Nicola, R and Fishwick, M, 2000. An under-ground air
a large open pit and underground mining by caving is blast - Codelco Chile - Division Salva-dor. Proceedings
Palabora mine, South Africa (Glazer and Hepworth 2004). In MassMin 2000, Brisbane, (Ed: G Chitombo), 279-288.

600 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 14: Rib pillar between the caving cavity and the west fault

Figure 15: Subsidence phenomenon

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 601

 Figure 16: Effects of a mud rush in an underground mine
by caving.

Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: RSA. Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago, (Ed: A
Melbourne. Karzulovic and M Alfaro).
Flores, G, Karzulovic, A and Brown, E T, 2004a. Current Rojas, E, Cavieres, P, Dunlop, R and Gaete, S, 2000.
practices and trends in cave mining. Pro-ceedings Control of induced at El Teniente Mine, Codelco Chile.
MassMin 2004, Santiago, (Ed: A Karzu-lovic and M Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane, (Ed: G Chitombo),
Alfaro). 775-784. Australasian Institute of mining and Metallurgy:
Flores, G, Karzulovic, A and Brown, E T, 2004b. Melbourne.
Evaluation of the likelihood of cave propagation in mining Stacey, T R and Terbrugge, P J, 2000. Open pit to
engineering practice. Proceedings MassMin 2004, underground transition and interaction. Pro-ceedings
Santiago, (Ed: A Karzulovic and M Alfaro). MassMin 2000, Brisbane, (Ed: G Chi-tombo), 97-104.
Flores, G, Karzulovic, A and Gonzalez, G, 2004c. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Geotechnical considerations for the scoping engi-neering Melbourne.
stage of the transition project from open pit to Torres, R, Araya, E, Crdoba, S y Domnguez, O, 2003.
underground mining at Chuquicamata mine (in Spanish). Geotechnical characterisation for the scop-ing
Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile. engineering stage of the transition from open pit to
Glazer, S and Hepworth, N, 2004. Seismic monitor-ing of underground mining at Chuquicamata mine (in Spanish).
block cave crown pillar Palabora Mining Company, Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile.

602 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Design for Underground Mining
at Chuquicamata Orebody.
Scoping Engineering Stage
Ernesto Arancibia, Germn Flores, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
The current Chuquicamata mines long term mine plan has established that the final pit will be reached in year 2013
when the pit reaches a depth of approximately 1,100m. However, since there are still mineable geological resources
underneath the final pit, the mine is currently assessing the feasibility of a transition to underground mining using panel
caving method. This is the preferred caving method as it potentially should allow for highly mechanized operations with
high production rates at low production costs. This paper presents and discusses the panel caving parameters and
associated cost estimations that have been proposed at the scoping engineering stage including a number of both
technical and human resources issues likely to be faced and how they are to be addressed. This scoping study is based
on a combination of a series of preliminary analyses, other Codelco panel cave experiences supplemented by a world
benchmark on transition. These may be refined as more data is obtained and made available followed by more detailed
analyses. A key development of the transition from the Chuquicamata large open pit to the planned underground panel
cave to date has been the identification of the potential major technical issues. These will now be taken into account in
all subsequent stages of the transition and underground design process.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Chuquicamata open pit mine is located in the II Region

of Chile, El Loa Province, 16 km north from the city of Calama
and 1,600 km from Santiago, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2: Aerial view of Chuquicamata open pit

The operation at Chuquicamata began in 1915 and

currently is removing about 600,000 tpd with a waste-ore at
a stripping ratio of 2.1:1. Based on the current long term
mine plan, the open pit mine will reach the final pit at a depth
of 1,100 m in the year 2013, as illustrated in Figure 3.
However, the continuity of mineraliza-tion has been proven
at depth, and plans are now under way to carry out a
transition from open pit to underground mining by a panel
caving method.
This paper presents the mine design param-eters for this
transition project which have been determined from the
scoping study carried out recently by Codelco Norte
Division. The paper briefly discusses a number of technical
challenges that this project has to overcome to ensure a
successful transition project at Chuquicamata mine.

Figure 1: Chuquicamata mine location 2 MINE DESIGN OF THE TRANSITION PROJECT

Currently (2004), the Chuquicamata pit is 4.5 km long, 2.7 The scoping engineering study carried out recently by
km wide and around 850 m deep, as shown in Figure 2. Codelco Norte Division indicates that it is feasible to exploit

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 603

Figure 3: Overall schematic view showing geologic reserves

the ore below the final open pit envelope using panel caving The angle of break is estimated to be 60 for the East
as shown in Figure 4. Based on a combination of a series of wall and 50 for the West wall. The influence zones are
preliminary analyses, other Codelco panel cave estimated to be125m for the East wall and 250m for the
experiences supplemented by a world benchmark on West wall. The rib pillar designed to reduce possible
transition (Flores et al 2004a), the following initial design early dilution from the West fault is estimated to be 80 m
parameters are proposed for the Chuquicamata panel cave. thick at its base. The minimum surface crown pillar
These may be refined as more data is obtained and made thickness required for the simultaneous open pit and
available followed by more detailed analyses. underground operations is estimated to be 200 m. This
The undercut level, UCL, is planned to be located at a will allow for approximately to 2 to 3 years of
depth of 1,500 m below surface or approximately 400 m simultaneous mining of the final open pit and initial
below the final pit bottom. The extraction level, EXL, would underground panel cave.
be located 18 m below the UCL. The extraction geometry Based on the experience of the other Codelco Chile
would be the El Teniente layout with 15 17.32 m operations (El Teniente, Andina and Salvador mines) the
(drawpoint x production spacing). The planned caving transition project has considered that the mine production
initiation area will be located just below the pit bottom where plan would be affected by the occurrence of 3 collapses of
the block height is expected to be minimum and also where up to 4,000 m2 each one during the first 5 years of
the rock mass is considered favourable for initiating the operation. An analysis carried out also predicts a probability
initial caving process. Given the characteristics of the local of a metastable cavity forming before continuous caving is
geotechnical environment (Torres et al 2003), the minimum achieved possibly affecting an area of 12,000 to 15,000 m2.
area required to initiate the caving is estimated to be 15,000 As a result, the induced seismicity is expected to be high
m2 with a square or rectangular shape. A slot is considered and as such a seismic monitoring system has been included
a necessary measure to facilitate the initial cave initiation. during the early development stages. The support system is
The mining sequence will start from the centre of the expected to be similar to the support used at El Teniente
footprint and then extended in two fronts, one to the East mine (Rojas et al 2000).
and the other to the West and after that towards the North The main accesses to the underground mine are to be
and the South. The undercut rate would be of the order of located in the East wall and outside the estimated
3,000 m2/month based on other Codelco panel cave influence zone and would consist of two declines. One
experiences and the cave front would have an orientation of is to be used for production with two conveyor belts and
N85E. The average draw rate is estimated to be of the the other for maintenance. In addition to these declines,
order of 0.25 m/day (0.65 t/m2/day). The maximum there will be a service shaft and ventilation shafts.
production rate is expected to be 40,000 tpd for each Figure 5 shows the location of the planned declines,
extraction sector or panel and 125,000 tpd from the whole and shafts. The total investment of the transition project
underground mine when the caving reaches steady state or has been estimated to be around US$ 500 millions and
continuous caving. The production ramp-up period is the operational cost is expected to be as low as 3.4
expected to be 8 years. US$/t.

604 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1: Panel caving parameters and costs estimation at scoping engineering stage
(Arancibia 2002a and b and, Flores et al 2004b)

Parameter Recommendation

Geological resources 1,500 millions of tonnes with an average grade of 0.65%

of copper and 0.03% of molybdenum

Underground mining method Panel caving

Main accesses to the underground mine 2 declines, 1 service shaft and 4 ventilation shafts

UCL depth from surface 1,500 m

Block height 400 m

Crown pillar between UCL and EXL 18 m

Estimated initial fragmentation 35 to 50% > 2 m3

Initial area to initiate the caving process 15,000 m2 with an square or rectangular shape

Cave initiation sector Below the pit bottom and where the rock mass quality is
favourable to propagate the cave

Measure to facilitate the cave initiation Slot

Mining sequence Initiate the undercutting just below and centred to the pit bottom
projection then to expand the area to the East and to the West.
When the undercut has reached the footprint width then the
sequence will go to the North and South at the same time.

Undercutting rate 3,000 m2/month

Cave front orientation N85E

Extraction layout El Teniente 15 m 17.32 m

Tonnes per drawpoint 240,000 to 280,000 t

Draw rate 0.25 m/day average (0.65 t/m2/day)

Maximum production rate per sector 40,000 tpd

Total production rate from underground mine 125,000 tpd

Ramp-up period 8 years

Angle of break (subsidence) 60 for the East wall and 50 for the West wall

Influence zones (subsidence) 125 m for the East wall and 250 m for the West wall

Rib pillar width 80 m at its base

Minimum surface crown pillar thickness 200 m

Maximum time for simultaneous open pit

and underground operations 2 to 3 years

Collapses Expected the occurrence of 3 collapses affecting about 4,000 m2

each one during first 5 years of operation.

Metastable cavity May occur at the beginning of the underground

operation affecting an area of 12,000 to 15,000 m2

Rockburst A seismic monitoring system at the early stage

of the development phase.

Capital investment US$ 500 millions

Operational costs 3.4 US$/t

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 605

 Table 1 is a summary of the expected main panel caving 11. the material handling system required to achieve the
design parameters and associated costs of the transition production from a depth of around 1,500 m;
project at Chuquicamata mine. 12. the location of the underground infrastruc-ture; and
13. the logistics system to mobilize the workers, equipments
3 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES and materials to different places of the underground
mine.
The technical challenges anticipated for the
Chuquicamata panel cave are expected to be relatively In addition to these technical issues, there are a number
significant given the planned high pro-duction rates and the of geotechnical challenges associated with the transition
requirement for low cost. The challenges will be project at Chuquicamata mine. They are (Flores 2004):
exacerbated by the tran-sition from a large open pit to 1. the presence of the large and deep open pit, which will
underground mining at great depths (1,100m), where both induce zones of stress concentra-tions and zones of low
the geological and geotechnical environments are confinement;
considerably more aggressive than currently experienced. 2. the level of induced stresses due to the pit depth in
The key technical challenges are related to the following addition to the height of the block to be caved;
(Arancibia 2002 a and b): 3. cave initiation and propagation;
1. the depth of the underground operations which will be 4. simultaneous open pit and underground mine operations;
around 1,500 m below surface; 5. the presence of the West fault and the shear zone;
2. the location and type of the main accesses to the 6. subsidence; and
underground mining; 7. ground water
3. the construction period for a large scale underground
caving project; These geotechnical challenges are summarized in Figure
4. the block height, cavability and fragmentation of the 6 and they have been discussed in detail in an
anticipated hard and massive rock mass; accompanying paper (Flores 2004).
5. the number of mining fronts and sequencing of In addition to the anticipated technical and geo-technical
production sectors to achieve the produc-tion target of issues there are a number of social and human resources
125,000 tpd; aspects that need to be con-sidered when converting form
6. the mine layout and mining sequence; a large scale and deep open pit to underground mining by
7. draw control constraints, eg differential draw to control the caving method. These equally need to be resolved with the
West fault; same degree of urgency in order to ensure a successful
8. the ramp-up period required to reach the design transition from open pit to under-ground mining by caving
production; method. In the case of Chuquicamata, the social issues
9. the interaction between the open pit and underground include:
operations; 1. The workforce. The number of employees required in
10. the ventilation system; underground mining will be much lesser than the current
workforce working in the open pit operations.

Figure 4: Panel caving underground mining method

606 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 5: View showing the open pit and main accesses to the underground mine

Figure 6: Geotechnical challenges involved in the transition

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 607

2. The workers skills. The technology used in underground Human resources are crucial for a state-owned company
mining is completely different from that currently used in such as Codelco Chile. Therefore, con-sideration needs to
open pit oper-ations. be given to the utilization of the manpower the Corporation
3. The contractors companies. The skills of the contractors already has. The human resources strategy must be based
employees and their companies should be different from on the retraining of site personnel to work in under-ground
that required in open pit mining. mining, bringing personnel with experi-ence in caving
4. The suppliers. The equipments and materials required at operations from the others Codelcos Divisions and the use
the underground operation will be different to those of contractors to develop and construct the underground
required at the open pit. mine.
However, the above strategy should not necessa-rily
4 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE TRANSITION prevent introduction of new technologies needed for the
effective and efficient underground mining. The following
The technical and geotechnical challenges an-ticipated technologies are therefore being considered:
during and after the transition from a large open pit to a 1. Automation. This technology should be fo-cused on
large panel cave may seem overwhelming to the point development, construction and pro-duction activities in
where undertaking such a project may be questionable. order to reduce the time and costs associated with these
There are however a number of positive attributes associ- tasks. Auto-mation should also allow for the improve-
ated with overall Chuquicamata underground project that ment of the underground environment thus creating
have justified its initiation. These are: better quality environmental condi-tions for the workers.
1. the availability of large geologic resources below the final 2. New ore handling systems. Most of the underground cave
pit amounting to 1.5 billion tonnes of ore with average mines have relied on the use of conventional LHD
grades of 0.65% copper and 0.003% molybdenum ; equipment. In the case of Chuquicamata underground
2. the availability of modern surface ore pro-cessing project the plan is to look for alternative equipment with
infrastructure, currently used to con-centrate, smelt and lower operating cost, fewer maintenance requirements,
refine the ore from the Chuquicamata open pit; and better adaptability to new ore extraction design and
3. the availability of the other geologic resources in the handling concepts.
same Codelco Norte mining district which should allow 3. Development and construction of under-ground
for the careful planning of the transition from open pit to excavations. One of the key param-eters that potentially
underground mining at Chuquicamata deposit without has a large impact on the economic indicators of the
being subjected to much production pressures; project, is the time required to develop and construct the
4. as a group, Codelco has considerable experi-ence in transition project at Chuquicamata. New technologies
mining ore deposits by block/panel caving methods in are therefore required to reduce this time.
relatively hard, massive rock mass and high stresses
achieving large production rates and low operating costs. 6. CONCLUSIONS
These should benefit the new Chuquicamata project;
5. the availability of the financial resources required to Based on the assumptions made to date, the scoping
undertake the investment for this transition project, engineering stage has shown that the transition from open
expected to be around US$ 500 million; and pit to underground mining by panel caving at the
6. the improvement of the NPV of Codelco Norte Division Chuquicamata deposit is feasible.
and Codelco Chile. Aspects of the transition that may have a signifi-cant
impact on economic indicators have been identified and
5. MINING STRATEGIES engineering solutions are now being proposed and sought
in order to better reduce their impact on the NPV.
To date, the engineering objective has been to The geotechnical challenges identified need to be
demonstrate to Codelco Norte that underground mining by addressed at the earliest stages of engineering so as to
panel caving beneath the final Chuquicamata open pit was reduce the potential consequences of undesirable events
feasible while meeting the economic expectations or that could occur during the operation of this project.
criterion set by Codelco Chile (Arancibia 2002a and b). The human resources issues need to be solved early in
In order to ensure a successful transition phase, the ram- order for the workforce to be prepared with the skills needed
up period has been estimated to be around eight years. This to achieve the production rate and the low costs required by
is considered feasible also given other geologic resources the Codelco Norte Division.
that Codelco Norte Division has available in the same The challenges anticipated with this transition now require
mining district which have still not been included in the that next engineering stages focus on the following aspects:
current mine plans. Hence, the strategy devel-oped for the 1. rock mass characterization;
transition project will need to con-sider bringing these 2. cavability and fragmentation assessment;
geologic resources into the mine plan. 3. block height assessment and potential dilution control;
The gradual increase of production from the underground 4. variants of the proposed panel caving method;
mine will allow proper management of the geotechnical 5. main accesses to the underground mine;
challenges identified at the early stage of the transition 6. development and construction of the under-ground
project thereby reducing the associated risks. excavations;
From an economic perspective, this transition phase will 7. material handling systems;
require the simultaneous open pit and underground 8. production ram-up to achieve the production rate of
operations. As production from the open pit declines, 125,000 tpd in 8 years
underground mining will need to increase until it reaches the 9. production sectors required to achieve the production
designed produc-tion rate. The strategy is also to design the rate;
underground mine with a low initial investment, which will 10. simultaneity of open pit and underground mining;
mean beginning the underground production in one sector 11. geotechnical hazards such as air blasts, col-lapses,
and then expanding into several production areas in hang ups, rockbursts, subsidence and water inflows;
different stages. This strategy offers the advantage of 12. new mining technologies;
allowing the investments to be made over a much longer 13. human resources; and
time frame. 14. costs

608 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The mine design is currently based on existing mine. Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago, (Ed: A
technology, but the overriding philosophy is to use proven Karzulovic and M Alfaro).
developments in technology and automation for the benefit Flores, G, Karzulovic, A and Brown, E T, 2004a. Current
of the operation in terms of safety and productivity. practices and trends in cave mining. Pro-ceedings
MassMin 2004, Santiago, (Ed: A Karzu-lovic and M
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Alfaro).
Flores, G, Karzulovic, A and Gonzlez, G, 2004b.
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues of the Geotechnical considerations for the scoping engi-neering
Gerencia de Recursos Mineros y Desar-rollo that helped stage of the transition project from open pit to
them during the development of this work. Also, the authors underground mining at Chuquicamata mine (in Spanish).
want to acknow-ledge the permission given by Division Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile.
Codelco Norte to publish this technical paper. Rojas, E, Molina, R, Bonani, A and Constanzo, H, 2004.
The pre-undercut caving method at the El Teniente mine,
REFERENCES Codelco Chile. Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
(Ed: Gideon Chitombo), 261-266. Australasian Institute of
Arancibia, E, 2002a. Pre-scoping engineering study I for Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne.
the underground mining at Chuquicamata ore body (in Torres, R, Araya, E, Crdoba, S y Domnguez, O, 2003.
Spanish). Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Geotechnical characterisation for the scop-ing
Codelco Chile. engineering stage of the transition from open pit to
Arancibia, E, 2002b. Pre-scoping engineering study II for underground mining at Chuquicamata mine (in Spanish).
the underground mining at Chuquicamata (in Spanish). Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile.
Technical Report, Codelco Norte Division, Codelco Chile.
Flores, G, 2004. Geotechnical challenges of the transition
from open pit to underground mining at Chuquicamata

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 609

 Mine design of The Argyle
underground project
Damien Hersant, Senior Underground Mining Engineer Feasibility Study

Abstract
Argyle Diamonds operate a 10Mtpa open pit diamond mining operation in northern Western Australia. Current schedules
show the open pit finishing production by the end of 2007, having reached its economic depth.
Some 60Mt of resource is below the ultimate pit bottom and consequently Argyle Diamonds is undertaking a Feasibility
Study on the underground mining of this resource. The Vision for the project is based on setting benchmarks for safety,
productivity and sustainability. This will be achieved through the application of best practice designs and techniques, high
levels of automation and remote operation and a commitment to the vision by all those involved. In essence, the Argyle
Underground Mine will be designed and operated as a safe and predictable rock factory.
This paper presents various aspects of the mine design philosophy, underground conditions and their management and
the incorporation of the Argyle vision into the design.

1. INTRODUCTION January 2003, examining various underground mining

strategies, approvals processes and organisational options.
Argyle Diamond Mine, a 100% owned subsidiary of Rio In February 2003 approval granted by the Rio Tinto
Tinto Limited, operates the Argyle mine located in the Investment Committee for Argyle Diamonds to undertake a
eastern Kimberley region of Western Australia (Figure 1). two year Feasibility Study into underground mining of the
The operation comprises a large open pit mine, centred on AK1 orebody. Approval was also given for the development
the lamproite AK1 orebody, feeding a processing and of an Exploratory Decline to further improve knowledge of
recovery plant. Diamond product is shipped to Perth for the underground environment.
sorting, further processing and marketing.
2. THE VISION

In embarking on the Feasibility Study, all aspects related

to the project were to be undertaken with the following
requirements in mind:
Argyle will set the benchmarks for safety and productivity
in underground mining through:
- Commitment to safe design and risk assessment
throughout the design stage;
- Application of best practice designs and techniques;
- High levels of automation and remote operation, thereby
removing people from hazardous work areas; and
- Commitment to this vision.
Argyle will be designed and operated as a safe and
predictable rock factory.
The project will provide sustainable outcomes for Argyle
and for the people of the East Kimberley region.

In keeping with this Vision:

frequent risk assessments and updates have and will
Figure 1 Location Map continue to be undertaken;
safety experts/personnel have been employed from the
Currently, the AK1 operation moves over 80 million tonnes early stages of the project to ensure sufficient
of rock to treat 10 million tonnes of ore annually. resources are available to proactively deal with safety
The current schedule, sees completion of open pit mining issues;
of the AK1 orebody by 2007. The AK1 and associated communication with equipment suppliers is frequent to
mineralistion is known to extend some 600m below the ensure that technological developments are known and
planned pit bottom. incorporated into the design as appropriate;
Underground mining of this resource has been Argyle is represented at the International Caving Study
investigated a number of times between 1995 and 2000. In which continues to pursue improvements in the
July 2000, an Order of Magnitude Study was conducted to understanding and processes used in the design,
provide a fresh look at underground mining given the planning and control of cave mining;
alternative of a deeper open pit plan and the confirmation of a Lessons Learned methodology has been
further resources at depth. This study indicated good incorporated into the Argyle project which draws on
potential for underground extraction. In light of this, a Pre- learnings and experience from other Rio Tinto
Feasibility Study was undertaken between July 2001 and operations and projects;

610 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Argyle is undertaking the transition to a Kimberley It can be seen that, in general, the orebody is more
Centric workforce, with increased local employment; and competent than the surrounding stratigraphic units,
where possible, local Kimberley based companies will be especially the mudstones. This is a major consideration in
used for on-going work at the mine. determining optimum locations for permanent infrastructure
such as crusher chambers.
3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY Acoustic emission and Hydraulic Fracture stress
measurements were taken from boreholes drilled within the
The AK1 deposit is a volcanic intrusion of Lamproitic tuff pit. These methods gave conflicting results however and
and magmatic Lamproite intruded into a stratigraphic consequently design flexibility is considered essential.
sequence of interbedded quartzites, siltstones and Additional stress measurements will be undertaken from the
mudstones that overlie dolerite and basalt units Exploratory Decline.
The deposit extends below the base of the final pit,
plunging steeply towards the south and dipping to 5. MINING METHOD
the west at approximately 70o. The main area of the
AK1 orebody, where a majority of the mine In keeping with The Vision defined for the Argyle
production will come from, thins and bifurcates with Underground Mine, selection preferences of mining
depth. Figure 2 shows a Long Section of the orebody methods tended towards non-entry methods such as
and LOM Pit. block caving and sublevel caving. These methods make
it possible to implement high levels of automation, control
and monitoring, thereby minimising the number of people
required to work in potentially hazardous conditions.
They also create an underground rock factory
environment, which can be operated in a safe and
predictable manner.
Earlier mining studies identified that open stoping options
led to poor recoveries (low percentage extraction) as well as
having the risks associated with entry methods, the stope
and fill methods were not economically viable and it was
concluded that only the caving methods, more particularly
block caving, could be seriously considered for mining of the
AK1 ore body. The grade, size, geometry and rockmass
conditions of the AK1 deposit are also such that it is most
appropriate to mine using bulk extraction mass mining
methods.
Figure 2 Long Section of the Argyle Deposit During the Pre-Feasibility Study, a number of mining
scenarios where assessed. From these, two options were
taken forward. Further work undertaken as part of the
4. GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS Feasibility Study identified that the option of an extended
block cave, whose footprint extends out into the less
There are numerous regional faults within the area competent footwall sedimentary units, holds the greatest
however the dominant structural feature expected to be a value. Below the cave extraction level, a sublevel cave
major controlling factor for any mining is the NNW trending mining method will be used.
Gap Fault, which is located at the northern end of the AK1
orebody. 6. BLOCK CAVE
Infrastructure development is likely to intersect at least
three main geological structures, namely the Gap Fault, The block cave area is some 230m in depth, below the
Lamboo Thrust Fault and Eastern fault. The proposed base of the final pit, 450m along strike and 190m wide,
development will also pass through the contact margins of giving a mining block of approximately 50Mt. The extraction
the AK1 pipe, which in many places is a wide zone of healed level itself is 466m below the surface.
brecciated lamproite and host rock.
Table 1 below indicates the rock types and associated Undercut
indicative UCS and IRMR results. Strategy
An advanced undercut strategy is proposed. In this
strategy a limited amount of extraction level development is
TABLE 1 Indicative UCS and IRMR Values done prior to the start of undercutting. At Argyle, this
development will consist of the establishment of the footwall
Rock Unit Rock Type UCS (Mpa) IRMR and hangingwall perimeter drives, extraction galleries and
drawpoint stubs. Undercutting on the level above will then
RCFM (Pvb) Basalt 50 46 - 49 begin and the extraction level drawpoints and drawbells will
be developed once de-stressed conditions have been
RCFM (Pvd) Dolerite 50 46 - 49 established. De-stressed conditions are assumed when the
LCG (Pb) Granite 110 drawpoint development lags behind the undercut advance
by 45o (15m).
RCFS Interbedded 35 40 - 45
Profile and Footprint
AK1 Lamproite 80 51 - 57
The undercut footprint for Argyle is an irregular
(orebody) Sandy Tuff rectangular shape with dimensions 450m x 190m. The
RCFS Mudstone 20 35 -40 hydraulic radius considered necessary for caving at Argyle
is ~40m. The proposed footprint has a hydraulic radius of
RCFS Quartzite 120 47 - 50 67m, and as such cave propagation is not considered to be
an issue.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 611

 The undercut profile, as shown in Figure 3, is described allowing each gallery to be isolated from the perimeter
as a narrow inclined undercut and is the profile adopted by drives and minimizing interactions between automated
both Northparkes and Palabora. and manual activities.
ventilation and drainage raises connect directly into the
mine exhaust system on the Transfer level such that all
heat generated on the Extraction level is removed quickly
and efficiently.

Ground support design and implementation will be a major

consideration in the construction phase of the Extraction level
with emphasis being placed on getting it right the first time in
order to avoid costly rehabilitation and delays.
A workshop/cribroom complex will be located within the
orebody at the southern end of the Extraction level. Regular
servicing and minor maintenance will be carried out at this facility
with all major maintenance work being undertaken at the surface
workshop. The Extraction Level Layout is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3 Undercut Profile

Direction
An analysis was undertaken using FLAC3D to determine
the best direction in which to advance the undercut. Six
different undercut directions were assessed with the
preferential direction for undercutting being from the north-
west corner to the south-east. This recommendation was
based on:
the undercut progressing from weaker to stronger rock
giving improved cavability.
the orientation to major structure is such that major
wedges should not be formed.
Figure 4 Extraction Level Layout
Extraction Level
In defining the design layout of the Extraction Level, a Transfer Level
number of considerations were taken into account, the main The lower level of the block cave has the multipurpose use
ones being automation, ground support, ventilation and of ore transfer to the crusher and transfer of exhaust air and
production flexibility. drainage away from the mining area. It is proposed to use large
In order to comply with the Argyle Vision, a high level of capacity loaders for ore transfer. Each of the Extraction Level
automation is needed. The single extraction horizon makes orepasses report to the western side of the Transfer level and
it relatively easy to setup and maintain the communication are accessed much as a drawpoint. Twin transfer drives are
infrastructure required for the automated systems currently proposed facilitating the use of multiple loaders operating on
being developed. Rio Tinto, through its Northparkes concrete roadways. The transfer drives report back to a
operation, have already been trialling the Autotram system centrally located gyratory crusher. The eastern footwall side of
and given positive developments of this technology into the the level is quite separate from the ore transfer facility. Each of
future it is intended that the Argyle underground mine will the ventilation/drainage passes from the extraction level
utilize a fully automated loader fleet. Secondary breaking terminates on the footwall perimeter drive of the Transfer level.
remains an issue given the hazardous conditions often This drive collects drainage water and return air, passing them
encountered. It is unlikely that much of this work will ever be south to the main ventilation exhaust and primary pumping
fully automated but wherever possible teleremote operation infrastructure. All loading, crushing, conveying and pumping
will be used to remove personnel from the underground activities will be monitored and controlled from the central
environment. A central control room will be located on control room. Figure 5 shows the layout of the Transfer level.
surface from which all major activities will be controlled and
monitored.
Given hot and humid surface conditions, high ambient
rock temperatures and the introduction of heat through
ground and surface water, ventilation is of prime
importance. As such, in order to minimize the ventilation
requirement for equipment and in line with positive
experience at Northparkes, a fleet of electric loaders will be
used for ore production.
Based on these requirements, it was determined that the
Extraction level would comprise the following:
a transverse layout to give production flexibility given a
relatively elongated orebody.
an offset herringbone drawpoint layout to facilitate the use
of electric loaders.
extraction galleries with an orepass at the hangingwall
end and a ventilation/drainage raise at the other thus Figure 5 Transfer Level Layout

612 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

7. ORE-HANDLING mine, together with the staged nature of orebody
development and the requirement for significant lateral
Requirement/Duty haulage away from the orebody, has pointed towards a
Mining studies have identified a sustainable underground conveyor solution for ore handling to surface (Figure 6).
production rate of 7.5 million tonnes per year during Stage Recent advances in underground conveyor design,
1 Block Cave operation. Given the need to design for installation and operation has seen the planning and
some waste handling capacity and providing some room for commissioning of long, steep underground conveyors at
mining productivity improvements, a design capacity of 8.0 Palabora, Ridgeway and Northparkes. The lessons
million tonnes per year (wet) has been selected for ore learned from each of these sites will be incorporated and
handling components. referenced in the Argyle design and operation.

Crusher 8. DEWATERING
Numerous crushing options were investigated as part of
the Pre-Feasibility Study. These ranged not only from Expected Inflows
underground versus surface primary crushing but also jaw The monsoonal nature of the climate in the Argyle region
versus gyratory versus hybrid crushers. Through this results in the potential for severe tropical rainfall events.
assessment, it was established that an underground Combining with this is the location of the open pit directly
primary Gyratory Crusher with surface secondary crushing above the proposed underground mine, which comprises a
was most appropriate for the Argyle Underground operation. substantial catchment area ultimately funnelling surface
A gyratory crusher in the order of 54-74 size, fed with water into the underground workings.
ROM ore supplied through 900 millimetre to1200 millimetre
orepass grizzlies and orepasses will be used. The crusher Dewatering Strategy
has been selected to suit the feed size and provide the Given the wide range of potential inflows and uncertainty
required throughputs. of the expected inflow quantities, a three part dewatering
The crusher itself will be located centrally relative to the strategy has been developed. After cave breakthrough into
block cave footprint. It is currently proposed to be within the the pit, three pumping conditions have been identified:
orebody, given the unfavourable ground conditions - normal conditions, representing typical day to day
anticipated in the hangingwall sediments. Locating this pumping requirements;
infrastructure within the orebody does however complicate - seasonal conditions, where summer rainfall may increase
the transition in production from the Stage 1 block cave to pumping requirements substantially for a period of time;
the Stage 2 sublevel cave. and
- flood conditions, where unexpected intense inflows occur.
Conveyors
A variety of ore haulage systems were evaluated, Normal water inflow to the mine, including average
including conveyor, shaft and truck haulage. Ultimately rainfall, ground water and collection of raw water used for
however the relatively shallow nature of the underground mining processes amounts to flows of between 40 to 120

Figure 6 Schematic of Underground Orehandling System

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 613

litres per second. This will be handled by two Geho TZPM various mine workings to the Main Return Airway.
800 positive displacement pumps, each of 60 litres per Schematic of the ventilation circuit is illustrated in Figure
second capacity, with over 750 metre head lift capability. 7.
For seasonal/abnormal conditions, when inflows into the The ventilation system has been designed as a push-pull
pump stations exceed the capacity of the two Geho positive circuit. In doing so the extraction level is maintained under
displacement pumps, a series of 3 to 4 Warman 16/14 TYFC positive pressure such that contaminants and air will not be
APH slurry centrifugal pumps will be used to dispose of the drawn through
extra water, up to a total rate of 920 litres per second. the cave into the mine workings. The disadvantages of the
Flood conditions prevail when inflows exceed the system are the additional heat generated by the location of
designed pumping system capacity. In this circumstance the fans underground and additional capital and operating
mine will go into a shut-down mode. A series of water-tight costs.
doors installed in bulkheads will be used to protect key It is considered however that the benefits of this system
infrastructure such as pumping stations, crusher stations, outweigh the disadvantages.
workshops and conveyors. These doors will separate this It is proposed that exhaust fans be installed at the collar
infrastructure from level drives and declines, which would be of the exhaust shaft. It should be noted that due to the
allowed to flood and subsequently pumped out. length of the intake and exhaust declines, the fan would
operate at high ventilating pressures.
9. VENTILATION Establishing the primary ventilation system is on the
critical path of the project and as such it is essential that
The ventilation design for the Argyle Underground Project the Main Return Airway is developed as soon as
has been undertaken with the following considerations in possible.
mind:
Air quality must comply with Occupational Exposure 10. REFRIGERATION
Limits of Australias NOHSC 1003.
As specified by the WA Mines Safety and Inspection Design of the refrigeration system was undertaken with
Regulations 1995: the objective of providing acceptable working conditions at
- Re-circulation of air is minimized and air is drawn from major workplaces throughout the mine during fluctuations in
the purest source available (single pass ventilation) climatic conditions. Expectation is that a majority of the
- Where diesel units are used for production, a general underground workforce will operate within the confines of
criteria of 0.04 to 0.06 cubic metres per second per air-conditioned mobile equipment cabs. There will of course
kilowatt of rated engine output will be applied to each be occasions when work outside of such equipment will be
ventilation district. necessary.
- A minimum air velocity of 0.25 metres per second is
maintained where electric vehicles are used. Heat Load
- If wet bulb temperature exceeds 25oC, a minimum air Heat is generated from a variety of sources including:
velocity of 0.5m/s. Climatic conditions
Heat from development walls and broken rock
Block Cave Heat from machinery
The greatest ventilation requirement for the block cave is Auto-compression of air
when both production and construction activities are Heat from ground water
occurring at the same time. The block cave production rate
at its peak is expected to be 7.5 million tonnes per year. Ground water is a major contributor to the mines heat
Even though electric loaders are expected to be used, load and as such it is important that water is removed
diesel loaders have been assumed to ensure sufficient from the underground environment as quickly as
capacity for flexibility. possible.
Table 2 summarises the ventilation requirements. Initial indications are that the mine will require between
9MW to 10MW of cooling capacity for operation of the block
cave.
Table 2: Block Cave Ventilation Requirements
Refrigeration & Cooling Plant
9715 BLOCK CAVE Given the relatively shallow nature of the Argyle
underground operation, a surface refrigeration plant will be
Production Drives 150 m3/s used as it gives the advantages of ease of access, unlimited
Transfer Drives 60 m3/s capacity for expansion and the ability to use refrigerants
Crusher 35 m3/s such as ammonia.
Conveyors 40 m3/s Through the use of bulk air cooler serviced by a surface
Lower Infrastructure refrigeration plant, cooling of the mine can be accomplished
(Pump stations, etc.) 15 m3/s in the most economical manner possible using a relatively
Level Workshops 30 m3/s simple system.
Leakage 45 m3/s The bulk air cooler should be positioned at the top of the
Level Development/ Undercutting 100 m3/s intake ventilation shaft, with the refrigeration plant a further
200m away. The use of a number of refrigeration modules
TOTAL EARLY PRODUCTION 395 m3/s allows:
A build-up of refrigeration capacity consistent with the
TOTAL PRODUCTION 375 m3/s underground requirements at the time.
Flexibility in adjusting the amount of refrigeration given
seasonal and diurnal variations in ambient temperature.
Ventilation Circuit Capacity to maintain cooling during the maintenance of
For all stages of underground operation, the primary refrigeration units.
ventilation system comprises fresh air being drawn down Easily expandable system.
the Main Decline and the Fresh Air Decline, through the Minimization of early capital expenditure.

614 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 7- Block Cave Ventilation Circuit

11. CONCLUSION processes of the Feasibility Study. In all aspects of the

study, The Vision for the Argyle underground project has
The major technical issues associated with the project been referenced and used as a point of focus.
are:
ventilation, given hot and humid surface and underground 12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
conditions,
dewatering, given a monsoonal environment and mining The author wishes to thank Argyle Diamonds for the
under an open pit; and opportunity to present and publish this paper and to
ground conditions associated with numerous structural acknowledge all of those contributing to the successful
features and relatively weak host rock units. completion of the Argyle Underground Feasibility Study.
Special thanks goes to Stephen Brennan, Brian Morris and
These technical issues, whilst still posing a risk, are being David Nicholls for their help in preparing this paper.
addressed within the mine and infrastructure design

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 615

 The alternate design considered
for the Argyle underground mine
Geoffrey Bull, Gary MacSporran, Campbell Baird, SRK Consulting, Perth, Australia

Abstract
The Argyle Diamond Mine open pit reaches its economic limit in 2007. As mineralisation extends to beyond 600m below
the final pit base, studies have considered potential underground mining options, with the two most viable combinations
being, either:
A large block cave for the upper part of the resource and a sub level cave for the lower parts, or
A smaller block cave to extract the main portion of the ore body, a core-andshell method to extract the footwall wedge
(ore between the block cave and the dipping footwall contact) and a sub level cave beneath the block cave.
The final feasibility study is progressing the former option, which is described by Hersant (2004), whereas this paper
discusses the latter option, focusing on the challenging geotechnical and practical mining issues leading to the
development of this combination of methods in the search for a safe and reliable underground mine design.

1 INTRODUCTION Confirmation of achievable development rates in the

different rock types for more accurate scheduling
Argyle Diamonds Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Rio Assessment of support requirements in the different rock
Tinto Limited, operates the Argyle Mine, an open pit operation types
located in the eastern Kimberley region of Western Australia. More accurate development cost information
Pit production from the lamproite AK1 orebody feeds a
processing and recovery plant at a rate of 10Mtpa. The fact of an inclined ore body and the questions
By 2007 the pit will have reached its economic limits in the AK1 surrounding the competence of the footwall sediments and
ore body. The remaining substantial resource, extending some major structural features led to the inclusion of the second
600m below the final pit base, will only be amenable to extraction mining option in the pre feasibility study, in an attempt to
by underground methods. Since 1995 a number of underground optimise the mining of the AK1 ore body. This paper
mining studies have been undertaken, investigating the potential discusses this "alternate" option.
of a range of bulk mining methods. In the process, non-caving
methods were gradually eliminated due to excessive costs, 2 GEOLOGY AND GEOMECHANICS
insufficiently high production rates and safety issues. The dipping
and plunging nature of the AK1 ore body, its narrowing and The AK1 deposit is a volcanic intrusion of Lamproitic tuff
bifurcation deeper down and the relatively weak inter-bedded and magmatic Lamproite intruded into a Proterozoic
sediments in the hangingwall and footwall introduced some stratigraphic sequence of inter-bedded quartzites, siltstones
technical challenges to the mine design and mining method and mudstones that overlie dolerite and basalt units. The
selection process. Finally, the methods considered in the Pre AK1 deposit consists of three north-south oriented pipe
Feasibility study, undertaken from July 2001 to January 2003, structures (Northern Bowl, Central AK1 and Southern Tail)
were narrowed down to two options: that plunge steeply to the south (Figure 1). The central pipe
A large block cave, with an extraction horizon covering the of the AK1 ore body dips at approximately 70o to the west,
lamproite ore body and extending out into the footwall plunges at 70o to the south and narrows and bifurcates at
sediments, extracting the upper part of the resource, depth. The narrowing and bifurcation of the AK1 with depth
followed by a sub level cave (SLC) for the lower parts. is shown in Figure 2.
A smaller block cave, with an extraction horizon confined
to within the stronger lamproite body and located at a
higher elevation than that for large block cave, to extract
the main portion of the ore body, plus a core-andshell
method to extract the "footwall wedge" (ore between the
block cave and the dipping footwall contact) and, finally, a
sub level cave beneath the block cave.

Assessment of technical risk indicated that the former

option (large block cave and SLC) provided a lower risk
profile. The final feasibility study, currently under way, is
focusing on this preferred option. To assist in final design
and decision making a decline is also currently being
developed to provide further information, including:
Additional information regarding the strength and
competence of the footwall sediments
Measurement of in-situ stresses
Characteristics of the major structural features that will be
intersected by planned production and infrastructure Figure 1 Long Section through the AK1 deposit and Argyle
development final pit

616 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 stratigraphy here and all are probably components of the
Gap Fault Zone. Investigation of pre-mining aerial
photography for this region reveals that NW-SE trending
faults extending from the North Bowl Region swing into
more northerly orientations as they pass through the "Neck
Zone".
The major structures in the area can be summarised as
follows:
The dominant active systems responsible for the tectonic
deformation observed at Argyle are the Halls Creek Fault
System (HCFS) and the Bow River Fault System (BRFS).
In the regional tectonic setting, the Gap Fault formation is
currently interpreted as a second order feature and results
from the activity of the HCFS and the BRFS. In terms of
the AK1 deposit it is considered the major structural
feature.
Figure 2 Plan of AK1 ore body at different elevations A few hundred metres to the north of the AK1 ore body is
showing narrowing and bifurcation. the Eastern fault that runs sub-parallel to the Gap fault.
Cutting across the ore body is the Razor fault. The Gap
and Razor faults are shown in Figure 2. Within the AK1
The AK1 and surrounding country rock was domained lamproite the Razor fault is generally a discrete, narrow
according to a structural interpretation and the different planar feature, often difficult to see in the core, and not a
rockmass characteristics and is shown in Figure 3. wide feature like the Gap Fault. Figure 4 shows the main
structural features in and around the AK1 ore body. The
black lines are major faults, red lines are domain
boundaries and grey lines are pit contours.

Figure 3 Geotechnical domains

Domain 2, the AK1 lamproite consists of 60-80% quartz

and is a relatively competent lithology. Irregular zones of
more competent, fine grained, grey, almost aphanitic rock Figure 4 Domains 2, 3, 4, and 8 and structures
occur throughout the lamproite.
Domain 3, the Western Contact Zone consists of an The different rock types in each domain were classified
irregular and complex zone of breccia developed along the into IRMR values as shown in Table 1.
western edge of the AK1 pipe. It involves both the host The strongest of the rock types are the lamproites and the
sediments (quartzites and mudstone/shales) and the weakest are the mudstones and interbedded
lamproite, and occupies a zone varying in width from <5m to mudstone/siltstone units.
>50m. Attempts were made to measure the stress conditions
Domain 4, in contrast to the western margin of the pipe, using acoustic emission and hydraulic fracturing
intrusion breccias appear much less well developed on the techniques, however, the results were conflicting and
eastern margin. Breccias zones up to 5m thick are present inconclusive. Analyses and modeling dependent on stress
along this contact but major changes in bedding plane dip inputs used an assumed range of values.
and large blocks of country rock within the lamproite have The resource model indicated that the upper, eastern side
not been observed. The lack of a complex contact zone of the AK1 contains high diamond values, making it
suggests that either the intrusion processes were different particularly important to recover this part of the ore body.
on the eastern margin of the pipe or else the Gap Fault Zone
in this region has faulted out much of the breccia. Projecting 3 EARLY STUDIES
of faults mapped in the northern part of the mine indicates
that the NW to NNW striking, moderate W to SW dipping In earlier mining studies conducted under the direction of
Gap Fault Zone extends along the eastern margin of the the previous owners, Mineco Pty Limited, mining method
AK1 pipe into this domain. selection for the AK1 ore body considered a range of bulk
The Gap Fault diverges into a number of strands at least mining options, including: open stoping with and without fill,
one of which cuts into the lamproite body in Domain 2. On sub level caving and block caving (single and dual lifts). The
the SE wall of the pit, displacements in sedimentary units open stoping options led to poor recoveries (low percentage
suggests that at least three N-S trending faults cut the extraction) as well as having the risks associated with entry

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 617

 TABLE 1 Rock Properties

Domain Rock IRMR IRMR IRMR

Type (Avge) (Min) (Min)

2 Lmp (all) 53 25.3 83.2

Lmp(p2000) 57.7 25.8 83.2

3 All (all) 46.4 25.2 77.2

All (p2000) 52.5 25.2 77.2
Mudstn (all) 36.1 27.3 57.6
Qtzite (all) 47 25.2 77.2
4 All (all) 47.4 25.8 74.8
All (p2000) 50.6 25.2 74.8

8 All (all) 42.4 11 70.4

All (p2000) 49.5 11 70.4
Mudstn (all) 31.7 24.8 61.1
Qtzite (all) 46 23.1 69.4
Dolerite (all) 46 11 70.4

(all) denotes all geotechnical data,

(p2000) denotes only data collected after 2000 (less
data was available but it is considered more reliable than
pre 2000 data).

methods, the stope and fill methods were not economically

viable and it was concluded that only the caving methods,
Figure 5 Cross-section and Long-Section showing the
more particularly block caving, could be seriously
different mining areas
considered for mining of the AK1 ore body. The early
studies included a block cave that was situated within the
lamproites, where it was considered that the cave would
propagate up the perceived weak footwall contact enabling
the "footwall wedge" of ore to be drawn on an incline from
the east-most row of draw points.

4 THE "ALTERNATE" MINING OPTION

The components of the "alternate" mining option are

shown in Figures 5 and 6. The essential difference between
this option and the large block cave option (Hersant, 2004)
is the selective mining of the "footwall wedge". The issues
that prompted the development of this "alternate" option
included:

Concerns that the footwall sediments, particularly the

weak mudstones, may cause draw point stability issues,
even if substantial support is included. This footwall area
may be further weakened by the presence of the Gap fault
and its splays.
In a large block cave option, with draw points extending
out into the footwall sediments, a large wedge of waste
occurs between the draw points and the inclined footwall
of the lamproites. This waste has to be drawn off in order
to draw down the valuable lamproites above it. Handling
this waste separately from the ore generated from other
draw points in a single material handling system will be
very difficult to schedule.
Concerns that the weaker footwall sediments may cave
and draw more readily than the lamproites, drawing in
excessive dilution laterally from the footwall.
Disagreement with the postulation from early studies that
an "inclined draw" would occur as the cave followed up
the weaker contact zone, enabling the lamproites in the
footwall wedge to be drawn from eastern drawpoints
within the lamproites. This "inclined draw"assumption is
considered very risky as it is quite likely that, while the Figure 6 Plan of Block Cave and Footwall Wedge mining
cave may propagate readily into the weaker footwall areas

618 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 rocks, large amounts of the weaker footwall waste feasibility study) has reshaped and reduced the ore body
material would be drawn preferentially in the attempt to footprint at the extraction level of the small block cave.
draw the ore, diluting this ore excessively. As the grade of
the footwall wedge of ore is relatively high it is important 5 MINING METHODS
that it is extracted at minimal risk. Therefore, an alternate
method of extracting this footwall wedge of ore was Block Cave
proposed. Economic modelling indicated that the optimum elevation
The northern part of the AK1 flattens out towards the for the extraction horizon is around the 9775mRL elevation.
"neck" between the AK1 and Northern Bowl (Figure 1) A transverse Henderson offset herringbone extraction
making it uneconomic to include this in the block cave horizon is planned to make it possible to implement high
footprint. This area too had to be mined selectively by an levels of automation. The Hydraulic Radius (HR) of the
alternate method. economic footprint at this elevation is ~42m. This is just in
excess of the required HR=40m for caving of the lamproites.
The advantages and disadvantages of selectively mining The width of the extraction horizon is between 110m 120m
the "footwall wedge" (FWW) include: which is marginally greater than the minimum critical span
(~107m) for caving for the lamproites (Figure 12). The
Advantages: design of the extraction level, undercut level and the
The FWW can be accessed and developed early so that transfer/drainage level are similar to the design described
production from this source can provide positive cashflow by Hersant (2004) for the large block cave option.
while the Block Cave undercut, extraction and ore transfer
levels are being accesses and developed. Core and Shell
Early extraction of the FWW ensures minimal risk of Studies have examined various methods of mining the
dilution or loss of this valuable part of the AK1 resource. FWW and have concluded that the most appropriate is a
Removal of the FWW will create a vertical free face along Core and Shell method, which in recent studies has been
the caves eastern boundary, which, together with the referred to as the "Trough and Ring Retreat" method.
undercut will assist caving of the main part of the ore The Trough and Ring Retreat mining method consists of
body. modules of individual components which allow flexibility in its final
The FWW north area can continue to produce when the layout and firing sequence (Figure 7, 8 and 9). The modules
block cave starts to produce. Production from the FWW consist of Slot and Swell (Primary Stope), Ring Retreat
north can be used to supplement block cave production (Secondary Stope) and Trough Undercut, which is blasted prior
during the block cave ramp up to full production. to the former modules. The dimensions of the components can
The FWW development on the lowest level can be be modified to suit ground conditions and orebody geometry. In
used as drainage tunnels for dewatering and drawing areas where two modules are situated side by side, a central
down of the water table prior to commencement of pillar is designed in between them to isolate the Slot and Swell
production. components of the modules. These pillars are recovered in the
FWW development can be used for locating Block Cave final blasting of the two modules. Furthermore, to ensure good
propagation monitoring and seismic system equipment.
FWW production costs will, however, cost more per tonne
than if this ore was extracted by Block Caving, but the mill
head grades will be better due to less dilution.
Development of the FWW can commence while mining
the open pit, however, the risks associated with
underground interaction with the Open Pit must be
identified and addressed.
The FWW production trucks will not add to the traffic
congestion (Block Cave development and construction
vehicles and equipment) as they will travel in the intake
airway decline (exploratory decline). They only travel a
short distance in the top section of the main decline.
The use of the intake airway decline for trucking will allow
for production from the FWW of up to 2.0 Mtpa during
peak block cave construction.

Disadvantages:
There will be more up front capital expenditure incurred by
the additional development necessary to effect the FWW
production.
With the ore removed from FWW and having drawn down
waste to fill this void, there will be the risk of this waste
being drawn into the first row of block cave draw-points,
undercutting the ore above. This risk can be minimized by
good draw planning and control.
Potential stope stability issues given the variable
geotechnical conditions in the ore body and undercutting
of pit walls.
Scheduling risks associated with the production transition
from FWW to Block Cave.
Reduced economic value due to lower production rates
associated with the FWW and smaller BC.
Caveability risks associated with the small Block Cave
footprint. Latest resource modelling (completed after pre Figure 7 Modular stope layout for FWW

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 619

fragmentation and to assist in initiating pit wall failure, cleaner Establishment of Trough Undercuts provides early
rings can be employed on the eastern and western sidewalls of production and Mass Firing turns it into a "rock factory"
the modules and fired along with the Central Pillars. yielding high tonnages. Schedules indicate that
The regional sequencing of the modules is flexible with production rates of 1.8Mtpa will be achievable form the
respect to blasting sequence. These modules can be FWW.
produced either in a Continuous Retreat fashion The FWW development and production schedule does
(recommended for Footwall Wedge, Figure 10), or Mass not hinder the infrastructure and production schedules of
Firing the Ring Retreat component of the modules the main block cave operation.
(recommended for Footwall Wedge "North", Figure 11). The FWW "North" can produce concurrently with the
Either of these sequences can be implemented in each of block cave operation. Production from the FWW "North"
the Footwall Wedge zones. area that is in contact with the Block Cave area must be
completed prior to commencing Block Cave production.
The mining sequence of the FWW "North" is south to the
north in order to limit the mining interaction between the
Block Cave and the Footwall Wedge "North". This south
to north extraction is possible due to the establishment of
an alternative access decline in the north connecting the
Block Cave extraction, undercut and transfer levels with
the FWW 9860mRL.

The main risks of the method are:

Exposure to open voids for the period until mass firing
takes place
Uncertainty concerning pit wall behaviour. Sudden large
failures may affect stability of underground workings.
The ventilation requirements (volume and cooling
capacity) for concurrent development of the FWW and
block cave infrastructure may exceed design capacities.

Sub Level Cave

Below the Block Cave extraction horizon the ore body
narrows down fairly rapidly, particularly below 9700mRL
(Figure 2), and then splits up into two limbs. It would not be
possible to consider a second, lower lift to the block cave as
the ore body narrows to below the minimum critical span for
caving of the lamproites.
The minimum critical span can be determined from the
HR for caving using the chart shown in Figure 12. For the
lamproites, where the HRcaving = 40m locus intersects the
Figure 8 Modular stope layout FWW "North" 3:1 aspect ratio line the dimensions of the rectangular
footprint having a width equal to 1/3 of the its length (107m
x 320m) can be read off the chart. For the lamproites, this
The main advantages of this method are: width of 107m is considered to be the minimum critical span,
Only two development levels required. below which dimension the cave is likely to form a stable
Low operating costs. arch and stall.
Flexibility in final design and blasting sequence through In some cases this ratio can be less than 1:3 (width to
modular approach. length) and the cave will continue to propagate, however it

Figure 9 Typical Long Section FWW layout

620 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 10 Continuous Retreat sequence for FWW

Figure 11 Mass Fire sequence for FWW "North"

has generally been found that this 1:3 ratio rule is a good SLC is a top down caving method and, if started below a
guide for determining the minimum critical span. large mass of caved ground, is not dependent on the width of
the ore body or cavability of the rockmass, as the caved ground
will rill down into narrow zones extracted by the SLC provided
the dip and plunge of the ore body does not flatten out to angles
less than the angle of repose of the rock within the cave. SLC
is therefore the most suitable and economic method to use to
mine the lamproites below the block cave horizon.
There is one matter of concern that will need careful
consideration in the ongoing design of the Argyle
underground mine, which is, the possibility of a drop in
production for a period during the transition from block cave
to SLC. However, careful sequencing of the block cave to
mine from north-west to south-east will allow the northern
parts of the block cave to be completed in time for SLC to
commence production in the north-west on the 9750mRL
while the block cave is still being depleted in the south.
Below the block cave there are only about four or five
Figure 12 Chart for determining Minimum Critical Span levels that are sufficiently large to maintain production at the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 621

high rates obtained in the block cave. Further down, where However, along with the many potential advantages this
the ore body narrows and where it eventually splits into two option presents, there is also some uncertainty surrounding
and the tonnes per vertical metre decrease significantly, it the caveability of the small block cave footprint, the risk of
will be impossible to maintain the same rate of production as unstable stopes in the FWW, the potential scheduling risks
obtained in the block cave. associated with the production transition from FWW to Block
Cave and the less economically attractive result this option
6 SEVICES AND MATERIAL HANDLING FACILITIES produces. For these reason this alternate option will no
longer be considered for the Argyle Mine Underground
For this "alternate" mining option, the main access design.
decline, ventilation decline, return airways and conveyer
declines and all crushing and dewatering facilities will be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
common with those being designed for the large block cave
option that is being progressed to final feasibility study The authors are grateful to Argyle Diamond Mines
stage. Limited, to Stephen Brennan and Damien Hersant in
particular, for the opportunity to have been involved in this
7 CONCLUSIONS interesting project and for their permission to publish this
technical paper.
The "alternate" mining method option for Argyle
underground mine design combines three bulk mining REFERENCES
methods (Block Cave, Sub Level Cave and Core and Shell)
to allow for a high recovery of the ore resource and a rapid Hersant, D, 2004. Mine Design of the Argyle Underground
build up in production. Project, Massmin 2004, Santiago Chile.

622 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Design of the Grasberg
block cave mine
Charles Brannon, Manager, Underground Planning,
Timothy Casten, Senior Manager of Underground Planning,
Mark Johnson, Senior Vice President and Chief Operating Officer,
Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.

Abstract
The Grasberg Block Cave (GRSBC) Mine will be the main source of mill feed after the Grasberg Open Pit has been
depleted in 2014. When the pit is finished in 2015, the district-wide underground ore reserves will be on the order of 1.7
billion tonnes, of which the GRSBC mine comprises 874 million tonnes at a grade of 1.0% Cu and 0.8 g/t Au.
Development of the access adits was initiated in 2004 in order to access and develop the GRSBC mine in time for the
open pit completion. This paper summarizes a study undertaken on the GRSBC to confirm the viability of the mine
project and to gain approval to commence with the long lead-time access development required.
Block cave mining was determined to be the most applicable method for mining the deposit, with production rates of
115,000 tpd being considered. The method by which the large footprint (1km by 1km) will be developed and caved is
discussed in the paper. The geotechnical issues, ventilation infrastructure and ore handling systems required to support
the proposed tonnage rates are also described.

1 INTRODUCTION in 1970. The Grasberg deposit was discovered in 1988,

and the district has seen almost continuous reserve
The world-class Grasberg copper-gold deposit is located increases and production expansion through to todays
in the Ertsberg Mining District, in the province of Papua, production rate of about 240,000 tonnes per day.
Indonesia (4o-6'S, 137o-7'E; see Figure 1). The district is in Current operations in the district include the Grasberg
rugged mountainous terrain from 2,900 to 4,200 meters in open pit (200 ktpd ore) and the DOZ block cave mine (40
elevation, with annual rainfall exceeding 300cm. The district ktpd). The Grasberg open pit is the flagship operation in the
has reserves exceeding 2.6 billion tonnes in eight surface district, and when the pit is concluded in 2014, the Grasberg
and underground deposits that contain recoverable metal of block cave mine (GRSBC) will be the primary source of mill
about 54 billion pounds of copper and 66 million ounces of feed. Figure 2 is a snapshot of the projected final Grasberg
gold. pit and surrounding topography, showing the planned
underground workings and estimated cave shape of the
block cave mine.

Figure 1. Location of PTFIs mining operations.

The Ertsberg District was discovered in 1936 during a

mountain climbing expedition led by Dutch petroleum Figure 2. Snapshot of Grasberg final pit and underlying
geologist Jean Jacques Dozy (Mealey, 1996). His detailed block cave mine.
report of the surface geology and descriptions of
outcropping high grade copper skarn mineralization led to This paper is a brief description of the results of the
investigations by Freeport Minerals Corporation in the early prefeasibility study completed on the Grasberg block cave
1960s. Development of the initial Ertsberg open pit began mine. The study concluded that the project was viable; the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 623

feasibility study for the GRSBC was initiated in 2004. A RMR has been utilized to establish mine design
project of this magnitude presents many challenges that parameters (hydraulic radius and ground support) for the
need to be fully explored before development begins in GRSBC . The rock mass rating, at the 70th percentile of the
2008, and many of those challenges are discussed in this populations, is "good" for the Development Levels, the lower
paper. fifty meters of the mineable zone, and for the central Kali
intrusive.
2 GEOLOGY, HYDROLOGY, & RESERVES In general, primary fragmentation of the GRSBC will be
coarse, with more than 76 percent of the tonnes being in
2.1 Geology blocks greater than two cubic meters. The secondary
Grasberg is a porphyry copper-gold deposit with many fragmentation curves indicate that at greater than 250-meter
similarities to other porphyry deposits of the region column heights, 23 percent of the tonnes will have a volume
(MacDonald and Arnold, 1993). The geology is typical of greater than two cubic meters.
subduction-related arc systems formed at plate tectonic The estimated hydraulic radius required for sustained
collisional boundaries. Calc-alkalic intrusive bodies are caving is 33 meters. Rock burst potential does exist and will
preferentially emplaced at intersections of major cross be evaluated in more detail during the feasibility study.
structures into tightly folded Tertiary-Cretaceous sediments. Assumed draw rates range from 0.13m/day during the initial
The Grasberg Igneous Complex (GIC) is a multi-stage 100 meters of column height, up to 0.30m/day at greater
dioritic intrusion about three million years old. The than 200m of column height.
intrusions are emplaced into the center of a volcanic breccia The overall technical risk due to wet muck is thought to be
complex about one kilometer in diameter that flares near the relatively low, particularly for the early years of mining. The
surface. predicted coarse in-situ grain size for Grasberg should
A central intrusive phase forms a +/- 100 meter-wide inhibit significant wet muck, despite the relatively high
septum of poorly mineralized rock that cuts through the volumes of predicted passive groundwater inflow. However,
otherwise roughly cylindrical GIC, resulting in a horseshoe- communition of the HSZ, fines from adjacent open pit
shaped ore footprint in plan view. overburden stockpiles reporting to the cave, or secondary
The mineralization is dominated by chalcopyrite although fragmentation of limestone derived from pit walls may
bornite becomes more significant with depth. The eventually report to the drawpoints and present a wet muck
mineralization extends more than 1,600 meters vertically, issue.
from the 4,300 meter elevation at the original surface to at Immediately adjacent to the GRSBC is another 500-
least the depth of 2,700 meters. Width of the mineralization million tonne block cave reserve, Kucing Liar (KL). The KL
ranges from about 200 meters to over one kilometer. deposit has an extraction level some 220 meters below
Copper and gold grades are highest near the center of the GRSBC. One of the major issues for Grasberg in the next
deposit, adjacent to the low-grade core. phase of study is how to best manage the interaction
On the margins of the GIC is an irregular zone of massive between these two massive caves.
pyrite with minor magnetite and chalcopyrite, termed the
Heavy Sulfide Zone (HSZ). This zone is up to one hundred
meters thick and is related to a mineralizing event that post- 4 ACCESS TUNNEL DESIGN
dates the main GIC. Portions of the HSZ are included in the
block cave reserve. The extraction level is designed at the 2,820 meter
elevation. The primary access to the mine will be via twin
2.2 Ore Reserves adits, each eight kilometers in length, that will be
The diluted mineable reserve established for the developed from surface at the 2,600 meter level (Figure
prefeasibility study is 874M tonnes @ 1.0% copper, 0.8 g/t 3). The tunnels are named the Ali Boediardjo (A.B.)
gold, and 2.9 g/t silver (as of January, 2004). The reserve Tunnel system. Due to the long lead-time for
was established using the PC-BC block cave planning development of the A.B. adits, development was initiated
software. PC-BC simulates the block caving process and in early 2004 so that the adits could reach the base of the
produces a predicted mined tonnes and grade, including mine by 2008 when block cave mine development is
estimation of "toppling" of pit wall material into the cave scheduled to begin.
(Diering, 2000). The cut-off grade was roughly 0.90% The adits will be fitted with an electrically powered rail
copper equivalent (value of gold and silver calculated as haulage system that will deliver manpower and materials,
copper percent). and haul waste for the planned mining operation. The adits
will also provide reliable gravity drainage of groundwater,
2.3 Hydrology ventilation, and service and maintenance lines.
The passive inflow to the cave is predicted to peak at
about 17,000 gpm, at the time of ultimate cave and 5 MINE DESIGN
cracklines, and in particular when the cave has broken
through the HSZ into surrounding karstic limestone. Direct The mine is scheduled to begin development in 2008 and
precipitation into the cave comprises approximately 7,000 will be accessed via the A.B. adits. The mine will be a
gpm of the total; the remainder is primarily from major mechanized block caving operation with a planned peak
structures or certain limestone units susceptible to karst production rate of 115,000 tonnes per day. Undercutting is
formation. initiated in 2014, peak production is forecast by 2019, and
closure estimated in about 2037.
3 GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES
5.1 Level Description
The average uniaxial compressive strength of the ore is The extraction level (2820m) is based on an "El Teniente"
about 110 MPa, with variation in values depending on style of layout, used previously in the Ertsberg District at the
mineralogy and alteration between 70 and 140 MPa (Srikant now-exhausted IOZ mine. Spacing of the panels is 35
and Nicholas, 2003). The principal in-situ stress is in the meters with drawpoint spacing of 20 meters (Figure 4). The
northeast direction and corresponds to the regional current mine layout is a very large footprint with a diameter
structural geology (about 50 MPa). The principal horizontal of about one kilometer (694,000 m2) and contains nearly
stress is twice the overburden stress. two thousand drawpoints.

624 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 In order to develop and mine this size of footprint, the The caving concept basically sections the undercut
panels and drawpoints are broken down into five horizon into a series of identical pillars that are blasted or
manageable sections about 260 meters wide. Each panel "wrecked" using the surrounding development drift as
section contains an orepass and a vent raise, located in expansion void, rather than the open cave. Pillar size has
adjacent pillars. Extending the drawpoint through the been set so that two pillars are equivalent in area to a single
drawbell to the next panel allows the creation of an open drawbell. The room and pillar undercut removes the swell
access and can be used as a short-term fringe drift. mucking requirements, as the undercut drifts themselves
The sections allow for an LHD to access both orepasses are used as the expansion void for the blast.
located North and South of the section. This improves The major and minor apex are the same height with this
tramming efficiencies, with the longest tram being 140m. It plan, which helps ensure connection between drawbells.
also adds in the flexibility of a back-up orepass in case one This geometry aids sequencing and scheduling because the
is down for repair or maintenance. undercut is blasted in drawbell-shaped sections rather than
A flat, room and pillar undercut system is planned in incremental rings. Furthermore, the blasting process is
(2840m); headings will be directly above and parallel to the simplified. A series of 32 near-horizontal holes are drilled
extraction level panels. Crosscuts are parallel to the into the pillar from the crossover, and then charged and
drawpoint drifts but offset by 10 meters so that they lie on blasted laterally to the open undercut drift. An expansion
top of the drawbell minor apex (Figure 4). void in the cave is not required to be mucked open and an
The service level (2790m) provides intake and exhaust initiation raise is not needed. Some cleanup of blasted
to the undercut and extraction levels and is the primary muck is required but an ongoing campaign of swell mucking
ore handling level. The rail haulage system has four is not required.
haulage lines that run under the orebody in a northwest The drawbell will be mined out once the undercut has
orientation that match the section divisions on the passed by a minimum of a single drawbell ahead and the
extraction level. The lines gather into a northeast- bell is clear of abutment stress. The excavation method
trending fringe drift that runs over the coarse ore bin consists of a portable Alimak nest and climber that is used
dumps. Two intake and two exhaust drifts parallel the to drive a 2.0m by 2.0m vertical raise 13.5m long. Once the
haulage lines (Figure 5). raise is in place and secure the drawbell will be drilled and
a mobile emulsion charging unit will be employed to load the
5.2 Caving bell and fire the round. Variable density emulsion and
The mine will utilize an advanced undercutting system. electronic detonators will be used to fire the bell in a single
Expected draw column heights average 460 meters, and shot.
every method must be employed to protect the integrity of Undercutting is initiated in 2014; active drawpoint
the extraction level drawpoints. A room and pillar advanced production is initiated in 2015 after the open pit has ceased
undercut is proposed for the mine. Lateral crosscuts are operations. Maximum drawbell opening rates are eight
driven over the top of every minor apex. The narrow drawbells per month; maximum draw rates are 0.20m per
undercut removes only a narrow opening (4.0 m) between day. The plan assumes that the cave will be developed in
undercut level and cave back (Figure 6). two separate areas simultaneously. The sequence has

Figure 3. Schematic perspective view of Grasberg block cave and AB access adits.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 625

 Figure 4. Undercut and extraction level layout, showing vertical position of
undercut relative to extraction drifts.

Figure 5. Schematic layout of GRSBC extraction level and service level.

Figure 6. "Room and Pillar" advanced undercut concept.

626 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 7. Generalized undercutting concept, split into two- Figure 8. Cross Section; extraction and service levels & the
year increments as indicated. orepass/vent raise configuration.

been designed to maximize grade and minimize dilution The loaded trains will dump the ore into one of three
effects from the toppling of the pit material. Figure 7 shows coarse ore bins near the main fixed facility area. Separate
the generalized undercutting sequence, by two-year feeders will draw from the three ore bins and deliver ore to
periods, utilized for this study. one of three 60" x 89" gyratory crushers. Crushed ore is
pulled from the crusher discharge bin over an apron feeder,
5.3 Ventilation onto a transfer belt, and delivered to the first leg of the main
The GRSBC area will be supplied and exhausted with air conveyor system. Ore is conveyed approximately three
via primary intake and exhaust drifts. These drifts will portal kilometers to the mill stockpiles.
close to adits that access existing development at
elevations of about 3,000 meters. Four main intake and four 5.4 Production/Development Simulation
exhaust drifts, each sized at 6.8m square, are required to Simulations utilizing the Arena software program were
facilitate the total estimated airflow of 1,755 m3/s required performed to confirm production capacity, production and
for the mature mine. Details of the proposed ventilation secondary breakage equipment requirements, ore haulage,
system are in the MassMin 2004 proceedings paper by and requirements for the AB adits to handle all development
Duckworth (2004). activities. The results to achieve a daily production rate of
Airflow is delivered and exhausted via connecting raises 115,000 tonnes per day produced the following
from ventilation service drifts on the 2790m service level. requirements:
This allows the full width of the footprint to be segmented 45 operating LHDs
into five separately ventilated zones. The undercut level will 864 active drawpoints
be discretely ventilated via two ventilation drifts to be driven 16 low hang-up drills
across the undercut level prior to caving. 26 non-explosive breaking units (Commando/Boulder
Buster)
5.4 Ore Handling 4 haulage trains consisting of 24 cars of 20 tonnes per car
Ore is delivered to the haulage level by a series of 4.0m Three 60" x 89" crushers
diameter bored raises; the material will pass through the
grizzly, with a 1.0m opening, to the haulage level. The The simulation runs incorporate the fragmentation
raises can serve either as ore passes or as intake and predictions for the mine, to include in the production
exhaust during their life. The concept is to be able to swap simulations drawpoint hang-ups as well as drawpoint
raise functions during the mine life of the panel, allowing a oversize. Estimated frequencies of hang-up or oversize
worn ore pass to be quickly converted into a vent raise and events simulate secondary breakage activities. Maximum
the vent raise to an ore pass. Figure 8 illustrates the numbers of equipment are allowed in a panel drift at a given
concept. The ore passes are monitored over their life, and time, and interference with the LHDs is taken into account.
when wearing becomes excessive the orepass will be Similarly, the rail haulage was simulated to confirm
switched over to the vent raise. production capacity. Although there are additional
investigations required to further evaluate and optimize
Rail haulage was the system selected for ore handling of design of the rail haulage system, the model shows that the
the operation. The system will operate on a two-way shuttle required tonnes per day production capacity can be
scheme with empty trains running into the end of rail line achieved.
under the orebody and then reversing back towards the
crusher station. With the side-loading chute configuration 6 SUMMARY
the trains can be loaded in either running direction. Rail
cars are bottom-dump ASEA-type, 20-tonne capacity units. The mine plan as currently developed is based on current
Split dump points allow multiple cars to load into one of technology; many of the design parameters are based upon
three coarse orebins. experiences gained during successful development of the

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 627

DOZ block cave mine. Grasberg clearly has the footprint McIntosh Engineering Inc., Hydrologic Consultants Inc., and
size and the column heights to sustain production rates of others.
115,000 tpd or higher. However, it is recognized that the The permission of Freeport-McMoRan Inc. to present this
actual construction, operation, and cave management of a paper is gratefully acknowledged by the authors.
single mine with those dimensions presents numerous
challenges that must be thoroughly explored during the 8 REFERENCES
feasibility phase.
The Freeport operation will enter the underground-only Diering, T, 2000. PC-BC: A block cave design and draw
era with the completion of the Grasberg open pit in 2014. control system. Proceedings MassMin 2000, Brisbane,
The development that has begun in 2004 on the A.B. adits (Ed: G Chitombo), 469-484. Australasian Institute of
will provide the gateway to the major underground Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne.
operations. The Grasberg block cave will be the flagship of Duckworth, I, 2004. Preliminary ventilation design for the
the underground era. Freeport will continue to strive to Grasberg block cave mine. Proceedings MassMin 2004,
improve the mine design and district-wide development plan Santiago, Chile.
so that the future of the district carries on the tradition of MacDonald, G D, and Arnold, L C, 1994. Geological and
mining excellence and engineering achievements that have geochemical zoning of the Grasberg igneous complex,
been trademarks of the Ertsberg district in the past. Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, 50 (1994): 143-178.
Mealey, G H, 1996. Grasberg; Mining the Richest and
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Most Remote Deposit of Copper and gold in the World, in
the Mountains of Irian Jaya, Indonesia, 384 p. Tien Wah
This paper is a brief summary of the work carried out by Press (Pte.) Ltd., Singapore.
many who have participated in the prefeasibility study as Srikant, A, and Nicholas, D E, 2003. Geotechnical Design
well as in earlier precursor studies. In addition to Parameters for the Grasberg Block Cave. Unpublished
contributions from many of the underground technical staff PT Freeport Indonesia document produced by Call and
at PT Freeport Indonesia, significant input was provided Nicholas, Inc.
from Crescent Technology Inc., Call and Nicholas Inc.,

628 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Combined open pit underground
operation at El Teniente:
facing a new challenge
Octavio Araneda O., Resources and Development Manager, Patricio Yaez U., Mine Engineering
Superintendent, Patricio Vergara L., Chief Long Term Mine Planning, El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
El Tenientes Business Plan, a new strategic and long term view of resources development was defined. The work was
based on a scenario analysis having as input Codelcos mission and vision and some key strategic aspects regarding
the mineral resource base, the current reality of the mine, and future possibilities of development.
The process, that started analyzing several expansion alternatives, ended selecting an option combining both open pit
and underground caving operations as the best long term option to capture value. A 100 years old full underground
mining complex has now to face the challenge of raising an Open Pit mine. The paper presents the overall process, the
final plan and discuss some challenging issues.

1. INTRODUCTION Today, the ore is processed both in Coln, concentrator

located 10 km from the Mine at elevation 1980m and with a
Codelcos mission states the search for maximizing the capacity of 104,000 tpd, and in Sewell, the old milling plant
economic value of the company in a long-term perspective. situated 1 km from the mine, at elevation 2200m, and with a
Additionally, one of the most demanding strategic objectives capacity of 23,000 tpd. Copper concentrate is delivered to
imposed by the current Administration is its decision to Caletones smelter, where copper anodes and fire refined
double the value of the Company by year 2006 in copper are produced.
comparison with the results from year 2000.
To achieve this particular objective of capturing value, the
identified resources presented the most attractive potential.
Clearly then, El Teniente pretends to raise a plan that
maximizes, under accepted risk assessments, the
profitability of its main asset, the deposit, known as probably
one of the biggest copper deposit in the world.
A process named the "Business and Development Plan"
was then established, formally an intense strategic exercise
to find out the best route to capture most of the deposits
value.

As a primary goal, this means to set up a plan allowing the

Division to increase mine output, and to reach it in
accordance with the current development plan under
construction (PDT) but also with the production
commitments engaged in the current Base Case.
Figure 1: Location of El Teniente.
2. GENERAL OVERVIEW

El Teniente, one of the 5 Divisions of Codelco Chile -the 3. GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES
Chilean state-owned company-, is situated 80km south of
Santiago and 44 km (Figure 1) up to the Andes, and it El Teniente is one of the largest known deposits of
comprises mining, processing and smelting facilities. porphyry copper in the world. The main rock types of the
At El Teniente over 1,100 million tons of ore have been deposit are: Andesite (3 per cent), Diorite (12 per cent),
mined out during almost 100 years of mining. Today the Dacite (nine per cent) and Breccia (six per cent).
mine has begun an expansion program driving the Copper mineralization is set around a subvertical
production from 100 Ktpd to 130 Ktpd of mineral. intrusive pipe of breccia named "Braden" that
This plan, the El Teniente Development Plan (PDT), appeared once the mineralization process was
precises that during 2004 the mine is to produce 127 Ktpd completed. This intrusion moved apart some of the
of mineral, i.e. around 450 Kt Cu per year, becoming one of original volume with copper, creating a sort of
the biggest underground copper complexes of the world. backbone to access the mine.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 629

 As a result from this, mining at El Teniente has historically The "planned" column correspond to the result from the
followed a mining pattern around the pipe, where the former planning instrument in a 25 years exercise: an
infrastructure is built in (offices, maintenance garages, lifts, instrument designed for budgeting and control more than
etc). See Figure 2. value creation. Because of its limitations, it could only
capture 18% of the economic potential and didnt provide a
correct assessment on the companys value.
From previous figures it becomes clear that El Tenientes
deposit is an invitation to growth in mine production. In this
sense, the expected result of this process is to declare a
new strategic road map, to direct exploration needs,
engineering decisions, technological innovations and
expansion investments while transferring its opportunity
cost to current operations.
BDPs first step consists in finding mutually excluding
scenarios focused in creating value at different risk levels.
Preliminary economic evaluations are computed with almost
no capital restrictions and with special flexibilities regarding
the technological basis and the engineering status of
projects. A risk assessment is then also required in order to
provide Head Office with a value at risk estimation.

The overall BDP process from the scenario generation to

the final decision is schematically shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2: Underground mining sectors and projects

Identified in situ resources at El Teniente account for

almost 80 million tons of copper plus some 13 million
additional in tailing dams and remaining broken ore from the
caved zone. Tables 1 and 2 present their distribution
according to JORCs.

Table 1: In Situ Resources

Measured Indicated Inferred Total

Mtons Ore 1,463 3,097 8,344 12,903

% CuT 0.89 0.71 0.54 0.62
Mtons Cu 13 22 45 80

Table 2: Tailing Dams and Caved Zone

Measured Indicated Inferred Total

Mtons Ore 17 32 1,823 1,878

% CuT 0.54 0.63 0.71 0.71
Mtons Cu 0.1 0.2 13 13

4. BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN PROCESS

The Business and Development Plan (BDP) is a new

planning instrument aiming to estimate Codelcos value Figure 3: The BDP Process
under a long term perspective. It is basically a new, less
restrictive, view on the resources available and focused on Selection from the different scenarios is realized by a
getting out most of its potential. Head Offices team of experts, in a Corporate perspective,
and finally proposed to Codelcos Board of Directors who
The following table (Table 3) shows El Tenientes in situ finally takes the decision on which scenario to concentrate
resources vs. planned reserves. efforts.
The selected scenario is then refined and some
restrictions are applied related to the engineering basis and
Table 3: El Tenientes In Situ potential
reserves category requisites. Finally, a plan and a definite
economic evaluation are provided including:
Identified Economic Planned
- Ore reserves and mineral processed
- Ore grades, capacities, and metallurgical recoveries of
Mtons Ore 12,903 7,500 1,100
the concentrator, and smelter
% CuT 0.62 0.83 1.03 - Total production by product
- Investment profile over time, depreciation and
Mtons Cu 80 62 11
amortization

630 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

- Costs by business, process, activity and major equipment 6. EL TENIENTES 2004 BUSINESS
fleets AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN
- Operation cost by element: HHRR, materials, fuels, The finally selected scenario for El Teniente corresponded
electric power and services to a combined open pit underground operation pushed at
- HHRR profile, payroll personnel and third parties its almost maximum capacity with current planning
- Incomes parameters. Figure 6, shows a graph with sectors grouped
- Productivities and Performance indexes as in:
- Prices and Tariffs
- Others AT8 : Sectors Above level Teniente 8
BO : Broken ore
5. SCENARIOS GENERATED NL : New Level, below Teniente 8
OP : Open Pit
Five main scenarios were generated as part of El DL : Deep Level, conceptual planning continuity of
Tenientes 2004 BDP process. Figure 4 summarizes how the deposit
they were conceptualized.

Figure 4: BDP Scenarios

Figure 6: Plan selected as El Tenientes BDP
Scenario 1 is the Base Case scenario, the former long
term plan available for El Teniente. It is conservative by It is a long term plan with a focus in the current expansion in
definition, since it keeps the current expanded capacity of progress (PDT) in the first years. Intermediate expansions area
130,000 tpd over time. then based in the use of broken resources (remaining of past
Scenario 2 considers a marginal expansion using only mined out sectors), investments in two additional mining sectors
underground mining and reaching the limits of the current plus marginal expansions coping current infrastructure capacity
infrastructure capacity. (railroad, Colon concentrator). Finally, expansions that allow
Scenario 3 (and its variants) was based on the boosting the overall mine capacity are a whole new panel (2014)
possibilities given by an underground expansion through a in addition to an open pit operation (2016).
brand new panel, reaching its maximum capacity.
Scenario 4 (and its variants) explores the potential of a Selection was based on the following criteria:
combined underground and open pit mining strategy. Plan according to the huge amount of resources available
Scenario 5 is similar to scenario 4, but in a context of Mine capacity offering economic returns capable to afford
maximum capacity for both mining methods. investments
Variants in scenarios 3 and 4 differ basically in the kind of The diversification of the mining methods provides the
reserves included, technological basis and operational and opportunity to have flexibilities
geomechanical risks. Scenario lets the Division in a good position facing future
The relative economic evaluation of scenarios is shown expansions
in Figure 5: The choice of having an open pit is still a reversible
decision: resources can be mined underground
Value creation according to Corporate goal to double the
value of the Company.

The scenario is also attractive because:

The open pit project is planned only starting in year 2016,
being very conservative regarding the current engineering
phase of the project and its geological information
Without compromising the short term of the plan, the
scenario sets a clear guideline in terms of long term
strategy
Finally, it is almost a fact (according to external and
internal engineering judgment), that the open pit project
will improve during the next engineering phases

The open pit project is expected to be in the north-west

side of the deposit, letting the east and south side too
Figure 5: Economic Evaluation of Scenarios underground mining.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 631

 Figure 7 shows a plan view with the underground Interaction in certainly another of the most challenging
sequence and the open pit. It is clear the degree of aspects of the plan: first among underground sectors, but also
interaction between both, also that an adequate sequencing between the open pit and underground operations. Sequencing
becomes a critical issue in planning. was treated initially under a heuristic approach, however the
complexity of the problem, and the fine-tuning required, forced
the need of having it treated in a more detailed way. A four
dimensions model was set up based in the 3D subsidence
angles defining active caving zones and its evolution in time
(fourth dimension). The model, works based on the output from
the underground planning and allows to easily constructing
actives caving volumes using any market design and planning
software. This allows checking the validity of the overall
sequence and eventually introducing changes whether in the
underground or open pit operation. See Figure 8.

Figure 8: Dealing with Open pit and Underground

interaction at a specific year

On the overall planning aspect, it becomes clear that by

giving a better estimate on the Divisions value, the BDP
Figure 7: Open Pit + Underground sectors should allow better decisions in terms of the opportunity
costs involved. In this case, it appears indeed very attractive
7. CHALLENGING ISSUES to have the open pit starting before year 2016 trying to
capture its value as soon as possible. If this is to be planned
Challenging issues regarding the open pit project may be then we would see an increase in interaction which will
grouped into three main families: information, interaction probably cause to plan a smaller overall plan capacity, but
and planning. The first one involves general requirements of nevertheless returning a still higher value. The challenge
information needed for raising a mining project. The second being to have it around year 2010, exercises will be started
one is related on how to keep a combined operation with this year, for the 2005 Business and Development Plan
underground panel caving sectors. Finally, and as a third but process.
more general aspect, the expected benefits of having such
a project make it attractive to have it planned before year ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2016.
The quality of the resources involved in the open pit is The authors are grateful to all their colleagues of the
indeed a matter of challenge. Especially the first years of the Superintendence of Mine and Metallurgy that helped them
plan: broken ore from past mining, reserves in special during the development of this process. Also, the authors
"mining difficulty" zones (due to accesses, material from the want to acknowledge the permission given by Division El
Braden pipe, loose material from the alluvial zone...etc.). In Teniente to publish this technical paper.
comparison with the rest of the deposit, the area involved in
the open pit lacks -in quantity- of important information. An REFERENCES
aggressive exploration campaign, was proposed in order to
improve the knowledge in geology, geomechanics, Crorkan, Araneda, et al. Caso Base 2003, Codelco Chile
geotechnics, water management, waste dump alternatives, Divisin El Teniente. 2002.
infrastructure position and also environmental issues (to Codelco, Corporate guides for Mine Planning: PEX
establish a base line). Process. Internal document CODELCO, 2003.
Among these, one special issue is related to the quality Codelco, Procedimiento de Estimacin de Riesgo PEX,
(grades, recoveries) of the depleted caved zone that is Codelco internal document, 2003.
included in the plan. This broken ore is the remaining left Skewes, A et al (2002), The Giant El Teniente Breccia
from past underground mining and, up to now, has always Deposit: Hypogene Copper Distribution and
been treated in a very conservative manner: just as waste in Emplacement in Society of Economic Geologists, Special
the case of the open pit. A special drilling campaign is Publication 9,2002, p.299-332.
expected to give detailed information. Meanwhile, planning Metlica Asoc, 2003.Estudio Material Quebrado Mina El
exercises based on a better assessment on its copper Teniente.
content and aiming to see the impact on the open pit design NCL, 2003.Proyecto Rajo Teniente, Ingeniera
will be conducted. Exploratoria.

632 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Going to an underground
(UG) mining method
Sergio Fuentes S., Director, Metlica Consultores S.A., Chile

Abstract
Recently, underground mining methods have been analyzed by some open pit (OP) staff people, mainly because they
are anticipating the end of the economic life of those operations in the near future. Block caving is one of the lowest cost
underground mining methods and can compete with some open pits. It is a natural substitute mining method for open
pit because of the high production rates, levels of mechanization and of course the cost level that can be achieved.
Underground mining presents more technical risks that open pit method, with the possibility of events such as air blasts,
rock bursts, hang-ups etc. These risks can be quantified and managed in a rational, technical and reasonable way. This
paper briefly describes some key issues regarding block caving, some basic information requirements, cost trends,
potential production capacity, management issues and the expected evolution of some techniques that could improve or
solve some of the main technical constraints of the method.

1. INTRODUCTION

If we have an open pit operation and we do not visualize

the final pit in the medium term, e.g. 5 to 15 years, some
basic question appears over the planning area, such as:
How many years in advance we have to consider an
underground mining configuration? or,
Why we have to evaluate an underground mining method
in an early stage of the open pit planning or production?
Or,
Is a crazy idea to analyse UG mining 10 years in advance
of the final pit achievement?

These are some of the most common questions feelings

or statements that we could "feel" the first time when we
discuss the point about open pit to underground transition.
Indeed, people reactions are commonly quite magnificent
and with some kind of aggressiveness about this idea.
In the following section it is briefly described our
experience and approach managing those issues.
Figure 1 Open Pit & Underground Resources Configuration
2. FIRST EMOTIONAL SHOCK

Traditionally, the decision making process in the open pit

planning, does not take into account the opportunity cost
associated to the underground exploitation of the remainder
resources left by an open pit design.
Standard methodology considers sequential push back
evaluation, identifying the expansion that maximizes the net
present value (NPV) of the design.
In most of the cases, an asymptotic trend of the NPV is
demonstrated in the final expansions. As an example, this
could be because the economic weight of the waste removal
is not considered by undiscounted outputs from moving
cone valuations.
If we take into account the economical potential
associated to underground resources (see Figure 1), the
final pit can be significantly reduced if an additional Figure 2 Open Pit versus Underground, Break Even
expansion of the pit can not generate large enough NPV Analysis
than the financial effect of an underground exploitation
displacement trough the time (see Figure 2 ).
The first time this kind of analyses is carried out, the This effect can be named "First Emotional Shock", and
economic impact and mine planning consequences can be the entire organization involved in the decision process,
impressive and shocking. The life reduction could imply that begins to look for problems or good excuses to delay further
there is no time to start with an underground project. analyses.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 633

3. STRETCHING THE TIME

Usually, until this time a break even analysis (OP versus

UG) has been carried out using a primary approach for the
underground exploitation with big uncertainties within the
UG project basis. We called it "Diagnosis Study", where the
mine planning team begins to optimize the OP designs,
modifying production schedules, investment profiles, etc.,
searching better options for open pit planning and
consequently improving the economic performance of the
expansions.
On the other hand, the mine planning team and the entire
organization start configuring a strong navigation chart for
the UG project, where some main topics are:
Ore reserves estimations.
Geotechnical characterization for UG purposes.
General UG mining method definition.
UG production rate searching. Figure 3 Chilean Block Caving Mines, Total Cost Trend
Material handling questions.
Preproduction time required estimations. costs of these outsourced operations represented almost
UG production ramp up approach. half of the total mining cost.
Subsidence and UG mining sequence. If there were proper geometric and geotechnical
OP & UG interaction. conditions, this cost trend suggests block/panel caving is
Mechanization and automation. the best choice as mining method.
Working time effectiveness.
Human resources. 5. BLOCK CAVING CONSTRAINS
Capital expenditure constrains. AND VULNERABILITIES
Environmental.
Today, we can remark that main constrains and
For sure, there are many more not mentioned topics in weaknesses of this mining method are related with
this brief list. However, the issue here is to introduce the geotechnical considerations, such as:
importance and sense of urgency at the business Caving induction and progression.
administration level, not avoid right and proper managerial Fragmentation and block size distribution.
decisions. Induced stresses over mine infrastructure.
Dont worry, we have time! It is a common statement when Rock mass strength capabilities.
we see some years in front to start an UG project under Dilution behaviour.
these conditions. But usually "some years" are not enough
to develop proper and certain analyses in this matter, mainly If we consider high preproduction capital and time
when it is necessary to collect and define base information required to start with production, we can find from
for UG purposes. economical point of view some additional risks associates
Stretching time is a common attitude hoping to find a with block caving. Even though, massive exploitation
better option for OP mine planning, and it is a valid and implies some reduction in the ore grade fed to processing
possible situation, but this searching does not justify to plants, this situation permits to mine out low ore grades
stop important decisions about further UG related because of unit mining cost reductions achieving high
studies. productions rates . Planning and design for those marginal
mineral resources (low grades ore) implicitly involved
4. BLOCK CAVING AS FIRST OPTION greater economic risk, especially when the prices of metals
mined were depressed.
Some of the biggest open pit mines worldwide will be Finally, considering the mining method change the work
achieving their final pit limits during the next 10 to 15 years force skills adaptation must be carefully analysed, planning
(Metalica, 2002). Block/panel caving will likely enable these the training requirements and calculating the productivity
operations to continue achieving a high production rate and projections associated with the new system. Indeed, these
low costs. two factor wrongly combined could produce catastrophic
A review of the literature indicates that the first block results in cost, productivity and finally, profitability.
caving mine was the Pewabic in Michigan USA at the All that constrains and vulnerabilities generate a risky
beginning of the 1900s (Peele, 1927). heaven sense compared to open pit mining, usually
This mining method has evolved from total cost close to 7 inducing reactive planners behaviour about changes of the
US$/t down to 4 US$/t during the last two decades (see current mining method.
Figure 3).
One of the most important technical aspects in cost 6. MINIMIZING THECNICAL CONSTRAINS
improvement has been the evolution from an ore grade
selective approach to a massive exploitation, increasing Getting good enough knowledge of the rock mass
cave draw control while avoiding as far as possible any characteristics, such as geology, geotechnical,
increased dilution in the material produced. i.e. improving environment, ground water, etc., could make the difference
regularity of the drawing surface instead of selective minimizing risk and uncertainty of the engineering
production from individual draw points to keep ore grade as assumptions to manageable levels.
high as possible. . Additionally, new techniques such hydraulic
Those major planning changes allows mining layouts preconditioning, blasting preconditioning or a mix of both,
modification and changes in management criteria, such as are gaining knowledge and expertise within block/panel
outsourcing of preparation and development operations due cave miners, transforming and adapting rock masses to our
to variable preparation requirements trough the time . The purposes (Chacn, 2002).

634 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Rock Mass Preconditioning research field, is one of the Finally the change of the strategic position in the market
most impacting research areas for block caving purposes is an important additional factor, while the most probable
because of improvements on material handling and caving production scenario is that a large open pit with large fine
induction conditions. Indeed, some of the modification copper production will achieve smaller output scale in terms
achieved with those techniques, almost avoid most of the of production. That situation introduces drastically changes
geotechnical constrains and vulnerabilities above in the relative strategic positions in the market,
mentioned. Some, industrial test shows quite good results, consequently we could expect some cost impacts because
favourable changing rock mass conditions over the material of this already changed strategic position.
to be mined.
This mix, using hydraulic and blasting preconditioning 8. CONCLUSIONS
techniques, it seems as the most successful combination,
significantly reducing hang-ups and consequently, The economic final pit is usually closer than we think.
improving productivity of the active area. Also, cutting Reactions against break-even analyses are usually found
infrastructure reparation cost, due to reduction of stability in an early stage of OP-UG studies.
problems, shall be some other advantages associated with Open mind of the entire organization is the best way to
this preconditioning implementation as standard in hard find a proper and profitable transition from OP to UG
rock mining. mining.
An important consequence of successfully rock mass Underground mining using block/panel caving appears as
preconditioning shall be continuous material handling as first option in the transition of actual large open pit mining
much as possible. Indeed, this aspect could sustain to underground.
important mining cost reductions increasing profit in low ore Rock mass preconditioning appears a good guideline of
grade exploitations. research and development, contributing significant
improvements in block/panel caving mining.
7. ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT TOPICS A successful rock mass preconditioning, suggests
important improvements in material handling in
Other important topics, previously mentioned, cannot be block/panel caving designs.
underestimated. Those could introduce higher levels of Several non technical aspects, such as work force
uncertainty than the technical variables. training, environmental constrains, etc., must be deeply
When we are going from open pit mining to an analysed in primary stages of the transition studies.
underground method, it is necessary to develop and If we consider the long time needed to start up with an UG
implementing a reengineering process over the entire project, OP limit taking into account UG opportunity cost,
structure of the mining business, taking into account new should be frequently analysed along the mine life.
expertises, skills, risks, process controls, etc., generally
speaking, appear new border conditions to introduce in the REFERENCES
organization.
For example, if there is no correction or cleaning of Chacn, E., (2002). Pre-Acondicionamiento de la Roca
environmental liabilities associated with open pit operation, Primaria en Codelco Chile, Seminario de Innovacin
it makes possible the introduction of high no (under) Tecnolgica en Minera, Mayo 2002, Santiago, Chile.
estimated costs conditions into the projected results over Fuentes, S., (2003). Planning Block Caving Operations
the future underground operation estimations. with Metal Price Uncertainty, MSc(Eng) Thesis, Queens
The analysis and definition of the real choice to make a University, Kingston, Canada.
proper personnel searching and selection, and then the Fuentes, S., and J. Cceres, (2003). How Improvements
training programme associated, etc., could be an important in Block Caving Method and Costs Have Impacted in Final
risk factor that could imply success or fail of the project Pit Definition, 2003 CIM Annual Mining Industry
projections. Conference & Exhibition, Montreal Canada.
Also, proper configuration, programming and Metlica S.A., (2000). Anlisis de Lmite Rajo
management of the preproduction development Subterrneo, Internal Report.
(preparation), while a high level of simultaneous Peele, R., (1927). Mining Engineers Hand Book, John
requirements are needed to achieve the goal in a short Wiley & Sons , 2nd Edition, New York, USA, Vol. 1, pp 721
period of time, is an issue and could imply a huge -727.
uncertainty of the profitability of the project.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 635

636 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 17
Mine Operations
638 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 The Application of new underground
mining technology and sound systems
engineering principles to develop a
cost-effective solution for the Finsch
mine block 4 ore management system
Danie Burger, Mining Systems Manager, De Beers Finsch Mine
James Oosthuizen, Account Manager, Sandvik Mining and Construction RSA (Pty) Ltd.
Brett Cook, Project Manager, Mine Automation Department, Sandvik Tamrock Corporation
Japie Visagie, Divisional Project Engineer, De Beers Finsch Mine

Abstract
The capability to excel in the acquisition or development of products, services, systems and processes has become vital
in the global, competitive environment. This is true not only for the young, breakthrough industries but also for the
traditional, mature industries.
To be world-class, the critical business function of system/product and process development needs to be given high
priority in order to ensure optimum performance at reduced operating and support cost. This includes, amongst others,
the use of a formalized system product development and acquisition process.
This paper describes the systems acquisition engineering process followed during the development of the Finsch Mine
- Block 4 Project, Ore Transportation System (OTS).
Furthermore, it addresses the business and production management requirements of the block cave operation in terms
of the effective and sustainable management of the ore body, utilising the OTS as a part of the overall Ore Management
System (OMS).
The paper also describes the conceptual trade-off study methodology and selection model utilised to define the preferred
OTS concept together with a description of the selected system configuration for the Block 4 Project. The selected system
implementation and commissioning strategy together with the systems operating and support concepts are also briefly
highlighted. The paper concludes with a generic systems overview and description of associated benefits of the key
technologies that make up the Integrated Ore Management System..

1 DE BEERS FINSCH MINE OVERVIEW

Finsch Mine is situated approximately 165 kilometers

west of Kimberley in the Northern Cape Province of South
Africa. (Figure 1).
The Finsch kimberlite pipe is a near vertically sided
intrusion into the country rock, the latter consisting of
dolomite, dolomitic limestone with chert bands and almost
pure lenses of limestone (Figure 2).
Exploitation of the kimberlite pipe commenced in 1964
utilising an open pit mining method. Approximately 120
million tons of kimberlite ore was mined from the open pit.
Underground operations commenced during the latter
part of 1990. The underground ore body is divided into
mining Blocks 1 to 5. (See Figure 3). Each block terminates
at varying depths below surface as 350m, 430m, 510m,
630m and 830m respectively.
Blocks 1 through to 3 are being exploited via a modified
blasthole open stoping technique. Blocks 1 and 2 were
mined out while Block 3 is nearing depletion in 2007. Figure 1: Geographical Location of Finsch Mine
Blocks 4 and 5 are planned to be extracted utilising
mechanised block caving mining methods. Block 4
underground infrastructure development is well underway resource is in progress already aimed at improved
with production startup planning to commence during the qualification and quantification of the remaining kimberlite
latter part of 2004, while exploration drilling of the Block 5 pipe at depth.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 639

 Figure 4: 61 Level Undercut level layout

Figure 2: Geological model of the Finsch kimberlite pipe

Figure 5: 63 Level Extraction level layout

Figure 3: Cross section of mining blocks

drawpoint development allowed to take place ahead of the

undercutting process.
Block 4 will be mined by means of a mechanised panel Depletion of the Block Cave draw columns will commence
retreat block caving method, utilising an advance once the Hydraulic Radius is achieved in early 2005. The
undercutting methodology. The undercut level of the block production buildup rate will be dependant and to a large
is situated on 61 level (610m below surface). The main degree, be governed by the rate of undercutting as well as
extraction level, trackless workshop infrastructure, truck drawpoint maturity rules. A full production rate of 3.8 Mta is
haulage tramming loop and primary crusher excavation and planned to be achieved in 2007 and this steady state
associated infrastructure are located on 63 level (630m production rate will be maintained until 2011. The production
below surface). from this block will then reduce significantly until the block 4
The slot cutting process required to initiate the resource is planned to be depleted in 2015. To maintain
undercutting process has already commenced in April 2004. production from the underground mine, Block 5 will have to
The Hydraulic Radius necessary to allow the caving process start full production during 2011 thereby ensuring sustained
to commence, ranges between 14 to 18 and this specific production of Finsch Mine beyond 2020.
milestone activity is scheduled to be achieved during the
first quarter of 2005. 2 INTRODUCTION
The undercut tunnels are spaced at 15 m intervals, and
will allow for the mining of an inclined 12 meter high Growth within the De Beers organisation is essential for
undercut profile. The undercutting process is planned to be sustainability and increased market share. New acquisitions
completed in 2009. The layout geometry of the extraction as well as expansion of existing operations such as the
level is designed on a staggered herringbone configuration Block 4 project at Finsch Mine, requires that De Beers
with 30m tunnel spacing and 15m drawpoint spacing. follows a process that produces world class outputs in both
Based on geotechnical constraints and associated tunnel quality and performance. For this purpose De Beers
stability risks, the mining sequence on the extraction level is adopted a formal project management and systems
such that all drawbell and associated infrastructure will acquisition approach.
require development in the "shadow" of the advancing The main concept of the De Beers Total Project
undercut face with only the extraction tunnels and Management (TPM) and system acquisition process

640 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

involves the effective management of time, cost and quality 3.2.2. Definition and validation phase
of a complex multi disciplinary system applied throughout (Feasibility estimate)
the system life cycle (Figure 6). The whole life cycle of the In this phase the preliminary design of the selected
system is taken into account, from determining the needs system specification is done in order to firm up on the
and requirements, system acquisition, right through to cost estimate of the solution to enhance the certainty
system utilisation whilst always considering the interfaces that the selected solution is the optimal alternative. This
and interactions with its environment. preliminary design includes layouts, general
arrangements, preliminary equipment selections, etc.
During this phase, solutions are engineered to a level of
confidence sufficient to request financial approval for the
project. All equipment, technologies and processes will
have to be specified and costed at a more detailed level.
The Engineering process followed during this phase,
should effectively utilize integrated risk and change
management principles aimed at identifying, eliminating
or adequately controlling any undue risks associated
with the selected system design.

3.2.3. Design and development (Control Budget)

Following the definition and validation phase, the
preliminary design is further developed to a detailed design
level suitable for construction, manufacturing and
commissioning purposes. The deliverable from this phase is
Figure 6: System life cycle model a detailed system breakdown structure complete with
definite time, cost and quality estimation, as well as detailed
This paper aims to explain the system acquisition system commissioning, manufacturing and execution plans.
principles applied to the Ore Transportation System (OTS)
as part of the Finsch Mine Block 4 project. 3.2.4. Construction, manufacturing and commissioning
(detail budget)
3 OTS SYSTEM ACQUISITION PROCESS During this phase the system is constructed as a product.
Items and equipment are manufactured and the system
3.1. Needs identification and requirements product as a whole is assembled, commissioned and
determination handed over to production for use. At the end of this phase
The baseline document of the Requirement Determination the system is signed off as a fully operational system, and is
is a User Requirement Statement (URS), in which Finsch normally associated with the handover from project team to
Mine Block 4 end-user and mining client requirements and operational team (end-users). Continuous stakeholder
constraints, from context requirements through to operating, involvement and management are essential throughout the
support, cost and schedule requirements for the specific entire system acquisition process. This allows a smooth and
Ore Transportation System are covered. successful transition from commissioning to operating and
The URS defines how the resulting system will perform support of the system.
the ore transportation functions. The OTS is required to
collect ore from the various draw points and to convey the 3.3. System utilisation
production ore to a bin at the underground crusher. This During the system utilisation phase, the system is
transportation system shall furthermore receive ore from the operated and supported by the end-user and supplier until
mining development system and convey development ore the end of the system life cycle has been reached when the
to the underground crusher bin . system is disposed of.
The URS provides a point of departure in the search for
the optimal system solution without considering any 3.3.1. Operations and support
specific, preconceived solutions. It does however, include Operation and support is defined as the mature phase of
high level cost ,time and quality constraints within which the the system acquisition process during which the
ultimate solution must be developed and implemented . commissioned system is operated and maintained in its
These constraints are then effectively utilized as baseline intended operational mode. System performance during this
key performance indicators against which the continuous phase continuously needs to be measured against the initial
performance of the system can be evaluated over the URS to ensure optimum operational and end-user
complete system life cycle. satisfaction. Sub optimum performance and end-user
dissatisfaction could negatively impact on the system life
3.2. System Acquisition cycle performance as a whole due to the risk of premature
There are four phases within system acquisition, with the system disposal.
following main objectives:
3.3.2. Disposal and restoration
3.2.1. Concept exploration phase This entails the decommissioning and termination of the
(Pre-feasibility estimate) system from its operational service in the most cost effective
The primary objective of the concept exploration phase is manner.
to identify and explore all potential solutions to the defined
URS. All potential solutions are then evaluated against 4 PARTNERING FOR SUCCESS
defined key performance criteria as specified within the
URS using a selected decision model. By applying suitable Sandvik Mining and Construction (SMC) was awarded the
weighting measurement criteria, each solution can then be role of system integrator and joint partner with De Beers
suitably rated and the best rated solution will be ultimately Finsch Mine in the development, design, manufacturing,
selected. Therefore resulting in a single system commissioning and support of the Ore Transportation
specification being a formal deliverable for this phase. System solution for the Block 4 project.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 641

 SMC applied a systems acquisition process defined by De This solution proved to be the most costeffective with the
Beers Finsch Mine, with specific reference to the following capability of delivering optimum revenue over the life of
scope of work:- mine together with improved draw control and management
Execute all the system acquisition phases of the system of the Block 4 resource. The hybrid OTS will operate within
life cycle, from needs identification, up to the final specified operational and associated underground
commissioning, operation and support of the system infrastructural constraints and will significantly reduce safety
accepting overall system acquisition and performance related risks.
responsibilities. The Block 4 Ore Transportation System (OTS) provides
Perform all systems engineering necessary to address for all the functionality required to operate and supervise an
the entire User Requirement Statement (URS) from high automated LHD and dump truck fleet from a central control
level requirements down to detailed levels. room located on surface - removed from the production
OTS engineering design, manufacturing and area.
commissioning project management responsibilities.
Satisfy all engineering design and development 5.1. Ore Transportation System Overview
requirements. Ore is loaded by LHDs from the 302 production
Procure, manufacture and integrate all system elements. drawpoints located within 11 extraction tunnels as well as
Commissioning of total system. from 5 undercut passes. The LHDs then tram the loaded ore
Participate in operational risk assessments ( Safety and to 4 designated transfer points located on the perimeter of
production related) the orebody after which the ore is dumped into autonomous
Relevant stakeholder engagement trucks (Figure 8) .
OTS system training responsibilities. The trucks then automatically haul the ore and dumps it
Support the eventual system during utilization and phase- into the primary crusher located at the shaft.
out.

De Beers Finsch Mines partnership role pertained to the

following client interface responsibilities:
Project sponsor;
Owner of the needs identification and requirements
specification;
Active partner and system acquisition process
stakeholder;
Operational end-users.
Integrated Block 4 project management responsibilities.
Finsch Mine and De Beers group stakeholder
engagement and management responsibilities.
System operational responsibilities.

5 BLOCK 4 PROJECT: OTS SOLUTION

The Ore Transportation System forms a major component

of the Ore Management System (OMS) for Block 4. The
OMS is an integrated system that will manage the planning, Figure 8: 63 Level - OTS Layout
optimal extraction, reconciliation and effective management
of the Block 4 ore resource. As a sub-system of the OMS, The LHDs selected will be Toro 007s fitted with a 5.4m3
the OTS is responsible for the optimal transport of ore from bucket with a 10 ton tramming capacity. LHDs are operated
production draw points to the underground primary either manually or semi-autonomously depending on the
crusher.(Figure 7) implementation stage. (Figure 9)
The trucks selected will be Toro 50Ds equipped with a
24m3 rock box capable of hauling 50 tons which will be
operated fully autonomously (Figure 9).

Figure 7: OMS system context

Figure 9: Selected loading and hauling equipment
The preferred ore transport system solution selected from
the concept exploration phase was a hybrid system This combination of LHD bucket size and truck box size
configuration consisting of a combination of manual and allows for 4 pass loading.(Figure 10)
automated LHDs and automated trucks.

642 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 which the manual and automated machine fleet will be
supervised and controlled. It will facilitate the viewing and
assignment of statuses and objects in the production area.

5.2.3. Mission Control System

The Mission Control System (MCS) has the following
main functions:
Control of production execution including:
- issuing manual production orders to manual LHDs.
(Manual production orders are received from the PCS.)
- creating and issuing drive orders to autonomous LHDs
and autonomous trucks. (Drive orders are created based
on auto mission lists received from the PCS).
- traffic control (autonomous machines only)
- management of truck loading by LHDs
Figure 10: LHD tipping configuration Supervision of the machines and production area
resources.
5.2. OTS System interfaces Monitoring of the total fleet production.
The following sections briefly describe the sub-systems Monitoring of the fleet condition and status.
below in the operating segment of the OTS and the two User interface for supervision and control of autonomous
external systems that are interfaced to the OTS (As shown LHDs and autonomous trucks
in the figure below).
5.2.4. Access Control System
The fundamental safety concept for the operation of a
hybrid OTS system is to provide an isolated area for
automated machines from manually operated machines and
personnel at all times.

The Access Control System (ACS) conforms to this safety

concept by using both physical and electronic means with
the following main functions:
Control access to autonomous areas including:
- restricting entry;
- detecting unauthorized entry;
- preventing unplanned machine exit;
- providing controlled access for autonomous machines;
controlling the boundaries of autonomous areas including:
- adding/releasing extraction tunnels to/from the
autonomous LHD area
- adding/releasing haulage tunnels to/from the
autonomous truck area
Figure 11: OMS system architecture with OTS system
interfaces Each access or entry point to the autonomous areas will
be equipped with warning signs, zone status indicator lights,
5.2.1. Cave Management System control panels, a lockable gate to restrict entry, a photocell
The Cave Management System (CMS) is an external to detect unauthorized entry of personnel or machines and
system that, from an OTS perspective, has the main also to detect unplanned machine exit attempts. (Figure 12)
function of providing a daily draw order (i.e. daily production
targets and priority for each drawpoint) to the Production
Control System (PCS). This daily draw order takes into
account the undercut face position as well as the drawbell
installation schedules. Each of the drawpoints will receive a
draw order that takes into account geotechnical and mining
related rules. This system also receives information from the
previous shifts production in order to recalculate the
required tons per drawpoint for the next period. This will
facilitate effective draw control.

5.2.2. Production Control System

The Production Control System (PCS) provides main
functions to schedule shift production and to manage the
production execution by manual and autonomous LHDs and
autonomous trucks. The PCS creates Manual Production
Orders (MPO) for manual LHDs that are grouped into a
Manual Production List (MPL) for each machine. The PCS
creates missions for autonomous LHDs and autonomous
trucks that are grouped into an Auto Mission List (AML) for Figure 12: Access gate system configuration
each machine. The system is based on a client-server
configuration and users interact with a PCS client connected Access points consists of 2 components: Access Gates
to the De Beers network. The PCS is operated through a and Transit Locks. Access Gates are used to barricade off
Windows based dedicated graphical user interface with normal access points to the autonomous areas. Access

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 643

Gates are opened and closed manually by mine personnel. 5.2.6. Citect SCADA
Transit Locks are a combination of 2 access gates and are Citect is an external Supervisory Control and Data
used to introduce and/or remove autonomous machines Acquisition (SCADA) system that provides data to the
from the autonomous areas under controlled conditions Mission Control System essential for the monitoring and
whilst allowing other autonomous machines to continue control of the OTS. Data includes:
operating. The inner gate of the transit lock is remotely crusher bin level: ton capacity available in bin - (% level)
controlled whilst the outer gates are opened and closed crusher feed rate (at apron feeder)- (tons/hr)
manually by authorized underground mine personnel. crusher operational status-(running/stopped)
In addition to the photocells to detect unplanned machine u/cut pass levels (tons in pass, high level, low level)
exit attempts, a "hard-wired" safety antenna system will be cumulative crusher discharge tons - (tons)
fitted to the autonomous machines with a tripping device to
be installed at each access gate. The safety antenna The data from the Citect Scada system is integrated with
(Figure 13) will be a pole that is raised when the machine is the PCS which utilizes this data to optimise production
introduced to the autonomous area. When tripped the throughput by monitoring upstream and downstream
antenna will mechanically break the emergency stop circuit resource-related and other operational constraints.
and immediately stops the machine independent of any
communication system. The safety antenna tripping device 6 BENEFITS OF OTS SYSTEM ACQUISITION
will be a steel cable that is suspended at a height sufficient
to trip the safety antenna (i.e. knock it down). The following list summarizes the benefits of applying a
formal acquisition process:
The risks of failing to meet technical performance,
schedule and cost requirements of the project are
significantly reduced.
The step-by-step authorization of baselines protects the
project team, the end-user as well as the stakeholders.
Clear management responsibilities and transfer thereof
are identified during the different phases of the system life
cycle.
Clear statement of requirements upfront.
Traceable and auditable decisions/processes
Formatted documentation and revision tracking (change
control process)
Clear/forced objectives and performance measurement
criteria over system life cycle.
Knowledge capturing and sharing of intellectual capital
Figure 13: Safety antenna tripping device Integrated client/supplier team synergy.

5.2.5. Operator Station 7 OTS BENEFITS

The Operator Station is the location from where the
autonomous fleet is supervised and controlled and is The Finsch Mine Block 4 Ore Transportation System
located in the surface central control room. One of the main provides all the functionality required to operate and
functionalities performed by the operator station is to assist supervise an automated LHD and dump truck fleet from a
and facilitate tele-remote bucket loading of the autonomous control room located away from the production area. It
LHDs. provides the following benefits:
Effective block cave management and control through
automation.(improved quality)
Improved machine fleet utilization: More efficient fleet
utilization results in increased production. (increased
revenue)
Lower operating costs: One system controller is able to
manage several machines.
Lower maintenance costs: Smoother operation and
reduced damage to equipment cut down maintenance
expenses.
Optimized tramming speed : machines are able to
maintain optimized speeds throughout the route in each
LHD and dump truck cycle
Increased safety: The Access Control System protects the
automated production area from both unauthorized
access and machine escape. People are removed from
dangerous underground environment.
Improved working conditions: System Controllers are
located in a safe and comfortable control room
environment which implies decreased occupational
injuries.
Improved production control and monitoring (reducing
stoppage times which results in improved recovery rates).
Realtime production followup and response: Using the
MCS interface, the system controller can easily monitor
Figure 14: Operator station the production in real time.

644 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 By following a systematic and methodological systems not only to provide the OTS system solution on time and
engineering approach to the design and development of this within budget but that it also meets all customers
transportation system, the benefits described in the requirements thereby ensuring full customer satisfaction.
previous two sections would be realized.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8 CONCLUSIONS
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues/partners at
Applying the core principles of high level up-front thinking Finsch Mine and Sandvik Mining and Construction (SMC)
early on in the lifecycle of a project will ensure that the most that have contributed to the development of this system
suitable requirements and solutions are defined and solution. Also, the authors want to acknowledge the
successfully achieved. The correct concept needs effective permission given by the partners, Finsch Mine and SMC to
development, design, manufacturing and implementation to publish this technical paper.
ensure that the process required to produce the final system
solution is guaranteed, reliable and that it meets the 10 REFERENCES
customers requirements and satisfaction.
By utilising these principles captured under the De Beers De Beers Total Project Management System Guidelines
total project management and system acquisition for Project Management.
methodology, effective concept exploration and design have User Requirement Specification for Block 4 Ore
been assured. Optimistic expectations related to the Transportation System, Revision F, 04-06-2003
commissioning, operating and support of the OTS by the System Specification for Finsch Mine Block 4 Ore
end of the year will be successfully executed to the Transportation System, Edition C, 14-02-2003
specified performance criteria. Block 4 OTS-Operating System Preliminary Design
This current focus on time, cost and quality will ensure Report, Revision B, 24-03-2004
that Finsch Mine Block 4 project has the ideal opportunity

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 645

 Visual grade control techniques and
sub-level cave draw optimisation
Perseverance Nickel Mine, Leinster,
Western Australia
Geoff Booth, Senior Mine Geologist, WMC Resources Ltd., Perseverance Nickel Mine, Leinster, W.A.
Ernie Gaspar, Sam Vine, Leanne Noble, Mine Geologists, WMC Resources Ltd.,
Perseverance Nickel Mine, Leinster, W. A.
Scott Dunham, Geology Manager, WMC Resources Ltd., Leinster Nickel Operations, Leinster, W. A.
Glenn Sharrock, Senior Rock Mechanics Engineer, AMC Consultants, West Perth, W. A.

Abstract
Mass mining methods such as sub-level caving (SLC) require rapid and flexible grade control procedures. With SLC
operations often suffering from erratic waste ingress, intensive inspection regimes are now widespread. Throughout its
entire underground development, WMCs Perseverance Nickel mine at Leinster, Western Australia has relied exclusively
on inexpensive visual techniques to quantify grade. With ring designs ranging from ~4000-5000 tonnes, SLC rill
inspections are carried out initially at 300 tonne increments. However, as dilution increases such examinations may
occur more frequently, sometimes as often as every 50 tonnes. Repeated practice has shown that during a 5 minute
inspection, hanging-wall and footwall dilution can be estimated confidently to within 5%. Simultaneously, fragmentation
sizing and brow wear (break-back) factors are also easily recorded. Subsequent dilution draw curves can be used to
depict and ultimately predict waste and ore surging. Such data forms the basis for real-time 3 dimensional flow modelling
and can aid in delineating remnant pillars and dilution pipes. In the absence of any structured rill sampling programs,
cumulative (yearly) SLC metal reconciliations lie at or near 99% of published design estimates. Accordingly, the creation
and application of rigorous visual grade estimation protocols at Perseverance have become key to optimal SLC
performance.

INTRODUCTION

WMCs Leinster nickel deposits lie ~380 km north of

Kalgoorlie, Western Australia and 15 km north of the
Leinster townsite. They are confined to south-eastern
sections of the celebrated Agnew-Wiluna greenstone belt
which is traced locally over a 200 km length and from 5-50
km in width. Acknowledged as the largest komatiite-hosted
Ni orebody in the world, the Perseverance Class 1 deposit
comprises a main disseminated (~2%) Ni sulphide lode,
together with lesser massive (1A and F2) sulphide lenses
located at or near the base of a thick (>700 m) ultramafic
flow. These are further enveloped by an extensive sheet of
weaker, Class 2 (~0.6%) Ni mineralisation. The
Perseverance mine operates a large sub-level cave (SLC)
and lesser open stopes with annual production rates of
~1.9Mt Its cumulative pre-mined resource was estimated at
~50 MT grading at 2.2%Ni for 1MT of total metal.

1 SLC GRADE CONTROL

Current production and development (face-mapping) levels

at Perseverance require a 3 person geotechnical crew and
coordinating geological assistant for 24 x7, 365 day per year
coverage. Shifts are 12 hours long and are based on a 7 day
: 7 night: 7 day off roster, for a 21 day cycle. Geotechnicians
nominally undergo 6 months prior training at a advanced Figure 1: Aerial view of Perseverance Pit
technical college, receiving a degree in mining geoscience,

646 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 3: Visual calibration estimates vs actual %Ni for a
typical geotechnician (0.9% Ni cutoff)

Figure 2: Perspective view of Perseverance Nickel Mine

looking northwest

while the assistant role is filled by a junior geologist. To facilitate

data collection, dedicated underground offices were built at
Perseverance for the grade control team with three separate
computer stations for geotechnician, geological assistant and a
roving duty / senior geologist.
Grade control training at Perseverance commences with
shift geotechnicians calibrating their visual assessment of
sulphide percent against analysed development face and / or Figure 4: Shift geotechnician estimating waste ingress
rill samples. Repeated comparison of these results permits during a rill mark-up.
progressive refinement of visual acuity, ensuring minimal
ore:waste misclassification (Figure 3: - 1 error from 42 percentage estimation charts / diagrams are employed to
estimates). assess respective waste concentrations.
Once qualified in visual estimation techniques,
geotechnicians progress to rill inspections (Figure 4).
Designated crosscuts are accessed via light vehicle with 3 DILUTION MONITORING
permission from a given production bogger operator. To AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
avoid climbing the rill, a single ~13T ore bucket is left at its
base. Prior to inspection, this separate ore parcel and rill are Cross-check inspections using nominal double blind
watered down. Visual inspections then follow, requiring a techniques enables verification within and between crews.
minimum of 10 rocks to be split for lithologic confirmation. Significant changes for a given drawpoint within a 24 hour
Commencing at 300T mining intervals, rill checks period trigger automatic re-assessment by senior staff. On
increase in direct proportion to waste ingress or extracted rare occasions, a bulk sample may be collected for analysis
tonnes, often to as low as 50T by the end of ring. During an as a final arbiter, however significant differences with
idealised 5 minute inspection, a given drawpoint is primary visual estimates are rare. Sizing by class frequently
examined for focuses rill inspections on bimodal (0.4m and/or >2.0m)
1) Waste type, including hangingwall and footwall waste ingress. Coarser hangingwall material often results in
percentages significant hang-ups that exacerbate dilution entry.
2) Ore and waste fragmentation for <0.4m, 0.4-1.0m, 1-2m Distinctive draw characteristics, favouring specific sides of
and >2 m intervals. a given rill are symptomatic of such hang-ups. Careful
3) Brow wear of active ring monitoring of coarser size fractions remains a useful aid in
4) Hang-up presence by type (ore, waste; high,low) both understanding and predicting metal loss (Figure 5).
5) Noteworthy draw characteristics including rill profile. On-line data processing at Perseverance permits
automatic grade and dilution draw curve generation for a
Ore : waste discrimination at Perseverance is facilitated given drawpoint and ring (Figure 6). With the unpredictability
by rock colour and angularity contrast. Lighter and harder of SLC flow and dilution entry, careful deliberation by all
hangingwall gneiss and rounded footwall ultramafic are staff, particularly towards the end of design tonnes, is
readily differentiated against a darker and more often required to reduce or ideally eliminate ore:waste mis-
angular ultramafic ore. Once singled out, traditional classification.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 647

 5 PILLAR RECOVERY AND FLOW MODELLING

Periodic overbogging or recovery of remnant pillar

material from multiple levels is a common feature
throughout the history of Perseverances SLC. Consistent
with independent as opposed to interactive draw, some of
these tonnages have been extraordinarily large, peaking at
>61kT for a single fired ring. While over-reliance on
extraction of unclaimed pillars remains highly questionable,
simple accounting techniques can be applied to estimate
likely tonnages as well as probable locations.
In general, ore is readily recovered from up to two
overlying levels (~50 vertical metres) by careful bogging and
grade control. Especially vigilant extraction has identified
markers from greater than 250 vertical metres, retrieved on
designated "clean-up levels". Block models of recovered Ni
metal (tonnes x grade) for individual rings are also useful
indicators of likely recovery positions. In particular, analysis
of N-S long-sections across the Perseverance SLC (Figure
7) have proved invaluable when depicting overdraw
Figure 5: Waste size performance bar chart with zone of cyclicity.
interest indicated.

Figure 6: Dilution draw curve with zone of interest indicated.

Figure 7: Recovered nickel block model in long section with

class percentages of reconciled metal vs design.
4 SHUT-OFF GRADES

In anticipation of episodic waste piping between rill 6 RECONCILIATION

inspections, particularly at elevated tonnages, increasingly
higher shut-off grades are imposed to lessen the potential for On an annualised basis, metal reconciliation at
significant hangingwall or footwall ingress (Table 1). The tonnage Perseverance illustrates the benefits of comprehensive
limits used are derived from nominal interactive draw zone (IDZ) geostatistical interpolation, com-paratively homogeneous
geometries, together with the upper limits of blast designs. in-situ mineralisation and meticulous grade controllership.
Additional precautions include lower mark-up tonnages between In 2003, the cumulative claim grade (1.93%Ni) was 97% of
inspections at specified lower grades (e.g. 50t at or below its mill actual equivalent (2.00%Ni). When combined with
1.1%Ni). Such simple precautionary techniques have facilitated their respective tonnages, total claimed and reconciled
creation and preservation of a formal dilution blanket at nickel metal at Perseverance were within 0.01% . This level
Perseverance. They have replaced prior practises of attempting of accuracy greatly facilitates mining factor generation,
to bog through waste or bogging for prolonged periods at or near which in turn allows for improved mine scheduling and
a lower economic cut-off grade. reserve estimation.

7 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Table 1: Shutoff grades vs tonnage extracted
Ongoing automation of grade control techniques are
Tonnes 0%- Forecast Forecast- >Design planned for the Perseverance mine which include:
tonnes Design tonnes tonnes 1) Hardware upgrades with the introduction of superior
ruggedised tablet PCs for data collection.
Shut-Off 0.9%Ni 1.2%Ni 1.4 %Ni 2) Software upgrades with improved links to corporate
Grade intranet reporting and site production tracking systems.

648 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

3) Digital image capture of all rills with links to a formal have formed the basis for SLC draw optimisation,
photographic database for further cross validation of significantly impacting on the bottom-line economics of
grade and fragmentation estimates. this world class orebody.
4) Comparative flow modelling using a variety of available
software packages (CAVE-SIM, REBOP). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

8 CONCLUSIONS The authors are grateful to all their production

colleagues at Perseverance and in particular Paul Edsall,
Mature grade control techniques developed at Diane Whibley and Reuban Campbell for their extreme care
Perseverance embody the collective efforts of geological when performing underground geotechnical duties,
and mining teams over a period of several years. Visually frequently under trying physical circumstances.
based systems allow for rapid and flexible estimation,
requiring minimal sampling intervention during the
extraction process. Extreme care in dilution monitoring, REFERENCES
supported by automated data analysis and the
implementation of variable shut-off grades has greatly Booth, G.W. Cervoj, K, and Dunham, S.F., 2003. New
facilitated ore-waste classification. Straightforward book- Frontiers in Research on Magmatic NiS-PGE
keeping together with block modelling of recovered Ni Mineralisation, 10-14 February, 2003, Centre for Global
metal have been used in concert to help reclaim pillar Metallogeny, School of Earth and Geographical Sciences,
remnants. When fully integrated, such rigorous protocols Crawley, W.A., pp. 69-72.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 649

 A suppliers aspect on drilling for
mine preparation and production
Gunnar Nord, Construction Adviser, Veikko Subanto, Business Line Manager,
Atlas Copco Rock Drills AB, Orebro, Sweden

Abstract
Being a supplier of a tool like a passenger car, a dishwasher or a drill rig for mining purposes you are always interested
in how the customer is making the best use of it. In case the customer is not using the full capacity of the tool the
manufacturer of it is losing some incentive for improvement of the tool. The tool shall be like a race horse, always
maximising the output and care for its well being.
In this paper a suppliers aspects on how the mine owners are using their drilling equipment is given. The major focus
is on utilisation and availability of drill rigs. A minor part is spent on the quality of the drilling with respect to drilling
accuracy. A few cases will be described without revealing the identity of the mines.

INTRODUCTION equipment up to reason-able high figures. The reasons and

measures taken are analysed and discussed.)
Each mine is a unique entity. That means that no mine is
equal to any other due to differences in a number of
conditions. Those are for example the geological and Utilisation and Availability
geophysical properties of the ore and parent rock, the depth, The term utilisation needs to be defined before the
the climate, the staffing, local regulations, salaries etc. Still discussion can start. The most obvious definition is as
there are some conditions that are similar for most mines follows. Here all hours available is considered and that
and one of those is to get as much as possible out of the means 24 * 365 = 8760 hours per year.
investments that have been made. By that is meant that the
added capital and running cost for a purchased tool, which Utilisation is calculated by the following
might be the investment, should be as low as possible
expressed as expenditure per ton ore handled by the tool. Utilised Hours
The time for activity of the tool is expressed as [Total Utilisation % = ------------------------------------------- x 100%
available time]* [Availability of the tool]* [Utilisation] Available Hours - Downtime Hours
In discussions with customers the term availability is
extensively discussed, while the term utilisation is almost Utilised Hours = Time the drill rig is in operation
neglected. Whereas the availability is commonly recorded Available Hours = Days in Month x 24 hours
close to 0,9 (90%), the utilisation often reaches 0,3 to 0,6 Downtime Hours* = Planned Service + Repairs
(30 to 60%). Sometimes it can be expressed much higher. + Breakdowns
Certainly the utilisation is a matter of the customer and not
the supplier. Being an outside observer aware of the great * Not included is hours spent on repairing damage i.e.
potential for savings by improving the production conditions, rock falls, misuse and abuse.
the paper conveys experience gained at various mines
having reached variable success in squeezing the utilisation In many mines the utilisation is calculated on the time the
up to a figure well beyond 0,6. miners are really employed in the production process
Utilisation is not the only factor to be considered when omitting the time for lunch breaks, transport to the rigs etc. .
aiming at an optimised mine operation. The relationship This means that the available hours get considerably less
between excavated waste and excavated ore is also of than 24 hrs per day. As mine production is best governed by
utmost importance. Not so much for the mining operation a steady and continues flow of ore to the concentrator to
itself as for the concentration plant which might have to minimise capital tied up in intermediate storages, all 168
process excessive waste. The waste factor can be improved hours per week have been considered as total available
by use of the technology that traces the boundaries between time. In the automotive industry this minimising of storages
ore and parent rock. is called "just in time production".
The geology, the size of the ore body and the mining There is nothing new or unique in discussing the
method coupled with the blasting technique rule the utilisation of the mining equipment, but the aspects will differ
frequency of boulders. Boulders are a pain in the mining depending on who is considering the issue. Problems will
activities as they block extraction points and ore chutes. arise when the utilisation is unsatisfactory. Investing in new
Dismissal of the boulders is therefore recommended as equipment could be an option in order to increase the
early as possible in the process. Drilling accuracy is utilisation.
discussed here. A better drilling accuracy will bring the It should be stated however that even a supplier of drilling
amount of boulders down. equipment realises that the drilling equipment does not
(This paper presents in general terms a number of mine represent the most costly item in the total process. In most
projects having different success in raising the utilisation of cases it is the investment and running costs of the

650 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

concentrator and mine infrastructure that is the ruling factor. By arranging service contracts with a supplier the
The mining activities have to follow the budgeted flow of ore. availability as well as the utilisation is now rising for the drill
This means i.e. that for an established production only 2,4 rigs and is presently running at xx%.
drill rigs (with a rated utilisation of 40%) will be needed. Here It should be obvious to the reader to realise that in most
there are two options: either to employ three rigs or to raise cases it is much easier to boost the output of a rig by better
the utilisation to 48%. In the latter case the risk exposure is discipline in the mine and thus push the utilisation up
higher as a major failure of one rig may cause a severe instead of going after the few percent possible to gain on
reduction of the flow of ore for one or two days. This availability.
example is picked to clearly show that improvement of the
utilisation has effect on the economy. In many cases it is not Long hole drilling for mine production
just the cost for the rig that is involved, as the crews may be Production drilling by use of the so called long hole drilling
allocated to the equipment. technology is in principal facing the same problems as face
Consequently this also results in low utilisation of the drilling by struggling to maintain high utilisation and
drilling staff. Utilisation is discussed below for a number of availability. The blast holes are normally much longer and
actual mine cases. The mines have on purpose not been larger compared to those for face drilling. There is also more
designated. drilling from the set up and moving between the set ups is
often only a couple of meter. As the penetration rate is
Mine production with Boomers considerably lower it would here be possible to achieve a
An example on the monthly fluctuation of the utilisation is higher utilisation. But is this always the case?
shown in the figure below. In this case the mining company It has been pointed out above that the number of rigs will
used storages to ensure a constant flow to the concentrator. never exactly match the demanded output. If the demand
The drilling tool in this case is a two boom Boomer used for for blast hole production just exceeds the capacity of one
stoping and face drilling. long hole drilling rig with availability 0,9 and an utilisation of
the same magnitude (0,9) the installation of the second rig
means that utilisation will drop to 0,45.
If the demand for rigs increase from 2 to 3, the drop will
be down to 0,60 and from 3 to 4 the drop will be down to
0,675.
The message with this discussion is that no matter that
you possess the skill to run the production rig at 90%
utilisation, the actual figure will be lower as the demanded
production only rarely matches the capacity of an even
number of rigs. Figure 2 supports this discussion.

Figure 1 Utilisation of a two boom Boomer for mine

production year 2002 to 2003.

For the mine production activity two Boomers were used

and they had very similar utilisation on a month by month
basis (see Figure 1 above). The average utilisation over 24
months for the two rigs was not more than 40 percent and
with an availability of 94% there might be a chance to
reduce the number of rigs in production from two to one.
However it is unrealistic, as the mine might never expose
itself to a situation relying one Boomer only. A major
breakdown of a single rig would cause a complete stop of Figure 2. Schematic evaluation of what can be reasonable
the ore flow. utilisations depending on number of drill rigs employed
This mine is located in a high salary region and the miners
are not engaged in the drill rigs only. They will participate in In reality the actual situation is not as simple as these
other mining activities and consequently no salary costs are calculations show, as there is often not just one type of rig
tied to the idle time of the rigs. In this case there is not much available on the market. Therefore the worst case as
to do to improve the situation for the utilisation. described is unlikely to occur. Furthermore, the mine might
Another mine located in a low salary region differed consist of a number of orebodies spread in such a way that
very much from the above case with respect to transport between different sites will be very time
utilisation and availability but had fairly similar orebody consuming. Therefore it could prove profitable to leave the
geometry. The availability of the drill rigs was low and rig idle for some percentage of the available time.
instead of squeezing that percentage up, the mine There are examples of mines that seem to be properly
management acquired more drilling units. The mine operated and their figures match the figure above. Two such
became owner to an excessive fleet of drill rigs, whereof mining operations are shown below. In both cases there are
many could not be used due to shortage of parts. This production rigs located in mines with large ore bodies which
resulted in lack of priority in making each drill unit means that transport of the drill rigs constitute only a very
running. The product of availability and utilisation was small share of the time. In the second case the estimated
consequently as low as 15 to 20%. transport time is added on top of the bars (Figure 4).

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 651

 In both cases the availability is typically 95%.

Figure 5 Case, utilisation of a Simba based on working all

available time (8760 hrs/year)

Figure 3 Utilisation of three Simbas for one year of cases used in this presentation which are picked randomly
production. Month 37 represents the average for all 36 indicate that availability is not a factor that will have a major
months. impact on the production output. Occasionally, the
availability can be low but over the year the figures rarely go
below 90%. These are commonly in the range of 90 to 95%.
In two of these mine cases having reliable figures, the
utilisation has been plotted versus the availability. The result
is exposed in figure 6 and 7 below.

Fig 4 Exceptional good utilisation performed by a highly

automated Simba working in a large scale mine. The red
part of the bars covers transition to a new position. The
drops in July are due to vacation time. Month 25 represents
the average for the 24 months.

Other examples show less successful records and one is

exposed below. It should be stated that the mine on purpose
only uses some eighty percent of all available time. But even
so taking this reduced input of working time the utilisation is
extremely low. The mine management is aware of the fact
that they have too many Simbas employed (see figure 5).
Consequently the figures should be adjusted upwards on
average by some 2 to 3 percent. The drill rigs are also
employed for drilling cable bolting holes and that type of
drilling is not included in the bar-chart. By including this
activity the average utilisation will raise from 28 to 33
percent. To some extent there is a self-explanatory reason
for the low figures and that is that there are long distances Figure 6 a, b Case 1 Availability and utilisation monthly
between the extraction sites. The mine is fairly spread out results from mine production with Boomer plotted in the two
and fewer rigs would mean more transport of the drilling figures above.
units.
The availability of the rigs is in the magnitude of 95% on
a yearly basis. The monthly fluctuation is only marginal.
What conclusions can be drawn from these bar-chart
illustrations? The utilisation can be very high especially
when dealing with large orebodies where transports are
short. For production drilling using Simbas, the utilisation
can run as high as 85%. In mines with minor and scattered
ore bodies the utilisation will certainly be much lower.
Figures below 50% are rarely possible to explain by other
reasons than lack of focus from the mine management.
Being a supplier we are often faced with accusations that
low production is caused by unavailability of the drill-rigs
due to shortage of parts or poor maintenance. The mine

652 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 the side rock as untouched as possible. Therefore it is
important to locate the holes where they are meant to be.
The first question is then: "do I know where I want the holes
to be?" The answer to this question would in general be
"yes". However, if we give the ques-tion a second thought
the answer may instead be "not always".

Measure While Drilling

In many cases the boundaries of the ore body are not
established in detail. The available ore geometry
information is often limited and incomplete, based on sparse
diamond core drilling and/or available geological mapping.
It is a fact that the less information available, the simpler
and smother the ore geometry and ore boundaries appear
Figure 7 a, b Case 2 Availability and utilisation monthly to be. From production and planning point-of-view,
results from production drilling with Simba plotted in the two uncomplicated ore maps are often very appreciated, and
figures above. therefore not often debated or questioned. However, the
major problem with such maps is that it does not coincide
It is obvious that there is a very poor correlation between with reality. This type of insufficient agree-ment between
availability and utilisation at least when utilisation is as high reality and the maps used for mine- and production planning
as 90% or more. Possibly it can be said that the availability is rarely identified or evaluated since production targets
goes up when the utilisation goes down but the correlation (tons) as well as mining layout geometries still can be met.
is weak. Nevertheless, it still means that an undefined amount of
The conclusion from the presentation of the results above money is spent in absent incomes and higher costs.
is that generally the availability for drill rigs both for mine One solution to this problem is of course better and more
production and mine preparation is in the range 90 to 95%. detailed geological data as basis for ore maps and
These figures are valid also for older rigs being properly production planning. This can be achieved only by denser
maintained all the time from start up. Between 5 and 10% is sampling of data, but the traditio-nal way to extract data, by
consumed by maintenance whereof roughly half is diamond core drilling, is expensive and will therefore hardly
preventive maintenance. It is difficult to cut this figure as it be used for massive sampling of ore bodies. Methods to
represents only 8 hours. What is left is only 0 to 5% and this extract information directly from production drilling would
time will be consumed by randomly occurring faults during exclude the cost, for drilling the hole, and reduce the sample
operation. Improvements can certainly be made, but there cost to a minimum. A technique to extract rock properties
are no major savings of time to be made by claiming a while drilling is called MWD and it stands for "Measure
higher availability. While Drilling".
In the exceptionally well run mines shown above it is not This technique is a method for collecting data during
possible to squeeze more production hours out of the rigs. production drilling. All main parameters influencing the
However there are a lot of mine cases where a better drilling process, such as penetration rate, feed force,
planning discipline would bring more production hours to the percussive pressure, rotation speed, etc, is recorded at pre-
mine owner. determined intervals along the bore hole. With an adequate
analyse rock mass quality parameters, such as rock
SUMMARY hardness and rock fracturing can be calculated, based on
monitored raw data. It has to be empha-sised that a
A summing up of the discussion above will be done. prerequisite for successful monitoring is that the waste rock
Analysis of a number randomly picked mine cases has been and ore have different drilling characteristics.
made with respect to availability and utilisation based on
monthly recording. In almost all cases the availability was in Major advantages using this technology are:
the range 90 to95%. In all the cases so called preventive Very high data resolution since data is extracted with a
maintenance was practised. It consumes half of the 5 to few cm interval in all production holes.
10% down time due to planned service and repair leaving Very low cost since monitoring of data is conduc-ted
only some 3 to 5% of total for unpredicted repair. Certainly automatically during normal produc-tion drilling.
the availability can be squeezed to a higher percentage but Very low data risk, since monitoring is performed during
this is judged to be very costly. the drilling of the hole, and no instruments have to be
Considering the utilisation of the mine cases the issue is inserted after drilling is completed.
more complex. Large ore bodies where the production calls Minimal disturbance of production. MWD will require very
for multiple long hole drilling units makes it possible to reach limited extra work for the operator.
high utilisation figures like typically 80%. For smaller and
scattered orebodies it is much more difficult to reach high However, many may object that the lay-out of the mining
utilisation figures which seems to be more difficult in face area, stops, drifts etc. is based on other things such as ore
drilling than in long hole drilling. The real low figures as flow, rock mechanics, transportations, machine dimensions
presented above seems difficult to explain. Figures below etc. and cannot be changed or modified based on last
50% are hard to defend unless special cultural habits on minutes information, which is the case for MWD. This is of
working time make it difficult to maintain a 168 hour working cause true to some extent, but we must not forget that this
time per week. It is obvious that mine management that is information, even if it arrives in the latest moment, provide
looking for better produc-tion output from his drilling units information on the economical outcome of the stope or even
should start to look for a better utilisation a single round. The excavation cost must always be
exceeded by the ore value in order to make a profit. If the
Accuracy in drilling ore value is low there is always an option not to blast a
Drilling for mine production and mine preparation is not stope, a round or even some holes in a round. The drilling
just a production issue. It is also a quality matter. The holes cost is always neglectible in relation to the total handling
are meant for explosives, used to excavate ore and leave cost of a blasted round. Also other changes can be made to

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 653

optimise the outcome of the mining operation, see figures interpretation is not always a strait forward process when
below. there is only a marginal geological deviation between ore
and not ore. There are though many cases where the ore
boundaries are more distinct and with relative good
accuracy can be detected by use of the MWD system.
It is surprising that so few mining companies have shown
such a limited interest in this technology when investing in
new drillrigs. No estimates have been made on what the
savings might be if the excavation is done to plus minus 0,2
m instead plus minus 1 meter. However it is believed that
the cost-savings should be in the range of 5% when
considering concentration process as well. This is also
money to go after.

Collaring errors and hole deviation

Above a discussion has been given on the correct hole-
depth in order to minimise losses due to over-break and
under-break of the ore along its boundary with the parent
rock. It is not just the length of the hole that is of interest but
also accurate the hole is drilled. There is nothing new in this
statement but it is worth repeating as there is loss of much
Figure 8 The ore expires a few meters beyond the face, and money due to poor drilling accuracy. This statement is valid
continues to the right. Would you still continue to reinforce for both long hole production drilling and face drilling.
the drift according to the initial mine lay-out?. It is somewhat surprising to notice the little interest that is
paid by most mine management to upgrade their boomers
when old rigs shall be replaced. There are mines that go for
latest technology when they invest in new equipment and
one example will be given. In the Garpenberg mine in the
middle of Sweden two old face drilling rigs used in face
drilling and stoping. They were of the type called DCS which
means direct controlled system and the boom movement
are controlled by manual opening and closing of the
hydraulic valves. The new rigs that replaced the old one
were of RCS type with CAN bus ruled valve activity giving a
great advantages when guiding the drill steel to the correct
collaring position as well as alignment of the feed. The
achievement of the new rigs is exposed in the table below.

Drift size 5,5*5 m and drilled depth is 4,05 m

Pull used to be 3,4-3,5 m but has been increased to 3,9 m
Over-break reduced from 20% to 9% (which means 11 cm
on the radius or 3 m3/meter of tunnel)
Figure 9 A narrow vein type, complex copper-zinc ore,
defined by higher hardness than the side rock. Is the
thickness of the ore enough to cover the excavation cost? Is
it possible to reduce the size of the drift to reduce
development- and side rock handling cost?

Another possibility with MWD technique would be to stop

the drilling as soon as the boundaries of the ore-body have
been passed by the drill bit, without prior information on the
ore geometry. This, of course, means that the drill rig must
be equipped for on-line evaluation of rock properties and
immediate identification of the ore boundary when crossing
it.
Atlas Copco can offer MWD options for many rig types.
Monitored raw data is handled, analysed and presented in
one of our software packages; Tunnel Manager for Boomer
rigs, ROC Manager for the ROC product line and Ore
Manager for Simba rigs. In the softwares raw data can be
analysed and rock mass properties such as rock hardness
and rock fracturing can be calculated. It is also possible to
generate customised defined analyses based on monitored
raw data. In the figure above MWD data have been
analysed and presented in the software Tunnel Manager
Pro.
The MWD system has been on the market for a number
of years. The collection of drill data is easily done when
using modern drillrigs. The information is almost free of
charge once the investment in the rig is done. For sure the Figure 10 Elements of hole deviation

654 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 What is the explanation to this improvement? It is believed Collaring misalignment and in-hole deviation for long
that the whole explanation is in a much more correct production holes play a major role for the blasting success.
positioning of the holes. It is believed that most readers will By success is here meant proper fragmentation at a
realise the profit from the new rigs. reasonable input of drilling and explosives.
In this mining case with short holes only 4 meters the Certainly the drilling equipment can be improved but the
faulty drilling is mainly because of poor collaring faulty owners and operators using the drilling equipment can also
alignment as already mentioned above. When holes are contribute to a better drilling accuracy. A number of reasons
longer like in long hole drilling with Simbas the in hole contributing to poor accuracy have been observed but they
deviation will play a much more important part for the total are difficult to quantify. A too high feed-force has clear
fault of the hole location. What is meant by in hole deviation tendency to make the bit deviate. Some drillers still believe
is explained in the figure below, which actually refers to that a high feed-force will give better penetration. If any
bench drilling. The principals for hole deviation in the difference it is only marginal and what can gained is lost
different types of drilling are though the same. several times due to the increased amount of drill meters
needed to compensate for poor precision. Bonus for the
drillers linked to drill meters per shift is a hazard from quality
point of view. In down drilling the feed-pressure is far from
always correctly compensated for the weight of the drill
string due to incorrect hold back force. This mostly results in
a too high pressure in the bit and consequently a large
deviation of the hole.
Geology will also contribute to the deviation. In picture 11
it is obvious that a systematic error has occurred as all the
drilled holes deviate in the same manner. The explanation is
here believed to be the foliation of the rock mass. It is known
that bedding planes, foliation and joint-sets will affect the
drilling direction as is shown in figure below.

Summing up; "accuracy of drilling"

As supplier of rock drilling equipment we are fully aware
of that the long hole drill rigs need improvement so that the
blast holes can be drilled more accurately. Every step
forward in the development of the rigs will mean savings on
total drill meters as well as savings of explosives. Dealing
with boulder is another problem that will be less costly for
the mine owner. Major savings can also be made from
reduction of over break which mostly will be run through the
concentrator and only generate costs. But there are means
and methods available today that can help the mine owner
to achieve better quality of the drilling. It is believed that it is
Figure 11 In-hole deviations due geological foliation worthwhile to take a closer look at what is available offering
help.

It is obvious that for longer holes that the collaring offset

is playing a much smaller role than in the Garpenberg face
drilling case above.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 655

656 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Chapter 18
Automation in
Mass Mining
658 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Supplier as solution provider
for the mining industry,
Sandvik Mining and Construction
vision of the future in mining
Arto Metsnen, President, Sandvik Tamrock, Finland

Abstract
The mining industry has been through several years of consolidation, which has lead to fewer and larger mining houses.
The competition continues to be hard and the long-tern sustainability is weighed against skills to survive through the
rapidly changing economic cycles. Several massive underground mines are in the pipeline for the coming years.
Investments made are carefully viewed for their lifetime rate of return. In many case this has changed the role of a mining
equipment and service supplier to that of a long-term partner with similar business views and working synergies with the
mining company. Sandvik Mining and Construction, SMC, sees its role in adding value and enhancing the profitability of
our customers business.

1 INTRODUCTION see a future large-scale block caving operation to

manage without comprehensive monitoring and process
We are experiencing an up-cycle in the need of control system and, at some level of automation.
commodities. The demand of various metals and minerals, This sets also new demands towards the suppliers of the
aggregates and building materials is high, by far thanks to technology and services for the operations. Sandvik Mining
the economical growth in the Asian and specifically Chinese and Construction business has lived by the industry upturn
markets. The mines expand their production and new and downturns. Much of our success has been born out of
projects are being opened and it is the high-life for all in the the needs and shared visions with the mining industry.
industry. The natural follow-up of the up-trend is down trend, Sandvik Mining and Construction sales in the year 2003 was
the length and level of the growth in China remains to be 2 billion USD, one third of the mother company Sandvik
seen. Even without China, an increasing need of coal, Corporation. Sandvik Tamrock, Sandvik Materials Handling
metals and minerals will continue in Asia and those new and Sandvik Rock Processing form the operational base for
renewing economies in other parts of the world. The SMC. The importance of service and support can be seen in
uncertainty of the political climate seems to be here to stay the distribution of sales where 67 % is coming from after
and it will keep on affecting the economics and how sales and services and 33% from equipment and project
business is done. sales.
The commodity prices and world demand continue going
through the rapid changes and sustainability with in-built 2 KNOW HOW -KNOW WHY
flexibility continues to be important. One of the
competencies in the game of survival is the level of rate of We define ourselves through the value we add to the
return of the capital invested, the efficiency in which the surface and underground mining industry. This signifies the
available resources are utilised. High resource utilisation is strong focus on ability to combine the understanding of
a starting platform when lower operational costs with higher
rate of return are the target.
The trends both in surface and underground mining
are towards optimised operation, lower costs and
maximised output. Surface mines will look for means of
optimising further the ore to waste stripping ratio and we
will see deeper pits in the future. Underground mines are
established for deeper deposits and increasingly
complex environment. The scale of underground
massive mining has grown to proportions that a few
decades ago would have been unthinkable. Managing
risk has a whole new level of meaning in setting up
massive caving operations and in ensuring that all
operational targets are met.
When the large-scale underground mining operations
are set to compete with the scale and cost of open pit
mining, there is a need to create an environment, which
has a high level of controllability. There is less room for
excess capacity built into the system. The capital
expenditures are carefully reviewed and suppliers Figure 1: Continuous competence building is part of the
selected in long-term partnership in mind. It is hard to SMC culture.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 659

Figure 2: Technical and project management knowledge is Figure 3: Surface mining at Freeport Grasberg mine in
needed for quality service and maintenance offering. Indonesia.

mining processes with the technology know how. Learning secondary breaking solutions which meet the challenging
and innovative thinking continue to be important factors in operational and process needs.
making the mission of improving our customers business Sandvik Mining and Construction offers a wide range of
real. The focus is in the care and development of human underground mining technology. Our knowledge in surface
resources by attracting professionals and supporting mining has much focused on drilling and loosening of rock.
learning. The surface mining trends suggest that more emphasis will
Sandvik invests 4% back into research and development. be put on managing the mine to mill concept as a whole
We need to continue to invest into research and process. Communition is a high energy and high cost part of
development to maintain our position at the leading edge of a mining process. On the other hand, the beginning part of
the core business areas. Surface and underground mining loosening rock, drilling and blasting, represents a fairly low
understanding is the key competency in SMC. We have a cost low energy need portion of the process. What is being
large number of mining engineers in our company globally produced and where are the critical issues bear the notion
today and we hope to attract even more mining of optimisation of the full chain, but mastering the
professionals in the future. fragmentation distribution at the beginning of the process
There is a continuously growing emphasis on training, will save costs in the whole process. Sandvik Rock
service and maintenance in the mines. The success in Processing is a part of SMC and provides solutions for
service business is built in mastering the operating system. comminution of rock to sizeable material for milling, and
The skills of the service provider need to be in technology, thus completes the process from loosening rock to crushing.
logistics, scheduling and project management. The
outsourced service function continues to be a part of the 4 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
daily operation. It is a real test for working together and
showing the value added every day. The mine safety and environmental focus will become
even sharper in the coming years. Not only are the deeper
3 WORKING TOGETHER WITH THE INDUSTRY deposits setting rules for more demanding operational
conditions, there is a more social and public need to
To work together with the mining companies in a continue to demonstrate the safety and environmental
partnership on a global level gives reassurance in matching security of mining. The rule both for mines and suppliers is
the mining company needs with solutions. The need of that safety can not be compromised. The legislation on
creating sustainability in mining in the years ahead will see safety and ergonomics pushes the cost of operation higher
further development of methods and technology. The and new technologies and ways or working are established.
research done in the ICS group has demonstrated that joint Added automation is one way of coping with increased
efforts and close relationships within the industry do support demands for safer and more controlled operations.
quality solutions in difficult issues. Since the operation Ventilation and refrigeration is a high-cost element in deep
eventually will demand technology and support systems, the underground mines. The solutions lay in automation and
understanding of what the industry expectations are is of non-emission approach with fuel-cell technology. Mining
utmost importance. We have been proud participants in the machinery both in surface and underground mining are
ICS and HSBM projects and look forward to participating in viewed as high safety risk areas. This is why suppliers must
the MMT, Mass Mining Technology projects as well. have a strong role in ensuring that the right working
Technology is in a key role in maximising mine output and procedures are followed in operating and maintaining the
the solution need to support the desired outcome. equipment. Close relationship between the supplier and
Much of SMC offering has been initiated from in-depth mining company also ensure the future development of
relationships with global mining companies. The work in equipment safety and ergonomy.
partnership is essential when supplying systems that are
integrated to the mining process. Mine automation system 5 CONCLUSIONS
AutoMine could not have evolved without partners like
LKAB, DeBeers and Codelco. Fragmentation management SMC business lives strongly with the industry upturn and
and the issues round hang-ups, especially in underground downturn cycles. Like the mining industry itself, we also
block cave mines are one example of partnershiping. are searching for means to master this cyclical business
The work done together with Rio Tinto Palabora mine and environment. The consolidation within the mining
Freeport DOZ mine has set the scenes for developing technology suppliers has not been as dramatical as within

660 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the mining companies, merely because there has been There is a need to create an operational environment that is
fever players to start with. The move has been from being ruled by predictability and proactive way of working.
a supplier towards being a partner in value adding and risk Machine data collection systems are available already
sharing. Here the process understanding within today, but the ability to utilise the collected data as
comprehensive process offering and support presence information for future decision making are becoming
sets the rules for future survival. Our successes are born available. More machines are manufactured with in-built
out of the needs and shared visions with the mining intelligence to cope with the new demands.
industry. SMC wants to be the value adding solution and The decreasing human involvement in mines will
technology provider for the surface and underground eventually lead to developing mining methods and
mining industry. processes that will be more suitable for automation. The
In massive mining the need is to be the lowest cost future layout can be better fitted to suit the automated
operator by moving large amounts of material in a mining needs. The discussions between mining companies
continuous manner. The mining profitability is set to apply in and machine suppliers will deepen as the new technology
the changing world economics when, for example, the penetrates deeper into the mining process. There is a need
copper price moves from 2400 USD to 1300 USD per ton. to line up further according to our customers business.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 661

 Mobile equipment resource
management and its optimisation
in an underground process
Tuula Puhakka, Senior Advisor, Mining Business and New Offering Development, Sandvik Tamrock, Finland

Abstract
The repeatability of work tasks and processes in an underground mine is traditionally low. In a study interview, mining
professionals felt that the repeatability of a mineral processing system is between 75 and 100% whereas the repeatability
in an underground process was considered to be 50 to 75%. There is a common understanding that too little attention
is paid to resource management. Mining companies are becoming aware of the improvement possibilities through
improved resource management, which looks at the mining processes in a holistic manner. The distinction of utilisation
is understood often in various ways, which easily leads to the misconception that all utilised time posses the same quality
of the use. Continuous improvement projects direct the change from reactive to proactive focusing on gaining more data
and understanding on what actually happens in the processes.
The current trend on operational optimisation and improved resource management also works towards improved ways
of working and higher rate of return. When the repeatability has been established, a process environment has been
created and outputs of automation are more reliable. This paper discusses the current status of the mobile resource use
and management and ways to obtain repeatability in their operational use.

1 INTRODUCTION with on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 equals strongly

disagree and 5 strongly agree. 20 returned answers (total of
The repeatability of work tasks and processes in an 24 returned) were used to generate these results. The mine
underground mine is traditionally low. The underground professionals indicated that too little attention is paid to
mines are the rock-ore harvesting sites for the mineral resource management (Figure 1, E and F).
processing plants. The large variations in a task outcome
have been explained by the harsh and uncontrollable
underground mine condition, challenging logistic
arrangements and desired individualism. In a mining
industry directed study interview, mining and supplier
professionals we presented with questions on repeatability
and output estimations of various mining processes and
automation.
The need of process understanding and reliable
operational knowledge, to be used for streamlining the
underground processes for automation purposes became
imminent through several mine automation projects during
90s. The Finnish IMI, Intelligent Mine Implementation
project and MAP, Mine Automation Project, both discuss the
need of added process visibility. It was understood that
successful automation of underground processes needed
well-described process descriptions, rethinking of current
mining processes and advanced decision making and
support systems.
The survey was done to add knowledge on how the
industry it self viewed the repeatability and out-put of Figure 1: One result of a survey directed to mining industry
underground mining process and the management of the representatives on resource management. 1=strongly
resources. The survey also had questions on mine disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither disagree nor agree,
automation expectations and on KPIs for performance 4=agree and 5=strongly agree.
measuring.
The questions were as follows:
2 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT A. If the production lacks behind the first option is to add
resources
A resource management and mine work and process B. Mines optimize their material flow poorly before
repeatability related questions were presented to 30 people commencing mining
in the industry. The target group consisted of people on C. Mines pay too little attention to resource management
management level on operations, mine design and D. Mines understand what is the optimised number of
maintenance sectors. The questions were presented as resources needed
statements, which the person could either agree or disagree E. All the mine resources are well utilised

662 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

F. Low resource utilisation is the result of insufficient The information turned into knowledge-system generates
management plans for executing needed corrective actions in the process
or with the resources and suggests possible improvement
The questions did not go deeper into the details of the areas for optimised outcome.
lower utilisation in resources. The practical knowledge of The current mine information of tends to flow differently in
operations indicate that many of the reasons are related to different parts of the underground process. The information
mine logistics (preparation of the site and availability of flows within a task, less between the tasks and less with the
services), availability and compatibility of mining resources total process flow. This supports better task optimisation
and training to utilise them. than the total process optimisation.
In the question on acceptable KPIs for operational The interview of current system outputs stated that the
efficiency in an underground mine, the total resource cost repeatability of a mineral processing and hoisting systems
per utilised % or utilised hour, the resource utilisation % and was considered to be between 75% and 100% (Figure 3).
tones produced per time unit received of the highest marks The output of an underground process of maximum
among the responses. The distinction of utilisation is available was rated down to 50 to 75% with some answers
understood often in various ways, which easily leads to the coming back as low as 5%. Repeatability of one individual
misconception that all utilised time posses the same quality task, long-hole drilling, was estimated between 25 and
of the use. For example in a mismatch situation of loader 100%. The individual machine performance was considered
and truck operations neither of the resources are quality to be 50 to 75% of their capability.
utilised even if the utilisation rates are high. The tones
produced in given resource utilised time are different in
match and mismatch situation and the rate of return for
capital employed changes. Resource management dictates
that concept of right place, right time and right work
description are valid simultaneously for the given resource.
The acceptable loader utilisation was considered as 50 to
75% whereas the acceptable crusher utilisation was 75 to
100%. By accepting lower machine utilisation rate the mine
accepts the lower rate of return for invested resource
capital. The large variation in some utilisation rate
acceptance indicates that also the lower repeatability is
imminent.

3 SYSTEM REPEATABILITY

The development of equipment is ongoing with implanted

intelligence and readiness for improved communication
systems that withstand the underground environment are
setting the basis for on-line process monitoring. Massive Figure 3: Process output estimation. The questions:
amounts of machine functional data can be collected
already today. The challenge is to find the relevant data to A, The repeatability of mineral processing system is %
be turned into information and further to knowledge, which B, The repeatability of hoisting system is %
then could be used for value-added purposes. C, Underground mine out-put is today how many % of
There is a limited amount of software available to be used possible maximum
for holistic resource management in an underground mining D, The repeatability in total underground process is %
operation. Such a system or systems software will have E, The repeatability of long-hole drilling out put is %
relevant data turned to information on all process relevant
resources (people, machines, material, ore), the status of In a low repeatability-works or does not work situation-
the resources and the system (performance, condition, system the system optimisation for best output becomes an
location) the current and expected out-put of resources and impossible task without a deeper look at the reasons behind
the system (related to planned). the non-repeatability. Typical challenges of this type are
related to mine maintenance and service process and ability
to tie them up with operations. The end result is a
continuous work rescheduling. A resource comes with a cost
Process flow-material flow and information flow and has more relevance when utilised to its fullest potential.
The high marks KPI, which is measuring resource cost per
Sub-processes
utilised % or ton also indicates the desire to receive a higher
Information flow

return for investment made.

Tasks performed

D Information flow
D
4 WORKING TOWARDS HIGHER RATE
Total UG-process Mineral processing
PL
OF RETUN IN INVESTED CAPITAL

RR The actual working procedures in mining have not

ore flow significantly changed since the onset of mechanisation.
Added cost deduction in mining
has rather been a result of increased power and more
material being moved than educated and calculated
50% 50-75% 75-100% methods of improving the rate of return of resources
invested.
Detailed description of working procedures and practices
Figure 2: Process information flow are needed as well as linking them with one another in

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 663

adjusting technologies together. Management level interest B, Mine automation needs a process environment to work
in controlling the mining processes has increased with C, Mine automation will process mining
improved information technology and developments in D, Automation allows for fewer mistakes in the system
systems engineering. Mining companies are now more E, Mobile equipment are the weakest link in mine
aware of the improvement possibilities through improved automation
resource management. The objectives include improved
quality, reduced cost, decreased cycle times, increased There is an understanding that higher system
flexibility and improved efficiency together with better social repeatability needs to be established to gain all of the
image. expected the benefits of automation (Figure 5). The
expectation is that underground mining will become a
process through automation

5 CONCLUSIONS

A system that at any given time can give any given result
has little possibilities for guidance and control. The
underground system has not kept up with the technology
change. The improvements in the output have been directly
related to individual machine efficiency increase and less to
improvements in processes. The technology has been in-
built on top of existing systems inheriting all the previous
methods and ways of working. Introduction of automation
underground has been an eye opener for possibility of
improving current out put through processing and systems
engineering. The simplest systems are easiest to automate.
The coming years will see more massive mining systems
with large mobile resource fleets and sophisticated process
solutions. A massive block cave operating with 50 loaders
Figure 4: Mining process control approach; IMI, Intelligent will be based on automation and well-established mine-wide
Mine Implementation project. process control and resource management system. The
smaller and bigger mines with cyclical operations will gain
If in deed the repeatability of underground process is major benefits through monitoring and improved resource
between 50% and 75% the possibilities of improving output management systems.
of any existing mine are huge. Any random approach will not The lower process repeatability in the underground
meet the desired outcome of taking the remaining 25 to system and unused resource potential clearly describes the
50%. opportunities for better rate of return. The current trend on
There is a need to collect data systematically from the operational optimisation and improved resource
resources and ways of working in the current process and management works towards improved ways of working and
turn that into information, which can be used for actual higher rate of return. When the repeatability has been
operational process description (Figure 4). The collected established, a process environment has been created and
data when turned into information reveals the realism in outputs of automation are more reliable. Increased level of
current operation and helps to understand the reasons of repeatability has also a positive impact to mine safety. The
low repeatability. A system that has no acceptable change from reactive to proactive focuses on gaining more
measurements can not be identified, controlled and further relevant data and creating a system understanding on what
optimised. actually happens and what needs to happen in the
processes. The resource management lack of reliable and
timely information for intelligent decision making purposes,
is seen as the main reason to inability to achieve higher
repeatability.

REFERENCES

Baiden GR., Strom RE., Preston CJ., 1997. Mining

automation program, CIM Bulletin 90: 71-77
Baiden GR., Future robotic mining at INCO limited-
1996.The next 25 years, CIM Bulletin 89:36-40
Sarkka, P., Liimatainen, J., Pukkila, J., 2000. Intelligent
mine implementation-realization of a vision, CIM Bulletin
93: 85-88
Puhakka, T., Srkk, P., 2003, 'Process and System
Improvements in Underground Mining', World Mining
Congress, New Delhi 1-5.11.2003
Puhakka,T., 2000, "Optimising Mobile Equipment
Figure 5. Inputs on automation in a mine. 1=strongly Resources in Massive Mining," MassMin 2000, Oct. 30-
disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither disagree nor agree, Nov. 2 Brisbane
4=agree and 5= strongly agree. Raimonaho, J. 2001. Mine-wide communication system,
Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Computer
The questions: Applications in Mineral Industries:181-189
A, Repeatability is needed in underground mining before
automation can be applied fully

664 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Rapid LHD advance using laser
guidance and 3D vision systems for
block-cave mining applications
Roy Jakola, President, Automated Mining Systems, a Division of MD Robotics
Robert Ward, PEng, Senior Research Engineer, Leif Bloomquist, Research Engineer,
Ken Martin, Manager, Mining Applications, MD Robotics

Abstract
Traditionally, LHDs have been operated by miners who are caught in a restrictive cycle which depends on availability
of work faces and on geological and survey guidance. This paper describes the capabilities that Automated Mining
Systems (AMS), www.automatedmining.ca, has developed in the fields of underground vehicle auto-guidance and 3D
imaging technologies. The use of laser guidance, and advanced driving and steering algorithms in a safety critical fault
tolerant architecture has resulted in a safe high-performance automation and guidance system for underground vehicles.
The evolution to autonomous systems utilizing a 3D vision system for real time control while simultaneously creating
photo-realistic 3D models of the geology and surveying of the advancing mining faces is introduced. This evolution
towards rapid advance and flexibility within the existing process will add a new level of value to the autonomous mucking
cycle in block cave applications.

1 A BUSINESS CASE FOR CREATING with the previous generation of automation systems relying
AUTONOMOUS CYCLES IN BLOCK-CAVE MINING on fixed guidance media.
Further advances have been demonstrated using a new 3D
Underground mining brings with it unique challenges. It is imaging technology to record the geology and take survey
a materials handling exercise interrupted by series of volumes and direction while an LHD is at the work face. It will
roadblocks and bottlenecks, in a dynamically changing soon be possible to record geology and survey data without
environment. Block-cave mining epitomizes these human intervention during an automated mucking cycle
challenges as loading patterns change often; there is because of advances AMS parent company, M D Robotics,
frequent inability to remove material from the loading points has made in the field of 3D imaging. When fully implemented,
to surface and often a lack of effective coordination of geological and survey data will be integrated with mine
services to support the process. In essence, underground management databases to allow accurate data to be
mining must succeed in an environment where challenges presented in real-time to technical and management
are frequent, and significant improvements to process are personnel. This will represent an unprecedented degree of
not easy to find. flexibility and allow important process decisions to be made
One area where process improvement is still possible is faster and with better background data.
LHD utilization. Mine production reports continue to show The underground mining industry is therefore at the
that an 8-hour operating shift turns into 4 1/2 hours of threshold of benefiting enormously from autonomous
effective LHD operation. There are many reasons for this, mining/geology/survey work cycles that will improve the
but despite many efforts being made to increase this safety of process, but more importantly, will allow a
number, it seems to defy significant improvement with significant breakthrough in productivity that all mines need
conventional mining techniques. Mines have experimented to remain successful.
with longer shifts, only to learn that the ratio of hours worked
to length of shift is not significantly increased. One 2 INFRASTRUCTURELESS GUIDANCE
exception in favour of 10-12 hour shifts occurs when travel (IGS) MEANS FLEXIBLE AUTONOMOUS OPERATION
time to and from work faces is excessive. Even in this case,
however, operators become fatigued and productivity tends Autonomous tramming of production vehicles has been
to falls away over time. available for a number of years and has demonstrated the
In a recent business case study of an underground economic returns of increased production and efficiency.
block-cave application, creating an autonomous muck Unfortunately, earlier generations of autonomous vehicles
cycle for 3 LHDs showed a 50% improvement in have relied on installed infrastructure (light rope, reflective
operating time per shift, and a corresponding increase in tape, bar codes etc.) to guide the vehicle along
material moved. predetermined routes. This extra installed infrastructure
Autonomous LHD cycles allow machines to operate for represents additional cost for installation and maintenance.
longer periods of the work shift than traditional methods with It is susceptible to damage from blasting activities and rock
operators in the work area. Recent advances in automation falls. It is also extremely inflexible and places restrictions on
technology by AMS also provide the flexibility necessary to the routes an automated vehicle may follow because a
successfully automate LHD cycles within a block-cave mine. continuous guide-path must be established for the entire
Vehicle routes and mucking patterns can now be changed vehicle route. This often means that work crews must move
quickly and as often as necessary to meet changing or install new guidance cues before a route can be traveled
mucking patterns. This level of flexibility was not possible autonomously.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 665

 IGS, as the name suggests, does not require the are discarded, as data beyond that distance is not reliable
installation of a continuous guidance medium. Instead, it or useful enough to be used for guidance.
uses 2D laser scanners to be its "eyes" to follow an RoboScan employs a novel fast algorithm that results
assigned route and avoid obstacles. IGS provides guidance from M D Robotics research into extra-terrestrial vehicle
and control within a strict safety regime utilizing SICK laser navigation. This algorithm quickly determines where
scanners (see Figure 1) mounted fore and aft on the vehicle viable paths exist in the direction of travel. Steering
as the primary sensors. The on-board vehicle controller, commands are sent directly to the vehicle steering
StrongBox, uses IGS to control the vehicle. controller to provide a fast response to changing path
IGS operates on two distinct levels, guidance and conditions. These steering commands keep the vehicle on
navigation. The RoboScan software module performs the a safe trajectory to avoid collisions with walls and
guidance function. The Route Profiling software module obstacles. RoboScan keeps the vehicle straight and
performs the navigation function. parallel to the drift walls when driving along straight drifts.
Intersections are safely negotiated by plotting trajectories
based on Bezier curves.
RoboScan plots Bezier curves using these four control
points:
Center of Scanner (or center of the front axle and center
axis of the vehicle)
Immediately ahead of the vehicle, along the vehicles
center axis, in the center of the desired crosscut.
The center of the desired crosscut.
A point projected to be in the center of the crosscut, 10
meters along the crosscut.

In the case when the desired crosscut is the one straight

ahead, the Bezier curve will essentially be a straight line.
Figure 2 shows a Bezier curve around a right-angle
intersection, but the algorithm handles more general
branching cases as well. There is no requirement for there
to be cross-cut openings on both sides of the drift, and the
cross-cut drift can meet the current drift at any angle within
Figure 1: SICK Laser Scanner and AMS Equipment 45 of the perpendicular. Drifts meeting at shallower
Mounted on LHD angles are dealt with by wall following techniques.
RoboScan sends steering corrections to the Steering
3 IGS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE Controller that interfaces directly to the vehicle steering.
These steering corrections ensure that the vehicle correctly
IGS is comprised of a number of major software modules. executes turns at intersections maintaining safe distances
This is illustrated by the system block diagram shown in from the drift walls.
Figure 2. When no paths are visible, RoboScan signals a controlled
stop. A configurable distance threshold of 10 metres is used
to make this determination. This is the normal mode of
stopping the vehicle at the end of route.

Figure 1 - Infrastructureless Guidance System Block

Diagram

4 ROBOSCAN SOFTWARE MODULE,

THE GUIDANCE HEART OF IGS

RoboScan receives laser scanner data from both the

forward and reverse scanners. It analyzes the data in the
direction of motion to recognise obstacles such as walls and
other vehicles that could pose a collision risk. Scanner
points that are more than 25 meters away from the vehicle Figure 2 - Bezier Curve Path Planning

666 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

5 COLLISION AVOIDANCE MINIMIZES ACCIDENT RISK one for the drive train) of the particular vehicle; constructed
within a MatLab/Simulink modeling environment. A model of
RoboScan performs collision detection by counting the any vehicle may be created based on the manufacturers
number of scanner points within an adjustable distance specifications. The steering model details every major
threshold. If this number exceeds a threshold value, the aspect of the steering mechanics, hydraulic valves,
potential for collision is reported for higher-level software to hydraulic cylinders, linkage geometry and dynamic effects
take action. Because the drift roadbed is not flat nor the due to friction. The drive model details the every major
back uniform, it is possible for the scanner to pick up points aspect of the drive train, engine, throttle, transmission and
from the roadbed or back, which could be incorrectly brakes. Once the models are created they may be validated
interpreted as potential collisions. However, as the vehicle against telemetry data captured during actual vehicle runs in
moves down the drift these points quickly move off the scan a mine environment.
plane. If a viable path exists around an obstacle then The validated vehicle models are used to create suitable
RoboScan avoids collision by following such a path. If no linear model approximations. This is done to simplify the
safe path exists around an obstacle, RoboScan stops the final steering and drive controllers. The model
vehicle. approximations are then compared to the more accurate
It is important to recognise that RoboScan can only avoid non-linear models and adjusted until the errors are less than
obstacles it can see. It is possible for obstacles to exist that a few percent over the expected working range of input
do not show up in the plane of the laser scanners or which parameters.
present a small enough cross section that they could be The steering and drive controllers are based on the model
ignored. For this reason, all operating areas for autonomous approximations. This means that both controllers are
vehicles must be considered as total human exclusion optimized for the particular model of vehicle being
zones unless other measures are taken (technical or controlled.
procedural) to lower the risk of collision to an acceptable
level. 7 ROUTE PROFILING FOLLOWS
THE CORRECT ROUTE
6 STEERING AND DRIVE CONTROLLERS
KEEP THE VEHICLE ON COURSE The IGS Route Profiling module interfaces to RoboScan
and the drive controller to determine the route followed by
The steering controller implements the steering the vehicle. It uses a previously recorded file called a "route
corrections it receives from RoboScan to follow the planned profile" to generate navigation information. The teleoperator
path as closely as possible. The controller has been teaches a route to IGS simply by driving the vehicle along
designed to be parametric, so that different mining vehicles that route. IGS generates a route profile as the teaching
can be handled simply by changing the control parameters. phase progresses.
The drive controller maintains the correct vehicle speed Route profiles are divided into a number of segments as
by manipulating throttle, gears and brakes. This controller is illustrated in Figure 3. Each segment contains a single
also parametric. navigation instruction and is calibrated according to the
The control parameters required by the controllers are distance traveled. Route profiles therefore contain a series
determined from kinematic models (one for steering and of navigation instructions such as "drive straight for 150m

Figure 3 - Examples of Route Profile Segments

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 667

until a right intersection is detected, turn right and drive
straight for 20m etc".
The Route Profiling module reads and interprets a route
profile and sends appropriate navigation instructions to the
guidance module as the vehicle follows a route. When the
end of a route is reached, the navigation module instructs
the vehicle to stop.
Route profiles also record the vehicle speed during the
teaching phase. The Route Profiling module uses the
recorded vehicle speed as a target speed for the drive
controller. The drive controller manipulates the throttle,
gears and brake to make the vehicle match the recorded
speed at all points along the route.
The distance the vehicle has traveled is determined by
odometry and is subject to error as a result of the wheels
slipping. The Route Profiling module keeps this type of error
to a minimum by using landmark features along the route as
datum points. The distance traveled is continually corrected
as landmark features are encountered.
Route planning is integrated into the IGS system such that Figure 4 - Operator Control Station
an operator is able to select a route for the vehicle to follow.
An IGS equipped vehicle will autonomously travel the entire
route from the draw-point to the dump-point (and back),
following a previously recorded route profile. On leaving the
draw-point, the vehicle will automatically follow the selected Teleoperator action during each segment (whether a turn
route towards the dump-point. The vehicle will stop at a was made and whether that turn was to the left or to the
predetermined safe distance from the dump-point. When right etc.)
returning to the draw-point, the vehicle will follow its return Distance to next segment boundary
route and stop a predetermined safe distance from the Distance to a Y-Switch (where the direction of the vehicle
draw-point. is reversed)
From the above description, it can be seen that IGS differs
from competing systems because of the way it defines and 9 AUTONOMOUS OPERATION
records routes. IGS does not rely on a global map and
requires no survey data to operate. It will operate in any The teleoperator begins autonomous operation by
area that has suitable radio coverage. Routes can be taught positioning the vehicle correctly and selecting the correct
quickly and are easily changed by the teleoperator, all route profile for playback. Selecting a route profile for
without electronic access to maps and survey data. The playback consists of selecting a location and direction in an
overall flexibility of IGS results in a system that requires less identical manner to the teaching phase. Playback begins
processing and communications resources, is easier to when the teleoperator holds over the control joystick for 2
install and operate. seconds to select the correct direction of travel.
Intersections encountered during route profile playback
8 TEACHING PHASE are used to synchronize the playback odometry to the
recorded route profile. This minimizes the effect of wheel
Route profiles are generated during the teaching phase of slip. If the actual odometry reading differs greatly from that
IGS operation. Each route profile must be named by the recorded in the route profile for the same intersection then
teleoperator before the teaching phase can begin. Route route profile playback is aborted. In this case, the vehicle is
profile names are made up of two parts, a location name safely stopped and an error message displayed to the
and a direction name. The location name is selected from teleoperator. The vehicle stops automatically at the end of
options previously set-up on the teleoperators control the route after the last line of the route profile has been read.
station (see Figure 4). The direction name is selected from The teleoperator interface includes a video overlay
two options depending on the direction of travel. The inserted onto the normal vehicle camera view. This display
direction is typically given as "dump" or "load". Route provides appropriate feedback to the operator on:
profiles are usually generated in pairs. Each one of the pair Current status of the playback or record run
describes the route in one of the two possible directions of Segment ID
travel between the same two points. Anticipated features along the route (segment type)
The Teleoperator teaches a new route to IGS by simply Distance to next feature
driving the vehicle along the required route. He drives at the Action at next feature (turn right, turn left, straight ahead).
appropriate speed for each part of the route; the Route Distance to walls.
Profile module will use the vehicle speed as a target during
subsequent route profile playback. 10 SAFETY REGIME
The Teleoperator stops the vehicle at the end of the route,
by releasing the control joystick or applying the service Safety was a major consideration during IGS
brake; thereby leaving the vehicle in the approximate development. Safety experts reviewed the entire system
position it should be delivered to at the end of autonomous design ensuring that IGS is a robust system that is failsafe
operation (route profile playback). and single fault tolerant.
After the teaching phase, the Route Profiling module Ensuring safety is based on these principles:
parses the new route profile and appends a checksum The exclusion of personnel from the autonomous
before saving the profile to flash memory. During parsing, operating area while vehicles are operating under remote
the following values are calculated: or autonomous operation. Depending on a mines
Overall length of route particular topography and procedures, this requirement
Individual segment lengths may be met in a variety of ways:

668 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Physical barriers with or without verification means technology is unique in its field and was developed from
(gates, doors, chains) work for the Canadian Space Agency to support Mars
Signs, lights or other warning indicators Lander missions.
Procedural restrictions
Tagging systems (manual tagging, switch-board tagging)
Personnel detection systems (RF tags, light curtains, etc.)
Secondary safety shutdown devices (safety stop
switches, etc.)
A combination of the above
The restriction of the area of operation of the machine to
a known area of the mine. IGS will automatically stop the
vehicle if the route conditions do match those
encountered during the teaching phase. This means that
the vehicle will stop if an intersection is encountered too
early or too late (within the limits set for correction of
odometry), if the drift width is incorrect or if an intersection
is of the wrong type (left instead of right, for example).

Absolute localization is achieved by the use of small, self-

contained radio ID tags placed at strategic points along a
route. Because these tags have a unique ID number they
serve to "mark" their location in a unique way. IGS records
any tags encountered during the teaching phase and will Figure 6: shows an LHD taking a 3D model of a mining face.
stop the vehicle if the tags are not encountered at the same The image can be transported by RF or hard wire link and
point along the route during autonomous operation. Missed integrated into mine management software to get a 3D as-
or incorrect tags will also cause the vehicle to stop. built rendering of face geology, and survey coordinates. To
Area limit RF-ID tags are a secondary method that will be studied in real colour from any angle .
cause an immediate stoppage of the vehicle if a limit tag is
detected. Two independent limit tags are placed at each 3D IS analyzes the signals from stereoscopic cameras to
entrance/exit to the operational area in such a way that they construct a three-dimensional model of the scene being
will not be detected if the vehicle follows its correct route. surveyed. Details of the scene are built into the model by
Used in conjunction with odometry-limited travel, this mapping precise textures taken from the individual camera
creates an outer limit to the operating area. images. This results in a truly photo-realistic three
The vehicle will stop should it travel beyond the range of dimensional VRML model that may be manipulated (pan,
reliable communications, or if the system fails to give zoom, rotate etc.) using conventional tools; including web
periodic, regular permissive control packets to the vehicle. browser plug-ins. 3D IS captures the spatial arrangement of
The vehicle will also stop due to failure or shutdown of the the various components in the scene model so it is possible
fixed communication system or due to failure or shutdown of to measure three dimensional distances between any two
the fixed automation components. such components. This allows the size and distance of rock
Designed-in features of the StrongBox hardware and features to be quickly measured.
software, such as dual-processor architecture that is Presently, a geologist and other geotechnical or survey
internally self-checking, prevent unintended operation in personnel visit each fresh workface to assess where the ore
the event of single point faults. is, and as a result, make a decision about where to drill the
next round. From visually inspecting the face, the geologist
11 COMMUNICATIONS creates a hand sketch of the ore and features, and brings
the sketches to surface and ultimately logs the data into a
StrongBox requires a low speed Ethernet mine planning software. The geologist is able to extrapolate
communications link to the control station. Commands pass where the ore is going, from an accumulation of consecutive
from the operator to StrongBox and telemetry data passes sketches.
from StrongBox to the diagnostic display on the control 3D IS has the potential to significantly improve the time to
station. StrongBox will function well with a full duplex link of collect information, and also the visual information that is
19.2kb/s but faster telemetry updates will be achieved with available at each work face. 3D IS scans the workface,
higher data rates. collecting a photo realistic colour picture from a sequence of
StrongBox also requires a single video channel to convey images. The system is portable and may operate either in
teleoperation camera video coupled with a diagnostic hand-held, automatic or mobile vehicle mode. The 3D
overlay. The video stream is in analogue form and conforms model is accurate and is created within a few minutes of
to NTSC or PAL video standards. acquisition.
IGS places no additional demands on the The images can also be integrated into a mine database
communications infrastructure as IGS related commands to facilitate mine planning. The data can be interpreted from
and telemetry data are merged in with the conventional successive images to better determine the grade at the
StrongBox data transmissions. IGS requires continual radio face, and where the ore is migrating, thereby allowing for a
contact with the operator control station to allow considerable opportunity for better controlling the amount of
autonomous operation. The vehicle will stop safely if data dilution.
radio contact is lost. The collected images can be transported from
StrongBox and IGS will function well in conjunction with underground to surface via an RF or hard-wired link to be
any communications system that meets the requirements viewed by the geologist in his office. A stitched image can
for real-time teleoperation. also be sent via the Internet to other locations for
12 3D Photo-Realistic Imaging System by LHD for Instant assessment and to support decisions by the mining
Geology, Geotechnical and Surveying information companys most qualified personnel.
3D Imaging System (3D IS) is an exciting new technology Without actually visiting the working faces, corporate
that is now being demonstrated in mines by AMS. This experts can easily visualize the features for a variety of

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 669

purposes including mineral content, unstable ground, and better information to the technical and management
many other re-occurring workplace issues. personnel who can make decisions. The mining process is
The autonomous LHD mucking cycle could be enhanced proving to be at the threshold of evolution to a safer and
by incorporating 3D IS into the vehicle control system. significantly more productive process, which will translate
Analysis of images from the stereoscopic cameras would directly to quick rates of return, and increases to the
provide estimates of the vehicle motion (visual odometry, financial bottom line of any mining company.
which would overcome inaccuracies of wheel odometry due
to wheel slippage). 3D IS would also allow for the REFERENCES
localization of the vehicle using natural features observed in
the environment.
3D data could be used to create 3D photo-realistic Bloomquist, L. P.Eng., Law, J. And Arnoldi. C., 2004. The
models. These models could be applied to autonomous Evolution of Advance guidance Techniques for
bucket loading by giving the vehicle control system Autonomous Underground Vehicles, CIM Bulletin,
independent knowledge of the instantaneous muck pile January 2004
shape and flow. Fragmentation and grade of the ore could Anderson, A et al, 1998. Mining Industry Roadmap for
also be determined, which could then be sent from the Crosscutting Technologies. U.S. Department of Energy,
vehicle to a mine database. National Mining Association Technology Committee
Eventually, 3D IS could be used as the vehicle guidance meeting, Denver, Colorado October 1998.
sensor itself, replacing the laser scanners in the current M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, Sixth Ed.
version of IGS. Three dimension versions of the current (Pergamon Press, Toronto, 1980) pp.38-41.
RoboScan algorithms would detect walls and other Baiden, G. and Henderson E. 1994. LHD Teleoperation
obstructions and plot safe vehicle trajectories into and Guidance Proven Productivity Improvement Tools.
observable drifts and cross cuts. Currently, the processing CIM Toronto Conference 1994.
time of 3D IS will not support real-time guidance Bloomquist, L. and Hinton E., 2001. Towards an
applications; but with anticipated improvements in infrastructureless guidance system - A Proposed
algorithms and computing platforms this prospect is not very Guidance System for Autonomous Underground Vehicles.
far removed. CIM Bulletin January 2001.
M. Piotte, C. Coache, A. Drouin, P. Gaultier, and L.
13 CONCLUSION Geoffroy, 1996. Automatic control of underground
vehicles at high speed. CIM Edmonton Conference 1996.
Infrastructure-less guidance techniques and real time Wber, Koller, D, Luong, Q. and Malik, J. 1995. An
photo-realistic imaging of the advancing workface have the integrated stereo-based approach to automatic vehicle
potential to significantly advance the speed and flexibility guidance. International Conference on Computer Vision,
with which mining and drifting are performed. One worker Boston June 1995.
can operate two or more vehicles from a safe surface Vagenas, Sjoberg, and Wikstrom, 1991. Application of
location allowing for increased machine utilization, and Remote-Controlled/ Automatic Load-Haul-Dump System
more tons moved. Also, geological, geotechnical and survey in Zinkgruvan, Sweden. Proceedings of 1st International
data can be captured during the mucking process and Symposium on Mine Mechanization and Automation, I p.
transferred seamlessly to surface databases to further 6/21-6/30.
speed up the mining process, and also offer significantly

670 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Telerobotic experiments for mining
Dr. Greg Baiden, School of Engineering, Laurentian University Sudbury, ON, Canada

Abstract
Telerobotics focused on mining is currently being introduced into production systems around the world. Mining
companies in Canada, Sweden, South Africa and Australia have tended to lead the international charge to this form of
technology for the mining of underground and open pit operations. While this introduction is taking place a few basic
questions have yet to be answered. How many machines can a single operator run? How many types of machines can
a single operator run?
A new Canadian Research Chair in Robotics and Mine Automation has been established at Laurentian University. This
chair will investigate these questions and many more through a series of experiments in a newly established telerobotics
laboratory that connects Laurentian teleoperation workstations to model mining machines at Cambrian colleges eDome.
The laboratory will support many experiments allowing researchers to physically run multiple robot scenarios differing
the numbers and types of machines at one/quarter scale. Further experiments are being designed to investigate the
potential for managing time delays in telerobotics. This paper reviews the state-of-art in the field and describes the
laboratory, experiments and some preliminary results achieved to date.

INTRODUCTION economically. Some expected results include enhance-

ments in: safety, productivity, cycle time, quality, value and
Telerobotics systems used for mining are currently being costs.
introduced into production systems around the world.
Mining companies in Canada1,2, Sweden3, Finland4, South REVIEW OF TELEROBOTICS
Africa5 and Australia6 have tended to lead the international
charge to this technology for mining. NASA and the Telerobotics in the mining industry started to be used
Canadian Space Agency have begun to discuss the use of in production in the early 1970s with the implementation
telerobotics for rock drilling on other planets and large scale of line-of-sight radio remote controls underground and
space construction8. While organizations are looking truck dispatch systems in open pit mines. As the ideas
toward telerobotics for applications, a few basic questions have progressed, line-of-sight remotes have been
have yet to be answered. How many machines can a single extended to longer and longer distances underground.
operator run? How many types of machines can a single Open pit mines leaned towards autonomous operation of
operator run? truck due to a lack of communications bandwidth. Today
A new Canadian Research Chair in Robotics and Mine many underground mining companies and suppliers are
Automation9 has been established at Laurentian University developing true teleoperation systems where operators
around this subject. This chair will investigate these sit as far as hundreds of kilometers from the units they
questions and many more through a series of experiments run. New research into a high bandwidth communication
in a newly established telerobotics laboratory that connects system for open pit mining is underway at Laurentian
Laurentian teleoperation workstations to model mining and University.
full scale machines at Cambrian colleges eDome. The Line-of-sight radio remote controls have been integrated
laboratory will support many experiments allowing the into mining methods over the last 30 years. In fact, some
researchers to physically run multiple robot scenarios methods such as Vertical Crater Retreat mining depend on
differing the numbers and types of machines at one/quarter this technology on a day-to-day basis. For example,
scale. The paper describes the laboratory, experiments and companies such as Inco and Falconbridge could not
some preliminary results. produce safely without the technology onboard LHDs and
Robotics as field of study is the creation of machines and some drills.
control systems that can perform the tasks of a human Long distance teleoperation while starting from line-of-
operator. Within the robotics field is the subset of sight techniques has seen surface teleoperators run
telerobotics. Telerobotics allows the human operator to multiple LHDs and drills from comfortable control rooms.
remain in the control of a semi-robotic machine that The safety benefits of this style of operation are obvious as
incorporates limited automation to provide the opportunity to teleoperators are not exposed to the mine environment.
free time for the human operator. The free time allows the Moreover, the support staff for the teleoperator only enters
operator to focus on other more productive work. For the mining area when no mining work is happening.
example, one operator can run multiple semi-robotic Therefore, safety is maximized for the operation. While
machines achieving a significant potential increase to the safety is an important benefit, teleoperation offers many
output of a process. more. For example:
Mining is a process where mineral is broken and treated The ability for labour productivity gains as a result of
to extract the valuable portions for use by society. Mining instantaneous connection to many machines at the flip of
consists of the discovery, delineation, development, a switch
extraction and closure of an ore body. Each process is Maintenance improvements through the operation of
currently mechanized. In the future, teleoperation of robots machines within their capability
will become the norm for these processes altering the More intimate control of the mining process through direct
performance of the mining industry physically and measurement and communication of real time information

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 671

 The combination of these benefits alters the traditional TELEOPERATION CHAIR TEST-BED -
economics of mining a deposit making it more profitable. LAURENTIAN LABORATORY

Given that these benefits have been achieved and mining A teleoperation chair test-bed is located at Laurentian
companies will gradually embrace this new method of University (figure 2). The chair consists of an ergonomically
mining it is important to be building the human and designed seat that has joysticks and displays to allow an
technological resource base to support the implementation. operator to teleoperate a machine. The main idea behind
the teleoperation chair is to study the interface between
MINING TELEROBOTICS LABORATORY mining machines. As the research progresses it is working
toward the development of a universal interface to allow a
A Mining Telerobotics Laboratory is now commissioned configurable computer interface for all types of machines
and operating at Laurentian University and Cambrian without the need to physically alter the chair.
College in Sudbury. This facility is unique in the world today. The connection between Laurentian University and
The laboratory is a collaborative research site between the Cambrian College is through a "dark fibre". The fibre is
two Sudbury educational institutions. It has been put in connected to a head-end located in the laboratory and
place to build on the strengths of the two institutions and networked to the computers on-board the teleoperation
with Penguin ASI fulfills the innovation cycle of research, chair.
development and commercialization.
The Laurentian portion of the laboratory consists of a
teleoperation chair and a telecommunications control room
for research into teleoperation. At Cambrian College a
series of laboratories that includes the eDome, supports the
ability to design, build and teleoperate from 1/4th scale
model to full size mining machines and full mine simulations.
As this work progresses new control systems, machines
and processes will be developed building on the idea of
telerobotics. Since telerobotics will become an emerging
industry that has and will grow from the mining industry into
other fields such as manufacturing, underwater, space and
military, the building of this laboratory is and will be
important to the development of telerobotic applications.

Figure 2: Teleoperation Chair at Laurentian University

TELEROBOTICS TESTBEDS -
Figure 1: Teleoperation Laboratory Layout CAMBRIAN COLLEGE LABORATORY

The dark fibre is brought into Cambrian College at the

The laboratory is really the combination of two labs in eDome (figure 3). It is connected to a second head-end
different geographical locations in Sudbury. Figure 1 shows switch that supports mobile data communications and
a map of the lab locations and the equipment in each. mobile video. The wireless network established between
Jointing the two locations is a dedicated "dark fibre" to Laurentian University and Cambrian College will allow the
facilitate teleoperation experimentation. study of mobile machine operation and multi-machine
This laboratory connection allows the study of a number operation. As the research progresses full scale machines
of telerobotic issues that include: developed for mining and various other industries will be
How many machines can a single operator teleoperate tested at the Cambrian facility.
given different levels of automation? Cambrian College through the instrumentation and
Is it possible to teleoperate the task of development using machine design classes are developing a 1/4th scale model
cooperative robotics? Load-Haul-Dump machine. The first unit is one of the most
When the telerobotic systems are scaled up, what are the sophisticated mining machine models that has been built to
implications for the safety, timing and economics of date. A general schematic of the structure of the model LHD
multiple mine operation scenarios? is shown in figure 4.

672 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 the electronics being an exact duplicate this allows
experimentation with new systems on scale models both at
the teleoperation lab and in real mine facilities. The model
LHD has the potential to operate at any mine in the world
with the correct telecommunications infrastructure.
Following the building of the first 1/4th scale model of an
LHD and the connection of the laboratory a fleet of models
will be built to answer the research questions outlined at the
beginning of the paper. First, five more telerobotic units will
be built to aid in chair and control system software
experimentation. Some of these new units will have fuel cell
power plants instead of batteries. The fuel cell offers the
same capability as batteries while increasing the range of
the unit. Eventually, a Honeywell Ore Retrieval and
Tunneling Aid (HORTA) will be incorporated onto new units.
The HORTA is a Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) combined
with accelerometers. This unit outputs azimuth and x, y, z
coordinates that a pair of laser scanners can be linked to
allowing the collection of tunnel or drift data and
Figure 3: Cambrian College eDome experimentation with alternate guidance systems. This
makes the machine an experimental test-bed for
teleoperation and data collection.

TELEROBOTIC OPEN PIT OPERATION

While the bulk of the telerobotics work to date has been in

underground mining, open pit mines are in need of similar
opportunities. Open pit mining equipment suppliers have
tended to work towards autonomous mining equipment
because of limitations in communications bandwidth.
Given past experience in the implementation of
underground automation it is important to note that remote
control followed by telerobotic control leading to autonomy
is the logic path of implementation. Mine operators need to
be comfortable with the operation of their fleet of equipment.
Therefore, telerobotic operation of open pit mining
equipment is more than likely going to be the next logical
Figure 4: 1/4th LHD Scale Model Desing step as opposed to autonomous operation.

WHAT ABOUT TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The base machine is a CANBUS compliant unit that is FOR OPEN PIT?
electrically driven. Steering and bucket control are done
with electric screw actuators. The unit has an onboard AMS High bandwidth communication for open pit mining is a
Strongbox controller for machine control and huge challenge if telerobotics is to be employed. Radio
telecommunications connection. The first of these units is frequency communications are inherently low bandwidth in
complete and operational as shown in Figure 5. comparison to the need. Therefore how can we deal with
this? One solution is using optical communication systems.
As part of the expansion of the Telerobotic Laboratory at
Laurentian University we will begin experimenting with high
bandwidth optical communication systems. Our first
experiments will take place this summer using an
underwater optical system. Underwater was chosen as this
is the most difficult environment for high bandwidth
communication. Figure 6 is an artist concept of the
underwater optical communication system working for
telerobot control.

RESULTS

The Mining Telerobotics Laboratory is now completed

between Laurentian University and Cambrian College in
Sudbury. On May 25, 2003 we ran our first telerobotic
machine between Laurentian University and Cambrian
College. The completion of this marks the beginning of a
test facility to support the development of telrobotics for
Figure 5: Actual 1/4th Scale Model mining.
The initial experiments are beginning to be laid out to
investigate the implications of telerobotics for underground
The unit is designed with exactly the electronic and mining. At this time, a new agent based algorithm for
telecommunication systems that are on current production telerobotic dispatching of machines is being developed.
robotic machines working in the field at Inco Limited. With This will be initially targeted for block cave mines.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 673

 Development work is now underway on an optical REFERENCES
communication system for open pit mining. This
development will initially start off in an underwater [1] Baiden, G.R., "MAP - Mining Automation Programme
environment although testing for surface applications will Results", Final Presentation, October 25, 2000, Copper
happen early in the research program. Cliff, Ontario, Canada.
[2] Piche, A., "LHD Automation at Noranda, 33rd Annual
Robotics Congress, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April,
1999.
[3] Samskog,, P. and Wigden, I., "Process Automation in
Ore Mining", MineTime 99, Dusseldorf, June 8, 1999.
[4] Schweikart, V.S.,"Control and monitoring systems at the
Palabora Underground Mine", Proceedings from Telemin
1, June 1999, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
[5] Pukkila, J. and Kosonen, K., "The implementation of
Intelligent Mine Technology at Kemi Mine of Outokumpu
Crome OY", Proceedings of Telemin 1, June 1999,
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
[6] Penswick, D. and Gilliland, K., "The missing link: The
gap in mining automation hierarchy", Proceedings of the
2001 6th Symposium on Mine Mechanization and
Automation, pp 129-134.
[7] Dudley, j. and Ferrier, S.,"Tele-remote LHD
implementation and the progression to LHD automation
at Northparkes E26 Block Cave Mine", Proceeding of
Telemin 1, June 1999, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
Figure 6: Underwater Telerobotics [8] Mankins, J., "An Overview of the Space Solar Power
Exploratory Research and Technology Program"
Advanced Projects Office Office of Space Flight,
SUMMARY Spring 2000.
[9] Canadian Research Chairs Website, Government of
A great deal of work is yet to be done to hone the idea of Canada, 2001.
telerobotic applications for mining. This paper has
discussed a new Telerobotics Laboratory created through ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, Ontario Innovation
Trust Fund, Materials and Manufacturing Ontario, Inco The author would like to acknowledge the support of the
Limited and Penguin Automated Systems. The laboratory Laurentian University, Canadian Research Chairs (CRC)
has begun experimenting with telerobotics for mining, program, Canadian Foundation for Innovation (CFI), Ontario
cooperative telerobotics and multi-mine teleoperation. The Innovation Trust Fund (OIT) and Materials, Manufacturing
laboratory was completed in the Spring of 2003. This Ontario (MMO), Communication and Information
laboratory was designed for studying telerobotics for mining Technology Ontario and FEDNOR. Further the generous
will have implications for manufacturing, space, underwater support of Penguin Automated Systems Inc. and Inco
and military applications. Limited that made this work possible. The City of Sudbury
In early 2004 a research program was brought together to and Sudbury Hydro have made a significant contribution by
begin to experiment with high bandwidth telecommu- supplying the dark fibre link between the two facilities.
nications for underwater and surface applications. This
work is just underway but is yielding promising results
already.

674 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Bringing underground mining
into the Wi-Fi revolution
Sergio Blacutt, CEO, Jigsaw Technologies Inc

Abstract
This paper addresses the advantages of reliable, high-speed data and voice networks in underground mining operations.
Jigsaw Technologies is combining proven technologies used extensively on aboveground applications and transforming
them into state of the art tools for underground operations. At the heart of these mobile applications are sophisticated
networking techniques with efficient software designed from the ground up for underground mining operations. Custom
applications are deployed on all mobile units in order to optimize their performance and reduce network traffic. This
technology allows engineers and other underground personnel to query and/or update critical information directly from
the field.
A key advantage of implementing this system is its ability to carry voice over the same data network (VoIP). Jigsaw
Technologies wireless network utilizes modified 802.11 access points that run custom routing software, providing a
robust and secure VoIP communications platform. Access points are interconnected via a fiber-optic or standard CAT-5
backbone that ultimately connects to the mine network allowing bi-directional data/voice communications between
authorized users.
In conclusion, the combination of powerful custom software for underground operations, plus the ability to carry crystal
clear full-duplex voice communications on one single mobile device, will enable a companys plan to lower costs and
achieve higher profits.

1 INTRODUCTION only predefined alarm conditions or unscheduled events.

A major advantage of all Jigsaws applications is their
Utilizing the latest wireless technological advances and ability to integrate and support off the shelf hardware
data-gathering devices along with standard and user components. Different operating systems are also
friendly information displays, Jigsaw Technologies is supported and field units can either run under embedded
developing easy to maintain reliable data and voice Microsoft Windows or Linux.
networks for underground mining operations.
2 CORE NETWORK TECHNOLOGY

To ensure reliable and continuous operation, the system

communications network is entirely based on mesh network
technology.
Unlike traditional tree or star network architectures, mesh
networks utilize intelligent access points that can
communicate with each other without the need of having to
go through a central switch.

Fig 1. Overall application diagram

This application will allow mining operations to coordinate

and monitor all field operation activities by providing mine
personnel with powerful wireless rugged portable computers
connected to a central application. Included in the central
application is a standard "Session Initiation Protocol" (SIP)
local service that allows for clear full duplex voice
communications over the standard 802.11 wireless network.
All mine equipment can also be fitted with field computers Fig 2. Tree type network. Failure at a top branch will render
that allow for real-time communications, and data gathering all units under it unusable.
providing significant on board intelligence to continuously
analyze and store data locally. Although field units can Mesh networks incorporate a grid type of network with
continuously send information to central, they can also be one of the major advantages being the elimination of a
configured to analyze trends locally and report to central single point of failure.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 675

 The Jigsaw Technologies physical network infrastructure operate uninterrupted even without communications with
is deployed using embedded Linux based mesh access the central server.
points powered via Power Over Ethernet (POE) technology. Continuous mining operations data is collected and
These rugged access points are capable of operating within analyzed locally on each device with only relevant
a wide range of temperatures and are able to withstand high information sent in real-time to the central server. This
transient voltages. approach maximizes bandwidth utilization and ensures high
network availability for voice and video communications.

4 DATA ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM INTEGRATION

The Jigsaw application cleanly separates data access,

business logic, and user interface. User interfaces are
designed as XML files that instantiate interfaces on mobile
or stationary devices on request providing unique and
custom interaction screens for each different user.
Maintenance personnel for example can log into a mobile
unit and be greeted with the equipment engine parameters
and equipment-troubleshooting screen.

All system interaction and reports generation is done

through a web-based user-friendly interface that requires
minimum or no user training.

Real-time field data is automatically stored in powerful

SQL databases and can utilize a number of commercial
SQL database servers, such as Microsoft SQL, MySQL,
Fig 3. Mesh type network. Without a central switch, mesh OpenBase, Oracle, Sybase ASE, and others. This allows for
networks provide self-healing and self-organization easy data integration with most ERP applications.
characteristics.
In addition the main application can be deployed on
Power Over Ethernet eliminates the need to deploy various operating systems including Mac OS X, Linux, and
additional cables between mesh access points requiring Microsoft Windows 2000 or XP.
only the use of power injectors at certain points.
As new mobile or stationary network devices are 5 CONCLUSION
deployed into the network, they are set to automatically
detect all neighboring nodes, configure themselves, and As companies increasingly focus their efforts on their core
based on factors such as signal strength, transmission business, it is becoming clear that state of the art open
errors, and latency determine the best path to use when technologies will play a major role in their competitiveness
communicating peer to peer or with the central computer. and successful business execution.
Any changes or sudden faults on the network are Systems like the one described above, that utilize
immediately detected by affected field devices, which advanced and standard hardware with powerful embedded
automatically recalculate the best communications path to software applications designed for the underground mining
the rest of the network. industry will help companies achieve their goals and
increase productivities.
3 DATA AND VOICE COMMUNICATIONS Strong communication channels have always been the
backbone of any successful company. Adding reliable voice
Having a robust and reliable network permits the Jigsaw capabilities to monitoring and control applications results in
application to include voice over the same data network. A higher productivity and most importantly safer underground
SIP server application is deployed on the central computer mining operations. Mine personnel will be able to
and all mesh access points, with all mobile devices communicate freely with other underground personnel or
equipped with VoIP capabilities. This capability allows all personnel on the surface without the need of dedicated
field devices on the network to talk to each other as well as restrictive cables.
any user connected to the network.
All field units are deployed with custom software
applications, and have the ability to process data locally and

676 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Automation of mineral
extraction and handling
Fredy M. Varas, Civil Mining Engineer MBA,
Project Management, El Teniente Division, Codelco Chile

Abstract
Underground Mining, in order to maintain its competitiveness, need constant innovation thus it must make use of the
technological advance which allow it to face not only challenge of cost diminution and productivity increase, but that also
to give better works conditions to his workers which is translated in diminution on exposition to the risk and better
environment quality. Codelco and especially El Teniente Division, conscientious of these considerations, have
implemented strategic impulses to incorporate technology as an essential competitiveness requirement. For that reason
when Teniente Development Plan was formulated, these concepts were incorporated in his mining projects and they are
been materialized. So, we have that projects like Pipa Norte are pioneers incorporating semi-automated LHD equipment
and complementing this technology with an innovating material handling that get closer the size diminution issue toward
mineral extraction points, establishing a production line so that after reaching the scoops dumping point it allows to
reduce mineral, through a jaw crusher, to 7 inches size very appropriate for a belt conduction and improving the filling
factors for the railroad cars to its later hauling to the surface.

In order to materialize these concepts, it has been Applicability of the Technological Strategy
necessary to consider a series of edge conditions, some of To define applicability of available technology of mineral
specific technical nature, being notorious by its importance extraction automation in underground mines is a decision
the subject of communication systems and production that dont should loose the orientation of give continuity to
control, and in the same way the production level designs the mining business, for which is very important to evaluate
and layout and the incorporation of material handling its real utilization, therefore antecedent compiling related to
elements not used before at El Teniente Mine. They are also automation in the world on material extraction processes in
notorious the incorporation of complementary technologies underground mining must response to the convenience of
like hydraulic fracturing and the utilization of plate feeders operating a system that be compatible with strategic
for material handling. objectives that delineate enterprise orientation in its long
Finally as case of study, this work shows the main term projection.
technical elements that has been considerate in the Pipa For the studied case this decision aims to fulfil with one of
Norte Project, being notorious the considerations of the strategic objectives of Divisin el Teniente, that shows
productive nature, security and the standards that have the orientation and endorse decision in terms of incorporate
been established for project operation. technological advances to mining activity, in addition to
increase productivity levels, improve security indicators for
the personnel and ensure a quality level that allows to obtain
INTRODUCTION the certification, in accord with standards fixed for ISO
norms that regulate quality in its widest concept, finally aims
The present tendency in underground mining is to give a to minimize the operational interference and guaranties a
product of homogenous granule size, initiated by means of greater continuity of productive activity.
a natural fracturing process, for then to incorporate
technology of downsizing in places near to mineral Tendency of Materials Handling
extraction. Thus the mineral is transported to surface by In a traditional scheme, materials handling in
means of the best automated systems. underground mining consist in mineral extraction by some
Associated to this the underground mining constantly explode technique and, from there, guided it down through
needs to improve his productivity, for which the new projects a flux, which can be transported horizontally in intermediate
must respond to needs of improvements in production costs levels, and then, going up or down, without any processing
and so life and environmental quality of workers. or selectivity on this path.
An effective way to obtain these results is making use of Today this situation begins to change, going to maintain
the technology available on the modern world. Thus it is as automated transport circuits and, therefore, material that is
the new mining projects of the El Teniente Mine have looked handled and transported must be homologated to certain
for to obtain important advances in the use of ultimate granule size characteristics, allowing the minimum number
generation technology. With this it looks for to assume the of stops and make easier the autonomous control systems,
strategic leadership of technological innovation, which is that are operated from the surface.
being materialized in two relevant aspects in the operation
of productive sectors. Description of Pipa Norte Project
First one is related to using of semiautomatic equipment This is one of the three mining projects of Divisin El
of greater size for mineral extraction, because the greater Teniente and it is in construction from ends of 2002, and will
synchronization of their acceleration movements contribute finish to ends of 2004, this project involve reserves for 27.1
to wait for a lower maintenance cost per extracted ton. Mtons, with average Cu law of 1,00%, and with an
The second aspect of this technological innovation talks infrastructure and with an infrastructure that will have a
about to an approach of the downsizing and handling of nominal capacity of 10,000 tpd. and it will be started up with
materials towards mineral extraction points. the best technology, considers a high degree of automation.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 677

 Table N 1.- Comparative Table in classic format and current tendency on Material Handling

Characteristic Traditional Current Tendency

Caving Altitude High one taller than Down one equivalent to
10 meters caving gallery altitude
Type of Caving Simultaneously overture Pre-caving or Advanced Caving
of collector galleries
Verticals Mining Great quantity of meters Minimum Verticals Mining
Equipment Mechanicals Automated
Material Handling Transportation to surface in big granule size In situ Size Reduction
Communications Wired Wireless
Explode Method Panel Caving or Sub Level Big extraction nets or
extraction nets reduced macro galleries
Orientation of the Administration Of production One- Of Multi-variable business
variable Sensibility
Human Resources Expertise Competency

The project will integrate the management by competition, obtained by means of the pillar blasting with a design of
gathering the best standards of competitive companies, the parallel shots of 3.5"- 4.0" of diameter. This design has
best practices of work and a harmonic development of the considerable operational advantages in security and for
human resource during the life utility of the project. The removal of the residual material, thus its application, with
location of the sector in the deposit El Teniente can be the restrictions stipulated with respect to the out of phase
observed in the following figure.. condition between the advance in undermining and the
The geologic and geotechnical antecedents, demonstrate advance in extraction, is confirmed. The mining design of
that more of 90% of the existing rock it corresponds to primary the project emphasizes the following general
and secondary andesite. Certain important intrusions of characteristics:
hydrothermal Breach and Braden Breach are verified mainly Extraction Net of Teniente type, 300 m2, (30 m x 20 m), 30
towards the Southern of the sector, adjacent with Pipa Braden, m separation between streets and 20 m ditches.
which present predictions of heavy fragmentation. Advanced Caving, by blasting of solid pillars of 13 meters
wide, 23 meters in length and 4 meters of high (4 m x 4 m
Exploitation Method. section).
The exploitation method used in this sector is a panel Height of the Crown Pillar, 19 m between production and
caving with a variant of low undermining of 4 m. and caving levels floors and between extraction points and
advanced to the limit of abuttmen stress, this undermining is rolling carpet.

Figure N 1: Location Pipa Norte Mine

678 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 2: Diagram of Material Handling in Pipa Norte ProjectFigure 2: Diagram of Material Handling in Pipa Norte Project

Material Handling control and user interphases to the system operators.

The mineral handling system has concluded with the Access Control System (ACS): It controls the access for
consolidation of designs already established in the personnel and mobile equipment to the Autonomous
Conceptual Engineering, that is to say, with a pre-crushed Operation Area. Its main function is to maintain the
hopper system of 400 tons with a 70" x 70" grill, fed directly confinement for production tasks of semiautonomous
by LHD equipment, and a plate feeder that feeds a jaw LHD with respect to the personnel and equipment in the
crusher with a maximum gap opening of 84"x 66". production area.
This unit unloads on a conveyor belt of 60", 20 m on Wireless Underground Communication System (WUCS):
length, the one that as well feeds another conveyor belt of It provides video, audio and data communication, like the
48" and 330 m on length, which takes the mineral up to two vital signs of semiautonomous LHD, between Control
main resentments, that allow to transfer the mineral until Room and these equipment.
Teniente 8 Level, to be transported by the railroad towards Semiautomatic LHD Equipment: They have a capacity of
Coln Concentration Plant. 13 yd3, and their production cycle begins with the load in
Extraction Point on tele-commanded mode, continuing
Description of LHD Semiautomatic System with the material hauling, material that is dumped directly
The system is formed by a system operator located in on grill, and finally LHD returns to the same point or
Control Room located in Coln Alto, approximately to 15 km another one, according to production plan or availability of
of the production area of Pipa Norte Mine. This operator is extraction points at that moment, on autonomous mode.
the person in charge to control and to operate the SCL (LHD Operation: There are two people directly located in the
Control System) and the handling of personnel and Operator Station, controlling the SCL. To one of them
equipment access to the Autonomous Operation Area that is corresponds the function of control of LHD equipment and
the area of work in production area around where LHD the tele-commanded operation of these equipment in his
equipment circulates. The SCL is structured by: loading task; the other person is responsible for control
Mission Control System (MCS): It provides supervision and supervision of the operation, work that is mainly
and control for operation, also planning for production and focused to the planning and coordination of the activities
functionality control. The MCS also provides interphases during the turn.
to the external systems like the SCGP (Production Control
& Management System), SCGM (Maintenance Control Operation of the System
& Management System) and SCADA, that is a system The LHD will load mineral at the extraction points on tele-
oriented to supervising control and data acquisition. commanded mode, to go then on automatic mode to the
Operator Station: It is the physical place located in Coln Dumping Station, point in which they will unload the
Alto, where System Operator is located. It provides transported mineral. This point has three flanks for mineral

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 679

unloading. After this, the LHD will be destined, according to The system, as result of to have so advanced level of
the production program given by the Production Control & technology never before applied in an integral form,
Management System (SCGP) to the Mission Control presents weaknesses that are fundamentally focused to:
System (MCS), to the same extraction point or another one Inexperience in production capacity for systems with
where the system operator, from Control Room, will come to demanding production programs
load it again, completing the cycle. Preparation of an equipment of maintenance for the
An Access Control System (ACS) will maintain confined automation system that be efficient and a market that
the operational area of LHD equipment, in such way to supplies spare parts for the system.
make production tasks a safe operation, maintaining an The automation takes associated a change of practice in
adequate access control and monitoring of Autonomous complementary elements of the extraction operations like,
Operation Area. It must be mentioned that certain for example, secondary reduction.
production support tasks will have to be made in Pipa Norte Material handling through production line and a planning
Mine, such as: of the made mining preparation in such a way that avoid
Secondary reduction in Extraction Points interferences to the zone in production, are necessaries.
Off-hook in Height in Extraction Points
Sampling in Extraction Points Additionally with this system, the own difficulties of heavy
Production Infrastructure Maintenance and Material material handling originating of the primary rock exploitation
Handling. improve the effective operation time in their handling. The
automation produces an increase in the utilization and an
Considering this, the entrance of mobile equipment increase of the yield, because of operations can be made at
operated in manual mode and personnel to the production constant speeds and with equipment of a greater capacity;
area while the different operational works are being also maintenance associated to the equipment is
executed, will mean that the Autonomous Operation Area diminished in costs fundamentally because the automatic
will be modified, through doors located in the production operation diminishes the premature wearing down of many
galleries and in the accesses to the area, isolating, of this elements due to the better synchronization of component
form, the Autonomous Operation Area from the sector functioning and also improves the information for preventive
where the support tasks are developed. maintenance of mobile units.

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

Of the exposed, it can be concluded that the Pipa Norte 1.- Pozo Rodrigo.- Operational Procedure for 13 yd3
Project incorporates the last standards in material handling automatic LHD, Thesis Work, University of Chile,
for Underground Mining, incorporating LHD equipment with Santiago, Chile, 2003.
semiautomatic operation, secondary reduction with hydro- 2.- Varas Fredy & Crorkan Paul.- Seminary of Automation,
fracturing system, material handling system with plate Technical Visit, Rovaniemi, Finland, April 2001.
feeders, primary crusher near to production levels, and 3.- Varas Fredy & Pozo Rodrigo.- Operation & Security
conveyor belts, all that are translated in simplification and Procedure for 13 yd3 automatic LHD. Sernageomin.
automation of the whole process. Santiago, December 2003.
Mineral Handling in systems like the observed one allows 4.- Varas Fredy.- Automation of LHD Equipment, Internal
to define strategies that assure with high level of Presentation, CODELCO Chile Division El Teniente,
satisfaction for the client (quality, amount and opportunity), Rancagua, Chile, December 2002.
the accomplishment of mining plans, under standards of first 5.- Varas Fredy.- Material Handling Tendency in
cuartil of the underground mining sector, that position to Underground Mining. 21st Congress of Geologists and
companies in an efficient and competitive way. Mining Engineers, Acapulco, Mexico, October 2001.
Application of these modern operation technologies, must 6.- Varas Fredy.- Mineral extraction with Semiautomatic
actually be reflected with high productivity standards, low LHD Equipment in Block Caving Method. MININ 2004,
operation costs, and security, life quality, and environmental International Conference-Mining Innovation, Chile,
conditions that assures the technical and economic viability Santiago 2004.
waited for the project.

680 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Mine technology and its
implementation and control
Reservas Norte Sub 6, El Teniente
Mauricio Barraza, Juan Francisco San Martn, Manuel Montecino,
El Teniente Division, Codelco, Chile

Abstract
Mining is commonly seen as a typical basic industry with rough and even dangerous working conditions, heavy
environmental load, and a low level of high-technology with much manual work and operations.
An underground mining operation is a very complex one consisting of many manual, physical, mechanical and logistical
operations with different human interfaces and decisions. For this reason it is a demanding and potential area for all
applications of information technology: controlling difficult non-linear, time varying multivariable processes and machines;
solving of ergonomic safety and environmental problems; automation of logistical systems, and information handling, etc.
In addition to that, big economic sums are involved with these operations.
On the other hand, technology has developed towards intelligent and adaptive systems including some from the above
mentioned fields. Connecting them with modern information and communication technologies makes the idea of an
intelligent and unmanned mine more and more feasible in the near future. This requires intensive co-operation and co-
ordination between the mining industry and manufacturers of mining machinery. This has been successfully
accomplished in the few-year Intelligent Mine research and development program as well as the last years of subsequent
implementation of its results in El Teniente Mine.
The basic elements of an Intelligent Mine are:
Mine-wide information and data acquisition system.
High-speed two-directional mine-wide communication network for real-time monitoring and control.
Computerized information management, mine planning, control and maintenance systems.
Machinery and equipment which are connected to the information system.
The degree of high-technology in mine depends on many technical and economical factors. The basic precondition for
such an approach is that it will improve the total economy of the mine.

1. INTRODUCTION was done in a real mining environment with the assistance

of the mine personnel.
The productivity of mines can be significantly improved
and the costs of the final product decreased by applying the The program was as follows (Table 1):
advanced mining technology and automation.
Today emphasis is given to automation of production
machinery and mine-wide information and communication
including maintenance and production control systems.
The objectives of the Implementation Technology
Programs were to increase the productivity and
profitability as well as improve the working conditions of
the miners, equipment, communication and data transfer
systems.
A mining process controlled and managed in real-time
most economically according to internal and outside
conditions. All machines and activities are integrated by bi-
directional high-speed mine-wide communication and data
networks to enable the real-time communication, monitoring
and equipment control. Mine planning, production planning
and equipment maintenance planning systems are
integrated by this network allowing all control and decision-
making of the mine to be centralized.

2. MINE TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM

The development program was formed in co-operation

between the mining and Modular Mining Systems
(DISPATCH - SISPAC) the emphasis is on the requirements
of the end user, the mines. The practical development work

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 681

 The technology development program is a beginning for
future development which will lead to a concept of the
Technology Mine _- an automated processes and tele-
operated machinery (Pick Hammer) which are controlled in
real-time to provide the best possible economical production
according to the internal and external conditions.

The basic elements of an Intelligent Mine for Teneinte

Sub 6 / Reservas Norte are:
Mine-Wide information and data acquisition systems.
A high-speed, two-directional, mine-wide communication
and information systems network for real-time monitoring
and control.
Computerized information management, mine planning,
control and maintenance systems.
Tele-operated machinery and equipment connected to the
mine-wide communication networks.
Communication and monitoring systems to other sector in
the mine. Figure 1: Development steps for automation and controlled
process in mine.
All these elements could not be implemented in the same
time. Therefore the development was done gradually
according to the priority requirements of the mines and step
by step to avoid bottlenecks in the total production process
(Figure 1).

The research and development work was divided into

main areas:
The real-time management of production.
Machine Tele-operated (Pick Hammer)
Production maintenance.
Safety, training and motivation.

Under the real-time management of resources and

production constituted information acquisition,
communication and information transfer as well as the
processing and utilization of this information for
management purposes. It also contained the major part of
the application of computers in mine-wide production
planning and control (Figure 2).

The projects included control of production machines in

such a way that it resulted in increased machine-working
hours, dependability and higher productivity. Included were
fault diagnostics and data acquisition systems incorporated
within the machines.

Navigation systems, modular type of production Figure 2: Real - Time Management

monitoring and fault diagnostics were developed in mines.
The production and condition control, fault diagnostics and
monitoring systems were tested in the mine-wide intelligent
condition control system (Figure 3).

Machines have become more reliable in operation. The

main goal is to increase effective time. Features of
technology machines and mine will include:
Remote operation (tele-operation).
Data communication.
Maintenance support.
Task planning and reporting.

The technology of production methods and production

maintenance covered a large area in the program. It
constituted such fields as machine maintenance, new
hoisting methods and mine profitability analysis. New
machine constructions such as a mobile underground
crusher, an automatic LHD machine, an automatic haulage
truck and charging equipment were also included in different
area of development in the mine.
Figure 3: Intelligent Production and Control System.

682 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Technology will bring new type hazards of accidents and Systems integrated to the networks.
have an effect on work motivation. Although safety has been Machines and equipment integrated to the networks.
taken into account within each development project, the Mine infrastructure and personnel training.
human role in the environment, especially in a mine, has not
yet been extensively studied. In this part of the program, the The program was realized by the management of Codelco
methods and tools for introducing automation successfully EL Teniente, how contract Modular Mining System, and the
into the mine environment. program consisted:
Further development and testing of the machinery
Research and Results Developing and testing necessary additional systems and
The period to develop the systems needed for try computer programs:
organize the Intelligent Mine was made in steps: first to Further developing and testing the compatibility of
investigate what was available and then develop the most systems in order to form one integrated system suitable
urgently needed systems and machines and make them for the underground mine of Teniente Sub 6 / Reservas
functional. Norte and Esmeralda.
During that time, the testing was done in Sub 6 / Reservas Planning and carrying out a training program for the
Norte an Esmeralda, the program was a success and a operating personnel of the mine.
good start for implementing the technology.
During the implementation, the mine was made ready to
apply the concept. The Teniente Sub 6 / Reserves Norte
3. MINE IMPLEMENTATION Mine acted as the testing ground for integration of all partial
components into one functioning system and will be, in the
The Implementation Technology was development in the future, the first mine to fully utilize the concept.
major part of the machinery and systems with MODULAR
and Codelco El Teniente, the Technology Program were 4. TENIENTE SUB6 / RESERVAS NORTE
being developed and tested to the stage in which they can
be implemented in the planned underground mine of All of the projects were started in the beginning of 2000
Teniente Sub 6 and Esmeralda (Figure 4). (Table 2).

Table 2: Mine Technology Program.

Figure 4: Integrate Service Communication Network

The results of this program were: readiness to realize the

Intelligent Mine. The vision, have the machinery and systems
developed ready for application, and show the know-how of old
sector in the El Teniente called Teniente 4 SUR.

The technology program lasted three years (2000 - 2002)

and its estimated budget was KUSD 500. It contained 4
development projects, which were divided into four main During this implementation stage the new technology was
areas. tested. Possible unknown faults or new requirements in
Implementation of advanced technology. systems and applications were recognized and corrected.
Data utilization. The tasks, character of work, safety matters and
Training and adaptation of mine personnel to the new organization will change. This might cause opposition and if
technology, systems and environment. not properly dealt with, can make the implementation of new
technology difficult
In addition the program contains two supporting projects: The mines organization has also been planned to suit the
Co-ordination of the program. applied new technology and best utilization of the systems
Project concerning with layout of advanced mining. created (Figure 6).
The objectives of the program were set according to the needs The organization structure of the mine as described
and requirements of the Teniente Sub 6 / Reservas Norte and cannot be very complex. The information is available to
Esmeralda mine. The contents comprises of the following: everybody and the decision-making of day-to-day
Fast mine-wide communication and data networks (Figure production decisions is given to lower levels of organization.
3). The management of the mine will have more of a supporting

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 683

 Figure 6: Layout and Equipment distribution and control in real time.

and advising role. The lower management will deal more in say that all applications of the systems, machinery and
the safety issues and be ready to give advice whenever organizational changes will be a success but so far there
necessary. have been no impossible situations.
The operators of the different sections work as teams and
take responsibility of their own section. Different sections 5. FUTURE
assist each other and support their services when needed.
For example, the maintenance teams give services to the The future development at Reservas Norte mine will be in
production teams (Figure 7). This way the responsibility will the consolidation of the Handheld PC used by the shift boss.
be shared. PC that allows to have on line the information of the
The final results of the implementation are not yet seen, production and machines running on the field.
but during 2004 many of the systems will be in practice. The This Handheld device makes possible the access to the
Teniente Sub 6 / Reservas Norte Mine will most probably same information that is available at the UNIX or main
apply the technology that has been developed and has PCs.
developed it further for its own use. Some problems are yet To make this possible it was necessary to install a
to be solved but as the mine development continues the wireless communication system (access point) so that
solutions for these problems will be found. It is too early to information can be captured and showed in real time for the

Figure 7: The Maintenance Products

684 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

users of this device, the configuration of the wireless system Besides that efforts must be set in the integration of the
is showing in figure 8. total production area (LHD, secondary reduction and pick
hammer) and haulage (Trucks) activities.

6. CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, it could be said that both of these

Technology Programs have given much to the Teniente
Sub 6 / reserves Norte mining and mining machinery
manufacturing industries.
The mining industry has had a chance to develop its mine
management systems, methods of increasing productivity
and safety.
The mining machinery manufacturers have had a good
opportunity to develop their machinery, technology and
systems integrated to the machines and so to increase
their competitiveness in the market.
The Company has had a good opportunity to increase
and develop its know-how and so to be able to produce
more confident mining engineers and workers.
Figure 8: Access communication for the real time
information 7. REFERENCE

Barraza, M., and Zamora, A. (2001) "Automatizacin de la

The signal makes possible to move around the room Extraccin en Pannel Caving" IM2, Codelco Internal
offices at the Sub-6 level and through the main access, at report, Brisbane, Australia.
the production area. The figure 9 shows in green where this Barraza, M., San Martin, J., Bonani, A., and Alvial, J.
wireless net is available. (2000) "Grupo de tarea planificacin mina Sub 6", PL-I-
200/2000, Internal report, Codelco Chile Divisin El
Teniente.
Baiden, G.R. (2001) "TeleminingTM System Applied to
Hard Rock Metal at Inco Limited" Underground Mining
Methods, ed. SME 2001, pp 671 712, USA.
Brunner, D.T. (2001) "Simulation of Underground Mining
Operations" Underground Mining Methods, ed. SME
2001, pp 705 679, USA.
San Martin, J., and Alvial, J. (2000) "Contrato con Modular
Mining System, Internal report, Superintendencia Mina
2000, Codelco Chile Divisin El Teniente.
Sturgul, J.R.(2000) " Using Animation of Mining
Operations as Presentation Models" Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos
(eds) 2000 Balkema, Rotterdam .

Figure 9: Net layout in the production level for wireless

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 685

 Codelco El Teniente - Loading
automation in panel caving
using AutoMine
Vic Schweikart, Prof. Eng., M.Sc., MBA, Sandvik Chile
Timo Soikkeli, Lic.Sc., Sandvik Tamrock Corp., Finland

Abstract
In the world of commodities, copper is a highly competitive market that forces mining houses to continuously improve
and optimise production. El Tenientes objective is to use the best technologies to automate the production processes.
Following an extensive review of equipment and system suppliers available worldwide, Codelco selected Sandvik
Tamrock of Finland, industry leader in this field, to provide Sandvik Tamrocks AutoMine system, a proven
commercially technology, to automate the LHD fleets at the Pipa Norte and Diablo Regimiento mines.
Pipa Norte and Diablo Regimiento deposits will be mined with pre-undercut panel caving at 10 000 t/d and 28 000 t/d
respectively. Pipas fleet, the three Toro 0010C, is currently being commissioned. Delivery of the Toros for Diablo
Regimiento mine started in February 2004 and will continue until 2016. Fully automated Toro 0010C LHDs will be
operated from a single control room outside the mines. A powerful communication system transmits control and
operating data between each unit and the control room. This system connects to the mines production and maintenance
systems enabling high fleet utilization and quality draw control. The autonomous LHD fleet sets revolutionary standards
of performance cost cutting and safety for underground ore extraction and transportation processes.

1 INTRODUCTION Mines are moving towards real time process control and
resource monitoring systems. They combine the use of
Monitoring, instrumentation and automation have become simulation tools for production forecasting and evaluating
attractive technological choices in massive mining changing situations. This in turn means that processes are
applications. Mining methods like block caving, where large well defined and the resources carefully thought of. The
amounts of material are moved during steady state resources will be increasingly more dedicated in
production support a well automated operation. The higher autonomous system where moving a unit from one area to
degree of automation in a mining application will be best the other may not be possible at all.
applied to a smooth and streamlined mining process and An increasing desire for lower cost and more massive
operation. The challenge is then to master the effect of operations moving to deeper deposits and decreasing
process disturbances or discontinuities like secondary human involvement will eventually lead to developing
breaking. mining methods and processes more suitable for
The obvious expected result of an automated system is automation.
the increase in utilisation of equipment and decrease in
operative unit cost. To achieve this objective, several 2 EL TENIENTE PIPA NORTE MINE
optimisation steps must be followed.
The actual performance of the selected mobile equipment Pipa Norte and Diablo Regimiento deposits will be
technology will rely on the support exploited by pre-undercut panel caving at 10 000 t/d and 28
functions, infrastructure, and user interface and user 000 t/d respectively. In the pre-undercut panel caving
acceptance. Optimising the technology to match the operation planned for Pipa Norte and Diablo Regimiento,
circumstances is an increasingly important phase in a mine fractured rock gravitates through to drawpoints on the
feasibility study. production level. Drilling and blasting or other secondary
The automated system must be functional in the given breaking methods will break oversize boulders that block
mining process and the mine layout applicable to automated the drawpoints. Pipa Nortes fleet uses three fully
operation. Only when the full system with machinery, automated Toro 0010C LHDs, each with a nominal capacity
process control, communication and operator interface has of 17,5t currently being commissioned. Diablo Regimiento
been identified, the final economical justification can be mine will operate with ten Toro 0010C that will be
made. commissioned by June 2005.
Careful evaluation of both technical and economical Obviously, these two mines have their own
aspects of different degrees of automation in given characteristics, but both of them will have the same
circumstances should precede any automation AutoMine solution, and for simplicity, this paper refers to
commitment. The approach that Sandvik Tamrock and El Pipa Norte mine only.
Teniente mine have taken in evaluating automation for the The Pipa Norte AutoMine system transports rock
Pipa Norte panel block cave mine included a review of the directly to the one crusher. Crushed rock is conveyed to an
given processes and conditions and the suitability for ore pass and then transported by train outside the mine for
automation and the evaluation of risks and critical points in processing. The secondary breaking and loading process
the systems. Then, the actual automation feasibility by takes place 24 hours per day and 7 days per week.
using the AutoMine solution was reviewed against the Operational delays including shift change, lunch and tea
overall economy and rate of return of the given options and breaks constitute a major percentage of total LHD
in further detail analyses the proposed automated system. downtime. These delays are reduced in both frequency and

686 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

duration by removing the local operator from the LHD. production area (refer to bottom of Figure 1) and scheduled
Additionally, removal of personnel from operational areas through the Mission Control of the AutoMine system. A
reduces the potential for accidents to occur. The local team of maintenance personnel will take the LHD out of the
operator on board of the LHD is replaced by tele-remote autonomous area through the Transit Lock and the shift and
control from a central control room located some 10km daily maintenance functions will be performed while the
outside the mine for functions, such as loading, which machine is being serviced.
require decision making. On-board computers control Fleet availability is based on planned downtime hours to
routine functions, such as tramming and tipping. perform scheduled maintenance services and unplanned
Pipa Norte will operate a panel cave comprising 188 downtime hours to perform unscheduled repairs or
drawpoints arranged on 15 production tunnels (Figure 1). breakdown work. There is no experience to accurately
Initially, the automatic LHDs operate in the seven most predict unplanned downtime in an automatic operation.
northern tunnels of the mine (top of Figure 1), an area that However, with real time condition monitoring it should be
is both static and concentrated. As time goes pass, feasible to achieve a diagnostic capability so that at least
production is taken from southern tunnels and the northern 15% of potential failures of the manual operation are
tunnels are released once their drawpoints are exhausted. diagnosed and rectified during existing planned downtime.
Pipa Norte production area will be developed It is assumed that this improvement offsets any additional
progressively from north to south and so will be the downtime associated with the AutoMine system and the
extraction of caved ore from drawpoints. There will downtime is therefore about the same as manually operated
consequently be little interaction between development and LHDs.
production crews, so that extraction operations will be of low As the operator is located in the surface Control Room,
complexity and routine. All underground infrastructure is the operator line-up time will be used to accomplish a 'hot-
new and designed for purpose. seat change' with no time lost. During the shift, the
The fifteen production tunnels and the main haulage operators will change out for rest and lunch breaks as
("zocavon") that comprises the production area will remain required.
discreetly static for the 10-year life of the operation. This Only one operator per shift is scheduled for all three Pipa
situation encourages the establishment of a rigid LHD LHDs. This same operator is responsible for the crusher
operating concept supported by the AutoMine system in hammer. However, this situation will be reviewed during the
order to achieve higher than average availability and operations phase. Time lost during changes of operators
utilisation factors. has been estimated at five minutes per shift.
From the cost point of view, the main advantage of
operating automatic LHDs is primarily related to labour and
maintenance costs. For example, Pipa Norte AutoMine
system requires (four) 4 operators; if these LHDs would
have been operated manually, it would have required 16
operators on the four shifts. On the maintenance side, the
number of full time fitters required to maintain a fleet of
automatic LHDs is similar to the requirements of a
conventional fleet however, the former require a full time
electrical/instrumentation technician per shift. It is also
correct to say that the autonomous fleet requires a higher
level of technical skills.
Some conclusions can be made about the maintenance
and operating costs of an autonomous LHD fleet from a
combination of first principal (Predictive Operating Cost
Model) and experience at Kiruna. Service and maintenance
spares costs will be less expensive for automatic LHDs due
to smoother operation and less frequent contact with the
walls of the haulage. Tyre life is significantly higher, about
33%, for automatically operated LHDs, as proved at Kiruna.
Bucket costs, fuel consumption per tonne of ore produced,
and oil and lubricant costs in an autonomous LHD are about
the same as the one for manually operated machines.

3 AUTOMINE OPERATIONS

The AutoMine system of three autonomous LHDs being

commissioned at Pipa Norte was developed by Sandvik
Tamrock to achieve the economic and safety objectives of
removing the operator from the machine. A schematic of the
major subsystems and interconnections between the
systems is presented in Figure 2.
When the autonomous LHD approaches the allocated
drawpoint, the Mission Control System (MCS) alerts the
Figure 1. Pipa Norte Mine Layout operator that an LHD is about to require the bucket filled.
The operator takes command of the LHD. After the tele-
To achieve this, the LHDs will not leave the production remote mode is selected, the control system switches data
area, except for planned maintenance events or major and video signals so that direct communication is
breakdowns, when they will be removed to the Diablo established between the LHD and tele-remote operator
Regimiento workshop, some 500 meters away. station.
The process of refuelling, topping up oil and lubricating The tele-remote operator fills the LHD bucket using
the machines will be carried out at the south-east end of the joysticks and pedals at the operator chair located in Colon.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 687

The filled bucket is then trimmed to drop off excessive ore, Access Control System. The gates are constructed so that
thus avoiding spillage on the road. After loading is finished they physically prevent human access into the isolated
the operator gives the 'go to crusher' order, the specific production area. The optical barriers detect any entries into
crusher tipping point having determined by the system. the production area and will stop the LHD fleet if one of them
When the bucket is emptied, the LHD alerts the MCS that activates them. The Access Control System for the
it is available for a new drawpoint assignment. The MCS production area safety barriers is an independent system
informs the system that the LHD has completed its dumping and operates as a supervisory system to the MCS.
mission and waits for a mission to tram to a drawpoint. The production tunnels isolation is done per unit by
Upon receiving a new assignment, the LHD exits the using "Access Gates". An Access Gate includes a physical
crusher tip and trams autonomously to the assigned steel gate with an electric lock that is engaged when the
drawpoint. MCS also prepare the automatic LHDs for gate is activated. The lock also detects that the gate is
routine re-fuelling and shift services as well as The LHD closed and locked with feedback to the Access Control
trams autonomously from the drawpoint to the crusher and user interface in the Control Room. Also, attached to the
back under the navigation system. The LHD is in Auto- gate are zone status lights and a horn that indicate the
mode. The operator can, at any stage switch the LHD to status of the autonomous area and warns personnel,
Remote Standby, Semi-Auto or Remote mode if required. respectively.
The switching takes effect on-line without stopping the LHD. An Access Gate also includes one set of infrared barriers
While tramming, the MCS controls the LHD path, to allow entry for service and maintenance personnel
performs traffic control and communicates the LHD status, without stopping the production in other tunnels. The main
location and heading to the system. haulage drive, "main zocavon" is the backbone for the
When an LHD approaches the dumping position at the autonomous LHD traffic. It is therefore free of any isolation
crusher tip, a water mist spray system is activated device.
automatically. In the event of the tip becoming unavailable The Access Gates field cabinet and control box each have
when a loader is on its way, the Mission Control System will a fast stop button that stops all autonomous machines in the
alert the LHD to avoid tipping. The LHD will not tip if the production zone when pressed. Pressing a fast stop button
hammer is in use or the crusher bin level is high. also disengages the electric lock to permit evacuation of the
In the event of an LHD breakdown the system informs the area in a mine emergency situation.
workshop and the Control Room, then exclude the LHD from The field cabinet and control box also have a key switch
the assignment logic and prepare the LHD for manual control. that is used to activate the gates. This ensures only
Other LHDs will be excluded from the tunnel where the authorised personnel with a key can activate the ACS.
breakdown has occurred. The Access Control System, ACS, The whole production area isolation is achieved by means
performs a shutdown procedure and a "Safe Path" so that of the "Transit Lock". A transit lock is a double gate
maintenance personnel can gain access to the machine. arrangement used to introduce and remove an autonomous
The production area isolation is achieved with both machine from the autonomous area whilst allowing other
physical gates and optical barriers that are part of the autonomous machines to continue operating.

Figure 2. Semi-autonomous LHD Subsystems.

688 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The transit lock utilises two interlocked access gates. The 4 CONCLUSIONS
outer gate, on the manual zone side, is opened and closed
manually by authorised underground mine personnel. This Sandvik Tamrock has developed the technology required
gate is kept closed during the automatic operation. The to implement automatic loading, and it is commercially
inner gate, on the autonomous zone side, has electric available under the name of AutoMine. AutoMine is
motors to enable the gate blades to be opened and closed being commissioned at Pipa Norte mine at El Teniente in
remotely from the field cabinets. The inner gate can also be Chile at the time of writing this paper. In parallel, another
opened from the ACS user interface in the control room. AutoMine system is in its early installation phase at Diablo
The Transit Lock uses the same components as an Regimiento mine, also at El Teniente in Chile.
Access Gate with the addition of an ultrasonic sensor for A major benefit is the removal of the operators from the
detecting when a machine is in the transit lock. underground to a safe controlled working environment on
Furthermore, a transit lock has an identification system used surface. A financial evaluation indicates significant potential
to detect the ID of the machine so that the system knows cost savings for automatic operation. The additional costs
which machine is being introduced or removed to/from the of the system and the skilled labour to maintain it are offset
autonomous area. by a reduction in the number of operators, greater LHD
Violation of the isolated production area by opening a utilisation and a reduction in spares consumption.
physical gate or crossing an infrared barrier stops the
automatic LHDs operating in the area and also creates an REFERENCES
alarm at the Control Room. The tele-operator at the Control
Room also has the option of reaching the production area Internal Report Sandvik-Tamrock, Document Number
by radio or telephone (the latter at the Transit Lock only). 62100-2, 2003. Automated Hauling System, Technical
When a production tunnel is allocated for automatic Description.
operation, it is isolated by opening the infrared barrier in the Schweikart, V., Control and Monitoring Systems at the
main haulage end. The optical barriers are also disabled at Palabora Underground Mine, Telemine 1, June 1999,
the main haulage end. Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
In the event of fire, all automatic LHDs go into emergency
stop status and all safety barriers are opened for free
evacuation.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 689

 PCRB-Surface control
centre for mine automation
Fredrik Kangas, Technical Development Sub-level Caving and Transportation Level, LKAB
Carl-Erik Emmoth, Superintendent Sublevel Caving and Transportation Level, LKAB
Pr Lindahl, Vice President of Ifa Production Development AB

Abstract
The development and implementation during the last years of advanced technology such as remote control and
automation within the Kiruna mine has changed the character of mining. Mine operation is now becoming more and more
alike any advanced process industry.
In a development project carried out jointly by LKAB and Ifa Production Development AB these new pre-requisites have
been full. Exploited, A new concept of production control, process management and organisation has been developed
where all production units will be linked together in a joint Production Centre Kiruna, placed at surface level.
The corner stones of the concept are using the benefits of modern technique in combination with taking advantage of
human skills for key tasks. In a production centre the personnel that control and co-ordinate the operations are placed.
The Production Centre is in turn linked to Operation Stations at key areas in the mine for specific tasks such as loading
and haulage. The concept gives room for a constant development off skills and offer opportunities for continuance
improvements off the mining process
The mining operators in the production centre will control and supervise the load to hoisting process by remote control
and be in charge of planning and delivering of ton and quality from the ore factory on a weekly basis to the refining plant
above surface.

1. INTRODUCTION

Kirunavaara iron ore mine is the third biggest under-

ground mine in the world and is located in the north of
Sweden about 200 km north of the polar circle.
The mine daily produce between 60 to 75 kton raw
material iron ore in three qualities containing more or less
Phosphor, Potassium and waste rock.
The mine started to produce about 1902 in an open pit mine
and went underground in 1962 and is today a highly automated
mine. The production technique is sub-level cave mining with
draw points mainly at the 820 meter level, loading to ore passes
down to the 1045 meter main level for haulage by train to
crushers and then hoisted in two steps before surface.
Every year the automated machines drill 70% of our
production drilling, load 30% of our raw material iron ore and Figure 1: An ilustratation of the Kiruna mine ore body with
remote controlled boulder breaker treats 30% of our boulder infrastructure for transport of personnel, ore and air.
on grizzlies. We remote control all chutes when we load our
trains on the fully automated main level and hoist it to our
refining plants above surface. Kiruna iron ore mine is a few From that observation the curiosity made us look over our
years from fully automated production and taking the step total process from mine to harbour and we found out that the
over from traditional mining to general process industry. operator in most cases worked in a similar way. Every
We are in this very minute operating the automated operator optimised his own process with little regard of the
process from above surface and preparing the organisation process before and the process after. Several examples
to work in a new way. The organisation is based on the were found that showed weaknesses in communication
concept of providing power of decision and skills night and between the process steps with production losses as result.
day through process focused organisation. The investigation lead to a project with the goal to give an
alternative solution to monitor and steer the process from
2. PROJECT HISTORY mine to harbour. In 2001 the project delivered a case model
of how the process could be controlled from a production
At 1999 the first semi automated and remote con-trolled centre. And the same year the project group was asked to
LHD was tried out in the Kiruna mine. About one year later realise the idea in a first step were the mine should be
we first observed how little influence the automation had on operated from a production centre above surface.
the operators. The only difference was that the operator did The development of the practical solution took about two
not sit in the machine. In every other way he was still years and involved more than sixty people, mainly workers. To
working like he was sitting in the LHD far from the process succeed with the idea we had to create a will of change in the
information that now was available. organisation so we could take full benefits of motivated

690 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 and high knowledge of its own area. The daily production relies
on those teams. To overcome the distance between the teams
we support communication with regular meetings and the
same process information in real time solutions.
The production team that has its home in the Production
Centre is working with a strong focus to optimise the
process. The Production Centre is the heart of the
production assignment. The process is supported by high
quality maintenance that keeps the facilities and machines
in full production. That service is given by Operation Centres
that perform mainly scheduled maintenance but has a
central function in teams that perform supervision and
emergency maintenance on the facilities. This Operation
Team is a link between process and facilities and is in con-
stant communication with both the Production Team and
Supporting functions as scheduled maintenance, production
system maintenance, technicians, etc.
If you can take a decision, take it! The key is to give as
many as possible the information and knowledge to take it.
Figure 2: Over view picture that describes remote controlled
loading system from navigation to control. 4. CONCLUSIONS

employees who are qualified to take fast and accurate The conclusion of the project is that automation of a
decisions. Employees who supervise and operate the process process is far more than expensive investments in
and maintain the facilities to achieve right quality in the raw sophisticated technique. Often companies have long time
material ore and high reliability in the facility. plans fore technical development and investments but
ignore the fact that we need qualified staff to operate and
3. PRODUCTION CENTRE CONCEPT maintain the production system.
When the production speed increases and the quality
The Production Centre Concept introduce enrapture to expectations accelerate many companies stand without the
traditional mining technique where every operator or driver personnel to match the expectations. The result is long payoff
is working with a well-defined part of the process and is an times on investments and higher risk to deliver low quality
owner of his specific facility or machine. products during the rebuilding and adaptation of the
The traditional solution creates constant sub organisation to the new production system. You will never
optimisations and depends strongly on high accuracy in regain the losses, and in most cases never reach the optimised
over all planing. Every day things happen for a single solution you will get when you have an organisation that asks
operation that makes it impossible to produce according to for automation and better technical solutions. Only a thoroughly
the original production plan. The overall process is thus designed organisation with high degrees of decision making
often disturbed. The process becomes dependent on a power on the right level can give you that benefit.
strong staffs and special functions that supervise the
process and takes the decision on how to operate every part
of the process. The solution has long lead times and poor
motivation, and does not support own initiatives from the
mining personnel. In the same way the strong relation
between op-erator and machine affects in a negative way
the contact between operator and maintenance personnel.
The Production Centre Concept in a way separates
production and maintenance in teams that have a clear focus

Figure 4: Mining industry has the possibility ta take huge

steps in automation level but it takes big effors to succeed.
That hardest struggle will be organisation related.

If you get the right organisation around the produc-tion

assignment a good guess is that you can reduce the time to
gain full production on a new facility with 30 to 50 percent
and increase the full capacity on a new or old facility with 5
to 20 percent.

Figure 3: Production Centre Concept in Kiruma mine. New

York places that are tools for the self-learning organisation
described in the right corner.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 691

 Introduction of autonomous loaders
to Olympic dam operations, Australia
Charles McHugh, Group Manager Mining Technologies, WMC Resources Ltd.

Abstract
WMC Resources Ltd has been involved the development and trialling of an automated load haul dump vehicle system
since 1997. This paper describes the introduction of the system into the Olympic Dam Operation and its performance
compared with existing manual loaders. In certain situations the autotram loader will outperform the manual operation,
particularly on the longer distances. There were no personnel injuries associated with the operation of the system during
the testing period. The major operational issues with the system are discussed and the direction for future improvements
outlined.

1 INTRODUCTION The DAS system was transported back to ODO for

production testing. The control centre was set up on surface
The Olympic Dam Operation (ODO) is owned by a and communication to the production area was via optic
subsidury of WMC Resources Ltd (WMCR). ODO is fibre and microwave radio network. The cable transmission
Australias largest underground mine located some 550km was 100 Mb/s between radio cells and 11Mb/s for the
north of Adelaide in South Australia. The orebody was wireless ethernet between the autotram vehicle using
discovered in 1975 and had undergone several expansions 802.11b standard. The small latency in the on board
with the last one completed in 2002. The mine is cameras did not affect tele-remote bogging performance.
polymetallic and produces 200,000 copper tonnes per year One week after re-commissioning at ODO, the loader was
along with uranium, gold and silver. The mine produces involved in an uncontrolled movement.
approximately 10 million tonnes of run of mine ore per The loader drove 25 metres out of the production control
annum from open stoping methods and backfilling with area, through the safety barrier gate, colliding with a Volvo
cemented aggregate fill. The mine has highly automated service loader and running over a light vehicle. The loader
transportation systems that includes an automated came to rest in a stockpile and shutdown before any
underground train and shaft. analysis could be performed.
All automation testing was immediately suspended and a
The mine has been involved in the development and thorough investigation was performed. Ironically this was
testing of an automated load dump vehicle system for four one of the most computer monitored mining accidents at the
years. mine but it remains unclear as to the exact cause.
The investigation concluded the most likely cause of the
2 HISTORY OF PROTO-TYPE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT accident was a severe shock in the lowering of the bucket
during loading causing the on board computer to crash. The
WMCR had sponsored two automated loader projects computer continue to output the final control signal of first
from as early as 1997. One was with the Company, Lateral gear reverse. The continual collision with the wall as the
Dynamics (LD) and the other was the Australian Mineral loader was moving prevented the computer from doing a
Industry Research Association (AMIRA) Project P517. LD complete reboot. When the loader stopped in the stockpile
had tested a proto-type at the WMCR Perseverance Mine it was able to reboot and immediately shutdown as it had
on an Elphinstone R1600 and it had proven to have greater lost communications.
productivity than tele-remote systems in retreat longhole The system was redesigned based on the investigation
stopes by at least 40%. LD formed a joint venture company with the following important safety features.
with Caterpillar. A completely independent safety system (ISS) that shuts
The company was called Dynamic Automation Systems down the fuel solenoid.
(DAS). DAS under licence combined parts of the AMIRA The ISS is a Category 3 European rated and Australian
P517 into their system. The system is now marketed as Standard rated electrical safety system complying with
MINEGEM. EN 954-1 and AS4024.1 respectively.
The DAS system was taken to ODO for testing in 1999 The onboard computer is a PC104 industrial computer.
and fitted to an Elphinstone R2900 loader. The control An independent onboard mission recorder similar to an
centre was set up underground near the production area. aircraft "black box".
The loader had 18,000 hours of service and was very old. Software re-written using real time operating systems.
There were problems of control when speeds were
increased over 5km/hour. In March 2001 WMCR decided The system was then tested on a new R2900 loader at the
take the DAS system to the Queensland Centre for Caterpillar mine simulation facility in Burnie, Tasmania for
Advanced Technologies (QCAT) to determine the cause of 200 hours. It was dismantled and sent to ODO for further
the speed problem. It was determined to be a combination testing in July 2002. A new R2900 was hired for the duration
of latency from an internal remote control modem and of the first trial in the 42 Orange 20 Stope. The display of the
hydraulic pilot valve. By April 2001 the DAS system had unit from the ODO autotram control room is displayed in
demonstrated that a R2900 loader was capable of speeds Figure 1.
over 15km/hr in third gear at the QCAT test track.

692 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The speed of the loader was tested up to 20km/hr in 3rd
gear but this speed was limited by second gear during
production due to concerns about road conditions. The
speeds were determined by the operators based on manual
operation experience. The maximum speed obtained in 2nd
gear reverse was 14km/hr. It was observed that if the
machine was programmed to attempt a corner too fast in
reverse then it would have a "rear bucket swipe" collision.
This would cause the bucket teeth to touch the wall. The
major collision damage was caused during tele-remote
operation with operators breaking off bucket teeth adaptor
plates. This would take approximately five hours to repair.
Collisions with the wall under automated mode were very
minor. This indicates that the major collision damage occurs
in the 5m approach to the muckpile during tele-remote
operation.
The autotram system was shown to operate between shift
Figure 1: Autotram control room showing orepass grizzly, breaks and even during major stope firings. Shift handover
vehicle health, cameras, map route layout, independent took just a few minutes on surface. The system was able to
safety system status and control stick. work through major dust episodes in which normal manual
operation would have ceased. Dust was generally caused
when there was major rock pile movement of an open
3 PRODUCTION TRIAL AT THE 42 ORANGE 20 STOPE drawpoint.
Re-fuelling was performed at mid shift at the mine central
The loader was setup in the 42 Orange 20 stope with 24 refuelling point by the underground maintenance crew.
hour coverage using 2 x 12 hour shifts. The route included This allowed operation between shifts. The fuel capacity
a 100m section with a 1:8 gradient. It was necessary to was for 14 hours continuous production and the operators
make two, three point turns during a full cycle due to the adjusted re-fuelling schedule according the maintenance
position of the safety barrier gate. The stope had two active schedule. Road maintenance was scheduled during re-
draw points. The results are displayed in Table 1. Initial fuelling. The guidance lasers were cleaned during servicing
results using a 15 tonne per bucket assumption were very with a clean rag.
encouraging. The average over 18 days or 36 shifts was just The maintenance personnel commented that in some
over 80 buckets or 1160 tonnes per shift. places the road was so badly damaged it was not possible
to drive manually faster than first gear at 5km/hr without
causing injury to oneself, whereas the autotram loader had
Table 1:Summary of Automated Production Trial
been travelling at 12km/hr.
Towards the end of the testing the stope was almost
42 Orange 20 Stope Average of Cycle Time
empty. Normally this would require tele-remote bogging
Operating Hours 266 then manual tramming to the grizzly. In this case it was
decided to continue using the autotram loader reducing the
Total Cycles 2,786 need for double handling.
Average Cycle Time (min) 3.75 An early comparison was performed when road
Tonnes 41,790 conditions were good between a manual loader and the
automated loader for 15 cycles for instantaneous production
One Way Distance (m) 220 rate and results are displayed in Table 2. Even with
variations in rock sizes it can be said that manual loader
was quicker however the following observations were made.
The 42 Orange 20 stope contained a low amount of The operator could not sustain the rate of production due
oversize rocks. The operators achieved very good to operator fatigue.
productivity even during on the job training. Within four shifts The operator was allowed to use third gear.
operators were generally very comfortable with the system. The operator used a sightly quicker path because of no
The tramming and dumping were automated so the path restriction on the safety barricade gate.
variation in terms of buckets per hour was very low. The Autotram dump was set at 30 seconds (this was reduced
tele-remote bogging took an average of 45 seconds. The later to 12 seconds).
system was influenced more by factors other than the skill
of the operator.
The Caterpillar Autodig was used in conjunction with Table 2: Average Instantaneous Cycle Time
the automated tramming but was discontinued after three
shifts because of the following reasons. 42 Orange 20 Stope Average of Cycle Time
The large variation in rock sizes which seemed to pulse
between large and small made correct manual setting of Automated Loader 3.75 minutes
the Autodig difficult.
Manual Loader 2.83 minutes
The Autodig managed to fill buckets in one pass
approximately 30% of the time.
The Autodig would try to straighten out the machine A high level comparison of the autotram at the 42 Orange
while bogging on left full lock causing the rear end to 20 stope and the average of the manual loaders across the
swing into adjacent wall during reversing. whole mine at that time was performed.
It was found that the autotram loader was 67% productive
The use of Autodig was discontinued as tele-remote in terms of tonnes per shift per loader but 175% in terms of
bogging is more efficient even until this time. tonnes per shift per loader per stope. The results are
displayed in Table 3.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 693

 Table 3: Comparison of Manual With Automated operator free time between tramming cycles allowed for
very accurate recording of the causes of production
42 Orange 20 Stope Manual Automated downtime. There were no reported injuries associated with
the autotram loader during the production trial.
Tonnes/Shift/Loader 1740 1160 In the longer haul distances, operators reported of
Stopes 2.7 1 becoming bored and had taken to reading between bogging.
A subtle but important change had occurred, the operators
Number of Drawpoints 6.75 2
had become supervisors.
Tonnes/Shift/Loader/Stope 660 1160
One Way Distance (m) 220 220 5 MULTIPLE AUTOTRAM TRIAL
AT THE 56 AMBER 25 STOPE

The automated loader was not able to move to other In August 2003 in the 56 Amber 24 stope, a second unit
available areas when oversize rocks were encountered or was fitted with MINEGEM and two loaders were
roads degraded as there were no other communication demonstrated to be operating in the same area, controlled
network setups. All situations had to be dealt with from surface by one operator. The map route is displayed in
immediately. Manual loaders were able to move to other Figure 2.
stopes when they could not deal with the problems. The traffic control system while about 50% reliable
The large amount of oversize rocks in all stopes required showed that operator intervention provided almost no lost
a mobile rockbreaker operator to work as a team with the time in productivity.
manual loader operator. The automated loader operator had Over 430m it was demonstrated that the productivity was
no rockbreaker because the rockbreaker at the time was not approximately 1.8 times the estimated time for one autotram
remote controlled. Large rocks were broken by repeat loader due to queing. Queing generally occurred if the cycle
dumping on the grizzly. If this was unsuccessful then rocks was delayed due to difficult bogging. The cycle time average
would be transported to a popping bay. Estimation of loader was 9.5 minutes.
productivity lost due to absence of rockbreaker by The traffic control system calculated the most appropriate
production personnel was approximately 400 tonnes per place for passing to optimise cycle times of both units. The
shift. barrier gate was replaced with a laser system and warning
The autotram has demonstrated by ensuring that the sign. This significantly reduced setup time. Manual
loader stays in one stope it is more likely that operators will tramming to the orepass was considered too fatiguing for
follow the correct sequence of mining the operators.
The loader was taken to a new stope to commence work. During this trial the Co-operative Research Centre for
The loader was involved in a collision with the wall during Mining based in Brisbane, Australia, had developed an
some routine testing that resulted in severe damage to the underground haul road duty meter with a road severity
unit including twisting of the chassis. An investigation index. This unit was fitted to one of the loaders and was able
revealed the unit was not in automated mode. The loader to map the roughness of the road during each cycle. It could
was removed from service and the MINEGEM system be seen there was greater roughness at the drawpoints and
installed on an older production loader. turning points as the road deteriorated.
Future work will focus on productivity versus road quality
and maintenance regimes. The trial was suspended after
4 PRODUCTION TRIALS AT THE PURPLE STOPES one week and 10,000 ore tonnes removal due to a major
misfire in the stope.
A four month production trial was performed from 10th of
October 2002 to 17th of January 2003. A summary of the
key performance indicators are given below in Table 4 by
Bryan (2003).
Table 4: Summary of Automated Production Trial

Purple 21 Purple 71

Operating Hours 363 134

Cycles 5,723 748
Average Cycle Time (min) 3.8 10.7
Tonnes 71,556 11,489
One Way Distance (m) 178 349

After initial testing the total system demonstrated

availabilities over 90% with the main cause of down time
being the radio cell reliability. The biggest cause of utilisation
downtime was breakdown maintenance and oversize rocks.
A comparison between average manual stope loaders and Figure 2: 56 Amber 24 multiple autotram loaders with haul
single unit automation was made, allowing for factors such road duty meter fitted.
as large rocks, hang-ups and full passes. Over the four
month trial it was shown that the average manual loader
worked approximately 4.8 hours per shift and the autotram After this trial it became imperative that a form of remote
worked 6.7 hours per shift. The instantaneous production rock breaking at the grizzly was required to ensure
rate of the manual loaders was up to 30% higher but the clearance of large rocks.
autotram cycle time had significant room for improvement in A project was formed in November 2003 to remote control
the same order of magnitude. The computer monitoring and a Caterpillar 325 excavator with a rock breaker attachment.

694 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

It was successfully controlled from the surface using 7 CONCLUSION
existing communication infrastructure. It is now possible for
one person to control two loaders and one rock breaker at The MINEGEM automated loader system at ODO can
the same time. Without automated digging it was felt three be considered very successful although not fully integrated
machines would be the maximum number to be operated by into the mine. It cannot yet be said that the automated
one person efficiently. system will outperform manual system in every situation all
the time. The anecdotal evidence suggests that the
6 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS autotram will outperform manual operation in distances over
200m. There is no comparison with tele-remote systems in
A single MINEGEM system would cost approximately terms of productivity.
40% of the capital for a new 20 tonne capacity load haul The system has shown to be reliable and accepted by
dump vehicle. This would reduce to 25% for multiple units. operators. The training time to learn the system and get to
This assumes three radio cells per area. The training time full productivity is less than 10% of manual systems. The
for new operators with some computer experience is a few additional 25% cost in capital for multiple automated
days compared with manual loader system of several systems must be clearly considered in terms of mine
months. When one operator begins to operate several units integration to ensure maximum productivity is achieved. The
the advantages become very apparent. Tele-remote change to the automated system requires full management
systems are cheaper in capital however the MINEGEM and operator support if it is to become the new business
offers productivities at least 40% greater. process.
The support for the system requires a set of modular The following issues in order of importance must be
hardwared spares kept at the mine site. DAS provide 24 addressed in the future to increase the productivity of the
hour coverage via the internet for system trouble shooting system.
which reduces the need for a permanent on site technician. Methods for remotely removing large rocks at drawpoints.
Important achievements during autotram loader trialling Road construction and maintenance.
include: Bigger fuel and grease capacity.
The unit has performed up to 235 cycles in a 12 hour shift Smart automated digging.
over a 70m haul distance.
The unit has performed up to 155 cycles in a 12 hours ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
shift over a 220m haul distance.
The unit has performed up to 70 cycles in a 12 hour shift The author would like to thank DAS, QCAT and ODO
over 430m haul distance. mine personnel, especially J.Lachmund, J.Lever, J.Kerr and
The system has been used on 8 different loaders of D.Leonard for having the positive attitude to make the vision
different sizes and manufacturers. work. A special thanks to I. Bryan for mentoring everyone
The system has been used in 7 different stoping areas. during the trials.
The system can installed in one week if the optic fibre is
available in the area. REFERENCES

The integration of the autotram system into the mine must Bryan, I, 2003. Auto-tram Loader Transfer Project Close
be considered carefully as initially there will be large Out Report. STEM Partnership Consultant Report 25p.
production penalties as manual system interactions place
restrictions on the automated systems.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 695

 Use of the modular dispatch system
to control production operations
at the DOZ block cave mine
Rudy Prasetyo, Superintendent Cave Management, David C. Flint, Technical Expert Cave Management,
Tarsisus B. Setyoko, Chief Dispatch EngineerP. T. Freeport Indonesia
Eddy Samosir, Project Engineer, Strategic Planning, Freeport McMoRan Inc.

Abstract
The Modular Mining Dispatch software and hardware systems have been installed at the DOZ Block Cave Mine to aid
production operations. The system is being utilized to implement the daily detailed production plan, prioritize the location
of production for each individual loader, collect actual drawpoint production data, provide real-time drawpoint status data
and to measure loader productivity. Discussion is provided as to how use of the system benefits each of these points.
This paper also describes the software and hardware configurations, as installed to control extraction and haulage operations of
the mine. The Intelimine Dispatch software logic has been customized for DOZ conditions and production control requirements.
The hardware system consists of a central computer, a micro-cell network and field computerswhich are installed on each mobile
equipment piece. Communication between the mobile equipment and the network micro-cells is by UHF radio transmissions.
Hubs manage the communications between the equipment and the systems central computer, and monitor vehicle vital signs.
Dispatch operations are monitored by Dispatch Engineers from a central underground location.
Use of the Dispatch software has increased the reliability of production data and compliance to the production plan, and
allows for a higher degree of management of the block cave.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) block cave mine, operated by

P. T. Freeport Indonesia (PTFI), is located in the Ertsberg
District, West Papua Indonesia (Figure 1). Development of
the mine was initiated in 1997, production commenced in
2000 (Barber et. al, 2000), and currently produces at 40,000
tonnes per day.
DOZ is the third level of block caving to exploit the copper-
gold Ertsberg East Skarn System (EESS). The Gunung
Bijih Timur mine (GBT) exploited upper levels of the deposit
(Owen, 1992), from which 68.7 million tonnes at a grade of
1.93 % copper was extracted. The Intermediate Ore Zone
(IOZ) mine produced from the deposit between the 3456
meter and 3706 elevations, with 43 million tonnes of ore on
an average grade of 1.21 % copper and 0.43 g/t gold
extracted.
Figure 1: Ertsberg Mining District Location Map.
The Intellimine Dispatch system, of Modular Mining Inc.,
has been installed at DOZ to control block cave extraction
and haulage operations.
herringbone layout, are spaced at 18 meters along the
panel drifts (Barber, et. al. 2001) (Figure 2). Currently,
2 THE DOZ BLOCK CAVE MINE DOZ produces from 240 drawpoints, accessed from 15
panel drifts.
The DOZ mine exploits the Ertsberg East Skarn System The undercut level is developed 20 meters above the
(EESS) deposit between the 3470 and 3120 meter (base of extraction level. The advanced undercut method is utilized
the IOZ mine) elevations. Draw column heights are 350 for caving. Caving has been completed for the eastern
meters where below the IOZ, and a maximum of 500 meters portion of the mine, and will be initiated for the western
elsewhere. The DOZ block cave mineable zone extends portion in the 4th quarter of 2004.
approximately 900 meters along strike and varies between Block cave ore is delivered from drawpoints to orepasses
200 to 350 meters wide. The mine is an advanced undercut, by load-haul-dump (LHD) equipment. A four (4)-meter
mechanized block cave, utilizing truck haulage and a diameter orepass is located in the center of each panel drift,
gyratory crusher. as ground conditions allow (Barber et. al, 2001). In addition,
The extraction level has been developed at the 3120 three (3) orepasses, two (2) fitted with rock breakers, have
meter elevation. Panel drifts are oriented perpendicular been constructed along the extraction level fringe. All
to the strike of the deposit and are developed on a orepasses bottom at truck-loading chutes at the haulage
spacing of 30 meters. Drawpoints, developed with the level.

696 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Figure 2: Eastern DOZ Extraction Level Showing Dispatch Hardware Installations

Figure 3: DOZ Haulage Level Showing Dispatch Hardware Installations

The haulage level is located at the 3076 meter elevation. Typically, 15 production loaders and six (6) haul trucks at
Truck haulage is through a limited access, one-way traffic, active at any time.
racetrack-type loop system between the orepass loading
chutes and the crusher (Figure 3). The haul trucks dump 3 DOZ DISPATCH SYSTEM
directly, at one (1) of three (3) dump positions, into the
Fuller-Taylor 1,372 x 1,956mm gyratory crusher (Barber et. DOZ employs the Intellimine Dispatch software system of
al., 2001). Modular Mining. Intellimine is a large scale, computer based
The production equipment fleet is comprised of mine management system that allows PTFI to monitor and
Elphinstone LHDs, and Elphinstone and Toro haul trucks. control production loaders, trucks and secondary sizing drills.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 697

 Figure 4: Schematic of the DOZ Dispatch hardware network

The hardware system consists of a central computer, a For data packages transmitted by the equipment, the
network of micro-cells, equipment field computer systems process works in reverse.
(FCS) and fixed radio frequency (RF) tags. Communication Micro-cells, with dipole antennae, have been installed at
between the FCS and the micro-cell network and the RF strategic locations throughout the extraction and haulage
tags is by UHF radio transmissions. Hubs manage levels (Figures 2 and 3). The micro-cells are internally
communication between the equipment and the central connected by token-ring cable, and networked to the master
computer system. Dispatch operations are monitored by hub by fiber-optic cable.
Dispatchers, from a central underground location (Figure 4).
3.4 Field Computer System
3.1 Computer System A field computer system has been installed on each
The Intelimine (version 5.1) Dispatch software operates mobile production equipment piece. The FCS receives and
on two (2) Sun Ultra30 workstations, running on the Solaris displays instructions from the central computer system and
2.7 operating system. These servers, one as a backup, are also accepts input from the equipment operator.
situated six kilometers from the mine. Fiber-optic cable links The FCS is comprised of a:
the server to the mine Dispatch hardware network. UHF data radio (inside the hub) and antenna, to transmit
Dispatchers monitor operations on two (2) emulator and receive signals.
monitors located in the mine. Hub, which manages communication between the micro-
The Intelimine software has been highly modified to suit cells and RF tags.
the block cave environment and the DOZ mine Touch-screen graphics console (GOIC).
configuration. It has also been customized to include Tag reader, integral to the hub, and antenna, to
communications in the Indonesian language. communicate with the RF tags.

3.2 Master Hub The function of the FCS hub, like that of the master hub,
Two (2) master hubs manage and distribute is to manage and distribute data between the equipment
communications between the mine equipment and the FCS components and the micro-cells. The hub is
central computer. The master hub reads the data packages comprised of a processor, interface card, data radio and tag-
sent from the server and routes each to the correct micro- reader. The interface card translates data between the
cell loop. Likewise, the hub organizes data generated from digital and radio format. The tag-reader, and associated
the field computers and forwards it to the central computer. antenna, transmits radio signals that interrogate fixed tags
The master hubs are connected to the micro-cell networks to determine location. The data radio communicates radio
and the PTFI network by fiber-optic cable. signals with the micro-cells.
The GOIC is a 640 x 480, VGA compatible, touch-
3.3 Micro-cell Radio Network sensitive screen that displays instructions from the central
The micro-cell radio network consists of a series of low- computer and allows for the operator to transmit data to the
power radio modems that run on a simplex radio channel central computer and messages to the Dispatcher. The unit
operating at 451 MHz. is sealed, has no moving parts, and is physically robust. It
As information is received from the system (via the master can be easily configured for truck LHD, or auxiliary
hub), the micro-cells read the data packages to determine equipment operation, and can display messages in either
the intended recipient of the communication. If for text or icon mode.
equipment with which a particular micro-cell is in radio
contact, the data package is translated to radio frequency 3.5 RF Tags
and relayed to the accompanying antenna. The antenna Passive radio frequency tags have been installed at
then transmits the radio message to the equipment FCS. drawpoints, orepass collars, orepass chutes and at each of

698 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the three crusher dump positions. These tags have been pushes the "dump" icon on the GOIC to register the load to
programmed with a unique identification that is cross- the orepass. The system records the dump and then
referenced to the physical map location. The RF tags are automatically directs the LHD to the point of next
read by tag readers, which are a component of the FCS, to production. If an LHD is late to complete the next expected
determine location in the mine. action, such as "arriving at the assigned rock breaker," the
Tags installed at drawpoints are covered by rubber to system alerts the dispatcher by an exception message.
protect from secondary blast damage. The Intelimine software has been customized to calculate
The performance of the RF tags is fundamental to the height of material in the orepass, based on LHD bucket
determining the specific location of production, so tag factors. When the "dump" button is pushed, the orepass
integrity is monitored by the Dispatch Engineers on a material level is recalculated.
regular basis. The LHD operator then returns to the drawpoint and
continues to produce according to the draw order. Once the
3.6 Extraction Level Network planned number of buckets has been produced from the
Three micro-cell loops, connected to the master hub by initial drawpoint, the LHD is automatically dispatched to the
fiber-optic, have been installed at the DOZ extraction level. next priority drawpoint.
Micro-cells are located along the north and south perimeter As a drawpoint becomes unavailable for production, the
of the level. A dipole antenna, connected to the micro-cells, LHD operator has the capability to change the status of the
has been installed at the north and south of each panel drift drawpoint within the database. The system will then
(Figure 2). Passive RF tags have been installed at each dispatch the loader to the next priority drawpoint.
drawpoint and orepass collar. If the operator desires to produce from a drawpoint out of
sequence, he may do so by actively selecting the particular
3.7 Truck Haulage Level Network drawpoint off the GOIC icons list. The FCS tag reader
A network of twelve (12) strategically located micro-cells continues to communicate with the RF tags installed at the
with antennae, also connected to the master hub by fiber- drawpoints to confirm the production location.
optic cable, has been installed though out the truck haulage Should the operator key-in a drawpoint that is in conflict
level. Passive RF tags have been installed at each loading with the drawpoint RF tag, an exception report is
chute and crusher dump point (Figure 3). automatically submitted to the operator and Dispatcher by
the central computer.
4 DISPATCH CONTROL OF PRODUCTION Once the available draw order for a panel has been
completed, the LHD operator sends a message to the
The DOZ Dispatch system is utilized to communicate the Dispatcher for further instructions.
production plan to the equipment operators and to collect The customized system has codes for various classes of
data on the details of actual production. equipment delay. The operator actively selects the
A production control system was chosen for DOZ due to appropriate category off the icon list on the GOIC. The
challenges experienced at the GBT and IOZ mines, where central computer and Dispatcher are thereby notified of the
production plans and actual performance data were current operating condition for the equipment.
transferred between engineering and operations by paper At the end of shift, the Dispatcher makes whatever
copy. The integrity of some of this information was suspect, manual adjustments to the recorded data that are
and therefore resulted in inaccurate reporting of daily mine necessary.
tonnage and grade, and calculation of remaining drawpoint Once daily, Dispatch production information is
reserves. The quality of long-term production planning and downloaded to the central production-planning database.
overall cave management suffered, accordingly. This information is then utilized within CMS to calculate
daily production, draw order compliance, and remaining
4.1 LHD Dispatching drawpoint reserves, and to analyze potential sources of
At the beginning of a production shift, the Dispatcher induced stress in the production area. The production
uploads the detailed production plan generated by the Cave strategy for the subsequent day and the balance of the
Management System (CMS) production planning tool month is then re-established based on analysis of this daily
(Samosir et. al., 2004). This plan includes the number of information.
desired buckets of production for each drawpoint, plus the On a monthly basis, the Dispatch data is utilized to
order of production priority for drawpoints within a panel. analyze LHD equipment and manpower efficiency and
The LHD operator travels to the desired panel and logs-in productivity.
on the GOIC to the Dispatch system. Based on the pre-
determined order of production for that particular panel, the 4.2 Truck Dispatching
central computer directs the LHD to produce from the initial Trucks at the DOZ haulage level are generally
drawpoint. The operator either accepts this order or actively automatically dispatched to orepass chutes according to
logs-in to an alternate drawpoint. The operator then rules established by the Dispatch Engineer. These rules
commences production from that drawpoint. When at the consider the following:
drawpoint, the tag-reader component of the FCS Distance between the truck and an available loading
interrogates the RF tag installed at the drawpoint to point.
determine the drawpoint identification. The operator also Dispatching of other trucks.
pushes the "load" icon on the GOIC. The LHDs FCS then Orepass material inventory.
relays the RF tag and the LHDs FCS identification numbers Time since the loading point has last produced.
to the central computer via the micro-cell radio network. This
informs the system that the LHD has produced a load from The Dispatcher is able to also actively direct trucks to
the specific drawpoint. particular loading points, as operational conditions dictate.
The system then directs the loader to the assigned At the beginning of a shift, the truck operator logs-in to the
orepass for tipping. En route, the LHD passes beneath other Dispatch system and the central computer automatically
RF tags (known as call points) strategically located in the directs the truck to the initial chute for loading. When the
tunnel which inform the system of the LHDs progress. truck arrives at the chute, the FCS reads the tag installed at
At the orepass, the FCS reads the RF tag to determine the chute and the operator pushes the "arrive at LP" icon.
the tip location. Once the load is tipped, the operator Once the truck is loaded, the operator pushes the "load"

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 699

icon on the GOIC. The system then registers the equipment
as loaded, and directs the truck to travel to the crusher. The
material inventory in the orepass is also adjusted for the
load, based on the factor for that truck type. At the crusher,
the FCS reads the tag for the particular crusher dump point
and the operator pushes the "arrive at crusher" icon on the
GOIC. Once dumping has been completed, the truck
operator pushes the "dump" icon on the GOIC. At this point,
the system records the load as dumped and adds the
tonnage to the shift total. The central computer then
dispatches the truck to a chute for the next load.
Dispatchers have the capability to classify as a chute as
"Down" or on "Standby", based on operational conditions,
and thereby remove the unit from the dispatching logic.
A utility screen has been created which provides orepass
information to the dispatcher for:
Tonnes remaining,
Last time it was drawn from,
Dispatch priority level,
Truck identification number, if one is currently assigned to
it; plus the expected arrival time,
Status of the loading chute.

6 DISPATCHER MONITOR AND CONTROL

Dispatchers monitor and control DOZ production
activities, on each shift, from emulator monitors in a control
room located within the mine. The Intellimine software Figure 6: Dispatch Utility Screen
system has been customized to provide a number of real-
time informational screens that allow the Dispatchers to
determine critical operating parameters and to interact with and the current draw compliance.
equipment operators. A daily summary report is automatically generated by
The Transaction Screen displays real-time tonnage Dispatch and emailed to DOZ Management. The email
summaries (last hour, this hour, shift-to-date) for extraction, includes data, by shift, for production tonnage; equipment
orepass inventory and haulage to the crusher. operating hours, delay hours, availability and utilization, and
The Exception Screen displays messages generated from orepass material inventory. An hourly summary of the same
the central computer for operator actions that are information, plus cycle time data (Figure 7), may be
unexpected (Figure 5). Examples include: 1) locking-in to accessed from the Report Utility Screen.
a drawpoint that is different than the drawpoint tag
identification, 2) producing from a drawpoint above the draw
plan, 3) loss of radio contact with the micro-cell network, and
4) equipment operating without the operator actively
logging-in to the system. The Exception Screen demands
that the Dispatcher either "accept" or "reject" these operator
actions. If "rejected", the central computer automatically
sends a message to the equipment FCS to request remedial
action from the operator.

Figure 7: Truck Cycle Time Report

5 CONCLUSION

Use of the Dispatch system provides many benefits to

controlling production activities at the DOZ Block Cave
Mine.
For extraction, the system provides an effective means: 1) to
Figure 5: Exception Screen communicate the details of the production plan to the
equipment operators, 2) to collect accurate actual production
A range of equipment status information is displayed on data, 3) to calculate compliance to the production plan, 4) to
the Dispatch Utility Screen. The utility also provides a summarize daily actual production for transfer to other
means for the Dispatcher to send text messages to the production planning tools, 5) to identify circumstances when
equipment field computer system (Figure 6). equipment operators produce in an unexpected fashion, and 6)
The Draw Card Screen provides the Dispatcher real-time for the loader operator to effectively communicate with the
information on the drawpoint production plan, drawpoint Dispatcher. All these benefits allow for precise compliance of
status and buckets of ore produced shift-to-date. The actual production to the long-term plan and aids PTFI to
screen also tabulates the percent drawn for each drawpoint effectively manage the DOZ cave.

700 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The Intelimine system allows haulage operations to be REFERENCES
conducted and optimized with only minor active input from
the Dispatchers or supervisors. Custom features of the Barber, J., Thomas, L., and Casten, T., Freeport
system also provide real-time information on the material Indonesias Deep Ore Zone Mine, Proceedings from
inventory in each orepass. MassMin 2000, pp. 286-294.
Use of the system, in general, provides a continuous Barber, J., Ganesia, B., and Casten, T., 2001, Developing
monitor of all production activity. Information stored to the the DOZ Mine at PT Freeport Indonesia, Mining
database provides the basis for calculating equipment Engineering, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 19-24.
productivity and efficiency. Since allocation of equipment to Owen, T., 1992, Ertsberg East Mine Freeport Indonesia
a particular task is automated, supervision is able to instead Inc. Papua Indonesia, SME Mining Engineering
focus on resolving mine issues. Handbook, vol. 2, p. 1830-1835.
Samosir, E., Brannon, C., and Diering, T., Implementation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of Cave Management System (CMS) Tools at the
Freeport DOZ Mine, Proceedings from MassMin 2004, in
The authors are grateful to all their colleagues working at press.
the DOZ Mine. Also, the authors acknowledge the
permission given by P. T. Freeport Indonesia to publish this
paper.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 701

 Large diameter vertical raise drilling
and shaft boring techniques as an
alternative to conventional vertical
shaft sinking techniques
Pete H Ferreira, Manager Marketing and Business Development
BSc. Eng (Mining) Pr.Eng , FSAIMM Murray and Roberts RUC Limited

Abstract
Raise drilling in South Africa started in 1968 with machines capable of drilling 1.2 metre diameter raises up to a length
of 90 metres. Todays raise drilling machines are capable of drilling vertical shafts to a diameter of 6.1 metres to depths
in excess of a 1 000 metres and 7.1 metres to 200 metres in depth. That is an immense improvement from its humble
beginnings.
In 1971 the first shaft boring machine was designed and manufactured in the Federal Republic of Germany and bored
a 4.88 metre diameter, 231 metre deep shaft.
In the quest for mechanical shaft sinking technology it is now possible to sink vertical shafts mechanically up to 8.5 metre
in diameter to 2 000 metres in depth. Fewer personnel are required with mechanisation, and due to the methodology
used, safety aspects are improved with overall risk drastically reduced.
Conventional shaft sinking is briefly discussed and compared to large diameter raise drilling and shaft boring.
The technological improvements in shaft boring machines (raise drilling and V-mole) have progressed at an accelerated
rate. Under certain geological conditions, with the increase in diameter of raise drilled holes, however, comes greater
potential for instability of the exposed sidewalls of the drilled hole.
A systematic flowchart developed by Stacey & McCracken, is discussed to quantify the risks associated with raise drilling
and shaft boring and thereby quantifying the risk attached to drilling a relatively large shaft prior to commencement of
the excavation in order to assess the stability of the bored hole. Managing this risk now becomes the engineers
challenge.
The capabilities of these machines and associated risks are explained with reference to specific drilling projects.

1. INTRODUCTION Conventional pilot drilling

Conventional up reaming of vertical and inclined holes
Murray & Roberts RUC has been involved in raise drilling Down boring with a pre-drilled pilot hole
contracting since 1978. Murray & Roberts RUC has become Blind up boring
the worlds largest raise drilling contractor and is considered Directional piloting and raise drilling used in conjunction
a leader in the field of large diameter raise drilling. The with a shaft boring machine (V-mole), for the boring of a
Company operates a total of 23 raise drills, which includes large diameter shaft.
four Wirth HG 330 SP and one Robbins 123R machines,
these being some of the largest raise drills ever 2.1.1 Conventional Pilot Drilling
manufactured in the world. A tri-cone pilot bit is normally used varying from 9 inches
Since 1989 RUC has also gained operational experience (229mm) to 15 inches (381mm). The 15 inch (381mm) bit is
in shaft boring using the V-mole shaft boring technique. To normally used on long holes with a 12 7/8 inches (327mm)
date, four major shaft projects, have been completed integral drillsteel string with 10 1/8-inch DI 42 tool joints.
utilizing the V-mole technique, these being:- During drilling, a fluid is pumped through the center of the
Oryx No 1B Ventilation Shaft in South Africa drillstring to the cutting face, where the rock cuttings are
Pasmincos Broken Hill No. 5 Airway in Australia flushed and raised from the bottom of the hole through the
Anglogolds Western Deep Levels South Mine sub vertical annulus around the drillstring to the collar of the hole. The
ventilation shaft and drilling fluid is settled in a closed loop via a series of settling
AlpTransit St Gotthard project in Sedrun in Switzerland. dams so that the drilling fluid can be re-used.

These projects were undertaken in joint venture with 2.1.2 Conventional Up-reaming of Pilot Holes
Thyssen Schachtbau GmbH of Germany using a Wirth On completion of pilot drilling and at such time that the
SBVII rodless shaft boring machine, better known as a V- pilot hole breaks through into the lower excavation, a
mole. reaming head is attached to the end of the drillstring. The
size of the reaming heads range between 1.2 metres and
2. RAISE DRILLING TECHNIQUES AND HISTORY 7.1 metres in diameter. The head is rotated by the machine
and is pulled back against the rock face at the same time.
2.1 Modes of Operation Cutters with tungsten carbide inserts are fitted to the head
Raise borers can be used in various modes of operation and these cut grooves in the rock in a rotary crushing mode.
and the modes most often used are: The kerfs of rock in between the grooves spall out and

702 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

rock failure occurs in a tensile mode. The rock cuttings fall
to the bottom of the hole where they are mucked out by a
mechanical loader.
It is a safe, efficient and cost-effective method of making
holes through different geological formations with the use of
powerful machines, high strength drillstring and reliable
reamer heads. The maximum loading capacity of the
drillstring limits the diameter as well as the length of the
shaft. The loading is dynamic and only approximately
calculateable as tensile, torsional and bending stresses are
overlapping. (See Figure 1)

Figure 3

2.1.6 Recent Achievements (Breaking New Ground)

Murray & Roberts RUC currently holds world records and
has had the following achievements:
Largest diameter shaft raise drilled to 7.1 metres in
diameter and 178 metres of vertical depth at Sasol Coals
Secunda Collieries Bosjespruit Mine.(See Figure 4)

Figure 1

2.1.3 Down Boring with a Pre-drilled Pilot Hole

In this case an oversize pilot hole is drilled. The cutting
head is installed at the top of the pilot hole and drilling takes
place in the downward mode. Rock cuttings are flushed
down the oversize pilot hole to the bottom of the hole where
it is removed. In the case of smaller holes, the machine
provides cutter thrust and in the case of large diameter
shafts the cutter head is weighted through the addition of
steel collars. The down boring method is not used often as
the risk of blocking the pilot hole and creating mud rushes at
the bottom of the hole is high. (See Figure 2)

Figure 4

Longest vertical hole reamed to 1.83 metres in diameter

and 1260 metres deep at the Primsmulde Project,
Germany.
At Kloof Gold Mine South Africa a 1100 metre deep 4.1
metre diameter hole was drilled through the hardest rock
formation being Lava with an UCS between 600 and
750Mpa .
Longest inclined raise drilled hole to 3.5 metres in
diameter and 755 metres deep at BCL in Botswana ( See
Figure 5 )
Figure 2 Deepest shaft V-mole bored in South Africa to 6.5 metres
in diameter and 972 metres deep at Oryx Gold Mine
Deepest shaft V-mole bored at Prismulde Germany to 7.8
2.1.4 Blind Up Boring metres in diameter and 1260 metres deep by Thyssen
In this case the machine is placed at the bottom of the Schachtbau of Germany
planned hole position and the cutting head drills upwards. Largest diameter V-mole shaft bored in hard rock to 7.1
Rock cuttings fall to the bottom of the hole where they are metres in diameter and 752 metres deep at Western Deep
deflected into muck cars or an alternative mucking Levels South Mine, South Africa
arrangement. This application is widely practiced in South At Impala Platinum Mine South Africa drilled a 1 050
African deep tabular orebody mines with hole lengths metre long 5.1 metre diameter raise drill hole through
ranging from 30 to 90 metres under normal circumstances norites with RVDS with 0.05 % accuracy
and up to 190 metres in special applications. (See Figure 3) At Sedrun in Switzerland drilled a 785 metre long 1.83
metre diameter hole with RVDS with 0.035 % accuracy
2.1.5 Directional Pilot Drilling i.e. 280 mm deviation
Directional pilot drilling is costly and is therefore only used At Moab Khotsong in South Africa drilled a 360 metre long
in applications where a high degree of accuracy is required. 3.8 metre diameter hole with RVDS with 0.063 %
The accuracy of a vertical pilot hole can be guaranteed to accuracy i.e. 223 mm deviation
depths within the capability of the raise drill machine and At Prismulde in Germany drilled the 1 260 metre long 1.83
accuracies of 0,036% have recently regularly been metre diameter hole with down-the-hole motor with 0.04
achieved. Refer to paragraph 4.1. % accuracy i.e. 450 mm deviation

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 703

 At Impala Platinum Mine South Africa drilled a 1 090 has been done before. The next challenge will be to drill a
metre long 5.1 metre diameter hole through norites 1.83 metre diameter hole over a continuous length of more
than 1 300 metres. The shaft depth is therefore unlimited as
long as a center core pilot hole is available.
A V-mole shaft construction is carried out in various
stages:
the raise drilling of the pilot hole and center core to serve
as a rock pass
the construction of a pre-sunk foreshaft to facilitate the
installation of the V-mole machine
the installation of the necessary and required hoisting
facilities
V-mole boring, shaft support and equipping
the final removal of the V-mole at shaft bottom
and commissioning of the permanent shaft system

The raise boring of the pilot shaft:

The pilot shaft is raise bored using a Wirth HG330 raise
drill (See Figure 6). The verticality is ensured by using
directional drilling tools, i.e. the Navi-Drill or the preferred
Figure 5 RVDS.

3. SHAFT BORING (V-MOLE METHOD)

3.1 Background
In the late sixties, following the successful application of
tunnel boring machines in tunnels, thought was given to
use this new excavation technique to underground coal
mines with a view to fully mechanise tunneling and shaft
sinking.
In 1971 the first shaft boring machine was put into service
in the coal mines in Germany by a consortium of specialist
mining contractors namely Deilmann-Haniel GmbH
(Dortmund) and Thyssen Schachtbau GmbH (Mulheim).
The shaft boring machine used was a Wirth GSB-V-450/500
capable of reaming shafts with a diameter of up to 5m from
a center core pilot hole.
Numerous improvements have been made to this
machine since 1971, which is reflected in the three machine Figure 6
generations with the latest model in use being the Wirth
SBVII.

3.2 Mode of Operation

The rodless shaft boring machines (V-mole) can be
applied to sink deep vertical shafts with a diameter of up to
8.5 m. The requirements for this method are:
relatively competent rock as determined through the study
techniques mentioned above (unsupported center core to
stand up)
and a reamed pilot hole between shaft head and shaft
bottom of approximately 1.83 to 2.4 metres in diameter
with sufficient verticality to serve as a center core. During
the boring operation this center core pilot hole is used to
drop the reamed cuttings to the bottom of the new shaft
and is also used for ventilation purposes.

The shaft boring machine constructed similarly to a tunnel Figure 6 (a)

boring machine, (TBM), widens the center core pilot hole to
the final shaft diameter by reaming downwards. Reaming,
muck disposal, shaft support and permanent shaft Construction of the pre-sunk shaft (foreshaft) and the
equipping are performed continuously and concurrently. installation of the hoisting facilities
The steering system of the machine guarantees the On completion of the reaming of the center core pilot hole,
verticality of the bored shaft with the aid of a laser beam the foreshaft is sliped and lined to a depth of 11 metres for
through the centreline of the shaft. The boring diameter can the assembly of the V-mole.
be varied within a range of 5.0 to 8.5m. The depth to be The foreshaft can be sunk before the pilot hole is drilled
bored is not restricted by the shaft boring machine with the raise borer. The installation of the hoisting facilities
parameters, but becomes a factor of the ability to drill and are done concurrently with the pre-sink. The hoisting
ream a pilot hole to 1.83 metre in diameter. We know that facilities are required to transport the men and material to
the drilling of holes of 1 300 metres in length is possible and the shaft borer (V-mole).

704 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

V-mole boring and the installation of the the shaft will be used as a return air ventilation shaft and
permanent rock support will pass through the stoped out reef horizon between 84
The shaft borer then reams the center core pilot hole to and 109 level
the required size with the rock chips being loaded at the the exposed shaft sidewall is to be supported by means of
bottom. The shaft can be concrete lined or shotcreted by "splitset" anchors, providing the primary support followed
means of a robotic arm mounted on the stage. The by steel fibre reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) using the
"drilling" and "lining" is co-ordinated in an innovative shotcrete method in place of conventional concrete lining
construction unit. The shaft boring machine SB VII is the support of the sidewalls must occur concurrent with
mainly built with a stable frame outer kelly which is the sinking operation of the shaft
hydraulically clamped against the shaft wall by means of on various levels throughout the depth of the shaft, return
12 gripper pads, arranged symmetrically in 2 levels of six air way (RAW) holings must be provided for into the
pads. The rotating inner kelly includes the main drive ventilation shaft
shaft, bearings and gears. The upper non-rotating end is
square shaped and accommodated in an articulated frame Competitive tenders were submitted for the above
of the outer kelly. The lower end is carrying the rotating consisting of conventional blind sink, slipe & line operations
cutterhead, which is powered by six electrical motors of and the shaft boring option. The decision was made in
132kW each. favour of the shaft boring technique after considering the
cost and time advantages of this method. The shaft had to
3.3 Track record be drilled in extremely hard conditions.
Some fifty-five vertical shafts around the world have been The geological profile showed that approximately 40% of
successfully bored with V-mole machines. Four shafts were the formations had a uni-axial compressive strength of more
constructed by the Joint Venture between Thyssen than 300Mpa. In the Alberton Lavas the compressive
Schachtbau GmbH and Murray & Roberts RUC. The Wirth strength was as high as 550Mpa. The achieved drilling
SB VII shaft borer in South Africa is jointly owned by these rates of 0,4 m/hour were very satisfactory.
two companies. The experience gained from the two preceding projects
"Oryx" and "Pasminco" and the knowledge of the geological
Joint Venture first profile caused the joint venture to design a new cutter head
The joint venture started its first project in 1989 in South for the project (See Figure 7). This cutter head has a closed
Africa, constructing the 972 metres deep, No 1 B ventilation design in order to achieve better stabilization and to provide
shaft at Oryx Gold Mine, to a diameter of 6.5 metres, with the head with back loaded cutters (See Figure 8).
the shaft boring machine SB VII. Prior to this operation in
South Africa the machine was thoroughly overhauled and
prepared for the application in hard rock formations. Six
electrical motors with 132kW each were installed.
The penetration rates achieved on this project were
satisfactory, considering hard quartzite rock formations with
compressive strengths ranging from 220 to 280 Mpa were
penetrated.

Joint Venture second

Upon completion of the Oryx project, the joint venture
could start a second project namely the ventilation shaft No.
5 in the south field of Pasminco Mining in Broken Hill,
Australia. In the course of the sinking of the 810 metre deep
shaft with a diameter of 6.5 metres, steep rock formations of
amphibolites with a compressive strength of 350Mpa and
gneiss with approximately 150 Mpa were penetrated. After
these two remarkable projects the following conclusions Figure 7
could be made:
both shafts were be completed on schedule
performances of up to 18 m/day (Oryx project) and 12
m/day (Pasminco) concrete lined shaft could be achieved
with an average performance of 7.6 m/day
the concurrent support drilling and installation as well as
concrete lining, could be done undisturbed
during the course of shaft boring, the necessary injections
could be performed to seal off the fissure water inflows
a number of intermediate stations were excavated during
the sinking process

Joint Venture third V- mole at depth, the ultimate

challenge
Anglogold awarded the 752 metre, 7.1 metre diameter
Sub Ventilation Shaft construction project at the then
Western Deep levels South Mine to the joint partners
Murray & Roberts RUC and Thyssen Schachtbau GmbH. Figure 8
The design brief read as follows:-
the new SSV (Sub Shaft Ventilation) is to be sunk from 84
level to 109 level (3312 metres below datum) The new cutter head of 7.1 metre diameter can be
the SSV shaft must have a 7.0 metre diameter and a equipped with disc-cutters as well as with tungsten carbide
depth of 752 metres cutters.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 705

 The shaft sinking activities commenced in May 1995 with Joint Venture fourth, the St Gotthard Base Tunnel -
the drilling of the pilot hole and center core to a diameter of Sedrun Ventilation Shaft
3.5 metres. This was carried out with Murray & Roberts The latest venture between the joint venture partners
RUCs Wirth HG 330 raise borer. The assembly of the shaft Murray & Roberts RUC and Thyssen Schachtbau is a 785
boring machine took approximately 6 weeks. The 752 metre deep 7.1 metre diameter ventilation shaft in Sedrun,
metre deep ventilation shaft was completed under Switzerland.
extremely difficult geological conditions. The highest The Sedrun shaft is part of the AlpTransit Gotthard project
performance attained under these conditions was a monthly which could well be the construction project of the new
advance rate of 137 metres in the Alberton Lava formation. century. The 57km long base tunnel under the St Gotthard
After drilling through the lava formations, scaling occurred in massif is the core project of a new railway link through the
the quartzite formations at 104 level (+-3 200 metres below Alps, with future passenger trains travelling at speeds of up
surface), which made increased temporary support density to 250km/h through the longest railway tunnel in the world.
necessary. The shaft construction works commenced mid May 2002.
The center core pilot hole "dog-eared" excessively from The raise bore machine Wirth HG 330 SP was installed at
the original 3.5m diameter size due to stresses at this great the shaft collar for both directional pilot drilling to 381mm
depth underground. diameter and the subsequent reaming of the center core
The shaft sidewall bolting with a rock bolt density of one pilot hole to 1.83 metre in diameter. The vertical drilling
bolt per m2 was done fully automatically and concurrently system, RVDS, of Micon was applied for the directional
with boring by using two Atlas Copco drill rigs mounted on drilling. Despite the unfavourable geology with numerous
the rotating and telescoping top deck of the shaft boring vertical joints, the deviation from the vertical was only
machine. (See Figure 9) 280mm (0,036% accuracy). The reaming of the pilot hole
from 381mm to 1.83 metre diameter was conducted without
problems and completed by mid November 2002.
After the completion of the pilot shaft the installation of the
shaft sinking equipment and the shaft boring machine
commenced. The V-mole, type Wirth VSB VI with a 7.1m
borehead was dressed with a combination of disc and
tungsten carbide cutters and a total installed power of
520kW. The shaft boring operation started in February 2003
and was completed by the end of
June 2003 with an average boring performance of
approximately 7m/day.
The continuous drilling and shotcrete lining system, which
was perfected at Western Deep Levels Gold Mine, was
used. (See Figure 11).

Figure 9

The application of the steel fibre micro silica wet shotcrete

with 50Mpa strength was also fully automated by means of
a robotic nozzle, which was situated on an independent
operating sinking stage with three decks above the shaft
boring machine. (See Figure 10).

Figure 11

4.0 RAISE DRILLING RISKS

AND RISK MANAGEMENT

4.1 Deviation of the pilot hole Accuracy of pilot drilled

holes has been a concern almost since the invention of
Figure 10 mechanized rotary drilling. This problem became much
more apparent as operators required the drilling of longer
The project construction was remarkable for its successful holes with lengths of 1 100 metres, this not being
penetration of one of the hardest rock formations with uncommon anymore and competing with blind sunk vertical
compressive strengths of up to 550Mpa. shafts.

706 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The deviation of a borehole from its intended path can be Drill is fitted with an adjustable bent-sub. The motor angle
attributed to both geological and technical factors, which is set to a suitable angle and is lowered down the hole. The
can be divided into three categories:- motor is then orientated, 180 degrees opposite to the
direction of deviation, using the steering tool. The steering
Controllable factors tool is fitted with a series of magnetometers and
Set-up accuracy of a machine accelerometers that relay information via the wireline
Equipment condition conductor to the equipment at the machine. All data is
Machine processed by computer at the collar of the hole and the
Starter pieces operator can monitor the motor toolface, as well as the hole
Correct boring tool (bit) direction, on the drillers display unit. A high viscosity mud is
Bit sub then pumped through the drill string, which causes the mud-
Stabilizers motor to rotate at a speed of roughly 120rpm.
Bit contact pressure (force) The drill string is now moved downward to provide
Rotation speed sufficient thrust to the bit, no rotation of the drill string takes
Flushing rate place during the correction-run, and rotation is provided
Starting procedure through the mud-motor directly to the bit.
On completion of the correction-run the directional drilling
Semi-controllable factors gear is removed from the hole and conventional pilot drilling
Build rate is resumed.
Stiffness (design) of the drill string The biggest disadvantage of the Navi-Drill system is that
Bit walk rate it is used re-actively. To rectify the hole deflection the
drillrods must be removed from the hole, the Navi-Drill
Non-controllable factors attached and lowered to the bottom of the hole being a very
Variations in rock hardness levels tedious process. The Navi-Drill must be removed when the
Strata dip hole direction has been rectified. To remove the Navi-Drill,
Ground conditions jointing, fractures, partings, etc. the drillrods must be removed again. The drill bit must again
Geological features faults, dykes, bedding planes, etc be attached and lowered before piloting can commence. To
overcome this problem the self-steering drilling system was
The graph, refer figure 12, shows a typical deviation with developed. (See Figure 13).
a constant build rate of 0,25 degrees per 100 metres of
drilling. The build rate represents the increase in inclination
of the hole and is measured from the vertical axis. It can be
seen that due to the compounding effect, the deviation
becomes exponential and increases drastically with
increased depth.

Figure 13

Rotary Vertical Drilling System (RVDS)

The ZBE3000 (DMT GmbH) self-steering directional drill
has been in use since the mid 1980s. High maintenance
costs and occasional problems necessitated the further
development of this type of equipment. New models were
developed, namely the Well Director, the ZBE4000 and the
ZBE5000.
Micon developed a rotary vertical drilling system, ( RVDS
), and this has been available since the mid 1990s. This
equipment is particularly suitable for directional drilling in
conjunction with raise drilling. This system uses a pair of
incline sensors to measure the borehole inclination and
transmit the data to an electronic unit. If the pre-
programmed directional limits are exceeded, the steering
function is initiated by the hydraulic steering system, which
Figure 12 extends or retracts the four external, independently
operated control ribs.
Highly sophisticated survey tools are used to monitor the The extendable stabilizer ribs generate radial forces and
inclination and direction of a hole. The instruments are work against the angle build-up.
capable of detecting movement off the vertical through The RVDS is supplied to the rig as a complete system
angles as low as 0,05 degrees in inclination and 0,5 consisting of the downhole tool and an independent PC-
degrees in Azimuth. based management system. The downhole tool can be
There are two ways in which the direction of the pilot hole divided into two parts, each of approximately 1.5m in length,
can be steered and these being: being the pulser sub & the steering sub. In order to monitor
the self-steering drilling process, data signals are
Using navigational drilling equipment transmitted to the surface via positive water pulses and are
The downhole motor such as the Navi-Drill is used re- received, decoded and visualised by an information unit.
actively, i.e. when the hole deviates it is rectified. The Navi- (See Figure 14).

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 707

 The upper part of the RVDS, called the tank-sub, rotates
with the drill string. The outer steerable stabiliser is a part
of the lower steering-sub. It is non-rotating and runs on
bearings on the drive shaft. The drive shaft transmits the
torque of the drill string to the bit.
The non-rotating lower part contains the sensors, the data
processing electronics and steering unit. This sub is fitted
with radically extendable ribs. The required steering force is
generated hydraulically by an oil pump inside the pulser-sub
and is transmitted to the borehole wall by pistons and
steerable ribs.
The directional data signals are also transmitted to the
mud pulser for further communication to the surface. Both
the water pulser for data transmission and alternator for the
electrical power supply as well as the pump for hydraulic
power supply are housed within the pulser/generator sub. A
water turbine drives the alternator and pump.
A fully digital electronic unit located in the steering sub,
supplies the two accelerometers with the required voltage.
Inclination data is then compared to predetermined data
and, if necessary, transformed into steering signals.
Subsequently, one or two of the four control valves are
being supplied with current. The valves control the cylinder
oil pressure, which in turn generates the compensating
forces necessary to achieve vertical drilling.
The directional data signals are also transformed into a Figure 15
pulse pattern by the digital electronics and they are
transmitted to the surface.
The system for large pilot holes, between 15 17_", has
been jointly developed by Murray & Roberts RUC and Boreability is determined by the hardness and
Micon. The improvements are reflected in the new design abrasiveness of the rock material and the structure of the
(See Figure 15). Various holes have been drilled with rock mass, that is, its jointing and then also by the raise
accuracies of 0,04% using the RVDS. Hoisting shafts can drilling machine factors.
now be raise drilled by using the Rotary Vertical Drilling Stability is determined by the rock mass structure, which
System (RVDS) to drill the pilot from there the final hole. defines the potential freedom of movement of the rock
blocks and by the stresses acting, which provide
confinement to the rock mass, but may also be of such a
magnitude as to induce failure in the rock material and rock
mass.
A detailed geotechnical evaluation or raise bore rock
quality assessment based on the Stacey and McCracken
method is recommended in the case of deep and/or large
diameter shafts and is briefly discussed. The risk attached
to any raise bore project is dependant on the confidence
with which the rock mass conditions are known. The level
of confidence in, or reliability of, information depends on
the amount of information available, the variation of
individual parameters, the impact of this variability on the
probable quality and the required minimum rock quality for
compatibility with the proposed raise drilled shaft
specifications. The important aspect is to assess the rock
conditions with respect to the required minimum quality
for stability.
A flow chart, developed by Prof. Dick Stacey, that sets
out the activities to be followed for a systematic
assessment of the risk related to the geotechnical aspects
of any raise drill project is presented in Figure 16 atta-
ched.

Initial risk assessment

The preliminary geotechnical assessment should be
aimed at determining average and lower bound
Figure 14 conditions in terms of "raiseability" and "stability". The
range and distribution of the rock quality, QR and the
4.2 Geotechnical risks associated with large diameter important parameters RQD/Jn and Jr/Ja, must be compared
raise drill shafts with the required minima for stability at the proposed shaft
The two biggest geotechnical risks are boreability and diameter.
stability. The Q value for the rockmass is obtained from the relation
Prof. T R Stacey and A McCracken have written numerous
papers on risk analysis and some aspects are briefly Q = RQD x Jr x Jw
discussed in this section. Jn Ja SRF

708 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 where RQD is rock quality designation
Jn is joint set number
Jr is joint roughness number
Ja is joint alteration number
Jw is joint water reduction factor, and
SRF is stress reduction factor.

RQD/Jn gives an estimate of rock block size, Jr/Ja

provides an indication of discontinuity shear strength and
Jw/SRF indicates the conditions of active stress
surrounding the excavation.
To obtain the raise drilled hole quality index, QR from Q, Figure 17
the following adjustment factors, which are cumulative, must
be applied.
Wall adjustment stability of different types of excavations are presented in
Discontinuity orientation adjustment factor Table 1. These provide guidelines for other raise drill shafts.
Weathering adjustment

At the preliminary evaluation stage the risk should only be Table 1: Suggested acceptability of risk
deemed "acceptable" if the quality consistently exceeds the for various raise drill shafts
requirement throughout its entire length. This presupposes
the availability of sufficient information for this conclusion to Excavation Type Service Reliability Probability
be drawn. Life (Years) R (%) of Failure P(f)
Unlined hoisting
Shaft >15 0,01
Ventilation Shaft 10 0,05
Ore Pass >2 0,15
Ore Pass 1 0,25

Conclusion
A method of quantifying the geotechnical risk associated with
a raisedrill or shaft bore shaft, is presented above, and based on
shaft diameter and a raise drill rock quality index, QR.
The approach outlined provides an indication of
overall geotechnical feasibility. All excavations must,
however, be considered individually and the potential
problems should be addressed on merit. The chart
presented in Figure 16 does not replace classical
analysis as a means of evaluating the incidence and
stability of potential failure wedges, but does allow the
probability of failure to be predicted in a simple manner.
Comparison of the probability so obtained with the
required reliability, permits assessment of the overall
feasibility and the risk associated with a proposed raise
or shaft.
In many cases adverse ground conditions can be treated
by cement grouting prior to raise drilling, or alternatively,
advanced planning can be done to carry out support works
Figure 16 directly after raise drilling.

4.3 Risks and the control thereof

Final risk assessment One of the bigger risks in the shaft boring method is the
The assessment of risk will depend ultimately on the potential scaling and deterioration of the center core pilot
acceptability of failures within the raise drilled shaft and on hole and the other to ensure the center core pilot hole
the incidence and volume of failures that can be tolerated. remains open during the shaft boring.
In general, an acceptable probability of failure of a raise To manage these factors the risks need to be managed
drilled shaft, given its function, is considered to be 0,05 i.e. and engineered to ensure success.
5%. This is commensurate with an RSR value of 1,3. Given
a proposed raise drill diameter and a rock mass of a certain 5. CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL BLIND SHAFT SINKING
range of QR values, the range of probability of failure can be
obtained. If the length of the raise is known, the likely length Conventional blind shaft sinking using drill and blast
of raise liable to be affected by failures can be calculated techniques has been practiced for as long as underground
and the volumes of failure determined from stability mining has taken place.
analyses. Various shaft sinking methods are being used and these
A chart showing the probabilities of failure, P(f), or being:
alternatively the reliability, R, of a shaft (where R = 1 P(f) Hand held drilling of the bottom with nominally 2.0 metre
x 100%), for the range of raise bore diameters and rock advance per blast
mass qualities is presented as Figure 17. Jumbo drilling of the bottom with either pneumatic or
Suggested levels of reliability, R, and probabilities of electro-hydraulic drifters with advance per blast of up to
failure P(f), that are considered acceptable for the raise wall 6.0 metres

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 709

 Mucking with an Eimco 630 type loader into a kibble Raise drilling fills the gap between a very small shaft and
Mucking with a cryderman type clam system into a kibble a larger shaft and is the fastest means of sinking a shaft
Mucking with a cactus type lashing unit into a kibble provided bottom access is available.
Concurrent shaft concrete lining from the sinking stage Every technique has its place in the business and the
above. pros and cons must be weighed up against each other
before a final decision is made as to the required method of
Rock is hoisted to surface or the bank elevation therefore sinking.
not interfering with other rock hoisting operations. Bottom
access is therefore not necessary and this is the method to 7. CONCLUSION
follow where a shaft is sunk in green fields operations.
Large winding facilities are generally required to hoist the The mining industrys requirement for safe, rapid and
rock from the shaft bottom as well as a relatively large stage economical mine development is met by the mechanical
winder installation as a large stage has to be supported from large diameter raise drilling and shaft boring methods
such a winder, especially with the cactus grab cleaning described. The technique has provided an economically
method. sound solution for a large variety of different requirements,
Shafts are generally equipped on completion of a sink to especially in those projects executed in recent years
shaft bottom unless a cryderman type cleaning method is involving deep, large diameter holes. Raise drilling to
used, which supports concurrent equipping of a shaft with depths exceeding 1 000 metres and at diameters of up to 6
the sinking. A smaller stage winder is required with this metres, is no longer uncommon. The method continues to
cleaning method. be developed to cover an increasingly wide range of
Blind sink operations are generally done with shafts of circumstances. The improvement made in directional
diameters of 4.5 metres and more. Advance per blasts will drilling now enables hoisting shafts to be raise drilled, either
vary and advances per day will generally average around in one pass or in combination with the V-mole.
3.5 metres to 4.5 metres depending on the depth of shaft By using the systematic risk assessment developed by A
and diameter. McCracken and TR Stacey, a quantitative assessment of
The deepest one lift blind vertical shaft sunk to date has the risk attached to any shaft prior to commencement can
been the South Deep shaft in South Africa to a depth of be done.
some 2 963 metres below collar. The capabilities and effectiveness of the raise drilling and
Blind sink shafts can be sunk from very shallow to very shaft boring techniques have been proven in the execution
deep depending on needs as well as to any diameters. of more than 50 projects throughout the world, with an
accumulated depth of 21 000 metres and in a wide variety
6. PROS AND CONS OF CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL of rock types.
BLIND SINK SHAFTS COMPARED TO SHAFT "Using alternative scenarios, the future literally becomes a
BORED SHAFTS matter of choice, not chance" - (Wolfgang Grukke)

Shaft boring becomes an economical option from depths 8. REFERENCE

of around 600 metres and deeper and at that point becomes
cheaper and faster and can be bored to great depths. Geotechnical Risk Assessment for Large Diameter
Raisebored Shafts TR Stacey, a MC Cracken Rock
Comparison Items Conventional Shaft Bore Mechanics Considerations in Raiseboring TR Stacey,
Blind Sink Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten
Fully Mechanished Sinking of Deep Shafts Dr Ing. B.
1 Depth Restrictions None Competitively Schmucker and Dr Ing. C. Cetindis Thyssen Schachtbau
economical from 600 m GMBH Germany
Directional Drilling in the Mining Industry Industry E.
2 Diameter None 4.5m to 8.5m in Berger, Thyssen Schachtbau GMBH
restrictions diameter

3 Speed of sink Faster up Faster from 600m

to 600m onwards

4 Blasting All sinking None

5 Need bottom No Yes

access

6 Lining thickness Thicker Thinner

7 Safety aspects Poorer Best

8 Stage requirement Large Small

9 Kibble hoist Large hoist Small hoist for men

requirement for rock & material & material only

10 Stage hoist Large Smaller

11 Sinking crew size Larger Smaller

710 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Lower cost and higher productivity
through deepened partnership but
separated responsibilities
Sverker Hartwig, Vice President Technology, Atlas Copco CMT Business Area

Abstract
In 1986 Atlas Copco introduced its first fully automated drill jumbo at Las Vegas. Miners were talking about the
automated mine but in reality such advanced equipment had limited sales success throughout the past century.
Remotely controlled loaders and trucks were introduced but have largely been abandoned and replaced by manually
operated vehicles. One of the major drawbacks related to the success of mine automation has been the safety issue. As
high speed tramming vehicles operate in confined, dark places it is of utmost importance to incorporate fail-proof devices
detecting all personnel being in close proximity to the equipment. The author discusses the reasons for recent trends in
mine automation. As Atlas Copco at the Sudbury ISMMA conference in 1999 took the initiative to IREDES, a common
communication platform now exists to go one step further to get unified systems for navigation and other safety features.

PROLOGUE always went wrong or there were holes which were

impossible to drill etc. As a consequence the customers
This paper is not written by an old grumpy man who never always kept an operator aboard to solve problems, and our
believed in technological breakthrough and thinks still, main argument for the added cost of the automation in those
nothing can beat pusher legs. This paper is presented by a days, saving on personnel, fell flat.
man even if old and grumpy, who his whole life has worked Now today at least a double-digit percentage of Atlas
with technological development and still thinks we have Copos rigs are sold in the full ABC version, as we call them,
seen nothing yet. but still today, they very seldom operate unmanned.
But this old man has with time realized that we have to However, two things have been changed since then. Firstly,
give the technique its own chance based upon its own the rock drills are much faster so its difficult, if not
merits and not try to make it copies of mankind. He has also impossible, for one man to keep up with three booms.
realized that we no longer can afford being proud miners Secondly, we know today that electronics provide other
doing everything by ourselves. We have so much to learn important qualities than manpower savings such as hole
from other industries! Finally, he has also understood that quality and repeatability. These arguments were only
the mining business is too small for a lot of parallel vaguely understood or mentioned in 1986. I would like you
developments. We need to work together and think long- to keep the following sentence in mind for the rest of my
term profit before short-term greediness. If we do so, we will presentation.
be greatly rewarded. After more than 30 years of development we have not yet
reached a level of automation were rigs could be run
BACKGROUND autonomous. But the automation added features that were
not foreseen at all when we started. These features may
Atlas Copcos first attempt to develop an automatic drifter very well give a better payback than the "possibility" to run
drill rig was made in the early seventies, using technique the rig unmanned, and at least have they greatly improved
from military anti air guns. For the computer freaks I can the working conditions for the remaining operators.
mention that we based the electronics upon ECL circuits, Productivity measured in brutal tons per hour, meters per
since the first microprocessor Intel 4004 was not yet born. day etc. are still difficult to match when you compare with an
Never before or later was there a faster positioning rig, it all out manual operation! Is this just because we are stupid
could almost chase a fly with the tip of the drill rod, but the miners?
amount of printed boards was scaring not to say horrifying Some of you may have heard about the one million dollar
and the power consumption for the electronics was close to NASA contest in the USA recently. Mission: Have a vehicle
consumption of the rock drills. of your choice with whatever electronics sensors and
Later in 1986 Atlas Copco introduced the first commercial whatever gadgets onboard, to go from A to B passing C, D,
fully automatic 2 booms drifter rig at Las Vegas The Robot E. and F in dessert type terrain, but with no interference
Boomer. Think about it, this is already now very close to 20 from man.
years ago. Of course we thought at the time that in a couple The winner, sorry there was no winner, managed only a
of years almost all rigs would be automatic. Yes there were few percent of the track before it collapsed.
also others, a Norwegian contractor, Furuholmen, had
developed a rig of their own, of which traces are found with Those rocket science guys cannot do it either!
AMW or Bever Control, if you wish. Also Montabert came How far away arent we from the long reaching ambitions
with their Robofore. from various Auto(mated)mine etc concepts.
Nevertheless, I guess that from 1986 until 1998 fewer I also remember one project that strived for an
than 10-20 rigs all brands were actually sold, and maybe unventilated and maybe not even drained mine, where
none really operated in the automatic mode. In practice unmanned rigs with close to 100% availability, were doing
none of the rigs could really finish a whole round, something an everlasting high productivity job.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 711

 Nothing wrong with the ambition, but maybe by the time In the flow concept in the best of worlds, the output from
we have made this possible, we also have found new ways one machine centre is the intake of the next. No material is
of excavation with bacteria or other means. in transit or even worse in storage. From the factory comes
So far I have only discussed drill rigs, or better drifter rigs. a continuous steady flow of products. Isnt that what we
It is true that the level of automation has gone further in always wanted from a mine? Or do we prefer mining
production drilling such as Atlas Copcos BK Simbas at equipment moving around by itself in a magic dance for
LKAB, every rig are now producing an impressive 100 000 minutes but standing for hours waiting for a human to sort
meter per annum in partly remote and partly autonomous out problems, obstacles or just the fact that somebody
operation. How come? A part of the explanation is obviously rattles the protective fence.
that these rigs are close to standstill in their drifts, but
maybe more important. LKAB has fine-tuned the operation Where are we today in the mining industry? What to do
baered upon the pros and cons of such rigs, not doing and what should not be done?
absolutely the same thing in the same way as in previous
manned rigs. COMMUNICATION UNDERGROUND
So, what about the other unit operations underground.
I, the undersigned, Atlas Copco and our dear colleague The IREDES Initiative
machine suppliers, and dear miner customers have all I would lie if I did not admit being proud of taking the
burned our fingers here too! Not to mention anyone in IREDES Initiative at the Sudbury ISMMA conference in
particular, we all know of automated loading and/or 1999, a common communication protocol platform, which
hauling projects, initially promising, which have been now exists. But I am equally honest when stating that I am
abandoned due to lack of productivity in a wide sense. In proud of our industry, fellow machine manufacturers and
cases of the operation itself and in other cases, due to users joining in, unselfishly forgetting short term
the look up in a mine having critical areas blocked. I will considerations for long term profit for us all.
not put my head into the fight between truck haulers and The progress of The IREDES has been presented
conveyor friends, but the safety measures around for elsewhere but please, if you are still not a member - sign up!
instance an automated wheel haulage system Now I will repeat something I said in Sudbury, maybe it
sometimes makes it less flexible than a conveyor was wrong then, maybe also today, but it could very well be
system. A sad part here is that at the same time we learn true. The stock value of Microsoft is higher than the market
that in many a case did the machines perform better value of all publicly listed mining companies. My estimate is,
than an operator regarding tire wear, breakdowns etc. that the global mining industry (machine suppliers and
But still the whole thing did not perform! users) employ less than 1000 professional "computer"
An other interesting observation is that in some projects engineers, hard and software, working with automation and
the actual loading was made automatic but hauling manned control. This can be compared to an estimated 170 000 ditto
and in some applications the opposite, loading was working with cellular phones and networks.
supervised but hauling left to automation. What conclusion Who gave us the idea that we should develop our own
can we draw from that? communication systems?
In a way these above applications represented an Mind you IREDES deals so far only with the protocols
unnecessary exercise. In the manufacturing industry self- "The language" not with what type of systems we use for
moving pallet movers became out of fashion at same time transmitting it.
as we started to move them underground and even worse, Its easy today to be ironic about the performance of
they became out of fashion due to the same limitations we "leaky feeder systems etc." Its also unfair because in those
now see underground. days, it was not much that could be used.
There are two problems; one is in our own mind and the BUT now there is WLAN. What lovely automation
other in the machine. network, or Wireless local area network as some old-timers
Most systems of this type use magnetical guidance from still call WLAN. Yes, some of these components need to be
a cable in the floor. The pallet mover can move along this mine ruggedized and some works remains on roaming, but
wire at a low speed for safety reasons (much lower than a it can still do a lot (and very much more than present mining
regular fork lift truck with driver) Whatever obstacle along systems in terms of video channels etc) and at unbeatable
route will stop the pallet mover including an empty paper cost levels.
box. How difficult it would be, to make this mover advanced Will it change over time? Yes! Will the old WLAN work in
enough to understand type of obstacle, move around if future WLAN? Yes to most parts! Will it continue to offer
possible, or take another way to target, we all know from the better communication at lower cost? Yes!
NASA experience. And if, would we ever allow this vehicle I say, lets go for WLAN (and TCP/IP) Using IREDES
to move around with forklift speed? And again horrible Protocol and I say, lets together sort out the few remaining
thought, even though we unfortunately face multiple question marks about mining applications. Maybe we could
accidents with manned vehicles inside factories, would use the IREDES organization tofacilitate it over company
above unmanned system survive one single lethal borders. Give me a call! I will happily host a kick off meeting.
accident? Think about it. All mining personnel and vehicles in South
The other problem with the pallet movers is in our minds. America or Russia of make A, B, or C are using
The concept was intended to give freedom and flexibility. communication system and same digital language. Plug and
Without effort we could move goods around in the shop play as they say. And fixed installation in mines at a fraction
irrespective where the different machines were placed. But of todays cost. And finally, the system transfer capacity will
we got almost the opposite and the transparency of the grow with future needs.
system was only visible for the few planners who really
understood how the control computer behaved or
misbehaved. For all others things just moved around, in and NAVIGATION AND OBJECT
out of pallet storage in a magic way, and we had no chance (LIVING) DETECTION UNDERGROUND
to realize if we would get parts needed at our place, now or
never. In view of the NASA competition I fear that this is an area
In a shop designed around the flow concept is really not a where the mining industry is going to pump a lot of good
need for pallet movers, cruising around in the factory. money into a large black deep hole.

712 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 We, LHD manufacturers, think that we have come a long with cabins, lots of lights, ventilation and so on and so forth.
way with our different scanning laser systems. But I am not An unmanned rig does not necessarily need all that and
sure that we are right. Will they ever work with drill rig some of it is both costly and cumbersome.
accuracy? And what about living object detection? If we A manned rig has all the possibilities in the world to solve
cannot solve that we are stuck with locked up areas in our or work around an unexpected problem. The unmanned has
mines and that we know how far it takes us! only little or nothing of that.
I would have loved to suggest an all out cooperation in We can cut out a lot of gadgets needed for manned
this field but I fear that there may be too much pride about operations yes, but instead we need to create an
the scanning lasers systems. BUT what about living object environment suitable for the autonomous rig where things
detection? are alike and stay that way.
How much work has already been done by for instance I am sorry to conclude that we started all wrong. We have
the automotive industry? tried to design computerized mine-machines that act like
Is not this an area where we all need to work together; manned machines. Suppliers and users are to blame alike,
manufacturers, mines, unions and safety regulation because then at least, we know what we are talking about.
authorities? Things can and will go wrong and we need to I dont like to admit it, but I think many of us deep inside
stand up as one man to fix the problems. Without a understood, that it would never work. In all we have made
99.999999% functionality here, I am sure that we will never great progress in designing systems that help and unload an
reach commercial autonomous operation underground. On operator and are doing many of the details equally well, or
the other hand I am sure that we, with a combination of even better than the operator. But to take him away, forget
different systems such as detectors on vehicles, it!
transponders on living objects and mine staff mapping We need a restart, starting from a theoretical viewpoint
systems, can reach there. and we should stop making funny machines.
Again I say, Give me a call. Atlas Copco is willing to host We need an autonomous mine research think tank
a starting session that would lead to an independent with advanced researchers who are not stuck in the old
organization like IREDES with some money at least to find way. Many of these, certainly more than 50%, have to
out what has already been done by others. be miners.
The approach should be to, theoretically quality- and
MINE PLANNING quantitywise analyze what the unmanned machines can
really do with reasonable availability and productivity, and to
This is an area, which I always treat with respect and start designing the mine around it to help them out. Yes I
prefer to stay out from. understand that these were harsh words for some miners.
I am a designer of mine machines and not a designer of We suppliers should design equipment that fit the mine not
mines. Nevertheless, I have been involved in a few lucky the other way around.
projects where the mining company could start out all fresh Let me offer a compromise. We do our best along that
in a new found deposit. On occasion these plans were made way on the manned side and you give my idea at least a
for different types of "mobile miners" i.e. mechanical rock thought on the unmanned.
cutting machines. Having worked a number of years with Also here I say, Give me a call. Atlas Copco is both willing
these "monsters" I still have the dream, but will it come true to help this process going and also to support it on its way
in my life? Close your eyes and dream with me! inviting all makers and users alike!
One machine with few, if any, operators are doing all the
operations, pumping out ore in the rear end onto a conveyor SUMMARY
or in a pipe. No logistic problems whatsoever. Nothing of all
preparation works, minimum ventilation and so on and so I have from my experience tried to understand why we are
on. The underground flow concept! so far from autonomous mines today as we in fact are (there
could be papers from Atlas Copco and others saying
something different)
THE MINERS DREAM! The main reasons seem to be that we started all wrong
trying to design human like "robot" operated machines
As we all know few of these magnificent plans came assuming that these "robots" could think.
true. Nobody dared the risk even though calculations To speed up the process we didnt bother to learn from
looked fine. Only in coal potash and the like is ore other industries nor did we cooperate. We followed instead
excavated this way. the multiple path system and this in an industry with very
But also for drill and blast a new deposit opens up limited resources.
possibilities not obtainable in an old operation. It is my But there is light in the tunnel.
understanding that the way to fortune and happiness here is There may very well be other ideas and concepts than
in split-level operations. If all haulage could be done on one those I presented here, which are equally important but
level, loading other one etc we have much bigger chances those I would like to suggest are important to maintain
to design a mine where different machines running or at momentum in our efforts
standstill do not interfere. Maybe we could even have areas Lets together develop WLAN and HUMAN DETECTORS
which are more conveniently sealed off for people. I dont so that we at least have a chance to talk to our machines in
hesitate saying that separate mini-drifts for people leading a global way and so that we protect the future of
to the "few" points where man is inevitable should be autonomous mines not being stopped by causing injuries to
considered. our workers.
In communication between supplier and user we have a And finally lets take a step back from the route we are
problem. With all rights, the users are chasing us suppliers following and sit down and think. What can we really expect
for faster, cheaper, and more reliable machines. from machines with their pros and cons and how do we
But are we chased in the right directions? Is there a design our mines to maximize the output thereof?
common understanding - when we are discussing In all these cases Atlas Copco is also willing to invite you
automation - what is state of the art - what is the future? to a starting session to form an independent approach. Atlas
Let me give a simple example. Mines of today are Copco is also willing to support the work and safeguard a
designed for manned machines. Therefore we have rigs positive outcome. Give me a call!

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 713

 Sverker Hartwig is Vice President Technology in the Sverker Hartwig joined Atlas Copco 1975 and has then
Business Area Construction and Mining Technique at had numerous technical and commercial positions within
Atlas Copco AB in Stockholm, Sweden. In this position he the Atlas Copco group working for Atlas Copco companies
coordinates all development and design in Atlas in Sweden, USA, and Switzerland. Sverker Hartwig
construction and mining divisions. graduated as an M.Sc.EE from the Royal Institute of
Technology in Stockholm 1974.

714 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Chapter 19
Miscelaneous
716 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004
 Air inrush risk assessment
for caving mines
Andrew Logan, Business Improvement Manager, Newcrest Mining Limited, Melbourne, Australia
Duncan Tyler, Geotechnical Manager, WMC Resources Ltd, WA. Australia

Abstract
Hazardous air inrush events occur in underground mines using caving methods or large roof spans. This paper outlines
a simple, practical methodology to assess potential wind gust velocities in mine tunnels associated with collapse of roof
material into a void and diffused through a broken rock pile. It also outlines tolerances based established meteorological
wind classes. These guidelines and associated control measures were developed by Newcrest Mining Limited for safe
sublevel caving at Ridgeway Gold Mine.

INTRODUCTION

The Ridgeway Gold Mine (Ridgeway) is located near

Orange in Australia. Ridgeway and its neighbouring open pit
mine, Cadia Hill, are part of Newcrest Mining Limiteds
Cadia Valley Operations.
The Ridgeway ore body is well suited to the sublevel
caving (SLC) mining method adopted. Mining starts at the
top of the ore body, 550 m below surface with ore extraction
progressing downwards and cave propagation upwards.
The porphyry gold-copper ore is broken by drilling and
blasting and is extracted incrementally in 25 m horizontal
slices over the ore body footprint.
Ore is extracted at 5.5Mt per year from the SLC, tipped to
an underground primary gyratory crusher and transported
via a 4km inclined conveyor system to surface.
There are several principal geological and geotechnical
domains (Figure 1). The North Fault also represents a
significant weakening structure considered important for
caving initiation and propagation. The major principal stress
is sub-horizontal, oriented east-west.
The production layout has been designed to allow effective
draw control by including transverse extraction; sublevel
intervals of 25 m; 6 m wide x 4 m high ore drives; and 14 m ore
drive centres. Caving of the overlying strata is induced as it is
undercut by ore extraction. Broken rock created by caving of
the overlying strata fills the void created by ore extraction. Ore
dilution by waste rock from above is controlled by optimising
the design of the mining layout, by disciplined production
mining practices and draw management. Figure 1: Schematic cross section through Ridgeway
At Ridgeways Feasibility stage, the recognized standard deposit (2001)
method for predicting caving initiation was the Laubscher
(1999) method. It predicted Ridgeway caving initiation was (550m:180m or approximately 3:1) was believed to be
likely. The effect of the North Fault on Ridgeways caving greater than any successfully attempted. The Ridgeway
assessments was unknown. cave was therefore beyond previous precedent, leading to
Caving occurs as a result of two mechanisms: gravity some uncertainty about cave propagation.
collapse of well structured rock masses and induced stress
fracturing of less structured rock masses. With its good rock INDUSTRY AIR INRUSH EVENTS
quality, induced stress fracturing was the primary
mechanism anticipated at Ridgeway. The conceptual cave An air inrush, wind gust, or air blast event can be defined as "a
model presented by Duplancic and Brady (1999) describes sudden movement of air, displaced by a collapse of rock into an
the cave front behaviour in this case (Figure 2). underground void, which causes the air to move through the
As shown in Figure 2, the cave roof necks as it adjacent openings", Fowler et al (1996). A wind blast can be also
propagates upwards. The better the rock quality, the more described as an event resulting in air movement underground
quickly the necking with occur. The larger the ratio between that causes injury and / or seriously disrupts ventilation.
height (distance from cave initiation to free surface) and There needs to be a void for an air blast to occur. In
initial minimum caving width, the higher the risk this necking caving operations an appropriate expansion void is an
will cause the cave to stall. essential part of the mining process. Geometric factors such
Confidence in cave initiation at Ridgeway was high. as volume; plan area; height; shape and hydraulic radius
However the height to minimum width ratio of the cave must also be considered.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 717

 develop and maintain hazard management procedures for
the management of:
The void above the muckpile;
The height of the muckpile above the extraction horizon,
and
The air blast hazard and shall include all the appropriate
controls for the air blast at all openings or potential
openings into the cave zone

Management of the major hazards in a block cave mine

must include recognition of the facts that these issues are
interrelated and cannot be managed as discrete
elements".

Fowler and Hebblewhite (2003) also discuss in detail

issues associated with Australian coal mine wind blasts.
The most recent fatality to wind blast in the Australian coal
Figure 2: Conceptual model of caving (After Duplancic & industry was in 1976 at the Eastern Main Colliery, NSW.
Brady, 1999) They report that, air blasts resulting in serious injuries have
occurred in the following NSW coal mines Cooranbong
(1983), Wallarah (1989), Myuna (1990), Newstan (1995-96),
Rock or other material (water or fill) above a void provides Newvale No 2 (1995), Gunnedah (1998) and Moonie (1998-
a potential energy source if a void is allowed to grow beyond 99). Air blasts in Australian coal mines since 1895 have
tolerable levels and the progressive roof collapse slows resulted in the deaths of nine workers.
relative to void growth. This potential is converted to high A potentially disruptive air inrush was thus considered to
air pressures if the roof becomes rapidly unstable and be one of Ridgeways major hazards that required
collapses into the void. Factors that impact on this systematic assessment and effective controls. This
instability include span, shape, mass, proximity to the required research, development and innovation.
surface, rock fabric, major structures, stress levels, mode of
failure and trigger mechanisms. RIDGEWAY INNOVATIONS
The high air pressures are converted to wind gusts when
they find an escape pathway to areas of lower pressure New processes were developed by Newcrest to manage
(e.g. surface). In caving operations, the broken rock pile in the air inrush risk at Ridgeway. These were incorporated
the caved zone, provides a buffering effect to dissipate into an inrush hazard management plan with preventative
some of the high air pressures. Considerations include: controls, monitoring, triggers and responses to proactively
broken rock pile thickness and permeability; the number of manage air inrush, NML (2002):
openings; location of openings size of openings; path of 1. Blasted ore was left in the cave as a blanket,
least resistance; ventilation controls; access to openings; predominantly on 5330 & 5305 levels, and as a guard to
and connection to surface. dissipate potential air inrushes.
High wind gusts become hazardous when the paths of 2. An integrated cave monitoring system was developed,
rapid air flow concide with working location of people and/or using the data from a number of sources allowing cross
infrastructure. Considerations for assessment of potential validation of data, and the effective tracking of the cave
hazard to people and infrastructure include: location of through to the surface: This included successful use of
manned work areas with respect to the escape pathways; 500m deep holes for
and the provision of pressure relief pathways and restricted surface seismic system;
access. open-hole depth plumbing; and
Air inrush events have been recorded in both the extensometers.
underground metalliferous and coal mining industries. Both 3. A wind gust model was developed specifically for
rely on caving and progressive roof collapse to enable safe Ridgeway in order to reduce the technical risk
production. Air displacement from falling rock is, therefore a associated with air blasts. This model predicts air inrush
common event in such mines, which require an appropriate velocities resulting from a massive cave back failure,
expansion void or air gap to allow progressive collapse and is fed into triggers and responses built into the
and/or cave propagation to occur (Figure 2). Most of these hazard management plan.
events remain unnoticed due to their very small magnitude. 4. Air inrush triggers and responses were developed to
Although there are numerous accounts of air blasts in match existing wind force standards using the Saffir
general and technical literature, very little detailed work has Simpson Hurricane Scale as no guidelines were
been done on understanding the phenomena and providing available in the mining industry.
practical prediction tools. 5. Response plans were specifically developed and
In November 1999, a catastrophic event occurred at implemented (Table 2).
Northparkes Mine where the cave back collapsed into the 6. Access drives were stood further out than common
mines air gap. The cave back had formed a stable arch practice to allow for cave footprint and width extension
and an air gap of some 180m was allowed to develop, with responses.
nominal muck pile height of 60m. The force of the blast 7. Hydro-fracturing to stimulate caving was researched and
was such that roof bolts and mesh were bent, motor trialled as a response.
vehicles destroyed and 4 workers in the vicinity were
killed. The following salient findings and From systematic measurement, new knowledge was
recommendations have been extracted from the resulting acquired regarding initiation and propagation of caving in
coronial report, Bailey (2003): strong rock masses where mine scale discrete structures
"Any mine operator intending to employ the process of are predominant. Under these circumstances initiation and
block cave mining is to identify and analyse the elements of propagation of the cave appear to be controlled more by the
all the risks associated with its block cave operations and discrete structures rather than the general rock mass rating.

718 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

This suggests that major structures should be explicitly Different muck pile porosities and resistances were
taken into account in predictive methods. assumed for the different density broken rock piles. The
The Ridgeway cave was designed and developed at a assessment is sensitive to the permeability assumption.
height to minimum width ratio outside current worldwide Permeability of the large scale muckpile is difficult to directly
experience - greater than height to width of 2:1. Flores and measure and requires interpretative assessment from
Karzulovic (2002). This significant extension of existing qualitative muckpile fragmentation interpretation and back
mining practices was made achievable by the beneficial calculations. For example, an extrapolated broken rock
effect of North Fault as a weakening structure. resistance for a finely fragmented material could be in the
order of 0.11 Ns2m-8. Significantly more work is required to
WIND VELOCITY ASSESSMENT establish working guidelines for fine, medium and coarse
material.
A credible peak wind velocity due to an air inrush event is The theoretical peak velocity (TPV) is thus a combination
a function of several key variables: of the previous formulae and site specific measurements
and variable assessments.
Wind gust potential (m/s) = f (expansion void, muckpile
thickness, permeability of the broken rock pile, nature of TPV = from (2), (3), (4), (5) (6)
collapse, number of exit paths, measurement error) (1)
The Ridgeway formula and parameters are intentionally
Ridgeway first developed a simple, practical model to not shown here, as they are site specific. The intent here is
assess the instantaneous compression pressure generated rather to explain a method whereby individual locations
in the broken rock pile due to cave roof collapse in a void, might develop their own site specific formula. Further formal
using Boyles Law. Conservative assumptions were made research along these lines may also lead to more widely
regarding the nature of the collapse as a piston. Wind applicable guidelines, which would be beneficial to the
velocities where then subsequently assessed from these mining industry in general. Mine ventilation assessment
overpressures by air flow principles. Buffering effects were tools such as VENTSIM, can also analyse multiple flow
considered and measurement accuracy and uncertainties paths as they have many of these concepts embedded in
were included in the analysis. their methodology.
The model can be used to assess the overpressure Fowler and Sharmas (2000) measurements of wind
developed over a range of broken rock pile heights, air gap velocities from coal mine goaf collapses showed that there
heights and broken rock pile fragmentation types following were buffering effects that limit the TPV through relatively
the instantaneous collapse of the cave back, using a leaky small underground development drives. The TPV is thus
piston model. The potential compression pressure (P1) reduced by a buffer reduction factor (BRF) to give a practical
from atmospheric pressure (Pa) generated by the collapsing peak velocity (PPV):
cave roof was estimated from the formula:
PPV = BRF x TPV (7)
Boyles Law P1 = Pa [(Vag + Vrp) / Vrp ] (2)
When substituting the variables back into formula (7)
where is 1.4 for air, Vag is the volume of the air gap and developed from formula (1), the following points were
Vrp is the volume of the broken rock pile. considered.
The expansion void value is assessed by direct and
The principal unknowns regarding the prediction of indirect measurements, and draw control records. The
pressures are the rate at which the back falls; the degree to muckpile thickness is the thickness of broken rock overlying
which it breaks up (thus permitting leakage and pressure the first extraction horizon. This value is also assessed from
loss); vertical height of the fall (the rate of pressure build up direct and indirect measurements and draw control records.
must relate to the rate at which the back falls up until Measurement error needs to be considered and a
terminal velocity is reached); plan area of the fall and the air conservative view taken.
flow resistance of the connected openings. The large scale permeability of the broken rock pile is
The conservative assumptions that were made to permit assessed from a site specific fragmentation interpretation
the simplistic estimation of the void pressure which could be and estimated from back calculation of inrush records from
generated during a caving event were: i) pressure rise is mines with similar characteristics.
very rapid (in reality peak pressure may take several The nature of collapse was considered as a plug failure as
seconds or more to be reached); ii) compression of air previously discussed. This is the most efficient failure
below the fall is uniform; iii) the complete cave back mechanism for driving the air out of the air gap and through
collapses as a single slug, with no friction on the sidewalls; the muck pile. This is a considered a conservative failure
iv) all of the air below the collapse is compressed and a mechanism, but it has been interpreted to have occurred at
vacuum is created above the fall (there is no leakage); and both Northparkes and Salvador mines. The duration of the
v) the air below the collapse is compressed into the voids in failure can be conservatively assumed to be 1 second for a
the broken rock pile which is in the base of the cave and first pass assessment.
there is no overall change in the volume of air contained in The number of exit points relates to the pathways
the system. The assumptions identified represent a "worst available for any potential air blast to exit the uppermost
case air pressure model, and in reality the generated extraction horizon and vent to surface, and
pressures will be lower than those predicted. Measurement error is related to errors associated with the
Using the peak over pressures calculated above and above measurements, interpretations and estimations.
applying them to different muck pile resistances it is This assessment can be entered into a spreadsheet
possible to assess the corresponding flow rate through the coupled with a probability tool such as @Risk to aid the
broken rock using the ventilation equation: assessment of input variability. Wind velocity values can be
assessed for a series of expansion gap and broken rock pile
Pressure = resistance x flow2 (3) heights for different broken rock porosities. Upper quartile
Velocity = Flow / Cross Sectional Area (4) values can be used to increase the conservatism of the
Volume Air = Porosity x Total Volume (5) assessment. A series of charts can be developed into a
nomogram (Figure 3) that links the expansion void height

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 719

(first x axis) to variable broken rock heights to give a wind
velocity assessment through a single exit tunnel (y axis).
The nomogram also shows the reduced wind velocities for
multiple exit paths (second x axis). Separate nomograms
are required for different broken rock fragmentation and
permeability.
WIND TOLERANCES

Limited international mining guidelines are available for

definition of tolerable wind velocities. Meteorological
classifications of tropical storm wind velocities are well
established however. These scales provide estimates of the
possible impact of winds of the same magnitude as those
that might be generated by a significant cave failure. Using Figure 3: Ridgeway wind blast nomogram
this information, estimates of potential damage over a range
of possible wind gust magnitudes can be made. Wind
velocities from these scales are linked to injury / damage. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following wind velocity models can be used:
The Beaufort Wind Force Scale ; The author is grateful to all of the people at Cadia Valley
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale; Operations who helped produce information and
The Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale; and methodology presented here. In particular Professor Ted
The Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale. Brown for his review of the airblast hazard management
systems reported here. The author also wishes to
It was interpreted that the most applicable meteorological acknowledge the permission given by Newcrest Mining
scale to use is the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale; because Limited for publication of this technical paper.
wind gust velocity is measured at ground level in this scale.
All of the other scales measure wind gust velocity 10m REFERENCES
above ground level. Based on the above, five maximal wind
gust potential classes were identified and are presented in Australian Mining Consultants, 2000. Ridgeway Gold
Table 1. This classification is support by Australian Coal Mine Ventilation Bulkhead Design. Derrington A.S., AMC
Association Research Program (ACARP) work which Job Number 300029. September 2000.
indicates that laceration injuries of uncovered skin would Bailey J. 2003. Findings and recommendations: Inquest
occur for wind velocities exceeding 15m/s for projectiles into the deaths of R Bodkin; M House; S Osman and C
weighing 10 grams or less. Lloyd-Jones on the 24th November 1999 at the E29 Lift 1
Mine. NSW Coroners Court, 18 March 2003.
CONTROLS Duplancic P. and Brady B. H., 1999. Characterisation of
caving mechanisms by analysis of seismicity and rock
The primary preventative control for major air inrush stress. In Proceedings 9th International Congress on
events is to inhibit the development of an inappropriate void Rock Mechanics, Paris, Eds Vouille G and Berest P, 2:
or air gap above the broken rock pile. This can be achieved 1049-1053. Balkema: Rotterdam.
by adopting strict draw control strategies in conjunction Flores G. and Karzulovic A., 2002. Geotechnical
with cave back monitoring. Systematic measurement, Guidelines for the transition from open pit to underground
ongoing assessment processes, well defined action mining, ICSII task 4. Report to the International Caving
triggers and management agreed responses are important Study
process controls. Responses target void reduction, Fowler J.C.W. and Hebblewhite B.K., 2003. Managing the
dissipation of potential energy, securing of escape pathways hazard of wind blast/air blast in caving operations in
and tightening of working controls. Actions may include Australian underground mines, In Ground Control in
increased monitoring intensity; cave inducement (hydro- Mining: Technology & Practice. Ed Hebblewhite B.K.,
fracturing or blasting); deferred draw; level closure; ISBN 0 7334 2085 0, UNSW School of Mine Engineering,
extension of cave footprint; and surface access exclusion of Sydney.
the potential subsidence zone (Table 3). Fowler J.C.W. and Sharma P., Jan 2000. The dynamics of
wind blasts in underground coal mines, Final Project
SUMMARY report (No 4), Project No C6030. ISBN 0 7334 0700 5,
UNSW School of Mine Engineering, Sydney.
The Ridgeway sublevel cave was implemented with the Fowler J., Torabi S. and Daly C., 1996. Field Investigation
understanding that air inrush events have historically into Windblasts Resulting from Large Falls of Roof in
occurred and needed to be proactively managed. Australian Underground Coal Mines, In Mining Science
Preventative, monitoring and responsive risk management and Technology. Eds Guo and Golosinski. AA Balkema.
strategies were implemented to effectively manage this air Laubscher D.H., 1999. Block and panel caving, Internal
inrush risk. A new methodology to assess potential wind report to the International Caving Study.
gust velocities associated with cave roof collapse was also Newcrest Mining Ltd., 2002. Ridgeway Gold Mine Inrush
developed, along with wind velocity tolerances from Major Hazard Management Plan, Internal report to
meteorological wind classes. These controls significantly Newcrest Mining Pty. Ltd.
contributed to successful cave propagation and continuing
safe production at Ridgeway.

720 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 1: Wind gust damage classes

Wind gust potentials Classification & reference Potential impact

Up to 15m/s, Moderate gale (Beaufort scale no. 7).

(55 kph) Wind gust class = green; Difficulty walking into wind.

15 to 33m/s Cyclone / hurricane Category 1, Some damage to windows, signs, vent

(55 to 125 kph) (F0) tornado. Wind gust class = yellow bag, air and water pipes.
Unprepared person may be knocked over.

35 - 45m/s Cyclone / hurricane Category 2, Significant damage to signs vent bag

(125 - 170kph) Moderate (F1) tornado. and pipes. Some automobiles overturned,
Wind gust class = orange; small projectiles (sand).

45 - 60m/s Cyclone / hurricane Category 3, Major damage some de-mountable

(170 - 225kph) Significant (F2) tornado. offices pushed over or destroyed.
Wind gust class = red Light object missiles generated.

>60m/s (225kph) Cyclone Categories 4 and 5, Severe Damage Heavy cars lifted off
Severe to Inconceivable (F3-F6) ground and thrown. Metal buildings
tornado. Wind gust class = red collapsed or severely damaged

Table 2: Wind gust speed, trigger and response plan

Measurements Trigger or key decision point Planned response

Estimated expansion void. Condition Yellow Level 1. Increase monitoring intensity;

Broken material including Potential velocity 15 35m/s; review draw records; prepare
ore above uppermost active (55 125 kph) OR Cave back for level closure
production level. has not moved for 3 6
Time since last cave movement months & little/no recorded
seismicity

Condition Yellow Level 2. Potential As above; implement underground

velocity 15 35m/s; (55 125 kph) hydro-fracturing cave inducement
AND Cave back has not moved for strategies
3 6 months & little/no
recorded seismicity

Condition Orange. Potential Deferred draw; full level closure;

velocity 35 45m/s; (125 170 kph) extend cave footprint; plan to
OR Cave back has not moved for evacuate mine if there is a
6 9 months & little/no marked increase in the seismicity
recorded seismicity in a 4 hour period; exclude
surface access to subsidence zone
if cave could collapse through to surface

Condition Red. Potential velocity Immediate and full mine evacuation;

>45m/s; (>170 kph) OR Cave back remote hydro-fracturing if safe to
has not moved for over 9 months do so; exclude surface access to
& little/no recorded seismicity subsidence zone if cave could
collapse to surface

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 721

 Cavity monitoring
system and stope analysis
John D. Lupton, B.Sc., Arts, AscT Optech Incorporated, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Abstract
This paper will discuss the benefits and advantages of using 3D survey data in stope analysis. Obtaining detailed 3D
survey data of underground mine progress and production is a challenge. It is almost impossible to "see" around
corners, underneath overhangs, or deep into dark, dusty, humid underground voids. Thus, valuable ore can remain
permanently encased in backfill. Without the benefit of 3D survey data, underground mines have the difficult task of
meeting grade quotas without the benefit of knowing exactly what has been mined. Lack of this data usually results in
unfavorable month-end reconciliation factors, where grades must be adjusted to match grades assessed by the Mill.

1 INTRODUCTION to determine the over/under breaks. A simple formula is

used to calculate dilutions:
Any new technology adopted by an underground mine
requires a learning curve. However, laser survey Dilution (%) = CMS Survey Data
technology is the quickest way to move a 2D mine into a 3D Reserves
world. 3D survey data is much easier to comprehend and
communicate. This data makes it easier to make and back Building a CMS database begins with surveys of primary
up difficult decisions. Combined with one of the many stopes. Planning will then design secondary stopes based
powerful 3D mining software packages available, a mine on actual mined data of primary stopes, thus maximizing
can improve grades by building a CMS database, as seen recovery and minimizing dilution. This will improve month-
in Figure 1. end reconciliation and overall grade control, resulting in a
more efficient mine.

Figure 1: CMS Data. Figure 2: Blast Ring Comparison.

The value of 3D survey data is to provide a safe For example in Figure 2 the secondary stope was
benchmark that will be used for production data. This actual designed based upon the survey results from the primary
accurate 3D survey production data will be compared to stope (which is now backfilled). The secondary stope is
blast design and mine reserves. For example, a set of blast then blasted, mucked and surveyed with a CMS (dark line).
rings will be designed to maximize recovery and minimize CMS scan results are sliced at the same coordinates as the
dilution. Once these new rings have been blasted, blast rings and draped over the ore body (dotted line) and
excavated and surveyed, the results will be compared with blast rings. The first blast ring (left) shows unsuccessful
ore reserves and the original blast designs. The results will blasting and the second blast ring (right) appears to be
be analyzed for tonnage of lost ore (underbreak), tonnage of marginal. A close examination reveals a substantial amount
waste rock (overbreak), and accurate grades sent to the mill of material left in the lower hanging wall. However, when
(reconciliation). Ultimately the results will be analyzed for the grade is draped over, the remaining material actually
the success, or lack of success, of drilling and blasting. contains very low-grade ore (0.90). Strategic blasting in this
stope, that left low-grade material in the stope, saved the
2 STRATEGIC BLASTING IN 2D mine almost $9,000 (CDN). Further analysis will reveal
exact tonnage of ore/waste left in the stope, and ore/waste
Working with 2D data, planning would simply slice the 3D hauled, or not hauled to the mill. Plans to recover any
survey data at the desired coordinates, azimuth and dip. remaining ore will be implemented when designing the
This 2D "slice" would then be draped over the 2D ore body tertiary stope.

722 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

3 STRATEGIC BLASTING IN 3D For example, an underground mine in Ontario was
experiencing difficulty mounting a sloughing ore pass, most
With one of the many powerful mining software programs of which went undetected. With the use of a reflectorless
such as Gemcom, calculating overbreak/underbreak is automatic laser scanner, the mine engineer was able to
painless. Users can overlay CMS polygons with the block obtain an accurate image of sloughing ore pass as seen in
model and a simple "clipping" routine provides the tonnage of Figure 4. Immediately the chief engineer justified the
overbreak/underbreak such as below. In the event of closing of the drift above the pass. Almost two weeks later
unsuccessful blasting, new bast rings must be designed to the closed drift completely failed into the ore pass below
remove remaining pillars. In Figure 3, the image on the left without injury to any employees or equipment.
illustrates unsuccessful blasting potentially leaving behind Sloughing ore passes and hanging walls are perilous
thousands of dollars in ore. Since the stopes on both sides areas to send miners. With a CMS it is possible to obtain
have already been backfilled, a new set of rings must be detailed information without unnecessarily risking injury to
designed, blasted and cleared quickly without disrupting mine employees.
production. The recovered pillars seen on the right contributed
several thousand extra dollars in ore.

Figure 5: Stope Comparison

In Figure 5, the original stope design included mining 19%

backfill, 22% air, and left 33% additional available ore in the
stope. The grade would have been 0.277. The redesign
increased the grade to 0.344, an increase of 20%. The
redesign included blasting under part of a backfilled stope.
After blasting, mucking and surveying, the final grade was
0.337, which were still 18% better than originally designed.
Figure 3: Blast Success Comparison.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Sloughing rock usually goes undetected. By monitoring
rock behavior with a 3D laser survey instrument, specifically CMS data cannot be accepted blindly. Errors, including
hangingwall stability, the 3D survey data can be used to those caused by water in the stope, are always possible and
predict unplanned dilution (overbreak) in future stopes. should keep the processor awake. Laser beams reflect off
Rock mechanics use CMS data to determine parameters water and can be detected immediately as unusually long
surrounding hangingwall stability. Using this data along with distances. Also any hanging cable bolts will interfere with
the known amount of undercut, dip, strike length, and the laser contacting the rock. All these errors must be
mucking time, a model is developed to predict dilution in edited before processing.
future stopes. This new model will provide the information It is important to build a CMS database that can be
to reduce future dilution, thus creating a more efficient mine. consulted constantly when developing adjacent drifts or
stopes. If a stope is backfilled without being surveyed, then
4 MINE SAFETY your database is not complete. Ultimately a more efficient
mine means better grades, increased production, and less
Since sloughing rock usually goes undetected, month-end reconciliation. CMS continues to enhance
monitoring unsafe areas prevents injury. By monitoring efficiency and safety in over 100 underground mines around
inaccessible areas potential problems, including injuries, the world.
can be avoided.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Optech Incorporated for

permission to present this work and for the many CMS
customers over the years without whose assistance this
paper would not be possible.

REFERENCES

Yao, X. (Mike); Allen, Gary; and Willett, Mike, Dilution

Evaluation Using Cavity Monitoring System at HBMS -
Trout Lake Mine, 1999.
Knight, Adam, The Use of the Cavity Monitoring System
and VULCAN at the Jerritt Canyon Joint Venture,
Northeastern Nevada, 2001.
Duke, Cliff, Cavity Monitoring System as a tool for
Reserve Reconciliation, 1999.
Figure 4: Sloughing Ore Pass.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 723

 Preliminary ventilation design
for the Grasberg block cave mine
Ian Duckworth, Technical Expert Ventilation, Ketut Karmawan, Superintendent Ventilation,
P.T. Freeport Indonesia, West Papua, Indonesia
Timothy Casten, Senior Manager of Underground Planning, Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.

Abstract
P.T. Freeport Indonesia operates a mining complex located in the highlands of Papua, Indonesia. This complex consists
of both underground and surface operations. By approximately 2014 the existing Grasberg open pit will be exhausted,
and a new underground mine will have been brought into production to cave the deposit below the pit. This paper
describes pre-feasibility ventilation planning for the Grasberg Block Cave Mine. The mine is being designed based on a
nominal production rate of 115,000 tonnes/day with a panel caving footprint of approximately 1 km by 1 km. The
proposed ventilation design allows for the long production panels to be broken into five discrete ventilation zones, and
ensure the economic delivery of large volumes of air to the working regions. Discussion is provided on ventilation criteria,
network modeling, examination of shaft versus drifting options, proposed infrastructure requirements, and
recommendations for future study.

1 BACKGROUND ON PTFI mine support services will utilize diesel-powered mobile

equipment. Due to relatively cool virgin rock and ambient air
P.T. Freeport Indonesias (PTFI) project site is located in temperatures, mechanical cooling or heating of the air will
the Sudirman Mountain range of Papua (formerly Irian not be required. The main access for men and materials will
Jaya). West Papua is the Eastern-most province of be via the AB Tunnels and a Service Winze.
Indonesia, which occupies the Western half of the island of The GRS BC operation will include the following
New Guinea. components:
PTFI acquired and have been developing the Ertsberg An 8 km long light rail passenger/freight system connecting
district since 1967. The presently known ore reserves are a surface station with an underground terminus. This supply
located approximately 100 km North of the Southwest coast tunnel will also provide for three other proposed mines,
of Papua, between elevations of 2,800 m and 4,000 m called the MLZ Block Cave Mine, Kucing Liar Block Cave
above sea level. Mine and the Big Gossan Sublevel Stope Mine. It is likely
Total ore tonnage has increased from 15,000 tonnes/day that all these operations will be developed during the period
(tpd) in 1978, to 60,000 tpd in 1992, to the present tonnage of the GRS BC mine life.
of about 230,000 tpd. At the time of writing this paper An underground crushing system with twin conveyor drifts
approximately 45,000 tpd is being produced from the DOZ linking the crusher bins/feeders to the surface milling
Block Cave Mine. Present reserves consist of six copper- facilities.
gold-silver orebodies and several other resources located A concrete-lined Service Winze with man cage providing
within a 15-kilometer square area. access between the rail terminus and block cave
The Grasberg porphyry copper-gold deposit possesses operation. The length will be approximately 300 m.
the worlds largest gold deposit and is among the five largest Single ramp linking the GRS BC rail terminus with the
copper deposits in an operating mine. The present reserves orebins/conveyors and the production levels.
for the Grasberg ore body are about 1.7 billion tons. Block cave operation consisting of 2840 m Undercut,
2820 m Extraction and 2790 m Service Levels (elevations
2 GRASBERG BLOCK CAVE MINE above sea level).

The Grasberg open pit is scheduled to cease production 2.1 GRS BC Design Overview
in 2014. Since the orebody continues at depth below the The mine design for the GRS BC utilized the VulcanTM
economic limits of surface mining, the reserve that is left mine planning package. Output from VulcanTM was
behind will be extracted using block-caving methods. imported to the VnetPCTM 2000 ventilation simulation
Development of the Grasberg Block Cave Mine (GRS BC) program to develop a three dimensional network
is scheduled to commence during 2008 and will be representation. Figure 1 shows a general isometric view of
accessed via the Ali Budiardjo (AB) Tunnel system. The the proposed GRS BC. This network includes all
mine will be a mechanized block caving operation with a components such as the tunnel access, ramp, Service
nominal production rate of 115,000 tpd. The option for an Winze and conveyors. Figure 2 shows a plan view of the
increased production rate of 160,000 tpd was also Extraction Level for the GRS BC. For 115,000 tpd there will
considered in the planning and design. be approximately 870 active drawpoints that will be brought
The GRS BC will be a high-tonnage mine utilizing electric online as the cave moves from the Northeast towards the
ore handling equipment on both the Extraction and Rail Southwest. The ventilation and track drifts comprise the
Haulage Levels. Caving, development, pre-production and underlying Service Level. The Undercut Level overlies the

724 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

Figure 1. Schematic showing the layout of the GRS BC.

Extraction with the same general footprint. A schematic advance Drill Drifts (DDs). Auxiliary ventilation will be used
layout of the proposed ventilation system for the Extraction, to supply air to the active DD headings from the perimeter.
Undercut and Service Levels is shown in Figure 3. The The air will be exhausted via the advance Undercut
airflow is delivered and exhausted via the ventilation service ventilation drifts as shown in the sketch. The Service Level
drifts on the 2790 m Service Level. There will be four groups track drifts will be ventilated in the opposite direction to the
of three service drifts, with each group comprising two Undercut, which will help balance the air velocity through
parallel ventilation drifts (intake or exhaust) and one-track the intake and exhaust service drifts.
drift. Each group of service drifts will be connected to every The GRS BC area will be supplied and exhausted with air
Extraction panel by two 4 m diameter smooth raises. One via primary intake and exhaust drifts. To facilitate the large
raise will serve as a chute, and the other for ventilation. The quantity of air required, there will be four main intake drifts
ventilation service drifts and connection raises allow the full and four exhaust drifts as shown in Figure 1.
width of the Extraction Level to be segmented into five 2.2 Ventilation Design Criteria
separately ventilated zones. PTFI adopt certain ventilation criteria to assist with
The Undercut Level will be discretely ventilated. To avoid underground mine planning. Tables 1 and 3 present some of
the requirement for many ventilation raises interconnecting the criteria that have been established based on Indonesian
the Undercut and Extraction Levels, two ventilation drifts will Mining Regulations (Decree of the Minister of Mines and
be driven across the Undercut Level ahead of caving. These Energy 1995), US Mine Safety and Health Administration
drifts will be connected down to the Service Level exhaust
at the West end. As caving progresses, intake air will be
brought around the cave using temporary fringe drifts and

Figure 2. Plan view of 115,000 tpd Extraction Level with Figure 3. Sketch showing the proposed GRS BC ventilation
underlying rail loops. system.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 725

(MSHA), and good engineering practice. Although the
Table 2. Atkinson friction factors.
design criteria do not specifically address diesel
particulates, PTFI has a comprehensive program in place to
Description Friction Factor (kg/m3)
monitor and minimize diesel particulates in all underground
Actual* Stnd
areas. This program integrates baseline monitoring of
worker exposures with reduction initiatives, including fuel
9 m2 to 15 m2 XSA - Drifting 0.0102 0.0132
changes, upgrade of equipment to tier-rated engines, and
15 m2 to 20 m2 - Drifting 0.0093 0.0120
increased ventilation. Table 2 provides a list of the Atkinson
20 m2 to 30 m2 - Drifting 0.0083 0.0107
friction factors used for the ventilation design. These values
30 m2 and Up - Drifting 0.0074 0.0095
have been obtained from detailed friction factor tests
conducted in PTFIs existing underground operations, and Conveyor Drift (with 2.1 m Belt) 0.0093 0.0120
hence there is a good level of confidence in the data. Primary Raise 6.0 m f+ 0.0074 0.0095
2.3 Airflow Requirements Typical ALIMAK Rse 3.0 m f+ 0.0111 0.0143
Table 4 provides an estimate of the airflow requirements Drop Ventilation Rse+ 0.0148 0.0191
for the GRS BC operating at 115,000 tpd. This includes a
comprehensive list of all mobile equipment, with actual * At average mine air density = 0.93 kg/m3
engine power and estimated operating factors. To provide + Does not include shaft/raise entry and exit losses
for an economic ventilation design, every attempt has been
made to reduce the amount of diesel equipment operating in
the mine, and a significant component of the production Table 3. Other ventilation design criteria.
operation will be run remotely using automation techniques.
Major contaminant producing areas of the mine such as the Criterion Value*
crusher stations and shops will be established on separate
air splits direct to exhaust. The rail haulage and chute Min. Airflow per 100 Workers 7.1 m3/s
loading systems will be fully automated from a remote Design Airflow per 100 kW Diesel 7.9 m3/s
control station. The nature of the Extraction Level lends
itself to automation of the loader fleet although at this level Shops and Facilities Exhaust
of the study it has been assumed that all mobile equipment Diesel Equipment Shop 40.1 m3/s
on the level will have an operator. Lube/Fueling Shop 28.3 m3/s
The total airflow estimate for the mobile equipment is "Hot" Shop or Rock Breaker Stn 23.6 m3/s
about 627 m3/s. The requirement for the active Extraction Explosives Magazine 9.4 m3/s
and Service Levels is 736 m3/s. Other fixed allowances Common Gas TLVs
include four shops, with a total airflow of 161 m3/s Oxygen > 19.5%
exhausting directly to return ventilation drifts. There is an Carbon Dioxide TWA=5,000 ppm
additional 189 m3/s intaking the AB Tunnels which is Carbon Monoxide TWA=50 ppm
exhausted via the GRS BC conveyors. This ventilation split STEL=400 ppm
requires an underground booster fan. Based on this list, the Hydrogen Sulfide TWA=10 ppm
total airflow provision for the mine, excluding leakage and Nitrogen Dioxide STEL=5 ppm
balancing, is about 1,755 m3/s. Sulfur Dioxide TWA = 2 ppm

2.4 Ventilation Modeling and Infrastructure *TWA = Time Weighted Average for 8-hr working shift
Ventilation analyses were conducted which included STEL = Short Term Exposure Limit for 15 minutes
modeling the GRS BC during two different phases in the
proposed mine life. The analyses took into account all
anticipated air leakage paths (doors, bulkheads, old panels, The basic ventilation model was established as shown in
etc.) to provide a realistic representation of the mine. The Figure 1. The model was adapted to simulate two different
modeling incorporated the AB Tunnel system and made scenarios:
allowance for interconnection with the proposed Big Gossan Production from the first 12 panels, with a further 4 panels
and Kucing Liar Mines. The analyses assume primary under development or construction.
underground exhaust fan installations close to the main portals. Final (most Westerly) 4 panels are under development or
construction, with the 12 adjacent panels in production.
The center of mining has shifted to the West, and leakage
Table 1. Air velocity design criteria. in the system has increased (termed Mature Mine.)
The predicted fan requirements for these two scenarios
Airway Air Velocity (m/s) are given in Table 5. For the early mine the total airflow is
Min Opt Max predicted to be 1,813 m3/s. Based on a nominal daily
tonnage of 115,000 tpd this equates to 0.0158 m3/s/tpd. The
Conveyor Drifts total installed fan motor power requirement is about 7,200
- Homotropal 0.8 2.0 4.0 kW with a predicted annual power cost of US$2,836,000.
- Antitropal 0.8 1.0 2.0 These values assume 75% efficiency for the main fan and
Truck Haulage Drifts 0.8 4.1 6.1 motor installation. For the mature mine the total airflow
quantity increases to 1,888 m3/s, or about 0.0164 m3/s/tpd.
Primary Ventilation Drifts 0.8 8.1 10.2
This is higher than the value shown in Table 4 due to the
Rough Large Raises (+4 m) - 14.2 19.8 system leakage. As a result of the efficient layout for the
Typical ALIMAK Raise - 12.7 19.8 ventilation system, with few connections between intake
and exhaust, the predicted leakage is less than 10%.
Drop Ventilation Raise - 6.6 19.8 The installed fan motor requirement for the mature mine
increases to 8,660 kW, with a projected annual operating
- Optimum values are used for design purposes. cost of about US$3,414,000. Both of these operating
- Velocity criteria are based on an economic assessment characteristics (Early and Mature cases) will be achievable
factoring in power and development costs. with the same fan installations.

726 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 4. Airflow Required - 115,000 tpd. Table 5. Predicted fan requirements
for 115,000 tpd operation.
N Op. Unit airflow Total
Factor Pow. per Unit Airflow Scenario/ Total Pres Quantity Input Pow Op. Cost.
(%) (kW) (m/s) (m/s) Location (Pa)* (m3/s) (kW)* (US$/yr)+
Mobile Equipment
Early Mine
LHD 6.0 m3 (Dev.) - Dsl 8 70% 186 14.7 82.6
Main Exhaust 2,990 1.624 6.474 $ 2,552,000
Truck 40 t (Dev.) - Dsl 3 80% 354 28.0 67.3
Booster Installation 2,860 189 721 $ 284,000
Drill Jumbo (Dev.) 5 30% 58 4.6 6.9
Totals For Mine - 1,813 7,195 $ 2,836,000
Production Drills 6 30% 113 9.0 16.1
Rock Breaker 13 30% 123 9.7 38.0
Mature Mine
LHD 6.0 m3 - Electric 45 80% - - -
Main Exhaust 3,490 1,699 7,906 $ 3,117,000
Truck 30 t (Dev.) - Dsl 8 70% 224 17.7 99.1
Booster Installation 2,990 189 753 $ 297,000
Drill Jumbo (Sec. Breaking) 16 60% 43 3.4 32.3
Totals For Mine - 1,888 8,659 $ 3,414,000
Commando Sec. Breaking) 26 60% 36 2.8 44.2
Drill Jumbo (Rockboting) 2 30% 42 3.3 2.0
* Systems pressure to be met by fan. Does not incluide fan llosses.
LHD 2.7 m3 (Clean-up) - Dsl 2 50% 138 10.9 10.9
* Assumes 75% efficiency for fans and motors
Scissor Lift 12 30% 61 4.8 17.4
+ Assumes 0.045 US$/kWh
Explosives Truck 4 70% 123 9.7 27.3
U/G Road Grader 3 30% 112 8.8 8.0
Shotcrete Jumbo 5 30% 58 4.6 6.9
Shotcrete Truck 10 30% 57 4.5 13.6
U/G Lube Trucks 6 30% 115 9.1 16.4
U/G Boom Truck 4 75% 115 9.1 27.3
U/G Flatbed 7 75% 115 9.1 47.7
U/G Service Truck 4 30% 115 9.1 10.9
U/G Electrical Truck 6 30% 115 9.1 16.4
U/G Fork Lift 4 15% 32 2.5 1.5
u/G Personmel Carrier 10 30% 115 9.1 27.3
U/G Tractor (General) 10 30% 24 1.9 5.7
U6G Tractor (Engineering) 2 30% 24 1.9 1.1
Rail Haulage Locomotives 8 80% - - -
Subtotal Mobil Equipment 626.7
Fixed Allowances
Development Panel Segment 45 100% - 14.2 637.2
Rail Haulage Drives 3 100% - 33.0 99.1
Personnel 600 100% - 0.1 42.5
Maintenance Shop 4 100% - 40.1 160.5
Crusher Bins and Belt Drifts 2 100% - 94.4 188.8
Subtotal 1.128.1
Figure 4. Relative pressure profile for the 115,000 tpd
Total Airflow Required 1.755 mature mine case.

The following drift sizes have been determined for the from the development panel region to the service exhaust
115,000 tpd design (all ventilation drifts will be fully drifts. A linear profile is indicative of balanced air velocities
shotcreted): and frictional pressure losses, suggesting that drift and raise
Primary Ventilation Drifts from Portals to Service Level = sizes and numbers are correct for the system.
6.8 6.8 m
Ventilation Service Drifts below Extraction = 5.5 5.5 m 2.5 Adits Versus Shafts Design Comparison
Ramp and Access Drifts = 4.5 5.0 m A ventilation study was conducted comparing adits versus
Conveyor Drifts = 4.5 5.0 m shafts for the primary mine infrastructure. An initial shaft
Extraction panels = 4.5 4.5 m layout was developed in which the intake air is brought
Undercut DDs = 3.6 4.2 m down two concrete-lined 7.5 m diameter shafts into the
Panel Raises = Raise-bored at 4 m diameter orebody area and back out two similar 7.5 m diameter
Service Winze = Smooth 8.5 m diameter exhaust shafts to surface. Due to the mountainous
Figure 4 shows a graph of the relative pressure profile for topography, the shafts would be approximately 1.0 km long.
the mature mine case. In order to place the shafts far enough away from the cave
The relative pressure for this case is the difference influence, primary intake and exhaust drifts would still be
between ambient (surface) and locations underground. For required, with each drift about 1,500 m long. It was assumed
the profile a typical circuit has been chosen through the that two sets of four drifts will be developed at 6.8 6.8 m
mine, and the trend line plotted against linear distance connecting the shafts to the production area.
covered, including ventilation raises. The circuit chosen The maximum velocities for the 7.5 m diameter shafts
was: intake portals primary intake drifts service intake would be 18 m/s, which is 25% higher than the economic
drifts far Western panel region service exhaust drifts optimum velocities used as the current basis of mine design
primary exhaust drifts underground primary exhaust (see Table 1). However, it is noted that the economic
fans exhaust portal. The trend is considered excellent, velocity given in the table is for a rough shaft (2.1 m bored
remaining generally linear and averaging about 333 then slashed to size), not a fully concrete lined shaft, which
Pa/1,000 m. The one short steep section represents the will be considerably more costly to construct per meter, and
"open-split" in the ventilation circuit where the air exhausts have a higher optimum velocity.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 727

 The shaft study showed approximately US$69 million in
Table 7. Fan comparison
capital allocated to sink the intake and exhaust shafts and
115,000 tpd versus 160,000 tpd (mature mine).
develop the shorter drifts. The adit option required
approximately US$46 million in capital.
Scenario/ Total Pres Quantity Input Pow Op. Cost.
The mature mine 115,000 tpd scenario was used for a fan
Location (Pa)* (m3/s) (kW)* (US$/yr)+
power cost comparison. The results are provided in Table 6.
These results indicate that there is a significant power
115 ktpd Case
savings (approximately US$580,000/yr) associated with
Main Exhaust* 3,490 1,699 7,906 $ 3,117,000
drifting compared to shafts.
Booster Installation 2,990 189 753 $ 297,000
Totals For Mine - 1,888 8,659 $ 3,414,000

Table 6. Power cost comparison 160 ktpd Case

drifting versus shafts. Main Exhaust 3,240 2,124 9,176 $ 3,617,000
Booster Installation 2,620 189 660 $ 260,000
Scenario/ Total Pres Quantity Input Pow Op. Cost. Totals For Mine - 2,313 9,836 $ 3,877,000
Location (Pa)* (m3/s) (kW)* (US$/yr)+

Shafts 3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

Main Exhaust* 4,110 1,699 9,311 $ 3,670,000
Booster Installation 3,240 189 816 $ 322,000 The work contained in this publication supports a pre-
Totals For Mine - 1,888 10,127 $ 3,992,000 feasibility design of the GRS BC operation. As the study
progresses to feasibility level a more detailed analysis will
Drifts and Portals be conducted. Certain ventilation issues have been
Main Exhaust 3,490 1,699 7,906 $ 3,117,000 identified for special consideration.
Booster Installation 2,990 189 753 $ 297,000
Totals For Mine - 1,888 8,659 $ 3,414,000 3.1 Mine Total Airflow
The total predicted airflow in the mine is 1,888 m3/s,
* Atk. friction factor = 0.0037 kg/m3 (o.0048 kg/m3 stnd) for shafts which corresponds to approximately 0.016 m3/s/tpd.
This compares to about 0.028 m3/s/tpd for the existing
In addition to the economic benefits, the drifting option DOZ Mine ventilation system. The value for the GRS BC
was considered to have certain other advantages, including: Mine is significantly lower than this, however the
Shafts require specialized equipment and crews to sink. contaminants in the mine are expected to be less than
Drift development will be spread over the mine ramp-up those presently encountered. The GRS BC will
years with multiple headings. incorporate electric panel loaders, electric oreflow
Shafts require specialized maintenance equipment and handling, low emission diesel development equipment
trained crews. Repairs typically require a long time frame. operating on underground mine fuel, and significantly
Historically PTFI has encountered water in long vertical reduced Undercut drilling (room-and-pillar undercutting
shafts. In an exhaust shaft this counter-current water flow methods). When combined it is anticipated that these
acts as a permanent drag and increases resistance. In changes will allow compliance with gas and diesel
such a long shaft it may also result in "blanketing" and particulate criteria, however it will be important to
cyclic loading (even potential fatigue) of the fans. continue to revisit and revise airflow requirements as
The fan installations will be more accessible for the design progresses.
construction, maintenance, inspections and power
delivery if placed near the proposed portals. Longer-term, 3.2 Airflow Control
access to the shaft collars would be difficult being close to One of the main ventilation challenges faced by
the final cave line and remote from other mine facilities. operators of large mines is control of airflow. This can be
In the case of an emergency, personnel can quickly particularly difficult in caving operations where there are
egress to a fresh air intake and if required walk completely multiple open parallel splits. On Extraction Levels the
out of the mine using that primary escapeway. problem is compounded in longer panels, which often
The drifts provide large tunnel diameter access to the have more than one ventilation zone. Experience at
mine for occasional oversize pieces of equipment that PTFI suggests that automated regulation of the panel
could potentially disrupt the tunnel rail system. raises on the Extraction Level will be difficult due to
damage from equipment and drawbell blasting activities.
2.6 160,000 tpd Comparison Hence it is likely that remotely controlled heavy-duty
Ventilation analyses were also conducted assuming an regulators will be designed and installed on the Service
expanded production rate of 160,000 tpd. The simulation Level.
incorporated an updated equipment list, and the number of 3.3 Dust and Diesel Particulates
panel segments in production increased from 45 to 62. This Control of dust in block cave mines can be extremely
change resulted in an increase in the main fan airflow to challenging. Approximately 230,000 tpd of ore are presently
2,124 m3/s, with a total mine airflow of 2,313 m3/s (when moved through PTFIs site operations via loaders, trucks,
including the GRS BC oreflow ventilation system). Certain crushers, belts and orepasses. In certain areas, such as
infrastructure sizes were increased as follows: panel drifts, belt transfers, orepass head chutes and
Primary Vent. Drifts = 6.5 9.5 m stockpiles particular attention must be given at the design
2790 m Vent, Service Drifts = 5.5 6.5 m stage to ensure compliance with dust Threshold Limit
Values (TLVs). This may consist of a comprehensive plan
Table 7 provides a comparison of the main fan operating incorporating weather station data, belt moisture sensors,
requirements for both the 115,000 tpd and 160,000 tpd foggers and sprays tied to the mine PLC network. The mine
cases. Although the total airflow increases, there is an design will also have to ensure compliance with MSHAs
actual reduction of about 0.002 m3/s/tpd. The fan pressures diesel particulate TLV, and as such the fuels, equipment,
are reduced slightly due to the increased drift sizes. and ventilation will factor this in.

728 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

3.4 Fans analysis is an essential component of an overall mine
The predicted main fan operating requirement is 1,699 design. For the pre-feasibility design fire mitigation and
m3/s at 3.5 kPa fan total pressure, which corresponds to 425 control philosophies were incorporated into the mine plan.
m3/s per exhaust drift. This assumes a single primary More detailed "hot-flow" fire analyses will be conducted as
exhaust fan installation. Further work will evaluate the the design progresses. For the preliminary design PTFI has:
potential advantages of primary forcing fans and a push-pull Made provision for all shops and hot-work areas to be
system with both primary forcing and exhausting fans. The directly ventilated to an exhaust airway and to be
characteristic of 425 m3/s per drift can be achieved with equipped with isolation fire doors.
either centrifugal fans (portal structure) or underground axial All conveyor belts will have independent airflow splits
fans (vane or mixed-flow). The power demand will be high, directed to the belt portals, and will be equipped with
but it is anticipated that losses can be kept to a minimum smoke sensors and fire-suppression deluge systems.
through careful design of the fans, layout, and electrical The air from the AB Tunnels will be used for the lower
supply. The underground booster fan for the conveyor drifts ramps, and will exhaust via the conveyor drifts. This air
is sized at 189 m3/s at 3.0 kPa fan total pressure. A similar will not enter any of the production areas.
sized fan would also be required to handle the airflow The air from the upper ramps will be used for ventilating
exhausting from the proposed Kucing Liar Mine oreflow the conveyor drifts, and will not enter the block cave
area. working areas.
Air critical velocity values (per Froude number analysis)
3.5 Air Velocity will be sufficiently high throughout the ramps as to prevent
The airflow quantity in the twin exhaust conveyor drifts is backlayering of smoke against the direction of airflow in
about 378 m3/s, corresponding to an air velocity of the event of equipment fire. This is necessary to ensure
approximately 6 m/s. This exceeds the maximum design predictable smoke spread and provide a non-
velocity of 4 m/s for a homotropal conveyor system. During compromised fresh air base for fire fighting.
further study the GRS BC oreflow ventilation system will be
examined. It may be possible to significantly reduce the 4 CONCLUSIONS
airflow exhausting the belts, or even intake the belts with a
dedicated exhaust to the primary mine fans. The GRS BC will be a very large mine that will provide
Depending on the active segment layout, the air velocity many unique engineering challenges. It is anticipated that
at the East end of the service ventilation drifts may become like most block cave operations, there will be issues
high (exceed 10 m/s). However, when considering the entire associated with the balancing of the air, especially through
length of these collection drifts the pressure losses are not the production panels. Particular attention will also need to
excessive. It is planned that the two ventilation drifts in each be given to the integration of dust and diesel particulate
set of three service drifts will be aerodynamically connected control strategies and systems within the ventilation design.
with equalizing cross-cuts. However, it can be stated that for a pre-feasibility study, the
proposed GRS BC Mine layout integrates good ventilation
3.6 Upcast Air design. The predicted pressure losses and air velocities
In the ventilation design airflow upcasts both the lower generally agree with PTFI optimum design criteria, and peak
ramp and Service Winze. Based on experience at PTFI it is values are within acceptable economic and operational
likely that condensation will occur with the upcast air levels. When considering operating cost, there is a definite
(Calizaya et al. 2002). In the ramp this can result in fogging benefit in developing the mine with portals, rather than
and poor visibility. In the shaft this can cause fogging, water intake and exhaust shafts, and the drifting option has been
collection, and in some cases more rapid deterioration of the selected as the base case.
fixed facilities. For the shaft it would be possible to downcast
intake air. Further study will be devoted to the determination 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of shaft resistances and the dynamic effects of cage
movement, and the optimization of airflow in the shaft. For The authors would like to thank PTFI Management for
the lower ramp fixed fan-heaters may be required to dry the allowing publication of this paper.
air and maintain good visibility. Heaters have been used to
good effect in existing PTFI underground ramp systems. REFERENCES

3.7 AB Tunnels and Mine Fire Calizaya, F., Karmawan, K. & Wallace, K.G. 2002.
Approximately 189 m3/s is predicted to intake the lower Utilization of Heater Fans to Control Mine Atmospheric
mine section from the AB Tunnels. This air then either enters Fogging. In Euler De Souza (ed), Proceedings of the 9th
the ramp, Service Winze, and shop facilities (dedicated NA/US Mine Ventilation Symposium. The Netherlands:
exhaust). This represents a significant volume of air, with a A.A. Balkema Publishers.
tunnel air velocity of about 5.7 m/s. During future study the Decree of the Minister of Mines and Energy Indonesia,
airflow requirements for the tunnels will be more accurately 1995. Number 555.K/26/M.PE/1995, General Mining
determined, incorporating fire simulation to determine Occupational Safety and Health.
contaminant spread in the event of a tunnel vehicle fire. Fire MSHA, Code of Federal Regulations 30, Part 75.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 729

 Fluidized-bed biofilms for process
and environmental applications
in mining and metallurgy
Jaakko A. Puhakka, Anna H. Kaksonen and Pivi H.-M. Kinnunen,
Institute of Environmental Engineereing and Biotechnology
Tampere University of Technology, Finland

Abstract
Biofilm based fluidized-bed processes were developed for ferric sulphate production and regeneration in
biohydrometallurgy and for treatment of acidic metal-containing wastewaters. High-rate ferric sulphate generation with
iron oxidation rate of up to 26.4 g Fe2+ L-1 h-1 and a hydraulic retention time of 0.2 h were obtained and long-term
maintained in Leptospirillum ferriphilum-dominated biofilm systems. The treatment of acidic wastewater (pH 2.5 to 5)
containing sulphate, and high-concentrations of zinc and iron was studied in a sulphate-reducing fluidized-bed reactor.
The FBR feed was supplemented with lactate or ethanol to support biological sulphate reduction. During long-term
operation, this system achieved the following metal precipitation rates: 360 mgL-1d-1 for Zn and 86 mgL-1d-1 for Fe with
over 99.8% Zn and Fe removal. The alkalinity produced from ethanol and lactate oxidation increased the wastewater pH
from 2.5 to 7.5-8.5. In summary, the fluidized-bed biofilm process can be used for high-rate ferric solvent production in
biohydrometallurgical applications and the sulphate-reducing and metal precipitating biofilm process has potential for
wastewater treatment applications producing a good quality effluent with metal concentrations below 0.1 mgL-1.

1 INTRODUCTION In this work, fluidized-bed biofilm processes were

developed for the following: 1) ferric sulphate generation,
The use of biotechnology in mining and metallurgy is and 2) for treating acidic metal- and sulphate-containing
continuously increasing and includes both production wastewater. The process performance of these FBRs was
process and environmental engineering applications. evaluated under various operational conditions with
New biohydrometallurgical methods as compared to continuous flow experiments.
traditional pyrometallurgical techniques have many
advantages, including no emission to air, simplicity, low 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
cost, and applicability to low-value ores and mineral
resources that have not been feasible by conventional The ferrous sulphate oxidation experiments were
mining (e.g., Bosecker 1997; Hsu and Harrison 1995). The performed in laboratory-scale FBRs (Kinnunen et al. 2003,
economical value of the global bioleaching processes in
recent years has been over 10x109 US dollars (for reviews,
see Brandl 2001; Johnson 2001). The leaching of sulphidic
ore is performed by noncontact, contact, or cooperative
leaching mechanisms, in which iron and sulphur
compounds are oxidized to ferric iron and sulphuric acid,
respectively (for a review, see Rawlings 2002).
The exploitation of sulphide minerals results in the
oxidation of iron and sulphur, and thus in the production of
acidic metal-containing wastewaters (Foucher et al. 2001).
Recently, the interest in the application of sulphate reduction
as the dominant step of wastewater treatment has been
growing (for a review, see Hulshoff Pol et al. 2001). The
process is based on biological hydrogen sulphide
production (equation 1) by sulphate-reducing bacteria
(SRB), metal sulphide precipitation (equation 2) and
neutralization of the water with the alkalinity produced by the
microbial metabolism (equation 3) (Dvorak et al. 1992;
Christensen et al. 1996):

SO42- + 2CH2O H2S + 2HCO3- (1)

where CH2O = an electron donor

HCO3- + H+ CO2 (g) + H2O (2)

H2S + M2+ MS(s) + H+ (3) Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a fluidized-bed

where M2+ = metal, such as Zn2+ reactor used for iron oxidation

730 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 The FBR systems used for sulphate reduction and metal
precipitation were as shown in Figure 2 and the
experimental designs and feed solutions as earlier
described (Kaksonen et al. 2003a; 2003b; 2004).
The analysis methods used were as summarized in Table 1.

3 FERRIC SULPHATE GENERATION

Iron oxidation was studied in FBRs at different

temperatures and with microorganisms enriched from
various mine environments. At 37C with a Leptospirillum
ferriphilum dominated biofilm (Figure 3) and with pure
oxygen aeration and HRT of 0.2 h the iron oxidation rate
was 26.4 Fe2+ L-1 h-1 (Table 2). With moderately
thermophilic acidophilic enrichment cultures and dominated
by Sulphobacillus spp. enriched from an open-pit mine in
Collie, Western Australia, the iron oxidation rates always
remain significantly lower than at 37oC.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the configuration of the

sulphidogenic fluidized-bed reactor

Kinnunen and Puhakka 2004) (Figure 1). The aeration

system was connected to the recycle flow line, and the
aerated liquor was pumped to the bottom of the FBRs.
Activated carbon was used as the biomass carrier. The
FBRs were operated at 37, 50, 60 and 70oC. The
composition of the feed and sources of microorganisms
were as previously described (Kinnunen et al. 2003,
Kinnunen and Puhakka 2004).
Figure 3. Scanning electron micrograph of the iron-oxidizing
Table 1. Summary of the analyses culture (Kinnunen and Puhakka 2004).
employed in this study.
Table 2. Biological iron oxidation rates in FBRs operated at
Analysis Instrument(s) Ref. different temperatures and with different enrichment cultures
Sulphate HPLC, IC a,b,c (Kinnunen et al. 2003; Kinnunen and Puhakka 2004).
Dissolved organic TOC analyzer a,b
carbon (DOC) T (C) Aeration HRT (h) Aeration-% Iron oxid.
(g Fe2+/lh)
Acetate, Ethanol GC-FID a,c
Soluble metals AAS d,e 37 Air 0.6 91 8.1
Dissolved sulphide Spectrophotometer f,g 37 95.5% O2 0.2 82 26.3
50 Air 9.8 71 0.7
Ferrous iron Spectrophotometer h
60 Air 4.0 85 0.5
pH pH electrode a,b,c
70 air 3.1 11 0.1
Oxygen Oxygen meter
Total alkalinity Potentiometric titration h The iron oxidation rates obtained in the 37oC FBRs
Total suspended Oven, balance b compared favourably with iron oxidation rates obtained in
solids (TSS) other studies published earlier.

Volatile suspended Furnace, balance a,b,c

solids (VSS) 4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Total solids (TS) Oven, balance a,b,c
The FBR process performance was evaluated under various
Volatile solids (VS) Furnace, balance i operational conditions with continuous flow experiments. In
Minerology of the X-ray diffractometer b terms of sulphate reduction, sulphide production and effluent
metal precipitates alkalinity, the start-up of the FBR with 10 % fluidization rate was
superior to the FBRs with 20-30 % fluidization rates. However,
Elemental SEM with energy b the FBRs with 20-30 % recycling rates performed better at the
composition of the dispersive x-ray highest loading rates. The substrate feed of the FBR could be
metal precipitates spectrometer changed from lactate to ethanol without significant change in the
FBR performance.
References: aKaksonen et al 2003a, bKaksonen et al. 2003b, cKaksonen et al.
2004, dSFS 3044, eSFS 3047, fTrper and Schlegel 1964, gCord-Ruwish 1985, The robustness of the sulphidogenic FBR was studied by
hSFS-EN ISO 9963-1, iSFS 3008 hAnon. 1992. increasing stepwise the zinc, sulphate and substrate feed

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 731

concentrations and decreasing the feed pH, as well as REFERENCES
decreasing hydraulic retention time (HRT) until process
failures occurred. Lactate- and ethanol-utilizing FBRs Anonymous. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of
precipitated 350-360 mg Zn l-1 d-1 and 86 mg Fe l-1 d-1 water and wastewater. 18th ed. In: Greenberg AE, Clesceri
from acidic wastewater containing 230 mg Zn l-1 and 57 mg LS, Eaton AD, editors. American Public Health Association.
Fe l-1 at a HRT of 16 h (Table 3). Percentual metal Bosecker K. 1997. Bioleaching: metal solubilization by
precipitation was over 99.8 % resulting in effluent soluble Zn microbes. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 20: 591-604.
and Fe concentrations below 0.1 mg l-1. The alkalinity Brandl H. 2001. Microbial leaching of metals. In:
produced in the sulphidogenic lactate and ethanol oxidation Biotechnology, Vol. 10, Rehm H-J (ed.), Wiley-VCH,
increased the wastewater pH from 2.5 to 7.5-8.5. Weinheim, pp. 191-224.
Maximum metal precipitation rates were obtained with Christensen B, Laake M and Lien T. 1996 Treatment of acid
ethanol-fed FBR at a HRT of 6.5 h from acidic wastewater mine water by sulfate-reducing bacteria: Results from a bench
containing 176 mg Zn l-1 and 87 mg Fe l-1(Table 3). The rates scale experiment. Water Res 30: 1617-1624.
were over 600 mg Zn l-1 d-1 and 300 mg Fe l-1 d-1, percentual Dvorak DH, Hedin RS, Edenborn HM and McIntire PE.
metal precipitation over 99.9% and effluent metal 1992. Treatment of metal-contaminated water using
concentrations below 0.08 mg l-1. The alkalinity produced in bacterial sulfate-reduction: Results from pilot-scale
ethanol oxidation increased the initial pH of 3, resulting in reactors. Biotech Bioeng 40: 609-616.
effluent pH of 7.5-8.5. At the HRT of 6.5 h, ethanol oxidation was Foucher S, Battaglia-Brunet F, Ignatiadis I and Morin D.
incomplete and acetate accumulated in the FBR. The operation 2001. Treatment by sulfate-reducing bacteria of Chessy
of the FBR at HRTs below 6.5 h was limited by partial acetate acid-mine drainage and metals recovery. Chem Eng Sci
oxidation, since alkalinity production by acetate oxidation is 56: 1639-1645.
necessary for wastewater neutralization. Zinc and iron Hsu C-H and Harrison RG. 1995. Bacterial leaching of zinc
precipitated predominantly as ZnS, FeS2 and FeS. The metal and copper from mining wastes. Hydrometallurgy 37: 169-179.
precipitates did not cause clogging of the reactors during the Hulshoff Pol LW, Lens PNL, Weijma J and Stams AJM. 2001.
continuous operation of over 1200 days. New developments in reactor and process technology for
sulfate reduction. Water Sci Technol 44(8): 67-76.
Table 3. Summary of the process performance Johnson DB. 2001. Importantce of microbial ecology in
of the sulphidogenic FBR. the development of new mineral technologies.
Hydrometallurgy 59: 147-157.
Electron donor Lactate Ethanol Ethanol Kaksonen, AH, Franzmann, PD and Puhakka, JA. 2004.
Effects of hydraulic retention time and sulfide toxicity on
HRT (h) 16 16 6.5 ethanol and acetate utilization in sulfate-reducing
pH change Fa 2.50.1 2.50.1 3.00.1 fluidized-bed reactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86: 332-343.
Eb 7.80.2 7.70.2 7.90.1 Kaksonen, AH, Franzmann, PD and Puhakka, JA. 2003a.
Performance and ethanol utilization kinetics of a sulfate-
Feed Zn 2334 24010 1766 reducing fluidized-bed reactor treating acidic metal-
(mg l-1) Fe 583 571 875 containing wastewater. Biodegradation 14: 207-217.
Kaksonen, AH, Riekkola-Vanhanen, M-L and Puhakka, JA.
Effluent Zn 0.07004 0.090.06 0.020.02 2003b. Optimization of metal sulphide precipitation in fluidized-
(mg l-1) Fe 0.050.04 0.040.04 0.040.03 bed treatment of acidic wastewater. Water Res. 37: 255-266.
Kinnunen PH-M, Robertson WJ, Plumb JJ, Gibson JAE,
Precipitation Zn 99.970.02 99.960.02 99.990.01
Nichols PD, Franzmann PD and Puhakka JA. 2003. The
(%) Fe 99.920.07 99.930.07 99.960.04 isolation and use of iron oxidizing moderately thermophilic
Precipitation Zn 3506 36015 63550 acidophiles from the Collie coal mine for the generation of ferric
(g m-3d-1) Fe 865 861 31522 iron leaching solution. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 60: 748-753.
Kinnunen PH-M and Puhakka JA. 2004. High-rate ferric
Reference Kaksonen Kaksonen Kaksonen sulfate generation by a Leptospirillum ferriphilum-dominated
et al. 2003b et al. 2003a et al. 2004 biofilm and the role of jarosite in biomass retainment in a
fluidized-bed reactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 85:697-705.
aF = Feed, bE = Effluent Rawlings DE 2002. Heavy metal mining using microbes.
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 56: 65-91.
5 CONCLUSIONS SFS. 1980a. SFS 3044: Metal content of water, sludge
and sediment determined by atomic adsorption
This study demonstrates a high-rate fluidized-bed bioprocess for spectroscopy, atomisation in flame. General principles
ferric sulphate production by an enrichment culture dominated by and guidelines. Finnish Standards Association, SFS. 8 p.
L. ferriphilum. Further, this study also demonstrated the feasibility SFS. 1980b. SFS 3047: Metal content of water, sludge and
of a sulphidogenic FBR for concomitant removal of acidity, metals sediment determined by atomic adsorption spectroscopy,
and sulphate from wastewaters. Both FBR processes offer viable atomisation in flame. Special guidelines for lead, iron,
alternatives for existing processes. cadmium, cobalt, copper, nickel and zinc. Finnish Standards
Association, SFS. 6 p
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SFS. 1990. SFS 3008: Determination of total residue and
total fixed residue in water, sludge and sediment. Finnish
National Technology Agency of Finland, Outokumpu Oyj, Standards Association, SFS. 3 p.
Finnish Graduate School of Environmental Science and SFS. 1996. SFS-EN ISO 9963-1: Water quality. Determination
Technology and the Academy of Finland are gratefully of alkalinity. Part 1: Determination of total and composite
acknowledged for their financial support. alkalinity. Finnish Standards Association, SFS. 16 p.

732 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 An audit methodology used to assess
the current and future capabilities
of the backfill system at Konkola No 3#
Nic James, Mine Manager, Konkola Division
Alan Naismith, Group Geotechnical Engineer, KCM, Zambia

Abstract
Mining with backfill was introduced to Konkola as part of the Konkola Deep Mine Project (KDMP). A temporary pilot plant
was commissioned in November 2002 to produce cyclone classified tailings fill to be used with the Overcut and Bench
Mining method (OCB) being practiced. At that time mining between 1850 level and 1660 level was suffering from
deteriorating ground conditions and planned recoveries and production rates were not being achieved. In addition to
providing fill for concurrent operations, the plant was required to produce fill for previously unfilled areas. Backfill has
been incorporated as a concurrent part of the mining cycle in areas below 1850 level.
An audit was carried implemented during July and August of 2003 to critically assess the current status of backfilling
practice at Konkola and to determine the ability of the system to supply future operations. An unusual aspect of this audit
was that it was mine staff, under the guidance of an external consultant, that carried it out, and not an independent
external team. A valuable outcome of this approach was to internalize the understanding of the backfilling process and
create a more team based approach to achieving filling objectives.
Three essential areas were identified. These were; - System Objectives and Design; Fill Preparation, Transportation and
Placement and System Management. Thirteen key elements within these areas were identified that defined the
backfilling process. Within each element, the status quo was critically assessed and compared to a perceived "best
practice" standard. Potential risks associated with failure of the system to meet the "best practice" guidelines were
highlighted and action plans developed to address shortcomings.
Completion of the audit necessitated collation of information from a number of sources together with additional
information obtained from testing. The mine is now in a good position to finalise a Code of Practice for Backfilling.
This paper describes the audit format and its application to the Konkola backfilling system. It then summarises the most
important findings and describes action being taken to meet the "best practice" standard.

LOCATION OF KONKOLA COPPER MINES No 1 shaft with ore flow being assisted by scrapers in areas
of decreasing dip. In - ore body mining has been practiced
The operation at Konkola is one of three copper in the wide, flat dipping areas of No 3 shaft since 2000
production operations owned by KCM and lies in the rich initially using post pillar cut and fill and, more recently, over
Copperbelt province located in the North Eastern portion of cut and benching methods
Zambia. The three divisions of KCM all lie between 12 and The Konkola mines are reputed to be amongst the wettest
13 South and 27 30 and 28 30 West. in the world. Significant aquifers occur in both hanging-wall
Two operating Konkola shafts are located next to the town and foot-wall sequences and are amply recharged by an
of Chililabombwe, just 12 km from the DRC (Democratic annual rainfall generally exceeding 1500mm and a network
Republic of the Congo) border, about 450 kilometers of surface streams and rivers. Dewatering is achieved
northwest of Lusaka. Konkola is the most northerly of the through a comprehensive system of drainage holes,
Zambian Copperbelt mines. crosscuts and drives. The mine is currently discharging
There are three main ore-bodies at Konkola Division; approximately 280 000m_ of water per day.
these are the Kirila Bombwe South (No. 1 shaft), the Kirila
Bombwe North (No. 3 shaft) and the Konkola (No. 2 shaft). THE OVER-CUT AND BENCH (OCB) MINING
These lie on a north west, south east trending Kirila METHOD PRACTICED AT KONKOLA NO 3 SHAFT
Bombwe anticlinal structure that plunges towards north
east. The South ore-body forms the southwestern flank of Access to the ore body is achieved from foot wall
the anticline, while the north ore-body lies in the nose of the infrastructure via twin inclines on an apparent dip of
fold. approximately 7 developed at 150m intervals along strike.
The ore-bodies range greatly in thickness from as little as Both inclines lie within the ore body. One incline is
3m to as great as 15m. The dip also varies greatly from a developed against the assay hanging wall (AHW) to give
low of 10 in the nose area to a high exceeding 75 on the access to the over-cut. The other lies on the assay footwall
fold limbs. (AFW) and provides access for ore extraction during the
In-situ copper grades of about 3 to 4% total copper are benching phase. These inclines lie 10m apart and are
typical. There is also cobalt mineralisation averaging protected by 10m wide pillars on either side.
between 0.1 0.2 % total cobalt. No other significant The initial OCB mining was confined to an area between
mineralisation exists. the 1660 foot level and 1850 foot level.
Production is from Nos.1 and 3 shafts. No.2 shaft, Over-cuts, 7m wide, are mined along strike against the
accessing the Konkola ore-body, has been closed since AHW. Strike pillars, 9m wide, separate adjacent over-cuts.
1958. Sub level open stoping is practiced extensively at Cross cuts, 7m wide, are developed through the strike

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 733

pillars. Once an over-cut is complete it is benched down to comprising metallurgical, engineering, planning, production
the footwall contact to leave 9m x 9 m square pillars over the and geotechnics personnel met on a regular basis to
full ore body width. achieve consensus which was reported to the consultant
Hydraulically placed backfill was not incorporated into the and KCM Executive management.
initial OCB mining plan as it was thought that pillars would
remain stable over the working life of the block. It was believed, AUDIT FINDINGS AND BENEFITS
however, that backfill would be required at deeper levels and a
pilot plant was constructed. This was commissioned in The audit was able to settle a number of misperceptions
November 2002 when deteriorating ground conditions in the held about backfill and the backfill system and was able to
upper block necessitated introduction of fill immediately the identify areas where additional focus was required.
benching phase had been completed. Backfill was also The more important findings included: -
introduced to benched areas in which deteriorating conditions 1. To create fill with a percolation rate of 100mm/hour, the
posed the threat of pillar collapse. preparation system is such that only 40% of tailings
material is suitable. Despite this constraint, adequate
AUDIT OBJECTIVE hydraulic fill is available to meet current and future
demands providing tailings capture remains above 33%.
During July 2003, KCM invited Steffen, Robertson and Utilisation of waste fill will reduce the hydraulic fill
Kirsten Inc (SRK) to conduct a technical audit of the Konkola demand.
operations as part of their "Buyantanshi" (way forward") 2. Even at a placed specific gravity of 1.45, the backfill
initiative. This initiative has the objective of increasing KCM provides sufficient lateral reinforcement to stabilize pillars
production to 250 000 tonnes of finished copper per annum and to enhance regional stability.
at a cost of $0.65/lb. Key elements of the mining value chain 3. Although there is a risk associated with single stream
were to be considered. These were Development, Stoping, systems incorporated into the pilot plant design, it is
Logistics, Hydrology, Geotechnics, Dilution, Backfilling, adequate to meet existing and future demands. Ongoing
Costing and Human Resources. maintenance will be necessary to retain plant reliability.
The objective of the audit was to establish the status of 4. Demands on the system should be simulated to assess
each element as it is currently practiced at Konkola and to the probability of its being unable to supply when
determine its ability to service current and future operations. required and to confirm (or otherwise) design
This would have the joint advantages of providing parameters.
management with confidence in the ability of Konkola to 5. Underground reticulation should be located where
deliver the copper called and to identify possible threats to practicable in secure and stable excavations. HDPE
the achievement of targets. Mindset changes introduced piping should be used in working areas to improve
during the audit and followed up with subsequent actions flexibility.
would also instill confidence in Konkola personnel that they 6. Bulkhead design and construction is critical to safety,
were capable of meeting targets. meeting production schedules and minimizing fines
contamination. Although no significant bulkhead failures
AUDIT STRUCTURE AND MODUS OPERANDI have occurred to date, a more rigorous design and
construction process will be needed in modified layouts
The audit was structured in three main phases as where hydraulic heads in excess of 25m are possible.
illustrated in Figure 1. The first part involved defining all 7. The decentralized management system has proved
elements in the process to be audited and identifying the adequate to date but may need to be reviewed once
status quo, best practice and risk associated with each filling is fully incorporated into the mining cycle.
element of the process. Key performance indicators were 8. Participation in the audit resulted in a collation of, and
also identified to indicate the level of performance required sharing of, knowledge of system operation. It further
in each element. Status quo is defined as reflecting the engendered a belief in mine personnel that the system is
current state of understanding or practice. Best practice capable of meeting both current and future requirements.
reflects the requirements needed to meet Konkola This belief was reinforced when examination of January
objectives in the short term (12 to 18 months) and, where to June placement figures indicated a general improving
appropriate, requirements dictated by industry experience. trend (Table 4).
Risk reflects an assessment of the nature of potential loss
that could be faced by KCM should performance in any POSTSCRIPT
process element not meet the required standard. The
findings from this phase are indicated for the Backfilling Due to an extreme deterioration in ground conditions
process in Table 1. towards the middle of 2003, mining of OCB stopes in the
The second phase involved creating and implementing Northern section was suspended. Limited production came
action plans to address any shortcomings between from OCB stoping in other areas while Sub-Level Open
perceived best, and current, practices. A template used to Stopes continued to produce. The need for concurrent
prioritise action is shown in Figure 2 and uses the backfilling reduced and the backfill system continued at a
dimensions of "Importance" and "Urgency" as a prioritization very low production rate.
guideline. An example of this approach as applied to The phase of mining that is now taking place in the
Element 9: Design and Construction of Bulkheads is shown underlying block has incorporated several modifications but
in Table 2. remains essentially Over Cut and Bench. Backfill has been
Measurement of progress towards completing required included as an essential and concurrent part of the mining
actions is achieved using the Action Plan Monitor. Table 3 cycle. It is expected that the first fill will be placed in June
illustrates an application of this monitor to Element 4: Fill 2004.
Volume Requirements. Key factors in ensuring that action is
taken include clearly defining the expected output, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
nominating a responsible person whos role it is to report
back by a specified time and identifying resources required. The authors acknowledge the assistance provided by all
Although convened and managed by an external members of the Buyantanshi team in both participating in
consultant, the audit was implemented by KCM staff. A team the audit and implementing its recommendations. Further,

734 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

the authors acknowledge and thank KCM management for Leach A.R. "Assessment of mining in the nose and west
their assistance in facilitating audit recommendations and limb area at Konkola 3 shaft" ITASCA Report, November
their permission to publish this paper. 2003.
Harr M.E. "Reliability Based Design in Civil Engineering"
REFERENCES McGraw Hill, 1987.
Techpro M & M "Konkola Deep Mining Project" Report to
Carvill P.G. "A review of the use of backfill in the OCB ZCCM, November 1994.
stoping method for the 1660 1850 mining block" Anglo Thomas E.G et al "Fill Technology in Underground
American Report to Konkola Copper Mines, September Metalliferous Mines" International Academic Services Ltd,
2000. Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 1979.
Covey S.R. "The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People"
Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Figure 1: Buyantanshi Audit: Implementation Process.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 735

 BUYANTANSHI AUDIT: ACTION PLAN DEVELOPMENT TEMPLATE

Audit Element:

Date of this plan: - Date of next update:

Urgent Not Urgent

Important Item Action Item Action

NOW! 0 3 Months!
Middle term
Short term and Reactive! Some planning

Not Important Item Action Item Action

+ 3 Months! DONT
WASTE
Longer term VALUABLE
RESOURCES!
Plan to utilize resources
effectively!

Urgent = requires immediate attention because if it is not done now there will be an impact on safety, cost or
production in this measurement period (day, week or month)
Important influences safety, cost or performance in the longer term (month, quarter)
Not Urgent = the influence of this action will only be felt outside this measurement period (day, week or month)
Not Important = the influence of this action will only be felt in the very long term (quarter or longer)

Figure 2: Buyantanshi Audit: Action Plan Development Template.

Table 1 Buyantanshi Audit: Backfilling Elements and initial findings

ELEMENT STATUS QUO BEST PRACTICE RISK ACTION KEY PERFORMANCE

INDICATOR

1. Fill Benefits Stated, but not Economic analysis 1.Loss of reserves Preparation of mining NPV or IRR figures
(to meet mining quantified, that fill that compares best 2. Additional mining plans for best for alternative
objectives will improve recovery recoveries and costs alternatives and approaches.
of ore resource profitability with economic analysis
and without fill.

2. Fill Performance Must drain sufficiently Support given to 1.Unsafe working 1. Revisit equipment Performance
requirements to support the pillar sides is conditions requirements. specification
(to achieve benefits) operation of quantified 2. Loss of reserves 2. In-situ testing. for the fill.
trackless equipment 3. Low productivity 3. numerical modeling
within 72 hours rates to quantify support
performance

3. Fill material Percolation rate Mechanical 1. Reduction in 1. In-situ and Test reports on
properties (to specified at properties mass recovery. laboratory testing fill performance.
meet performance 100mm/hr of fill are 2. Inefficient system of fills (including
requirements) determined. design. cemented fills)
Percolation rates 3. Pipeline wear
optimised

4. Fill Volume Based on measured Fill demand-supply 1. Ground deteriorates Short and long Ongoing specific
Requirements in-situ specific balance is known. if stopes are not term fill demand gravity checks.
gravity = 1.45, Alternative sources filled timeously. and supply Up dated filling
1.2m_ of wet fill of fill are identified 2. Production is schedules created plans and schedules
is required to and quantified compromised
fill 1m_ in situ
.i.e. 1.1 tonnes
of solids/m_

5. Fill Pilot plant rated Plant design 1. Delays in feed Fill preparation in Delivery of
Preparation at 2000 tonne meets production from concentrator accordance with fill on demand
/day of solids. requirements mining demand.
This is equivalent Mechanical
to 90m_ of agitation to be
fill/hour introduced

736 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 1 Buyantanshi Audit: Backfilling Elements and initial findings

ELEMENT STATUS QUO BEST PRACTICE RISK ACTION KEY PERFORMANCE

INDICATOR

6. Fill Transfer from Minimise 1.Pipeline pressures Quantify reliability Delivery of

Transportation plant to shaft is transportation estimated at of transportation fill on demand
(surface) 3.54km using distance or 4,5MPa. 2. system. Establish
single 125mm provide back Single stream procedures to
pipeline. Delays up system system deal with
due to pre- surface spillage.
and post-
flushing

7. Fill Storage 720m_ live System incorporates 1. Agitation in Tanks rubber Delivery of fill
(surface only) storage at optimum storage storage tanks lined to on demand
plant + 360m3 volume causes reduce wear.
at shaft. degredation. Install mass
2. Fluctuation of flowmeter at
air pressure shaft discharge
during agitation

8. Fill Reticulation Full flow condition Reticulation system 1. Pipeline blockages. Place pipelines in Delivery of fill
(underground) in 150mm vertical is appropriate for the 2. Damage due secure areas. on demand
pipeline. Flow rate filling environment to falls of ground. Replace steel
estimated at 110m3 3. Lack of flexibility with HDPE piping.
to 116m3/hour. with steel pipe Simulate the
Steel pipelines complete reticulation
to working faces system to
determine flow
pressures and
velocities.

9. Bulkhead Initially waste Minimise excavation 1. Bulkhead failure Suite of designs Construction time
Design and rock with Geofabric. size at bulkhead and fill inrush in to be completed. per installation.
Construction Revised to gumplanks locations. Designs to working areas. Examination and Cost per installation
with wiremesh. meet specific 2. Leakage of solids approval procedures
Cable based design engineering criteria. into the drainage to be developed.
under trial Construction is system. 3. Delays Monitor hydrostatic
approved before to production pressure acting on
filling commences cycle bulkheads during
and after filling.

10. Fill Placement Fill volumes estimated, System utilization is 1. Production delays. Develop short and Volume filled daily
not measured. Fill such that required 2. Deterioration in medium term filling is according
rise per pour volumes are placed ground conditions. schedules to maximize to schedule.
restricted to 3m. to schedule. system utilization. Utilisation %
Contingency fill Estimate volumes to
areas are available be filled using CMS
technology.

11. Drainage Decant and drainage Water and solids 1. Solids block Establish drainage Drainage rates
and Fines Loss systems facilitate balance system drainage systems. and fines loss during and after
in-stope dewatering employed. Drainage 2. Fines cause profiles. Establish filling. Fines loss/m3
(0.45m3 of water controlled to wear in pumps. impact of additional of fill placed
liberated per 1m3 minimize impact 3. Fill does not water on other
of fill placed (excluding on other mining drain and bulkhead mining activities
flushing water). No activities stability decreases.
formal monitoring of
water or fines loss.
Reports that drains are
becoming blocked
with fines.

12. System Responsibility is Written procedures Low system Establish radio links Sufficient competent
Management shared between for all aspects of efficiency. as back up to personnel are
concentrator, system operation. land lines. available. Costs
plant and underground Personnel involved Review cost remain within
personnel. There in system operation reporting procedures. budget.
is no single responsible are deemed Establish training
person. Communication competent. and competency
occurs daily between assessment
plant and underground programmes.
personnel. One
communication meeting
is held weekly during
which short term
demand and supply
schedules are agreed.

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 737

 Table 1 Buyantanshi Audit: Backfilling Elements and initial findings

ELEMENT STATUS QUO BEST PRACTICE RISK ACTION KEY PERFORMANCE

INDICATOR

13. Quality Assurance Specific gravity and Control systems are Sub standard Establish quality Parameters measured
percolation rate is in place to measure system assurance according to a
checked regularly at key parameters performance. programme. schedule and
plant and shaft Mass such as Void ratio; comply with
flowmeter records Moisture content; specifications.
receipts at shaft PSD; Specific gravity;
(but not delivery to Pump output;
underground). No Pipeline wear;
survey reconciliation Volumes pumped;
of demand and supply. Rate of rise;
Few in-situ tests. Drainage rate;
Fines loss.

Table 2: Buyantanshi Audit: Action Plan Development Example applied to Bulkhead design.

Audit Element: Backfill: - (9) Bulkhead Design and Construction

Date of this plan: -10-09-2003 Date of next update:

Urgent Not Urgent

Important Item Action Item Action

Monitor pressure Establish cost

acting on selected of bulkhead
(critical) bulkheads construction.

Examination and
sign off procedure
to be developed
for completed
bulkheads

Risk management
plan developed
to deal with
bulkhead failure
and fill inrush.

Not Important Item Action Item Action

Suite of designs to
be completed and
signed off by
"specialist"

Examination and
sign off procedure
to be developed
for mined out
stopes to pass
them for filling.

738 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004

 Table 3: BUYANTANSHI AUDIT: ACTION PLAN MONITOR Example
applied to Fill Volume Requirement Estimation.

(4) Fill volume requirements

Action Expected Responsible Milestones Resources Status

Output Person Required (%complete)

Confirm volume Short and medium Senior Geotech Early October Planning to
requirements and term backfill schedule Engineer reviewed provide
schedule for future with contingency plans by Group proposed
mining areas Geotech Engineer mining schedule
above 1850

Define alternative
fill areas for
contingency
disposal
(backlog areas)

N.B. Add 5% to
demand schedule
to allow for fill loss
into unplanned
areas, through
bulkheads and
with flushing

Filled areas Accurate plans Group Geotech End of October Survey

to be depicted Engineer to
on plans liaise with
Senior Surveyor

Table 4: Fill volumes placed. January to June 2003

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total (m3)

Tailings Fill (m3) 18 676 20 505 28 835 24 853 21 975 34 179 149 023

Development Waste (m3) 6 112 5 968 8 833 3 023 1 303 1 452 26 691

Total fill placed (m3) 24 788 26 473 37 668 27 876 23 278 35 631 175 714

149 000m3 of tailings fill placed equates to 124 000m3 of void filled from which 333 000 tonnes was mined.
26 000m3 of development waste fill equates to at least 22 000m3 of void filled from which 60 000 tonnes of ore was mined

Massmin 2004 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 739

740 Santiago Chile, 22-25 August 2004 Massmin 2004