Ch2 Subsoil Exploration (1-35) - 2016

CHAPTER 2
SUBSOIL EXPLORATION
2.1 SOIL EXPLORATION

All office, laboratory and field works are done in order to explore the subsurface of soil or
rock conditions at any given site to obtain the necessary information required in design and
construction. Subsoil exploration is the first step in the design of a foundation system. Soil
exploration consists essentially of boring, sampling and testing.
Mainly, planning of subsoil exploration involves three phases; reconnaissance phase,
preliminary site investigation phase, and detailed site investigation phase.
2.2 DRILLING OR BORING

Definition: It is a procedure of advancing a hole into ground.
Drilling Methods:
(1) Test Pits
(2) Auger Drilling
(a) Hand-auger drilling.
(b) Power-auger drilling.
(3) Wash Boring
(a) Jetting.
(b) Sludging (reverse drilling).
(4) Rotary Drilling
(a) Rotary drilling with flush.
(b) Rotary-percussion drilling.
(5) Percussion Drilling
Each of these methods has its merits and its drawbacks. However, Table (2.1) gives a
guide for selecting the most appropriate drilling method.
Table (2.1): Drilling method selection.

Type of soil Hand Wash boring Rotary drilling Percussio
auger Rotary Rotary n drilling
drilling
Foundation Engineering / Dr.Rafi M.S. Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Jetting Sludgin drilling percussio

g with n drilling
flush
Gravel X X X X ? ?
Sand ? ?
Silt Unconsolidate ? ?
Clay d formations ? slow slow
Sand with pebbles
X X X X ? ?
or boulders
shale Low to X X X slow
medium
Sandstone strength X X X
formations
Limestone X X X slow slow
Igneous (granite, Medium to
high strength X X X X slow
basalt)
Metamorphic formations
X X X X V slow
(slate, gneiss)
Rock with fractures or voids X X X !
Above water-table ? X
Below water-table ?
= Suitable drilling ! = Flush must be maintained to continue
? = Danger of hole collapsing
method drilling
? = Possible problems x = Inappropriate method of drilling
2.2.1 TEST PITS

A pit is dug either by hand or by a backhoe. Probably in a test pit, the engineer can examine
in detail the subsoil strata and take disturbed or undisturbed samples at the desired location (see
Fig. 2.1).
Walls of test pit indicate four layers

(1) Clayey silt (2) Sandy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel
Fig. (2.1): Test pits.

2.2.2 AUGER DRILLING
(a)Hand-Augers
2
The auger of (10-20) cm in diameter is rotated by turning and pushing down on the
handlebar. Then withdrawing and emptying the soil-laden auger to remove the excavated soil.
Several new auger sections are added up to the required depth is reached. These augers can be
available in different types such as (see Fig. 2.2):
a. Helical Auger.
b. Short flight Auger, and
c. Iwan Auger.
a. Helical (worm types) Augers b. Short flight Auger c.

Iwan (posthole) Auger
Fig. (2.2): Hand-augers.
(b) Power-Augers
Truck or tractor mounted type rig and equipped with continuous flight augers that bore a
hole 100 to 250 mm in diameter. These augers can have a solid or hollow stem of (20 75)
cm in diameter (see Fig.2.3).
3
a. Continuous flight augers. b. Solid-stem auger

c. Hollow-steam auger
Fig. (2.3): Power or mechanical-augers.
2.2.3 WASH BORING

Water is pumped to bottom of borehole and soil washings are returned to surface. A drill bit
is rotated and dropped to produce a chopping action (see Fig. 2.4).
Fig. (2.4): Wash boring rig.
4
2.2.4 ROTARY DRILLING

In very hard rocks, such as granite, the only way to drill a hole is to pulverize the rock, using
a rapid-action pneumatic hammer, often known as a 'down-the-hole hammer' (DTH).
Compressed air is needed to drive this tool. The air also flushes the cuttings and dust from
the borehole. Rotation of 10-30 rpm ensures that the borehole is straight, and circular in
cross-section (see Fig. 2.5).
Fig. (2.5): Rotary drilling.
2.2.5 PRECUSSION DRILLING

The lifting and dropping of a heavy (+50kg) cutting tool will chip and excavate material
from a hole. The tool may be fixed to rigid drill-rods or to a rope or cable. With a
mechanical winch, depths of hundreds of meters can be reached.
2.3 UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE TEST HOLE

The depth of the water table (W.T.) as measured during drilling and sampling should be
carefully evaluated. It is always necessary to wait for at least 24 hours to check on the stabilized
water table for the final measurement. The technician should plug the top of the drill holes and
flag them for identification. Care is required to ensure that the water level in the drill hole is
always maintained. Any sudden drop or rise of the water table or a sudden change in the
penetration resistance should be carefully recorded in the field logs of borings.
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2.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These methods represent indirect methods of subsoil exploration and mainly consist of:
(1) Ground Penetration Radar (GPR). (2) Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM)
(2) Electromagnetic Method (EM), and (4) Seismic Methods.
In subsoil investigation, the seismic methods are most frequently used. These methods are
based on the variation of the wave velocity in different earth materials. They involve in
generating a sound wave in the rock or soil, using a sledgehammer, a falling weight, or a small
explosive charge, and then recording its reception at a series of geophones located at various
distances from the shot point, as shown in Fig.(2.6). The time of the refracted sound arrival at
each geophone is noted from a continuous reader. Typical seismic velocities of earth materials in
(m/sec) are shown in Table (2.2).
(b) Ground penetration radar. (a) Electrical resistivity method.
6
(c) Seismic survey method.

Fig. (2.6): Geophysical methods.
Table (2.2): Typical seismic velocities of different earth materials

(after Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn,1974).
Type of soil Seismic Velocity (m/sec)

Dry silt, silt, loose gravel. loose rocks, talus, and moist fine-grained soil 150 180
Compacted till, indurated clays, gravel below water table, compacted
750 2250
clayey gravel, cemented sand, and sandy clay
Rock, weathered, fractured, or partly decomposed 600 3000
Sandstone, sound 1500 4200
Limestone, chalk, sound 1800 6000
Igneous rock, sound 360 6000
Metamorphic rock, sound 300 4800
Requirements of seismic exploration:

Equipment to produce an elastic wave to strike a plate on the surface.
A series of detectors, spaced at intervals along a line from wave origin point, and
A time recording mechanism to record the time of origin of the wave and the time of
its arrival at each detector.
Advantages of seismic exploration:

1. Permits a rapid coverage of large areas at a relatively small cost.
2. Not hampered by boulders and cobbles which obstruct borings, and
3.Used in regions not accessible to boring equipment, such as the middle of a rapid river.
Disadvantages of seismic exploration:

1. Lack of unique interpretation.
2. It is particularly serious when the strata are not uniform in thickness nor horizontal,
3. Irregular contacts often are not identified, and
4. The strata of similar geophysical properties sometimes have greatly different properties.
7
Note: Whenever possible, seismic data should be verified by one or two borings before
definite conclusions can be reached.
2.5 SAMPLING
During the boring, three types of representative soil samples should be collected which are
valuable to geotechnical engineers; these are as follows:
(a) The disturbed samples (D): which were collected from auger cuttings at specified
depths?
(b) The undisturbed samples (U): which were obtained using a thin Shelby tubes of
100mm in diameter and (400-450)mm in length, and
(c) The (SS) samples: which were taken from standard split spoon sampler used in a
standard penetration test (S.P.T.) that performed at different intervals depending on soil
stratification.
All these samples then sealed tightly in plastic bags to retain its in situ moisture content,
labeled and transported to the soil mechanics laboratory, to perform the required tests.
A summary of different sampler types which can be used to obtain disturbed or undisturbed
samples of each type of soil are listed in Table (2.3).
Table (2.3): Types of samplers used for taking soil and rock samples from test holes.
Type of sampler Procedure Type of soil and Remarks

All types of soils,
Auger boring, wash boring,
Highly disturbed sampler Due to high disturbance it is unsuitable for
and precussion drilling.
foundation exploration.
Cohesive, cohesionless soils and soft
rocks,
For taking disturbed samples which
Standard Penetration are required for physical and geotechnical
Split spoon sampler
Test. analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
In cohesionless soils, the penetration
number (N) is used for making both strength
and settlement estimates.
16gauge seamless steel For taking undisturbed samples from
tube (7.5-15) cm dia.;
cohesive soil,
Thin wall Shelby tube preferably pushed by static
Unsuitable for granular soils and hard
force instead of driven by
hammer. materials.
Core barrel sampler:
For taking undisturbed continuous rock
(a) Single tube, and Rotary drilling
samples.
(b) Double tube core barrel.
For taking undisturbed samples in soft and
Piston samplers Rotary drilling
slightly stiff cohesive soils.
Hard carved samples:
Cut by hand from side of For taking disturbed samples in cohesive or
Spring core catcher, and
test pit. cohesionless soils.
(b) Scraper bucket.
Hand-cut samples Cut by hand from side of For taking disturbed samples in
8
cohesionless soil or disturbed and

test pit.
undisturbed block samples in cohesive soil.
2.6 TESTING
The tests performed on each type of the three different soil samples are as follows:
As a rule, undisturbed samples (U) can be tested for strength and compressibility to determine the
stress strain characteristics of the material, in addition to classification and chemical tests.
Whereas, disturbed (D) or (SS) samples as available were mainly used for physical and
geotechnical analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
2.6.1 LABORATORY TESTS:

The obtained samples should be tested according to the procedure of the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the British Standards (BS) whichever is appropriate. The
test program of the samples includes the followings:
1. Classification Tests:
Sieve and hydrometer analysis, natural water content, Atterberges limits, specific gravity,
and wet and dry unit weights.
2. Compaction Test:
Modified Procter compaction test must be carried out on some soil samples to obtain the
( dmax . )
maximum dry density and the relevant optimum moisture content (OMC).
3. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:

Unconfined or Triaxial compressive strength test and one-dimensional consolidation test.
4. Chemical Tests:
Sulphate Content (SO3-2)%,Total Soluble Salts(T.S.S.), Organic Matter Content (ORG.)
%,PH- value, Carbonate Content (CO3-2), and Chlorides Content (Cl-1)%.
2.6.2 FIELD TESTS

During the subsoil exploration, several field tests as given in Table (2.4), can be performed
depending on the available testing equipments, required parameters for design of foundations,
and the economic point of view.
Table (2.4): Types of field tests.
Purpose of test Type of test
1. SPT N-value (for granular soil) Standard or Dynamic Penetration Test (SPT).
2. Undrained shear strength (for Static Penetration Test (CPT)
9
Vane shear test (for soft to medium fine grained soil,clay and silt clay;
up to Cu =1.0 kg/cm2),
Tor vane shear test (for soft soil; up to Cu =5.0 kg/cm 2),
Pocket penetrometer,
cohesive soil) Presurremeter test; it is of three types:
Menard (to obtain;
R D ,.,.Su ,.E s ,.G,.m v ,.Cc ),
Self boring (to obtain;

R D ,.,.Su ,.u ,.Es ,.G,.m v ,.Cc ,.C v ),
E ...and...G
Screw boring (to obtain; s ).
Pavements: plate bearing ;CBR test,
Footings: plate bearing test,
3. Bearing capacity
Piles subjected to vertical loads: load test,
Batter piles: lateral load test.
Seismic Tests:
Cross-hole,
4. Elastic and shear modulus Down-hole, and

c- Surface refraction (to measure R D , E s , G , liquefaction resistance
and thickness of soil layers).
Pumping Test:
5. Permeability Constant head test,
Variable head test,
Piezometers test (or ground water observation).
Field or In-place Density:
6. Compaction control For Sand: a- Sand cone method, b- Rubber balloon method,
For Clay: a- Penetration needle, b- Core cutter method.
2.7 LOGS OF BORINGS AND RECORDS OF TESTS RESULTS

At the beginning, a map giving specific locations of all borings should be available. Each
boring should be identified (by number) and its location documented by measurement to
permanent features. Such a map is shown in Fig.(2.7). For each boring, all pertinent data should
be recorded in the field on a boring log sheet. These sheets are preprinted forms containing
blanks for filling in appropriate data. Fig.(2.8) shows an example of a boring log sheet.
Soil data obtained from a series of test borings can best be presented by preparing a
geologic profile, which shows the arrangement of various layers of soil, the groundwater table,
existing and proposed structures, and soil properties data. An example of a geologic profile is
shown in Fig.(2.9).
90m
B-1 7.5m B-2
15m 30m 30m 15m
45m
15m B-3
B-5
B-4 7.5m
10
Figure (2.7): Example map showing boring locations on site plan.
DRILLING COMPANY, INC. BORE HOLE NO.: -------------

PROJECT: LOCATION: --------------------
Name ----------------------------------------------------Date Time Depth Casing at

Address --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CASING (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------------------
SAMPLE SPOON (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------
HAMMER (CSG): WT. ------------, DROP ------------------
(SPOON): WT. ----------------------, DROP ------------------
DATE: STARTED --------------------------------------------, COMPLETED ----------------------, DRILLER ----------------------
Field Depth of
'N'- Value
Samples Sampling (m) Visual Description of Soil
No. Type From To 6 6 6
1 D 0.0 2.0 Black and grey moist fill,
2 U 2.0 4.0 Black peat.
3 S.S 4.5 5.0 11 14 6 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
4 D 5.0 7.0 Sandy silt and clay mixture.
5 U 7.0 9.0 Silt with fine gravel and traces of fine sand.
6 S.S 9.5 10.0 4 8 3 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
Fig.(2.8): boring log sheet.
11
(N.G.S.)
Natural ground surface BH.no.2 BH.no.3
BH.no.1
0 Fig.(2.9): Example of geologic profile.
Depending on the results of the laboratory tests and the field observations, the actual subsoil
profiles or logs of borings can more accurately be sketched (see Fig.(2.10)). In addition to, the
2 silt mixture
and
actual description of soil strata in each borehole is summarized within records of tests results.
clay silt mixture
and
clay
4
silt mixture
E.O.B. and
6
Depth (m)
clay
clay mixture
8 and
silt
10 silt mixture
and
clay
12
E.O.B. E.O.B.
12
Tanahi District / Duhok city.
Fig.(2.10): Log of borings for 1st. stage of garden city housing project
13
14
2.8 NUMBER OF BOREHOLES

It is a good practice in the beginning to take a few numbers of borings so that a soil profile
can be drawn with reasonable accuracy and then the preliminary program can be adjusted to suit
subsoil conditions.
Obviously, the more boreholes and the closer they are spaced, the more accurate the
resulting geologic profile. Boreholes number and layout may need to be changed as more
information emerges, so that, an additional boreholes may be required during the survey.
For rough guidelines, if soil conditions are relatively uniform or the geological data are
limited, Tables (2.5) and (2.6) can be used as a guide in planning of the preliminary program:
Table (2.5): Number and spacing of boreholes according to the type of project
(afterHvorslev 1949, and Road Research Laboratory 1954).
Distance between borings (m)

Minimum number
Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boreholes
uniform average erratic
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge, pier, abutment, Tv. Tower ---- 30 7.5 1-2
15
Highways 300 150 30 ----

Borrow pits 150-300 60-150 15-30 ----
Isolated small structures: such as small
1
houses.
4
Compact projects: such as buildings,
deeper and closely
dams, bridges or small landslips
spaced
Extended projects: such as motorways,
shallower
railways, reservoirs and land reclamation
and widely spaced
schemes.
Table (2.6): Number of borings for medium to heavy weight buildings, tanks, and other
similar structures on shallow foundations (after Sowers, 1979).
Structure Footprint Area for Each

Subsurface Conditions
Exploratory Boring (m2)
Poor quality and / or erratic 100 300
Average 200 400
High quality and uniform 300 1000
2.9 DEPTH OF BORINGS

Hvorslev (1949) suggested a number of general rules which remain applicable.
For rough guidelines, the following criteria can be used for minimum depths,from
considerations of stress distribution or seepage:
1. Foundations:
All borings should extend below all deposits such as top soils, organic silts, peat,
artificial fills, very soft and compressible clay layers;
Boring should be sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a weaker soil at greater
depth which may settle under the applied load;
Deeper than any strong layer at the surface checking for a weaker layer of soil under it
which may cause a failure (see Fig.(2.11a));
The depth at which the net increase in stress due to the foundation or building load is less
than 5% of the effective overburden pressure;
The depth at which the net vertical total stress increase due to the foundation or building
load is less than 10% of the stress applied at foundation level (contact pressure);
16
For isolated spread footings or raft foundations, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (B = least
width of the footing or the raft)(see Fig.(2.11b));
For group of interfering footings, explore to a depth equal 1.5B ' (where, B ' = width
of interfering footings)(see Fig.(2.12));
For heavy structures (pressure > 200 kPa), the depth of borings should be extended to 2B
(width of footing);
L
10
For strip footings, explore to not less than 3B (width of footing) for B 6 m and B .
For multistory buildings, explore to:
0.7
(i) D Df 3.S (in meter).for light steel or narrow concrete buildings,
0.7
(ii) D Df 6.S (in meter) ... for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings.
where: D = Depth of boring, D f =Depth of footing, and S = Number of stories.
2
If piled foundation is expected, the borehole depth D = ( Df + L+ 1.5B) or D= (L +
3
3m) into the bearing stratum (see Fig.(2.13a));
2. Reservoirs: Explore soil to:

(i) The depth of the base of the impermeable stratum, or
(ii) Not less than 2 x maximum hydraulic head expected.
3. Dams: Because of the critical factor is the safety against seepage and foundation failure,
boreholes should penetrate not only soft or unstable materials, but also permeable materials to
such a depth that seepage patterns can be predicted. Thus, Hvorslev (1949) recommends:-
For earth structures, a depth equal to 1.5 times the base width of the dam, and
For concrete structures, a depth between 1.5 and 2.0 times the height of the dam.
4. Roads, highways, and air fields: the minimum depth is 5m below the finished road level,
provided that vertical alignment is fixed but should extend below artificial fill or
compressible layers. In practice some realignment often occurs in cuttings, and side drains
may be dug up to 6m deep or to bore to at least 1.5 times the embankment height in fill areas,
and to at least 5m below finished road level in cut.
5. Retaining walls, slopes stability problems: Explore to:

1.5B (wall base width) or 1.5H (wall height) whichever is greater below the bottom of
the wall or its supporting piles (see Fig.(2.13b)), In addition to;
It must be below an artificial fills or compressible layers, and deeper than possible surface
of sliding;
6. Canals, deep cut and fill sections on side hills: Explore to at least to:
(i) 3m below the finished level in cut, or
(ii) B when B H , or
(iii) H when B H (see Figs.(2.14a and 2.14b)).
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8. Embankments: The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the

height of the embankment and should ideally penetrate all soft soils if
stability is to be investigated. If settlements are critical then soil may
be significantly stressed to depths below the bottom of the
embankment equal to the embankment width (see Fig.(2.14c)).
P
G.S.
Borehole
Strong layer
Weak layer
(a) Existence of rock layer
B S B
LB
Column
Footing
Plan
P1 P2 P
G.S. S 4B G.S.
Df
Borehole depth Borehole depth
(D f 1.5B) D = 1.5B B (D f 1.5B)
Section
(b) Isolated spread footing (c) Raft or mat foundation.

18
Fig.(2.11):Depth of borings for spread and raft foundations.

Fig.(2.12):Depth of borings for adjacent spread footings.
(b) Multiple rows of adjacent spread footings.
19
*
B B
S 2B
B ( D f D)
Df S S
G.S.
P3 P2 P1
4B S
B
B B B
S
S
(D f 1.5B)
Df
G.S.
P3 P2 P1
B
S
B L=W
S
B
B S B
B S
W
Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration Foundation Engineering / Dr.Rafi M.S.
G.S.
L
Backfill Soil
Fig.(2.13): Depth of borings for piles, and retaining walls.
Base Soil
G.S.
ver is greater
f B.H.= 1.5Bor 1.5H
(b) Retaining walls
20
Depth of borehole= 3m mimm.
Fig.(2.14): Depth of borings for cuts and fills, canals, and embankments.
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2.10 FIELD LOAD TEST

It is a method to investigate the stress-strain (or load-settlement) relationship of soils. Then,
the results are used in estimating the bearing capacity. In this test, the load is applied on a model
footing and the amount of load necessary to induce a given amount of settlement is measured.
Round plates from (150-750)mm in diameter by 150mm increment (i.e., 150, 300, 450, 600,
750)mm are available as well as square plates of (1.0 ft2) area. The minimum thickness of plate
is (1 inch or 25.4mm).
Round plate square plate
Procedure of load test as given by ASTM D110-72:
22
Df B G.S.
Foundation Engineering / Dr.Rafi M.S.

2.5 B
P
2.5 B Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
(1) Excavate a pit to width at least 6 times as wide as the used plate, and to the depth that the
foundation is to be placed.
If it is specified that three sizes of plates are to be used for the test, the pit should be large
enough so that, there is an available spacing between tests of 3 times the diameter (D) of the
450mm
D = 750mm
largest plate. This is useful for studying the size effect of footings.
300mm
G.S.
Df 3D 3D 2.5 B
2.5 B
(2) A square loading plate 2.5cm thick and (30 x 30) cm is placed on the surface of the soil at
the bottom of the pit. There should not be any surcharge load placed on the soil within a
distance of (60cm) from around the plate.
(3) A vertical load is placed on the plate in increments and settlements are recorded as an
average from at least three dial gauges accurate to (0.025mm) that attracted to an
independent suspension system. Load increment should be approximately 1/10 of the
estimated allowable soil pressure. For each load increment, settlement readings should be
taken at regular intervals of not less than (1 hr.) until there is no further settlement. The
same time duration should be used for all the loading increments.
(4) The test is continued until a settlement of 25mm is observed or until the load increments
reached 1.5 times the estimated allowable soil pressure.
(5) If the load is released, the elastic rebound of the soil should be recorded for a periods of
time equal to the same time durations of each applied load increment.
(6) The result of each test can be represented graphically as follows:-
(a) Settlement versus log time curve (for each load increment),
(b) Load-settlement curve (for all increments) from which qult . is obtained.
c
(a) Load - settlement curve
Fig.(2.15): Typical load test results.

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For cohesive soil(bearing capacity is independent of footing size):

qf qp

s s Bf
f p
Bp
................................................................................(2.1)
For cohesionless soil(bearing capacity increases with size of footing):
Bf
qf qp
Bp
2
2B f
s s
f p
Bp Bf
.................................................................(2.2)
For c soils (bearing capacity from two-plate load tests; after Housel, 1929):
V A.q P.s .................................................................................(2.3)

where,
V = total load on a bearing area,
A = contact area of footing or plate,
q = bearing pressure beneath A,
P = perimeter of footing or plate, and
s = perimeter shear.
This method needs data from two-plate load tests so that Eq.(2.3) can be solved for q and s
(for given settlement). After the values of q and s are known, then, the size of a footing required
to carry a given load can be calculated.
2.11 FIELD Dynamic or Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
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This test is particularly preferred for cohesionless soils for which undisturbed samples
cannot easily be obtained. It utilizes a split-spoon sampler shown previously in Fig.(2.16a) that
driven into the soil.
The test consists of driving the standard split-barrel sampler of dimensions (680mm length,
30mm inside diameter and 50mm outside diameter) a distance of 460mm (18'') into the soil at the
bottom of the boring. This was done by using a 63.5kg (140Ib) driving mass (or hammer) falling
"free" from a height of 760mm (30"). Then, counting the number of blows required for driving
the sampler the last 305mm (12") to obtain the (N) number (neglecting the no. of blows for the
upper first 150mm).
Fig.(2.16): Details of commonly used samplers for in-situ testing(after Moore, 1980).
Note: The SPT- value is rejected or halted in any one of the following cases:
(a) if 50 blows are required for any 150mm increment, or
(b) if 100 blows are obtained, or
(c) if 10 successive blow produce no advance.
The number of blows (N) can be correlated with the relative density ( D r ) of cohesionless
soil (sand) and with the consistency of cohesive soil (clay) as shown in Tables (2.7, and 2.8).
Table (2.7): Relative density of sands according to results

of standard penetration test.
25
Relative density
SPT- value e max einsitu
N/30cm Dr x100
e max emin
0-4 0-15 Very loose 28
4-10 15-35 Loose 28-30
10-30 35-65 Medium 30-36
30-50 65-85 Dense 36-41
> 50 85- 100 Very dense > 41
Table (2.8): Relation of consistency of clay, SPT N-value, and

q
unconfined compressive strength ( u ).
SPT- value
N/30cm
consistency q u ( ksf ) q u ( kg / cm 2 )
Below Very soft 0-0.5 0-0.25
2-4 Soft 0.5-1 0.25-0.5
4-8 Medium 1-2 0.5-1
8-15 Stiff 2-4 1-2
15-30 Very stiff 4-8 2-4
> 30 Hard >8 >4
2.11.1 Corrections for N-value

(1) W.T. Correction (in case of presence of W.T.):
For N > 15: N corr. 15 0.5( N field 15) ....(2.4)

and
For N 15: N corr. N field ..............(2.5)
If N value is measured above water table, no need for

this correction.
(2) Overburden pressure, C N ; Energy ratio, 1 ; Rod length, 2 ; Sampler;

3 ; and Borehole dia., 4 Corrections:
N70 N field .C N ..1..2 ..3..4 .....(2.6)

where,
N70 corrected (N) using the subscript for the energy ratio E rb and ( ' ) to indicate it has been
adjusted or corrected,
26
C N = adjustment for overburden pressure for p 25.(kPa ) and can be calculated from the
following formula:
2000
C N 0.77 log
Po ........(2.7)
If p 25.(kPa ) , no need for overburden pressure
correction.
where,
p o overburden pressure in ( kPa ),
i : factors obtained from (Table 2.9) as:
Table (2.9): Hammer, borehole, sampler, and rod

i correction factors.
Hammer correction 1
Average energy ratio Er
Donut Safety
Country
R-P = Rope -Pulley: 1 r rb
R-P Trip R-P Trip E /E
USA
North America 45 ---- 70-80 80-100
Japan 67 78 ------ -------
UK ---- ---- 50 60
China 50 60 ------ -------
Rod length correction 2
> 10m 2 = 1.00
6-10 = 0.95
Length N is too high for L <10 m
4-6 = 0.85
0-4 = 0.75
3
Sampling method correction
Without liner: 3 = 1.00
With liner: Dense sand, Clay = 0.80 N is too high with liner
Loose sand. = 0.90
Borehole diameter correction 4
60-120 mm 4 = 1.00
Hole diameter 150 mm = 1.05 N is too small for oversize hole
200 mm = 1.15
Notes:
27
1. It is evident that all i =1.0 for the case of a small borehole, no sampler liner, length of
drill rod >10 m and the given drill rig has E r 70 . In this case the only adjustment is for
overburden pressure (i.e., N corr. N field .C N ).
E r1
N2 ..N1
2. Large values of E r decrease the blow count (N) linearly (i.e.,
E r2 ). This
equation is used to convert any energy ratio to any other base.
30
N corr. 10. 30...blows / 30cm.
N field 10 ...blows / 10cm 10
3. If , then
2.12 VANE SHEAR TEST

It is a field test used to determine the in-situ shearing resistance(undrained shear
2
strength) of soft to medium clay and silt clay having U.C.S.< 1.0 ( kg / cm ), then to be used for
design of foundations and slopes.
Apparatus(see Fig.(2.17):
1. Van shear test equipment;
2. Drilling rig;
3. Casing (as required); and
4. Other necessary tools and supplies such as stop watch, pipe, etc..
Fig.(2.17): Vane shear apparatus.
28
T
Foundation Engineering / Dr.Rafi M.S. T Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Procedure:
1. The equipment is installed in place properly either at the ground surface without a hole
(case 1) or at the bottom of a borehole (case 2)and then the vane is pushed into the
soil layer to the required depth; (see Fig.(2.18)).
2. A torque is applied at a uniform rate of 0.1o per sec. or (1o-6o per minute).
3. Readings are taken each minute interval until failure happens.
S
D
Calculation:
(i)Case (1): In this case, the vane is not embedded in soil, so that only the
S H
bottom end takes pant in shearing. If the soil is isotropic and
homogenous, then:
Total shear resistance at failure developed along cylindrical surface = .D.H.S S
(b) Total resistance of bottom ends, considering a ring of radius r and thickness dr
S D
29
D/2
(2.r.dr ).S
= 0
D/2
D
T (.D.H.S) (2.r.dr ).S.r
(c) The torque T at failure will then equal: 2 0
.D2Su D
T (H )
Or 2 6 .......(2.8)
(ii) Case (2): If the top end of the vane is also embedded in soil, so shearing takes place
on top and bottom ends:
.D2Su D
T (H )
Or 2 3 .......(2.9)
Notes:
S
Use consistent units, such as: T in (kg-cm); u in (kg/cm2); and H and D in (cm).
It is found that the S u values obtained by vane shear test are too large for design.
Therefore, Bjerrum's (1972) proposed a reduction factor using the following formula:
S u , design ..S u , field
.......(2.10)
I
where, is a correction factor depends on plasticity index p and obtained from Fig.(2.19a);
Also, Aas et al. (1986) proposed another charts (see Fig.(2.19b)) taking into account the
effects of aging and OCR (Overconsolidation ratio).
Ip ,%
Ip ,% Vane strength ratio S u, v /Po

Bjerrum correction factor for vane-shear test. Reinterpretation of the Bjerrum chart of part a by
[(Bjerrum, 1972) and Ladd etal., 1977)]. (Aas et al. (1986) to include effects of aging and OCR ).

30
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (2.1):A thin-walled tube (OD = 76.2mm, ID = 73mm) was pushed into a soft clay at
the bottom of a borehole a distance of 600mm. When the sampler was recovered a
measurement done inside the tube indicated a recovered sample length of 575mm.
Calculate the recovery and area ratios.
Solution:
575
Lr 0.958
Recovery ratio: 600
(76.2) 2 (73) 2
Ar x100 8.96%
Area ratio: (73) 2
Problem (2.2):A three story steel frame office building will be built on a site where the soils are
expected to be of average quality and uniformity. The building will have a (30m x 40m)
footprint and is expected to be supported on spread footing foundations located about (1m)
below the ground surface. The site appears to be in its natural condition, with no evidence
of previous grading. Bedrock is several hundred feet below the ground surface. Determine
the required number and depth of the borings.
Solution:
Number of borings:
From Table (2.6), one boring will be needed for every 200 to 400 m2 of footprint area.
Since the total footprint area is 30 x 40 =1200 m2, use (4)four borings.
Depth of borings:
For subsurface condition of average quality, the minimum depth is:
5.S0.7 Df 5(3)0.7 1 12m.
However, it would be good to drill at least one of the borings to a slightly greater depth to
check lower strata. In summary, the exploration plan will be 4 borings with, 3 borings to 12
m, and 1 boring to 16 m.
Problem (2.3):Given: Available information about:

Structure: Multistory building with 3 stories and basement
No. of columns = 16, Column load = 1000 kN
Raft dimensions: 16m x 16m x 1m, Foundation at 3m below G.S.
31

Soil profile: d = 16 kN/m3 , sat = 20 kN/m3 , W.T. at 6m below G.S.
Required: Number, layout, and depth of B.Hs.?
Solution:
Number and layout of borings:

From Table (2.6), for poor quality and/or erratic subsurface conditions, one boring is
needed for every (100 to 300) m2 of footprint area. Since the total footprint area is
16x16=256m2> 200m2 (average value), use one or two borings.
Depth of borings:
(a) d 1.5(16) 24m

(b) 10% of contact pressure:
16.(1000) 24(16)(16)(1)
q contact (3)(16) 38.5..kPa
(16)(16)
38.5(16)(16)
0.1.(38.5) ,
(16 d)2 ......d = 34.6m
(c) 5% of overburden pressure:
38.5(16)(16)
0.05.[16(6) (d 3)(20 10)] ,
(16 d)2 ...d = 15.5m
From (b and c) take the smaller d = 15.5m
0.7 0.7
(d) d 6.S 6.(4) 15.83m
From all (24m, 15.5m, and 15.83m) take the larger d = 24m
use ...D 24 3 27m from G.S.
Problem(2.4): A wide strip footing applying net pressure of 35 kPa is to be constructed 1m

below the surface of uniform soil having unit weight of 19 kN/m3. The footing is 5m wide
and the water table is at ground surface. Is 12m depth of boring (measured from ground
surface) sufficient for subsoil exploration program.
Solution:
(a) d 3(B) 3(5) 15 m
32
(35)(5)(1)
0.1.(35) ,.......................d 4.3m
(b)10% of contact pressure:
(5 d )(1 d )
(35)(5)(1)
0.05(9 9d) ,...........d 5.2m
(c) 5% of overburden pressure:
(5 d )(1 d )
From (b and c) take the smaller d = 4.3m
From all(15m, and 4.3m) take the larger d =15m, and so the depth from ground surface
D 15 1 16m, 12m is not sufficient.
Problem (2.5):A standard penetration test SPT has been conducted in a coarse sand to a
depth of 4.8m below the ground surface. The blow counts obtained in the field were as
follows: 0 6 in: 4 blows; 6 -12 in: 6 blows; 12 -18 in: 8 blows. The test was conducted
using a USA-style donut hammer in a 150mm diameter boring with a standard sampler and
N60 ?
liner. If the vertical effective stress at the test depth was 70 kN/m2, determine
Solution:
The raw SPT value is N = 6 + 8 = 14

2000
C N 0.77. log 10 1.12
p 70...kPa 25 kPa 70
Since o
From (Table 2.9):
1 E r / E rb 45/60 = 0.75
2 =0.85 (forL 4.8m (rod length) 6m),
3 = 0.90 (for loose sand with liner),
G.S. 4 =1.05 (for B.H. diameter = 150mm),
N60 N field ..C N ..1..2 ..3 ..4 = 14(1.12)(0.75)(0.85)(0.90)(1.05) =10 blows

2m W.T.
Fine sand
s(2.6):
Problem
3m
at A standard penetration test was carried out in sand at 5m depth below the
ground surface gave (N = 28) as shown in the figure below. Find the corrected N-value?
N field 28..blows / 30cm
Solution:
Water table correction:
N 15 0.5.( N field 15)

For N 15 ...
N = 15 + 0.5(28 -15) = 21
Overburden correction:
33
Po = 2(18) + 3(20 9.81) = 66.57 kPa 25 kPa

2000 2000
C N 0.77 log 0.77 log 1.14

Po = 66.57
Ncorr. N..C N = 21(1.14) = 23 blows
Problem (2.7): It is proposed to construct a spread wall footing of (3m width) in sand at (1.5m)
below the ground surface to support a load of 12 Ton/m. The SPT results from a soil boring
soil(sat.)
are as shown below. If the water table is located at 0.9m from G.S. and 17.6
kN/m3, determine the average corrected N-value required for design?
SPT sample depth

1.5 2.25 3.0 3.75 4.5 5.25 6
(m)
N field 31 25 22 20 28 33 31
Solution:
P N
Find o at each depth and correct field values up to at least a depth B below the
foundation according to the magnitude of overburden pressure in comparison of 25 kPa.
2000
C N 0.77 log
Overburden pressure correction:
Po
For 1.5m depth:
Po = 0.9(17.6) + (0.6)(17.6 9.81)= 20.5 kPa 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.00
For 4.5m depth:
Po = 0.9(17.6) + (3.6)(17.6 9.81) = 43.9 kPa 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.28
Find the average corrected N-value as a cumulative average down to the depth indicated,
and then, choose the N-value for design as the lowest average N-value.
SPT
sample Po CN N avg
.
N field N C N .N field N 15 0.5( N 15)
depth (kN/m ) 2
(m)
1.5 31 20.5 1.00 31 23 23
2.25 25 26.3 1.45 36 25 24
3.0 22 32.2 1.38 30 22 23
3.75 20 38.0 1.32 26 20 22
4.5 28 43.9 1.28 35 25 23
Navg.
For 1.5m depth: 23
34
23 25
N avg .
For 2.25m depth: 2 24
23 25 22
N avg .
23 25 22 20
N avg .
23 25 22 20 25
N avg .
Navg. (lowest )
N-value for design = 22 blows
Problem (2.8): The load-settlement data obtained from load test of a square plate of size (1ft)
are as shown below. If a square footing of size (7ft) settles (0.75 inch), what is the
allowable soil pressure of the footing? Consider sandy soil.
Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solution:
Bf
qf qp
Bp 0.75 0.75
2 sp 0.25
2
s s 2B f 2x 7 3.05
f p 1 7
For cohesionless soil: Bp Bf ,
s 0.25 Pressure (Tsf)

Now by drawing the given data and for p ,
q p 6 .5 sp 0.25 q p 6.5
T/ft2,and
Settlement (inch)
B 7
q f q p f 6.5
Bp 1
45.5 T/ft2 .
Problem (2.9):Use Housel method to determine the size of square footing required to carry a
column load P = 45 tons if the two plate loading tests results are as given below:-
plate size (1) = 35x35cms, corresponding load= 5.6 tons; relative to 1.0
cm settlement.
plate size (2)=50x50 cms, corresponding load =10 tons; relative to 1.0 cm
settlement.
Solution:
35
From Housel's method(Eq. 2.6):V A. q + P. s

5.6 0.123 q + 1.4 s
10 0.25 q + 2 s
Solving the two equations, gives: q = 26.9 and s = 1.63.
Again from Eq.(2.6) shown above, the footing area required to carry 45tons load is
calculated as:
45 = B2 q + 4B s
45 = B2(26.9) + 4B (1.63)
26.9 B2 + 6.52 B 45 = 0
B2 + 0.24 B 1.67 = 0
0.24 (0.24) 2 4(1)(1)(1.67) 0.24 2.59

B 1.18
( 2)(1) 2 m
Take the footing 1.20 m x 1.20 m.
Problem (2.10):A vane tester with a diameter d = 9.1cms and a height h = 18.2 cms requires a
torque of 110 N-m to shear a clay soil sample, with a plasticity index of 48%. Find the soil
Su ?
un-drained cohesion
Solution:
For CASE (2) with top and bottom vane ends embedded in soil, the torque is given by:
.D2 .Su ,field D
T (H )
2 3
T 0.110
S u , field 40
2 2
.D D .(0.091) 0.091
(H ) 0.182
or 2 3 2 3 kN/m2
From Fig.(2.19a) for a plasticity index of 48%, Bjerrum's correction factor = 0.80, and
Su ,design ..Su ,field 0.8(40)

Therefore, 32 kPa
36

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 SOIL EXPLORATION

2.2 DRILLING OR BORING

Table (2.1): Drilling method selection.

Jetting Sludgin drilling percussio

2.2.1 TEST PITS

Walls of test pit indicate four layers

Fig. (2.1): Test pits.

a. Helical (worm types) Augers b. Short flight Auger c.

a. Continuous flight augers. b. Solid-stem auger

Fig. (2.3): Power or mechanical-augers.

2.2.3 WASH BORING

Fig. (2.4): Wash boring rig.

2.2.4 ROTARY DRILLING

Fig. (2.5): Rotary drilling.

2.2.5 PRECUSSION DRILLING

2.3 UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE TEST HOLE

2.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

(b) Ground penetration radar. (a) Electrical resistivity method.

(c) Seismic survey method.

Table (2.2): Typical seismic velocities of different earth materials

Type of soil Seismic Velocity (m/sec)

Requirements of seismic exploration:

Advantages of seismic exploration:

Disadvantages of seismic exploration:

Type of sampler Procedure Type of soil and Remarks

cohesionless soil or disturbed and

2.6.1 LABORATORY TESTS:

3. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:

2.6.2 FIELD TESTS

Table (2.4): Types of field tests.

Purpose of test Type of test

2. Undrained shear strength (for Static Penetration Test (CPT)

Self boring (to obtain;

2.7 LOGS OF BORINGS AND RECORDS OF TESTS RESULTS

B-1 7.5m B-2

15m 30m 30m 15m

DRILLING COMPANY, INC. BORE HOLE NO.: -------------

Name ----------------------------------------------------Date Time Depth Casing at

Fig.(2.8): boring log sheet.

2.8 NUMBER OF BOREHOLES

Distance between borings (m)

Highways 300 150 30 ----

Structure Footprint Area for Each

2.9 DEPTH OF BORINGS

2. Reservoirs: Explore soil to:

5. Retaining walls, slopes stability problems: Explore to:

8. Embankments: The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the

(a) Existence of rock layer

(D f 1.5B) D = 1.5B B (D f 1.5B)

(b) Isolated spread footing (c) Raft or mat foundation.

Fig.(2.11):Depth of borings for spread and raft foundations.

Fig.(2.13): Depth of borings for piles, and retaining walls.

(b) Retaining walls

Foundation Engineering / Dr.Rafi M.S. Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration

2.10 FIELD LOAD TEST

Round plate square plate

Procedure of load test as given by ASTM D110-72: