Fault Calculations

FAULT CALCULATIONS
CEFER
Centre for Studies, Training and Expertise
of Electrical Networks
Eric Ravoir
Electrical Network Studies and Expertise Manager
July 2004
FAULT CALCULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
page 2
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction
Usefulness of the power system fault analysis
An understanding and working knowledge of power system fault

analysis is very important to the Protection Engineer as he must
know how the system operates under normal load and fault
conditions, before choosing suitable relays to match the system
parameters.
Analysis of load and fault conditions provide useful information for :

Choice of power system arrangement
Required breaking capacity of switchgear and fusegear
Application of control equipment
Required load and short circuit ratings of plant
System operation, security of supply, economics
Investigation of unsatisfactory plant performance
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page 3
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction
All Protection Engineers should have a full understanding to :
Calculate the power system currents and voltages during fault conditions
Check that breaking capacity of switchgear is not exceeded
Determine the quantities which can be used by protective relays to
distinguish between healthy (i.e. normal loaded) and fault conditions
Appreciate the effect of the method of earthing on the detection of earth
faults
Ensure that load and short circuit ratings of plant are not exceeded
Select the best relay characteristics for fault detection (protective scheme
specification)
Select relay settings for fault detection and discrimination (protective
scheme coordination)
Understand principles of relay operation
Conduct post fault analysis
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page 4
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction
At the first step on a power system analysis, a preliminary short-circuit

calculation note is essential for the following points (1/2) :
About all the electrical equipments of the studied network :

9 specification of the closing capacities and breaking capacities of the breaking
devices (circuit breakers)
9 specification of the thermal withstand and thermodynamic withstand in case of fault
disturbance (busbars, power transformers, overhead lines, underground cables, )
9 specification of the insulation voltage of the pilot wires (calculation of the voltages
induced from the earth for the conductors which are installed close to the power
cables)
About the measurement reducers (CTs) :

9 specification of the thermal withstand and thermodynamic withstand of these
equipments
9 verification of the compatibility between CTs and protective relays regarding the
risks of saturation effects
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page 5
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction
At the first step on a power system analysis, a preliminary short-circuit

calculation note is essential for the following points (2/2) :
About the protective scheme :
9 specification of the most appropriate protective scheme (measurement technology,
protective functions, )
9 calculation of the appropriate settings
9 verification that a fault current contribution involves a correct operation of the
protective scheme
9 realization of the current versus time curves on a log-log drawing for the selectivity
(i.e. suitable fot eh overcurrent protective scheme)
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page 6
FAULT CALCULATIONS
FAULT CLASSIFICATION
page 7
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault classification
General philosophy
Faults which can occur in a MV, HV or EHV network are the main cause of
disturbance and interruption of the electrical energy supply
In most cases, these faults are due to short-circuit appearance :

9 either between phases conductors, or
9 either between one or more phases conductors and the ground
These short-circuit must be cut thanks to the breakdown of the faulty

electrical equipment(s), in order to respect the security of persons and
materials (selectivity)
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page 8
FAULT CALCULATIONS
External faults origin
External events that can cause short-circuit (faults) are :

c atmospheric causes :
9 thunderstorm and lightning : induced voltage or direct strikes
9 wind
9 snow
9 ice and hoarfrost
9 earthquake
9
They can be considered as the main cause of fault occurrence on overhead lines. For
example, in some countries, the lightning events cause between 50% and 80% of
faults on OVH lines.
d physical or mechanical causes :
9 fire
9 explosions
9 falling trees or tree limbs contacts
9 flying objects
9 physical contact by animals (birds, rodents, )
9 physical accidents like : vehicles hitting poles or contacting live equipment,
unfortunate people contacting live equipment, digging into underground cables,
human errors, ...
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page 9
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Internal faults origin
Internal faults definition :

These faults can occur into the electrical networks without justification from any
external cause or external intervention.
Example : overvoltage appearance due to physical phenomena such as :

9 resonance / ferroresonance
9 misoperation owing to an equipment failure or a human error like an
opening of a isolator-switch on load, ...
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page 10
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Main causes of insulation failure for undergroud cables and overhead lines
Underground cables :
9 Diggers
9 Overloading
9 Oil Leakage
9 Ageing
Overhead lines :
9 Lightning
9 Trees
9 Moisture
9 Salt
9 Birds
9 Broken Conductors
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page 11
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Main causes of insulation failure for machines
Machines :
9 Mechanical Damage
9 Unbalanced Load
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page 12
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault types - definitions (1/2)
The faults are normally classified depending on:
9 the time used to cut the fault (tripping time) ;
9 the means used to re-energize the fault equipments (auto-reclosers)
c The self-extinguish faults :

They naturally disappear before the operation of the protective relays, thus
without interruption of the electrical energy supply --> very short fault duration.
d The fugitive faults :

They involve the operation of the protective relays, and are cut thanks to the
auto-reclosers operation after one single and fast shot.
e The semi-continuous faults :

They involve the operation of the protective relays, and are cut thanks to the
auto-reclosers operation after one or two slow shot(s).
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page 13
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault types - definitions (2/2)
f The continuous faults :

They involve the operation of the protective relays, but cannot be cut by the
auto-recloser devices (fast and slow shot(s)) --> they need the intervention of
the electrical maintenance team.
g The evolving faults :

Typically, this is a one-phase-to-ground fault which evolves, at the same
location point, to a phase-to-phase or a three-phase fault.
h The intermittent faults :

They are one-phase-to-ground faults with a short duration (between 10ms and
20ms) which appears again with a certain cycle (between 100ms and
200ms) --> these kind of faults are especially identified on undeground cables
parts and on networks with compensated neutral-to-ground connection mode.
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page 14
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault categories (1/2)
UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into two categories :
c SHUNT FAULTS :
The principal abnormal shunt unbalances on a three-phase power
system are commonly called faults.
The most common are :

9 Three-phase (balanced fault)
9 Phase-to-phase
9 One-phase-to-ground
9 Phase-to-phase-to-ground
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page 15
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault categories (2/2)
UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into two categories :
d SERIES FAULTS :
It exists a high variety of potential series unbalances that can
occur on a three-phase power system.
The most common are :

9 one blown fuse
9 one broken conductor
9 two blown fuses

9 two broken conductors
9 inequal impedances in the phases in several combinations
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page 16
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Shunt fault categories (1/5)
The shunt faults category :

9 depends on the number of conductors in failure ;
9 if the fault point is in contact or not in contact with the ground : respectively
ground faults and phase faults .
c The one-phase-to-ground faults :

These faults appear between one phase and the ground.
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
ground
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page 17
FAULT CALCULATIONS
d The phase-to-phase-to-ground faults :

These faults appear between two phases and the ground.
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
ground
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page 18
FAULT CALCULATIONS
e The phase-to-phase faults :

These faults appears between two phases, without connection to the ground.
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
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page 19
FAULT CALCULATIONS
f The three-phase faults :

These faults appears between the three phases.
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
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page 20
FAULT CALCULATIONS
g The cross-country faults :

These faults are ground faults, as described below :
9 they appears further to a simple one-phase-to-ground fault occurrence ;
9 the second fault concerns the phase(s) which are not touched by the first
ground fault ;
9 the second fault is not located at the same point than the first one.
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
ground ground
Feeder n1 Feeder n2 ../..

page 21
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Series fault categories (1/7)
c Phase a open :
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
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page 22
FAULT CALCULATIONS
d Neutral open :
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
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page 23
FAULT CALCULATIONS
e Phases b and c open :
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
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page 24
FAULT CALCULATIONS
f Phase a and Neutral open :
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
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page 25
FAULT CALCULATIONS
g Impedance in Phase a :
Za
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
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page 26
FAULT CALCULATIONS
h Equal impedance in Phase b and c :
Phase a
Za
Phase b
Phase c
Za
Neutral
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page 27
FAULT CALCULATIONS
i Impedances in Phase a and in Neutral :
Za
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Neutral
Zn
Etc .
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page 28
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault statistics (1/2)
Most faults in an electrical utility system with a network of overhead lines are
one-phase-to-ground faults resulting primarily from lightning-induced transient
high voltages and from falling trees and tree limbs contacts.
In the overhead distribution systems, momentary tree contacts caused by
wind is another major case of faults.
As explained before, ice, freezing snow and wind during severe storms can
also cause many faults and major damages.
These faults involve this very approximate percentage of occurrence :

9 one-phase-to-ground : 70% - 80%
9 phase-to-phase-to-ground : 17% - 10%
9 phase-to-phase : 10% - 8%
9 three-phase : 3% - 2%
However, fault occurrence can be quite variable, depending on the type of

power system (overhead lines versus underground cables), and the local
natural or weather conditions.
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page 29
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault statistics (2/2)
Statistics on fault
occurrence
Non-continuous
One-phase-to-ground
faults = Phase-to-phase
fugitive and
Percentages of semi-continuous Phase-to-phase-to-ground
occurrence on faults Three-phase

Evolving
(1)
French HV Cross-country
networks
(Electricit
De France) Continuous faults
One-phase-to-ground
Phasee-to-phase
Phase-to-phase-to-ground
Three-phase
Evolving
(1) : Self-extinguish faults not included

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page 30
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault consequences (1/4)
A primary objective of all power systems is to maintain a very high continuity of

service, and when intolerable conditions occur, to minimize as much as possible
the outage times.
The flashover caused by fault occurrences does not result in permanent damage
if the faulted device is quickly interrupted.
A common practice is to :
9 open the faulted device
9 permit the arc to extinguish naturally, and
9 reclose the device.
Usually, this improves the continuity of service by causing only a momentary

outage and voltage dip --> typical outage times are in the order of 1/2 to 1 or 2
minutes, rather than many minutes and hours.
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page 31
FAULT CALCULATIONS
System faults usually provide significant changes to the system quantities,

which can be used to distinguish between tolerable and intolerable conditions.
These changing quantities include :
9 overcurrent
9 undervoltage or overvoltage power
9 power factor and/or phase angle
9 power current direction
9 impedance
9 frequency
9 temperature
9 physical movements
9 pressure, ...
Anyhow, the most common fault indicator is a sudden and generally significant
increase in the current and decrease of the phase(s) voltage.
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page 32
FAULT CALCULATIONS
c Effects linked to the r.m.s. (root-mean-square) value of the fault current on a

specific time-delay :
9 Thermal stress :
When specifying the equipments of an electrical network, it has to be verified that the
overheating involved by the contribution of the r.m.s. value of the a.c. symmetrical short-
circuit current stay in the acceptable limits recommended by the manufacturers.
d Effects linked to the aperiodic and periodic components of the fault current at a
specific time :
9 Breaking capacity in short-circuit mode :
Some dedicated devices are installed in the network in order to cut the contribution of the
fault currents : switching devices, or more commonly circuit breakers.
This cut appears a few cycles (t0 + x) after the fault occurrence (t0).
When cutting the fault, it has to be considered both the aperiodic component and the
periodic component of the fault current at the breaking instant (t0 + x).
Thus, the breaking capacity is defined as : the fault current of the prospective short-circuit
current at the instant of contact separation of the first pole of a switching device.
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page 33
FAULT CALCULATIONS
e Effects linked to the maximum peak value of the fault current :

9 Electrodynamic stress :
The equipments which are concerned by the contribution of strong short-circuit currents
must support high electrodynamic stresses.
Particularly, the busbars, the insulation devices, the windings of the power transformers can
be damaged if their mechanical rigidity is not sufficient.
But, the quantity which may cause the maximum the electrodynamic stresses is the
maximum peak value. This is the maximum possible instantaneous value of the
prospective short-circuit current.
Hence, this criteria offers the possibility to verify :
the maximum admissible peak value ;

the closing capacity in short-circuit mode.
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page 34
FAULT CALCULATIONS
CALCULATION TOOLS
page 35
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Calculation tools
Pocket calculator methods
Necessary and adequate for the majority of simple applications
Useful when no access is available to computers and programmes on site
Necessary to verify the results of fault simulation softwares through

some calculation samples.
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page 36
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Calculation tools
Fault calculation softwares
Programme calculation methods understanding is important !!
Widely available, particularly in large power utilities
Powerful for large power systems
Sometimes overcomplex for simple circuits
Not always user friendly
Software used by AREVA T&D EAI Protection & Control : PSAF-FAULT

from the Company Cyme International Inc (Quebec - Canada)
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page 37
FAULT CALCULATIONS
BASIC RECALLS
page 38
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Vector representation (1/2)
The common pictorial form to represent electrical and magnetic

quantities uses the cartesian coordinates with :
9 the abscissa x as the axis of the real quantities ;
9 the ordinate y as the axis of the imaginary quantities
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page 39
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Vector representation (2/2)
The point c as represented in the former figure on the complex plan x-y
can be mathematically documented by the several alternatives :
9 vector form : c where :
9 cartesian form : c = x + jy 9 c = the vector
9 complex form : c = |c| (cos + j sin ) 9 x = the real value (alternate : Re(c) or c)
9 y = the imaginary value (alternate : Im(c) or c)
9 exponentiel form : c = |c| ej
9 |c| = the modulus (magnitude or absolute value)
9 polar form : c = |c| + 9 = the phase angle (argument or amplitude ;
alternate : Arg(c))
Sometimes useful is the conjugate form :

c* = x - jy = |c| (cos - j sin ) = |c| e-j = |c| -
The modulus (or magnitude or absolute value) of the vector c is :

|c| = (x2 + y2)
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page 40
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Vector diagrams for sinusoidal quantities (1/2)
Rotating vectors can be used to represent sinusoidal electrical quantities
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page 41
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Vector diagrams for sinusoidal quantities (2/2)
Vector notation can also be used to represent phase relationship between

electrical quantities (ac voltages, currents and fluxes).
V I
V = V sinwt = V 0

I = I - = I sin(wt - )
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page 42
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Combining vectors (1/2)
Vector multiplication :
The magnitudes are mutliplied and the phase angle added.
9 Mathematical representation :
A . B = |A| [A] . |B| [B] = |A| . |B| [A + B]
9 Vector diagram :
|A|.|B|
|A|
X |B| A+ B
A
B
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page 43
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Combining vectors (2/2)
Vector division :
The magnitudes are divided and the phase angle subtracted.
9 Mathematical representation :
A / B = |A| [A] / |B| [B] = (|A| / |B|) [A - B]
9 Vector diagram :
|A|
|A| / |B|
A |B|
A- B
B
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page 44
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
j operator
The international standard is that vectors always rotate in the
anticlockwise direction.
The j operator rotates vectors by 90 anticlockwise. It is used to express

vectors in terms of real and imaginary parts.
j = 1 90
90 90
j2 = 1 180 1
= -1
90 90
Example : Z = |Z| [] = |Z|.cos() + j |Z|.sin() = R + jX
resistive reactive ../..

page 45
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
a operator
The a operator rotates vectors by 120 anticlockwise. It is extensively

used in Symmetrical Component Analysis.
1 3
a = 1120 = - + j
2 2
120
120 1 = a3
120
1 3
a2 = 1240 = - +
- j
2 2
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page 46
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic recalls
Balanced three-phase power system
A balanced three-phase power system is defined by three sinusoidal

quantities : VA, VB, VC for the voltages ; IA, IB, IC for the currents
VC = aVA
Positive rotate
direction
a2 + a + 1 = 0 VA
a3 = 1
VB = a2VA
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page 47
FAULT CALCULATIONS
BASIC QUANTITIES
AND
PER UNIT SYSTEM
page 48
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Basic quantities and per unit system
Per unit and percent definitions
Percent is 100 times per unit (p.u.).

The per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of this quantity to its base
value. The ratio result is expressed as a nondimensional decimal number.
actual quantity
9 Quantity in per unit = (2.1)
base value of quantity in the same unit
9 Quantity in percent = (quantity in per unit) X 100 (2.2)

actual quantity is the scalar or complex value of quantity expressed in
its proper unit, such as volts, amperes, ohms, or watts.
base value quantity refers to an arbitrary or convenient reference
Examples : for a chosen base of 115kV,

115kV voltages of 92kV, 115kV and
161kV become respectively :
92kV 115kV 161kV
9 in per unit : 0.8 1.0 1.4 pu ;
9 in percent : 80% 100% 140% ../..
page 49
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Main advantages of per unit and percent
The per unit method is independent of voltage changes and phase shift
through transformers --> it is particularly useful when analysing large
systems with several voltage levels.
Before any system calculations, all system parameters must be referred
to only one common base value.
Its representation results in more meaningful data when the relative
magnitudes of all similar circuit quantities can be compared directly.
The per unit equivalent impedance of any power transformer is the same
when referred to either the primary or the secondary side.
Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of equipment in per unit or
percent on the base of its nameplate rating of power (kVA or MVA) and
voltage (V or kV) --> the rated impedance can be used directly if the
chosen bases are the same than the nameplate ratings.
The driving or source voltage usually can be assumed to be 1.0 pu for
fault and voltage calculations.
With per unit, the product of two quantities expressed in per unit is
expressed in per unit itself. ../..
page 50
FAULT CALCULATIONS
General relations between circuit quantities
Before continuing the presentation of the per unit method, a review of some
general relations between circuit quantities applicable to all three-phase
power systems seems to be useful :
S3 = 3 * VLL * IL (volt-amperes) (2.3)
VLL = 3 * VLN [+30] (volts) (2.4)
IL = S3 / (3 * VLL) (amperes) (2.5)
9 S3 is the three-phase apparent power in volt-amperes (VA, kVA or MVA)

9 VLL is the Phase-to-Phase (also called Line-to-Line) voltage (V or kV)
9 VLN is the Phase-to-Neutral voltage (V or kV)
9 P is the active power in watts (W, kW or MW)
9 Q is the reactive power in vars (VAR, KVAR or MVAR) S = P + jQ
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page 51
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Base quantities
The base quantities used are :

Base power : Sb = three phase in MVA
Base voltage : Ub = phase-to-phase (also called line-to-line) voltage in kV
Other base quantities can then be established :

Base current = Ib = Sb / (3 * Ub) in kilo-amperes (2.6)
Base impedance = Zb = Ub2 / Sb = Ub / (3 * Ib) in ohms (2.7)
In three-phase power systems, the common practice is to use the standard or

nominal system voltage as the voltage base, and a convenient MVA quantity as the
power base. 100MVA is a widely used power base.
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page 52
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Base quantities and per unit values
Per unit values are obtained by dividing actual values by base values as follows :
Actual value
Per unit value =
Base value
S actual (MVA)
Per unit power : Spu = (2.8)
Sb (MVA)
U actual (kV)
Per unit voltage : Upu = (2.9)
Ub (kV)
Z actual ()
Per unit impedance : Zpu = = Za * Sb / (Ub2) (2.10)
Zb ()
I actual (kA)
Per unit current : Ipu = = Ia * 3 * Ub / Sb (2.11)
Ib (kA)
Percentage values (%) are 100 times the equivalent per unit values (p.u.). ../..
page 53
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Changing per unit (percent) quantities to different bases
Za
(2.10) Zpu 1 =
Z p.u.1 Z p.u.2 Zb1
Za Zb1
(2.10) Zpu 2 = = Zpu 1 x
Zb2 Zb2
Base 1 Base 2
Zb1 Zb2 (2.7) Ub12 Sb2
= Zpu 1 x x
Sb1 Sb2 Sb1 Ub22
Ub1 Ub2
Ub12 Sb2
= Zpu 1 x x
Ub22 Sb1
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page 54
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Per unit impedance of power transformer (1/2)
Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of the power transformer :
Lets consider a power transformer with a ratio equal to U1 / U2
1 2
MVA
Ub / U1 Ub / U2 Ub = Base voltage
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Za1
Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Za2
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page 55
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Per unit impedance of power transformer (2/2)
Za 1 Sb
From side 1 : Z p.u.1 = = Za 1 x (Zb1= Ub12 / Sb)
Zb 1 Ub12
Za 2 Sb
From side 2 : Z p.u.2 = = Za 2 x (Zb2= Ub22 / Sb)
Zb 2 Ub2 2
Ub2 2
But : Za 2 = Za 1 x (ratio definition of the transformer)
Ub 2
1
Ub2 2 Sb
Z p.u.2 = Za 1 x x
Ub12 Ub2 2
Sb
= Z a1 x
Ub12
= Z p.u.1
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page 56
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Application (1/2)
On Sb and Ub base, the formula to calculate the per unit short-circuit are as follows :
Short-circuit power Scc from an upstream network :

Sb (MVA)
Zpu = Z% = 100 * Zpu (3.1)
Scc (MVA)
Generator or Power Transformer :

Sb (MVA)
Zpu = Zpu x Z% = 100 * Zpu (3.2)
Sn (MVA)
Cable or Overhead Line :

Z () Ub2 (kV)
Zpu = x Z% = 100 * Zpu (3.3)
Zb () Un2 (kV)
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page 57
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Application (2/2)
Electrical equipments in serie :

The short-circuit impedances in per unit (percent) are added.
Electrical equipments in parallel :

The short-circuit powers in per unit (percent) are added.
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page 58
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1
11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
0.3p.u. 10% 40 10% 8

3
FAULT
Ub 11kV 11kV 11kV 1.432p.u.
Sb 50MVA 50MVA 50MVA
V 1p.u. IF = 1 = 0.698p.u.
Z b (2.7) 2.42 2.42 2.42 1.432
Ib (2.6) 2625 A 2625 A 2625 A
(3.2) (3.3) (3.3) I11kV = 0.698pu x Ib = 0.698pu x 2625A = 1833A

Zp.u. 0.3 x 50 40 x 112 8 x 112 I132kV = 0.698pu x 219A = 153A
20 2.42 1322 2.42 332 I33kV = 0.698pu x 874A = 610A
= 0.75p.u.
= 0.115p.u. = 0.367p.u.
(3.2) (3.2)
0.1 x 50 0.1 x 50
50 50
= 0.1p.u. = 0.1p.u.
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page 59
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Exercise n1
Calculation of the per unit impedances with a

1kV and a 30MVA base ;
Calculation of the short-circuit current for a
fault located at D3 (20kV base)
Calculation method :
Per unit formula
Thevenin theorem
It is your turn
to play ...
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page 60
FAULT CALCULATIONS
CIRCUIT LAWS AND THEOREMS
page 61
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Circuit laws and theorems
Circuit laws
There are three basic laws :
c Ohms law : V = Z*I
At any junction (or node) :

d Kirchoffs junction law :
I = 0 --> I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
e Kirchoffs mesh law :
Round any mesh : E = (Z*I)

E1 = Z1I1 + Z3I1 - Z3I2
= Z1I1 + Z3(I1 - I2)
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page 62
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Circuit theorems (1/3)
They are derived from the circuit laws. The three most commonly used for
the system analysis are : Thevenin, Star/Dela transform and Superposition
theorems.
c Thevenin theorem :
This is useful for replacing part of a network which is not of particular interest.
Any active network viewed from any 2 terminals can be replaced by a single driving
voltage in series with a single impedance, where :
9 driving voltage = open circuit voltage between terminals
9 impedance = impedance of the network as viewed from the two terminals with all driving
voltages short-circuited.
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page 63
FAULT CALCULATIONS
d Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transform theorem :
Star to Delta
Delta to Star
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page 64
FAULT CALCULATIONS
e Superposition theorem :
In any linear network, the current in any branch due to the simultaneous action of several
different driving voltage is equal to the vector sum of the currents caused by each driving
voltage acting alone with the others short-circuited.
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page 65
FAULT CALCULATIONS
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS
page 66
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Symmetrical components analysis
Introduction (1/4)
In a balanced three-phase power system, each of the three phases of any

part of the system have currents and voltages which are equal and 120
anticlockwise displaced with respect to each other.
To maintain balanced operation, each item of system plant must be

symmetrical, which means have :
9 identical impedances in each phase ;
9 equal mutual impedances between phases and ground ;
9 equal shunt admittances to ground.
This is the case for machines and transformers, and for OVH lines and
cables if they are fully transposed.
Three-phase faults with symmetrical fault impedances leave the system in

balanced operation. Such faults can be analysed by using a simple single
phase representation.
representation However, these kind of faults are rare.
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page 67
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction (2/4)
Majority of faults are unbalanced faults.
Unbalanced faults may be classified into two categories :

9 SHUNT FAULTS : Phase-to-ground, Phase-to-phase, Phase-to-phase-to-ground, ...
9 SERIES FAULTS : Single phase open circuit, Double phase open, Cross-country, ...
During unbalanced faults, the symmetry of the power system is lost, and
the single phase representation used for the three phase balanced faults
no longer applies.
The calculation methods of unbalanced faults become strongly complex

since it involves to apply the circuit laws (Ohms, Kirchoff) and the circuit
theorems (Thevenin, Superposition) independently for each of the three
phases.
../..
page 68
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction (3/4)
The method of symmetrical components was discovered by Charles L.

Fortescue in 1913.
This method is based on the following theorem :

n phasors may be resolved into (n-1) sets of balanced n-phase
systems of different phase sequence and one set of zero-phase
sequence or uni-directional phasor system.
Applied to a three-phase power system, the symmetrical components of

an unbalanced system are as follows :
9 the positive sequence component ;
9 the negative sequence component ;
9 the zero sequence component.
../..
page 69
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction (4/4)
The method of symmetrical components provides a real practical

technology for understanding and analyzing power system operation
during unbalanced conditions, such as those caused by faults between
phases and ground, open phases, unblanced impedances, ...
Also, most of protective relays operate from the symmetrical component

quantities.
Thus, a full understanding of this subject of great value must be

considered as a very important tool for network and protection
applications.
../..
page 70
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Positive sequence component
The positive sequence component consists of the balanced three-phase

quantities (both currents and phase-to-neutral voltages) supplied by the
system generators.
Thus, the members of the positive sequence component are always :
9 equal in magnitude ;
9 phase-displaced by 120 anticlockwise.
VA1
Vectorial representation
120
VC1 VB1 ../..

page 71
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Negative sequence component
The negative sequence component is also balanced with three equal

magnitude quantities at 120 apart, but with the phase rotation or
sequence reversed.
Thus, the members of the negative sequence component are always :
9 phase-displaced by 120 clockwise.
VA2
120
VB2 VC2 ../..

page 72
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Zero sequence component
The members of the zero sequence component are always :

9 in phase.
VA0
VB0
VC0
../..
page 73
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Mathematical and vectorial representations (1/4)
Phase Positive + Negative + Zero
VA
VA1
VA2
VA0VB0
VC2 VC0
+ +
VC VB2
VC1
VB1
VB
VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0

VB1 = a2VA1 VB2 = a VA2 VB0 = VA0
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 + +
VC1 = a VA1 VC2 = a2VA2 VC0 = VA0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0
../..
page 74
FAULT CALCULATIONS
(4.0)
VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0
VA0
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 = a2VA1 + a VA2 + VA0 VA
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0 = a VA1 + a2VA2 + VA0 VA2
VA1
___ = positive sequence
___ = negative sequence VC

VC0
___ = zero sequence VC1
VC2 VB
___ = total VB1 VB0
VB2
../..
page 75
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Any unbalanced current or voltage can be determined from the sequence components from
the following fundamental equations :
(4.1)
From these, equations defining the sequence
VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0 quantities from a three-phase unbalanced set can
be determined :
VB = a2VA1 + aVA2 + VA0
VC = aVA1 + a2VA2 + VA0 (4.3)
VA1 = 1/3 {VA + aVB + a2VC}
(4.2) VA2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + aVC }
IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0
VA0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC }
IB = a2I A1 + aIA2 + IA0
IC = aIA1 + a2IA2 + IA0 (4.4)
IA1 = 1/3 {IA + aIB + a2IC }
where :
IA2 = 1/3 {IA + a2IB + aIC }
VA, VB , VC , and
IA0 = 1/3 {IA + IB + IC }
IA , IB and IC
are general unbalanced phase-to-neutral quantities. ../..
page 76
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Complementary fundamental formulae :
Positive sequence : VA1 = VLN - Z1*IA1 (4.5)
Negative sequence : VA2 = - Z2*IA2 (4.6)
Zero sequence : VA0 = - Z0*IA0 (4.7)
1 + a + a2 = 0 (4.8)
a3 = 1 (4.9)
../..
page 77
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (1/6)
Evaluation of the positive, negative and zero sequence components for

the following unbalanced phase vectors :
VC
VA = 1pu 0 VA
VB = 1.5pu -90
VC = 0.5pu 120
VB ../..
page 78
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (2/6)
VA = 1pu 0 ; VB = 1.5pu -90 ; VC = 0.5pu 120
Positive sequence (see 4.3) :

VA1 = 1/3 {VA + aVB + a2VC}
= 1/3 {1 + (1 120)x(1.5 -90) + (1 240)x(0.5 120)}
= 0.965 15
Negative sequence (see 4.3) :
VA2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + aVC)
= 1/3 {1 + (1 240)x(1.5 -90) + (1 120)x(0.5 120)}
= 0.211 150
Zero sequence (see 4.3) :
VA0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC}
= 1/3 {1 + 1.5 -90 + 0.5 120}
= 0.434 -55 ../..
page 79
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (3/6)
Positive sequence
VC1 = aVA1 = 0.965135

VA = 1pu 0
VB = 1.5pu -90
VC = 0.5pu 120
VA1 = 0.96515
15
VA1 = 0.965pu 15
VA2 = 0.211pu 150
VA0 = 0.434pu -55
VB1 = a2VA1 = 0.965255
../..
page 80
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (4/6)
Negative sequence
VA = 1pu 0 VA2 = 0.211150 VC2 = a2VA2

VB = 1.5pu -90
VC = 0.5pu 120 150
VA1 = 0.965pu 15
VA2 = 0.211pu 150
VA0 = 0.434pu -55
VB2 = aVA2
../..
page 81
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (5/6)
Zero sequence
VA = 1pu 0
VB = 1.5pu -90
VC = 0.5pu 120 -55
VA0 = 0.434-55
VB0 = 0.434-55
VA1 = 0.965pu 15 VC0 = 0.434-55
VA2 = 0.211pu 150
VA0 = 0.434pu -55
../..
page 82
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Example n1 (6/6)
VC2
Global vectorial representation
VC1 VC0
VC
VA2
VC2 VA1
___ = positive sequence VA2
VA0
VA
___ = negative sequence VB2 V0
___ = zero sequence
___ = total
VB1
VB2
VB0 VB ../..
page 83
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Residual current
It is used to detect earth faults
IA
IB
IC
IRESIDUAL = IA + IB + IC
= 3I0
E/F
IRESIDUAL is equal to zero for : IRESIDUAL is present for :

9Balanced Load 9/E Faults
93 Faults 9//E Faults
9/ Faults 9Open circuits (with current in remaining phases)
../..
page 84
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Residual voltage
It is used to detect earth faults
Residual voltage is measured from
Open Delta or Broken Delta VT
secondary windings.
VRESIDUAL is zero for:-
Healthy unfaulted systems
3 Faults
/ Faults
VRESIDUAL is present for:-
/E Faults
VRESIDUAL = //E Faults

VA + VB + VC Open Circuits (on supply
= 3V0
side of VT)
../..
page 85
FAULT CALCULATIONS
IMPEDANCES CALCULATIONS
page 86
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Impedances calculations
Two winding power transformers - positive and negative sequence impedances (1/2)
ZT = (ukr / 100) * UrT2 / SrT

A RT = (uRr / 100) * UrT2 / SrT = PkrT / 3*IrT2 = PkrT * UrT2 / SrT2
XT = (ZT2 - RT2) (ZT = RT + jXT)

where :
9 UrT = rated voltage of the TFO on the HV side or LV side, in kV
9 IrT = rated current of the TFO on the HV side or LV side, in kV
9 SrT = rated apparent power of the TFO, in MVA
9 PkrT = total losses of the TFO in the windings at rated current, in kW
B
9 ukr = rated short-circuit voltage, in per cent
9 uRr = rated ohmique voltage, in per cent
All these data may be taken from rating plates or obtained from the manufacturer
Negative sequence impedance (Z2T) = Positive sequence impedance (Z1T)
In first approximation : ZT XT
../..
page 87
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Two winding power transformers - positive and negative sequence impedances (2/2)
Caculations with a voltage reference equal to 400V :

A ZT = (ukr / 100) * UrT2 / SrT = (4 / 100) * (400V)2 / 630kVA = 10.16m
15kV / 0.4kV
630kVA
Ukr = 4%
PkrT = 6.5kW
RT = PkrT * UrT2 / SrT2 = 6.5kW * (400V)2 / (630kVA) = 2.62m

B
XT = (ZT2 - RT2) = 9.82m
ZT = (2.62 + j9.82) m
../..
page 88
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Two winding power transformers - zero sequence impedances (1/6)
P S
ZT0
a a
P S
b b
N0
../..
page 89
FAULT CALCULATIONS
P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0
../..
page 90
FAULT CALCULATIONS
P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0
../..
page 91
FAULT CALCULATIONS
P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0
../..
page 92
FAULT CALCULATIONS
P S
P0 ZT0
a a S0
b b
N0
../..
page 93
FAULT CALCULATIONS
../..
page 94
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three winding power transformers - positive and negative sequence impedances (1/3)
A ZAB = (ukrAB / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTAB
ZAC = (ukrAC / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTAC
ZBC = (ukrBC / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTBC
where :
9 UrTA = rated voltage (voltage reference), in kV
9 SrTAB = rated apparent power between sides A and B, in MVA
9 SrTAC = rated apparent power between sides A and C, in MVA
9 SrTBC = rated apparent power between sides B and C, in MVA
9 ukrAB = rated short-circuit voltage, in per cent, between sides A and B
B C 9 ukrAC = rated short-circuit voltage, in per cent, between sides A and C
9 ukrBC = rated short-circuit voltage, in per cent, between sides B and C
All these data may be taken from rating plates or obtained from the
manufacturer
../..
page 95
FAULT CALCULATIONS
A ZAB = (ukrAB / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTAB
ZAC = (ukrAC / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTAC
ZBC = (ukrBC / 100) * UrTA2 / SrTBC

ZB
ZA B
A
ZC
C
ZA = 1/2 * (ZAB + ZAC - ZBC)
ZB = 1/2 * (ZBC + ZAB - ZAC)

B C
ZC = 1/2 * (ZAC + Zd23 - Zd12)
Negative sequence impedance (Z2) = Positive sequence impedance (Z1)
In first approximation : ZT XT ../..

page 96
FAULT CALCULATIONS
A Impedances calculated in percent on the same Base

161kV / 115kV / 13.8kV Power Sb = 100MVA :
30MVA / 10MVA / 15MVA
ukrAB=10% by 30MVA ZAB = (100MVA / 30MVA) * 10% = 33.33%
ukrAC=6% by 10MVA ZAC = (100MVA / 10MVA) * 6% = 60%
ukrBC=14% by 15MVA
ZBC = (100MVA / 15MVA) * 14% = 93.33%
Z1A = Z2A = 1/2 * (33.33 + 60 - 93.33) = 0%

Z1B = Z2B = 1/2 * (33.33 + 93.33 - 60) = 33.33%
Z1C = Z2C = 1/2 * (60 + 93.33 - 33.33) = 60%
B C
Impedances calculated in by 161kV :
Z1A = Z2A = 10%* 161kV2 / 30MVA = 86.4
Z1B = Z2B = 6%* 161kV2 / 10MVA = 155.5
Z1C = Z2C = 14%* 161kV2 / 15MVA = 241.9
../..
page 97
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three winding power transformers - zero sequence impedances
../..
page 98
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Auto transformers - positive and negative sequence impedances
H L
Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a three winding transformer
../..
page 99
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Auto transformers - zero sequence impedances
../..
page 100
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Underground cables and overhead lines - Introduction
Single phase scheme :

The impedances of these equipments are characterized by a lineic
sharing of : the resistances, the inductances, the phase-to-phase
capacitances and the phase-to-ground capacitances on the whole length.
In order to make easier the calculation methods and to avoid the use
of complex matrixes, the shared impedances are substituted for
global equivalent impedances
../..
page 101
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Overhead lines - positive sequence impedance (1/2)
Resistance (R1) :
The resistance is calculated from :
9 the resistivity of the conductors ()
9 the length of the line (L)
Rline = * L / (s * n)
9 the section of the conductors (s)
9 the number of conductors per phase (n)
Resistivity () :
9 copper =1 / 54 = 0.0185 .mm2 / m
9 aluminium =1 / 34 = 0.0294 .mm2 / m
9 almelec =1 / 31 = 0.0322 .mm2 / m
Example :
9 conductor = Almelec
9 Length = 2500m Rline = 0.0322 * 2500 / (228 * 1) = 0.35
9 section = 228mm2
9 1 conductor per phase
../..
page 102
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Overhead lines - positive sequence impedance (2/2)
Reactance (X1) :
The value of the positive sequence reactance is almost independent of
the operating voltage and the section of the conductor.
conductor On the other
hand, it is dependent of the the number of conductors per phase.
For overhead lines with only one conductor per phase (typically, this is
applicable until 220kV) X1 0.4/km
For overhead lines with two conductors per phase (typically, for EHV networks)
X1 0.32/km
../..
page 103
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Overhead lines - negative sequence impedance
The negative sequence impedance is equal to the positive sequence impeance if :

9 the position of the conductors are in delta configuration, or
9 the phases are transposed.
For MV and HV overhead lines Z2 = Z1

For EHV overhead lines in first approximation : Z2 = Z1
../..
page 104
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Overhead lines - zero sequence impedance
The zero sequence impedance is approximatively equal to three times the positive
sequence impedance of the line (excluding the return path to the ground)
Zo = 3 * Z1
../..
page 105
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Underground cables - positive sequence impedance (1/2)
Resistance (R1) :
The resistance is calculated from :
9 the resistivity of the conductors ()
9 the length of the cable (L)
RCable = * L / s
9 the section of the conductors (s)
Resistivity () :
9 copper =1 / 54 = 0.0185 .mm2 / m
9 aluminium =1 / 34 = 0.0294 .mm2 / m
9 almelec =1 / 31 = 0.0322 .mm2 / m
Example :
9 conductor = Copper
9 Length = 700m Rcable = 0.0185 * 700 / 95 = 0.13
9 section = 95mm2
../..
page 106
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Underground cables - positive sequence impedance (2/2)
Reactance (X1) :
The value of the positive sequence reactance is almost independent of
the operating voltage and the section of the conductor.
conductor
0.1/km < X1 < 0.15/km
../..
page 107
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Underground cables - negative and zero sequence impedances
The negative sequence impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance

if the symmetry in the position of the conductors between each phase is
respected.
Z2 = Z1
There is no easy rule to calculate the zero sequence impedance from the positive
sequence impedance. Indeed, the zero sequence impedance mainly depends on :
9 the conditions of installation of the cables
9 the type and the characterisitcs of the ground
9 ...
Anyway, the zero sequence impedance of cables has no real influence on the
results of a short-circuit study. Hence it can be rightfully neglected.
../..
page 108
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Generators - positive sequence impedance (1/4)
In case of a near-to-generator short-circuit, the short-circuit current is

varying with the time Z1 = f(time) .
Contribution due only to the electrical characteristcs of the

generator
After a few cycles, the AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) Running up of the AVR
is running
../..
page 109
FAULT CALCULATIONS
This variation of the short-circuit current is due to the to effect of armature

reaction during fault.
Regarding this variation, many approaches are possible to calculate the

positive sequence impedance of the generator . ../..
page 110
FAULT CALCULATIONS
1st approach :
Calculation of the positive sequence impedance until the AVR is not running
(first part of the decrement curve) suitable during the first cycles after the
fault appearance.
appearance
Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit and before
AVR is running :
Iac (t) = Irg * [(1/Xd 1/Xd)*exp(-t/Td) + (1/Xd 1/Xd)*exp(-t/Td) + 1/Xd]
and : Z1G(t) X1G(t) = VLN / Iac (t)
Where :
Irg = rated current of the generator (Ampere)
Xd = direct axis saturated subtransient reactance of the synchronous machine (p.u.)
Xd = direct axis saturated transient reactance of the synchronous machine (p.u.)
Xd = direct axis saturated synchronous reactance of the synchronous machine (p.u.)
Td = direct axis subtransient time constant (s)
Td = direct axis transient time constant (s)
../..
page 111
FAULT CALCULATIONS
2nd approach :
Calculation of the positive sequence impedance at any time after the fault
appearance it is necessary to obtain the short-circuit decrement curve
given by the manufacturer.
3th approach :
Congruent with the Standard IEC 909 (see in the next pages ...)
only the direct axis saturated subtransient reactance of the synchronous
machine (Xd in p.u.) is used for the short-circuit calculations : Z1G X1G = Xdsat
Warning : this approach does not take into account with the variation of the
short-circuit current with time (see the IEC 909 rules for more explanations).
4th approach (simplified one) :

Only the direct axis saturated transient reactance of the synchronous
machine (Xd in p.u.) is used : Z1G X1G = Xdsat
Warning : this approach is acceptable for preliminary short-circuit calculations.
../..
page 112
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Generators - negative and zero sequence impedances
The negative sequence impedance is not equal to the positive sequence

impedance.
Z2G X2G Z1G
The zero sequence impedance value is very low compared with the positive
sequence impedance.
In practice, the zero sequence impedanc is not influent for the following reasons :
9 either there is a stepup power transformer with a delta-star winding
configuration, involving then a zero sequence breaking, or
9 the neutral point of the generator is connected to the ground through an
earthing impedance whose the value is very high compared with the zero
sequence impedance of the generator.
../..
page 113
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Induction motors - positive, negative and zero sequence impedance (1/2)
Positive sequence impedance :

In case of a near-to-motor short-circuit, the induction motor
contribution to the fault current decays with time as follows :
Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :
Iac (t) = Istarting motor * exp (-t / T)
where : T = periodic time constant of the motor

typical value of T : 100ms - 150ms
Z1(t=0) X1(t=0) = Ur2 / [Sr motor * (Istarting motor / Ir motor)]
Negative sequence impedance :

The negative sequence impedance of an induction motor is almost
equal to the positive sequence impedance Z2M X2M Z1M
Zero sequence impedance :

Same comments than with the generators --> can be rightfully negelected. ../..
page 114
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Induction motors - positive, negative and zero sequence impedance (2/2)
Induction motors - IEEE recommendations :

Contribution of induction motors :
9 Small motors :
Motor load < 35kW : neglected
Motor load > 35kW : ISC Motor = 4 * IFLC Motor
9 Large motors :
ISC Motor Motor Full Load (Amps) / Xd
Approximation : ISC Motor = Locked rotor (Amps)

ISC Motor = 5 * IFLC Motor (assuming motor impedance = 20%)
9 Large synchronous motors :

ISC Motor 6.7 * IFLC Motor for 1200 rpm (assuming Xd=15%)
ISC Motor 5 * IFLC Motor for 514-900 rpm (assuming Xd=20%)
ISC Motor 3.6 * IFLC Motor for 450 rpm or less (assuming Xd=28%) ../..
page 115
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Load impedance for shunt faults (1/2)
The value of load impedance is usually quite large compared to the system
impedances, so that load has a negligible effect on the faulted phase
currents.
It becomes practical and simplifies the calculations

to neglect load for shunt faults
../..
page 116
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Load impedance for shunt faults (2/2) - illustration
../..
page 117
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Load impedance for series faults (1/2)
Load or equivalent, represented by a difference between the source voltages,

must be included for the series unbalances, since the current is dependent
on the load or difference between the system voltages on either side of the
equivalent scheme.
In many series fault application cases, the load

effect cannot be neglected.
../..
page 118
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Load impedance for series faults (2/2) - illustration (one phase open)
../..
page 119
FAULT CALCULATIONS
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
page 120
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Introduction
The sequence networks (positive, negative and zero) are independent of

each other.
The three independent sequence networks are interconnected when an

unbalanced mode such as a fault or an unbalanced loading is introduced.
Positive, Negative and Zero sequence networks are drawn with a

reference phase. This reference phase is usually taken as the A
phase.
Faults are usually selected to be balanced relative to the reference phase A.

e.g. For /E faults : consider an A-E fault (fault between A and earth)
For / faults : consider a B-C fault (fault between phases B and C)
Sequence network interconnection is the simplest for the reference phase.
../..
page 121
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Positive sequence network (1/2)
E1
N1 Z1 F1
Neutral of positive Fault point

sequence network
Method :
1. Start with neutral point N1 :
- All generator and load neutrals are connected to N1
2. Include all voltage sources :
- Phase-neutral voltage (VLN)
3. Impedance network :
- Positive sequence impedance per phase (Z1)
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F1
../..
page 122
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Positive sequence network (2/2)
Generator Transformer
Line
F
N
R
System Single Line Diagram
E
E1
N1 ZG 1 ZT1 Z L1 I1 F1
V1
Positive Sequence Diagram (N1)
V1 = Positive sequence PH-N voltage at fault point (F1)

I1 = Positive sequence phase current flowing into F1
V1 = E1 - I1 (ZG1 + ZT1 + ZL1) (see 4.5)
../..
page 123
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Negative sequence network (1/2)
N2 Z2 F2
Neutral of negative Fault point

sequence network
Method :
1. Start with neutral point N2
- All generator and load neutrals are connected to N2
2. No voltage source included (short-circuited)
- No negative sequence voltage is generated !
3. Impedance network
- Negative sequence impedance per phase
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F2
../..
page 124
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Negative sequence network (2/2)
Line F
N
R
N2 ZG 2 ZT2 ZL2 I2 F2
V2
Negative Sequence Diagram (N2)
V2 = Negative sequence PH-N voltage at fault point

I2 = Negative sequence phase current flowing into F2
V2 = -I2 (ZG2 + ZT2 + ZL2) (see 4.6)
../..
page 125
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Zero sequence network (1/3)
For In Phase (Zero Phase Sequence) currents to flow in each phase of the
system, there must be a fourth connection (this is typically the neutral or earth
connection).
IA0
N
IB0
IC0
IA0 + IB0 + IC0 = 3IA0
../..
page 126
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Resistance Earthed System :
3A0
The zero sequence voltage between Neutral & Earth is given by :

R
V0 = 3IA0.R
The Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth path is given by :
E
Z0 = V0 / IA0 = 3R
../..
page 127
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Line F
N
RT
R
N0 ZG 0 ZT0 ZL0 I0 F0
3R 3RT V0
E0 N0
Zero Sequence Network
V0 = Zero sequence PH-E voltage at fault point

I0 = Zero sequence current flowing into F0
V0 = -I0 (ZT0 + ZL0) (see 4.7)
../..
page 128
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Parallel generators (1/2)
11kV 11kV
XG=0.1pu 11kV
j0.05 j0.1
20MVA
XG=0.2pu
10mVA
If both generator EMFs are equal they can be thought of as resulting

from the same ideal source - thus the circuit can be simplified.
../..
page 129
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Parallel generators (2/2)
j0.05 j0.1 j0.05 j0.1
j0.1 j0.2 j0.1 j0.2
IF IF
1.0 1.0 1.0
../..
page 130
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Sequence networks
Exercise n2
F
Line 1
N HV Network
Line 2 (equivalent source)
R
A B
E System Single Line Diagram
Draw successively :
the positive sequence network : I1, V1, Z1
the negative sequence network : I2, V2, Z2
the zero sequence network : I0, V0, Z0
It is your turn
to play ...
../..
page 131
FAULT CALCULATIONS
NETWORK INTERCONNECTIONS
FOR SHUNT FAULTS
page 132
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Network interconnections for shunt faults
Introduction
Phase A
For shunt faults and unbalances, it is necessary Power Phase B
to identify : system Phase C
1) the three phases points ; Neutral
2) the neutral point

at the fault or unbalance point. 1
Neutral
Positive
sequence
Fault point
2
Neutral
Negative
sequence
Fault point
0 Neutral
Zero
sequence
Fault point
../..
page 133
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault (1/3)
Phase A
Phase B
IB IA
Phase C
IC
F
VA VB VC VA = VB = V C
IA + IB + IC = 0
../..
page 134
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault (2/3) - Mathematical equations
(4.3)
V1 = 1/3 {VA + aVB + a2VC} V1 = 0
VA = VB = VC V2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + aVC } V2 = 0
V0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC } V0 = VA
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
IA + IB + IC = 0 I0 = 0
IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
(4.6)
V2 = 0 V2 = - Z2*I2 I2 = 0
(4.5)
V1 = 0 V1 = VLN - Z1*I1 VLN = Z1*I1
../..
page 135
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault (3/3) - Equivalent circuit
Z1 I1 F1
VLN
N1
For a three-phase fault (including or not
the earth), only the positive sequence
component is concerned in the
equivalent circuit.
The three-phase faults are rare, but :
In most cases, they involve the highest shunt fault values ;
They are the only balanced faults, since the power system plant during
the fault is symmetrical :
9 the phase currents are equal and 120 apart
9 the phase voltages are equal and 120 apart
9 the phase impedances are equal ../..
page 136
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase fault (1/4)
Phase A
Phase B
IB IA = 0
Phase C
IC
F
I B = - IC VA VB VC VB = VC
../..
page 137
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase fault (2/4) - Mathematical equations
(4.3)
V1 = 1/3 {VA + aVB + a2VC} V0 = 0
VB = VC V2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + aVC } V1 = V2
V0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC }
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
IA = 0 I0 = 0
IB = -IC IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0
I1 = -I2
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
(4.6)
V1 = V2 V2 = - Z2*I2
VLN = (Z1 + Z2) * I1
(4.5)
I1 = -I2 V1 = VLN - Z1*I1
../..
page 138
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase fault (3/4) - Equivalent circuit
Z1 I1 F1
VLN
N1
Z2 I2 F2
For a phase-to-phase fault, both the

positive sequence component and
N2 the negative sequence component
are connected in parallel in the
equivalent circuit.
../..
page 139
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase fault (4/4) - Example
SOURCE LINE F
B-C
132 kV ZL1 = ZL2 = 10 FAULT
2000 MVA
ZS1 = ZS2 = 8.7
132000
3 8.7 10 I1 F1
N1
8.7 10 I2 F2
N2
Total impedance = 37.4 IB = a2I1 + aI2

I1 = 132000 / (3 x 37.4) = 2037 Amps = a2I1 - aI1
= (a2 - a) I1
I2 = -2037 Amps = (-j) . 3 x 2037
= 3529 Amps ../..
page 140
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase-to-earth fault (1/4)
Phase A
Phase B
IB IA
Phase C
IC
F
VA VB VC VA = 0
IB = IC = 0
../..
page 141
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase-to-earth fault (2/4) - Mathematical equations
(4.1)
VA = V1 + V2 + V0
VA = 0 V1 = - (V2 + V0)
VB = a2V1 + aV2 + V0
VC = aV1 + a2V2 + V0
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
IB = IC = 0 IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 I1 = I2 = I0 = IA / 3
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
V1 = VLN - (Z1*I1)
V2 = -Z2 * I2
V0 = -Z0 * I0 VLN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) * I1
V1 = - (V2 + V0)
I1 = I2 = I0 ../..
page 142
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase-to-earth fault (3/4) - Equivalent circuit
Z1 I1 F1
VLN
N1
Z2 I2
F2
For a single-phase-to-earth fault,

N2
the positive, negative and zero
sequence components are
Z0 I0 connected in serie in the
F0 equivalent circuit.
N0
../..
page 143
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase-to-earth fault (4/4) - Example
SOURCE LINE F
A-E
132 kV ZL1 = ZL2 = 10 ; FAULT
2000 MVA ZL0 = 35
ZS1 = ZS2 = 8.7
ZS0 = 8.7
8.7 10 I1 F1
N1
8.7 10 I2 F2
N2
8.7 35 I0 F0
N0
Total impedance = 81.1

I1 = I2 = I0 = 132000 / (3 x 81.1) = 940 Amps
IF = IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I0 = 2820 Amps
../..
page 144
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault (1/4)
Phase A
Phase B
IB IA = 0
Phase C
IC
F
VA VB VC VB = VC = 0
../..
page 145
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault (2/4) - Mathematical equations (1/2)
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
IA = 0 IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 I1 = - (I2 + I0)
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
(4.1)
VA = V1 + V2 + V0
VB = VC = 0 VB = a2V1 + aV2 + V0 V1 = V2 = V0
VC = aV1 + a2V2 + V0
V2 = -Z2 * I2
Z2 * I2 = Z0 * I0 I0 = - Z2 * I1 / (Z0 + Z2)
V0 = -Z0 * I0
I2 = - Z0 * I1 / (Z0 + Z2)
../..
page 146
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault (3/4) - Mathematical equations (2/2)
(4.5)
V1 = VLN - Z1*I1
VLN = Z1*I1 - Z2 * I2
(4.6)
V2 = - Z2*I2
VLN = {Z1+ [Z0*Z2 / (Z0 + Z2)]} * I1
I1 = VLN * (Z0 + Z2) / (Z1*Z0 + Z1*Z2 + Z0*Z2)
../..
page 147
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault (4/4) - Equivalent circuit
Z1 I1 F1
VLN
N1
Z2 I2
F2
For a phase-to-phase-to-earth fault,

N2
the positive, negative and zero
sequence components are
Z0 I0 connected as described in this
F0 equivalent circuit.
N0
../..
page 148
Notation :
FAULT CALCULATIONS a, b, c = 3 phases ; n = neutral
x = fault point
Network interconnections for shunt faults P = Positive, N = Negative, O = Zero
Summary Z = fault resistance
Strongly three-phase fault
Srtongly three-phase Srtongly single-phase Strongly phase-to

-to-earth fault -to-earth fault -phase fault
../..
page 149
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault versus phase-to-phase fault
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
I0 = 0
I1 = -I2 IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
IA = 0
IB = a2I1 + aI2 = (a2 - a) I1 = -j 3*I1
(A)
IC = aI1 + a2I2 = (a - a2) I1 = +j 3*I1
VLN = (Z1 + Z2) * I1 Assumption : Z1 = Z2 I1 = VLN / (2*Z1) (B)
(A) & (B) | IPh-Ph | = | IB | = | IC | = 3 * VLN / (2*Z1)
= ( 3 / 2) * (VLN / Z1) = ( 3 / 2) * I3ph

../..
page 150
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault versus single-phase-to-earth fault (1/3)
VLN XT
Xg
Three-phase fault :
Xg XT
Z1
VLN IF
VELN VELN
F =
Xg + X T Z1
../..
page 151
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase-to-earth fault :
Xg XT
VLN Z1
Xg2 XT2
Z2 = Z 1 IF
3EVLN
F =
2Z1 + Z 0
Xg0 XT0
Z0
../..
page 152
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Three-phase fault :
VELN 33E
VLN 3EVLN
F = = =
Z1 3Z 1 2Z 1 + Z1
Single-phase-to-earth fault :
3EVLN
F =
2Z 1 + Z0
If Z0 < Z1 :
Single-phase-to-earth fault > Three-phase fault
This is the case in most applications of HV and EHV networks

whose each neutral point is directly earthed. ../..
page 153
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Exercise n3
-2-
Cable L2 One-phase-to-earth
T2
-1- Loads
Three-phase
Phase-to-phase
Network
Cable L1
Realize successively :
T1
the positive sequence network : I1, V1, Z1

the negative sequence network : I2, V2, Z2
the zero sequence network : I0, V0, Z0 It is your turn
the network interconnection for strongly three-phase and phase-to-phase fault (1) to play ...
the network interconnection for one-phase-to-earth fault through fault impedance (2) ../..
page 154
FAULT CALCULATIONS
NETWORK INTERCONNECTIONS
FOR SERIES AND SIMULTANEOUS
FAULTS
page 155
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Network interconnections for series faults
Introduction (1/3)
Phase A Phase A
For series and Power Phase B Phase B
simultaneous unbalance system Phase C Phase C
faults, both sides of the Neutral Neutral
unbalanced area or point
must be identified.
1 Neutral
Hence, two sets of Phase A, Positive
B and C are required for the sequence Fault point P Fault point Q
phases and neutral on each
side of the unbalanced.
2 Neutral
Negative
sequence
And two fault points P and Fault point P Fault point Q
Q are required in the
sequence networks for the
3 Neutral
left and right sides of the Zero
unbalance area. sequence
Fault point P Fault point Q
../..
page 156
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction (2/3)
P1 Q1
P Q I1
V1
N1
OPEN CIRCUIT FAULT ACROSS PQ
1. POSITIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK
P2 Q2 P0 Q0
I2 V2
I0 V0
N2 N0
2. NEGATIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK 3. ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORK
../..
page 157
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Introduction (3/3)
The terminal conditions imposed by different open circuit faults will be

applied across points P & Q on the 3 phase conductors.
Fault terminal currents Ia, Ib, Ic flow from P to Q.
Fault terminal potentials Va, Vb, Vc will be across P and Q.
P Q
Va Ia Va'
va
Vb Ib Vb '
vb
Vc Ic Vc'
vc
../..
page 158
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase open circuit fault (1/3)
IA VA
Phase A
IB VB
Phase B
IC VC
Phase C
IA = 0 VB = VC = 0
P Q
../..
page 159
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase open circuit fault (2/3) - Mathematical equations
(4.3)
V1 = 1/3 {VA + aVB + a2VC}
V0 = V1 = V2
VB = VC = 0 V2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + aVC }
= 1/3 * VA
V0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC }
(4.2)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0
IA = 0 IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 I1 = - (I2 + I0)
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0
../..
page 160
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Single-phase open circuit fault (3/3) - Equivalent circuit
V1 = V2 = V0 = 1/3 * VA I1 + I2 + I0 = 0
I1 P1 I2 P2 I0 P0
Positive V1 Negative V2 Zero

sequence sequence sequence V0
network network network
Q1 Q2 Q0
For a single-phase open circuit fault, the three sequence

networks are connected in parallel.
../..
page 161
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Cross-country fault (1/4)
A cross-country fault is one where there are two faults affecting the same circuit,
but in different locations and possibly involving different phases.
F F'
a-e b'-e
(1) At fault point F :
N
Va = 0 ; Ib = I c = 0
It can be shown that :
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0
Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0
(2) At fault point F :
Vb' = 0 ; Ia' = 0 ; Ic' = 0
It can be shown that :
Ib'1 = Ib'2 = Ib'0
Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 = 0
../..
page 162
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Cross-country fault (2/4)
To solve these equations, it is necessary to convert currents and voltages at

point F to the sequence currents in the same phase as those at point F.
For the currents :

Ib'1 = Ib'2 = Ib'0 a2Ia'1 = aIa'2 = Ia0 Ia'1 = a2Ia'2 = aIa0
For the voltages :

Vb'1 + Vb'2 + Vb'0 = 0 a2Va'1 + aVa'2 + Va0 = 0 Va'1 + a2Va'2 + aVa0 = 0
The fault constraints involve phase shifted sequence quantities.
To construct the appropriate sequence networks, it is necessary to introduce

phase-shifting transformers to couple the three sequence networks.
../..
page 163
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Cross-country fault (3/4) - Equivalent circuit (1/2)
F1 F'1
Ia1 Ia'1
Va1 Va'1
N1 N'1
F2 F2
Ia2 Ia2
Va2 Va2
N2 N2
F0 F0
Ia0 Ia0
Va0 Va0
N0 N0 ../..
page 164
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Cross-country fault (4/4) - Equivalent circuit (2/2)
F1 Ia1 F'1 Ia'1
Va1 Va'1
N1 N'1
F2 F2 a2Ia2
Ia2 Ia2
Va2 Va2 a2Va2
1/a2
N2 N2
F0 F0 aIa0
Ia0 Ia0
Va0 Va0 aVa0
1/a ../..
N0 N0
page 165
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Open circuit & earth fault (1/2)
P Q
Ia Va Va' Ia'
va
Ib Vb Vb ' Ib'
vb
Ic Vc Vc' Ic'
Ia+Ia' Ib+Ib' Ic+Ic'

vc
Open Circuit Fault : At fault point P: Phase to Ground Fault : At fault point Q :
va = ? Va = 0
vb = 0 Vb = ?
vC = 0 Vc = ?
Ia = 0 Ia + I'a = ?
Ib = ? Ib + I'b = 0
Ic = ? Ic + I'c = 0 ../..
page 166
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Open circuit & earth fault (2/2)
Ia1
P1 Q1
Ia1 Ia1 + Ia'1
Ia'1 Ia1 + Ia'1
1:1
va1
Va1 Va1 Va1
N1 Ia2
P2 Q2
Ia2 Ia2 Ia2 + Ia2 Ia2 + Ia2
va2
Va2 Va2 Va2
N2 Ia0
P0 Q0
Ia0 Ia0 Ia0 + Ia0 Ia0 + Ia0
va0
Va0 Va0 Va0
N0 ../..
page 167
Notation :
FAULT CALCULATIONS a, b, c = 3 phases ; n = neutral
x = fault point
Network interconnections for series faults P = Positive, N = Negative, O = Zero
Summary Z = fault resistance
Neutral open
Phase a and
neutral open Phase a open
../..
page 168
FAULT CALCULATIONS
STANDARD IEC 909
page 169
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Introduction
This standard is used to define rules and methods to make short-circuit current
calculation in three-phase a.c. power systems.
The rules and methods of the IEC 909 are based on the symmetrical components
theory.
All the explanations given BEFORE in this training course about the symmetrical
components theory are suitable :
9 symmetrical components analysis
9 sequence networks : positive (1), negative (2) and zero (0)
9 network interconnections for shunt faults and for series faults
This standard is used by all the well-known fault simulation softwares in three-
phase power systems like CYME, ETAP, EMTP, NEPLAN ...
Thus, a full knowledge of the content and the methods of this standard is a
great value and must be considered as a very important tool in protection
applications. ../..
page 170
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (1/6)
For the purpose of this standard, the main following definitions apply. Reference is
made to the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary [IEC Publication 50] when
applicable.
Prospective short-circuit current :

The current that would flow if the short circuit were replaced by an ideal connection of
negligible impedance without any change of the supply.
Note : the current in a three-phase short circuit is assumed to be made simultaneously
in all the three poles.
Symmetrical short-circuit current :

The r.m.s. (root mean square) value of the a.c. symmetrical component of a prospective
short-circuit current (the aperiodic component of the current, if any, is neglected)
../..
page 171
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (2/6)
Initial symmetrical short-circuit current Ik :

The r.m.s. value of the a.c. symmetrical component of a prospective short-circuit
current applicable at the instant of short circuit appearance (see figure above).
../..
page 172
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (3/6)
D.C. aperiodic component of the short-circuit current IDC :

The mean value between the top and the bottom envelope of a short-citcuit current
decaying from an initial value to zero (see figure above).
../..
page 173
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (4/6)
Peak short-circuit current Ip :

The maximum possible instantaneous value of the prospective short-circuit current
Note 1 : the magnitude of the peak short-circuit current varies with the moment at which the short circuit
occurs. The calculation of the peak three-phase short-circuit current applies for the phase conductor and
moment at which the greatest possible short-circuit current exists.
Note 2 : For three-phase short circuits, it is assumed that the short-circuit occurs simultaneoulsy in all the
three phase conductors. ../..
page 174
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (5/6)
Symmetrical short-circuit breaking current Ib :

The r.m.s. value of an integral cycle of the a.c. symmetrical component of the
prospective short-circuit current applicable at the instant of contact separation of the
first pole of a switching device (circuit breaker or else).
Steady-state short-circuit current Ik :

The r.m.s. value of the short-circuit current which remains after the decay of the
transient phenomena (see figure above).
Minimum time delay of a circuit breaker tmin :

The shortest time between the beginning of the short-circuit current and the first
contact separation of one pole of the swirching device.
Note : the time tmin is the sum of the shortest possible operating time of an
instantaneous relay and the shortest opening time of a circuit breaker. It does not take
into account adjustable time delays of tripping devices. ../..
page 175
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Definitions (6/6)
Nominal system voltage Un :
Phase-to-phase voltage by which a system is designated and to which certain operating
characteristics are referred.
Note : This paramater was noticed VLL in the former pages of this document.
Voltage factor c :
The ratio between the equivalent voltage source and the nominal system voltage Un
(nominal phase-to-phase voltage = VLL) divided by 3
Note : The introduction of a voltage factor c is necessary for several reasons as :
- voltage variations depending on time and place ;
- changing of transformer taps ;
- neglecting loads and capacitances by calculations
- etc ...
Equivalent source cUn/3 :

The voltage of an ideal source applied at the short-circuit location in the positive
sequence for calculating the short-circuit currents. THIS IS THE ONLY ACTIVE
VOLTAGE ON THE NETWORK.
Note : This paramater was noticed VLN in the former pages of this document. ../..
page 176
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Short-circuit impedances of electrical equipments (1/3)
Network feeders :
Method and formulae similar with those described in the former pages (see the
itemImpedances calculations).
Power transformers (two windings, three windings, auto-transformers) :

itemImpedances calculations)
Underground cables :
Overhead lines :
../..
page 177
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Induction motors :
9 Positive and negative sequence impedances :
ZM = [1 / (ILR * IrM)] * UrM / (3 * IrM) = [1 / (ILR * IrM)] * UrM2 / SrM

where :
UrM = rated voltage of the motor
IrM = rated current of the motor
SrM = rated apparent power of the motor SrM = PrM / (r cosr)
ILR / IrM = ratio of the locked rotor to the rated current of the motor
The following formulae may be used with sufficient accuracy :

for high-voltage motors with powers PrM per pair of poles 1MW :
RM / XM = 0.10 with XM = 0.995 * ZM
for high-voltage motors with powers PrM per pair of poles < 1MW :
RM / XM = 0.15 with XM = 0.989 * ZM
for low-voltage motor groups with connection cables :

RM / XM = 0.42 with XM = 0.922 * ZM ../..
page 178
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Generators (1/2) :
9 Positive sequence impedance :
Z1G = RG + jXd
where :
RG = 0.05Xd for generators with UrG > 1kV and SrG 100MVA
RG = 0.07Xd for generators with UrG > 1kV and SrG < 100MVA
RG = 0.15Xd for generators with UrG < 1kV
Xd = direct axis saturated subtransient reactance of the generator
UrG = rated voltage of the generator
SrG = rated apparent power of the generator
../..
page 179
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Generators (2/2) :
9 Negative sequence impedance :
For salient-pole synchronous machines with different values of Xd

and Xq :
Z2G = RG + j[0.5 * (Xd + Xq)]
Xd = direct axis saturated subtransient reactance of the generator
Xq = quadrature axis saturated subtransient reactance of the generator
For other types of machines :

Z2G = Z1G
9 Zero sequence impedance :
ZOG = ROG + jXOG

where :
ROG = zero sequence resistance of the generator
XOG = zero sequence reactance of the generator ../..
page 180
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Voltage factor c
../..
page 181
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Initial symmetrical short-circuit current Ik (1/2)
Strongly three-phase short circuit :

Ik3 = cUn / [3 * Z1] = cUn / [3 * (R12 + X12)]
where :
9 c = voltage factor
9 Un = nominal phase-to-phase voltage (V)
9 Z1 = R1 + jX1 = total positive sequence impedance ()
Strongly phase-to-phase short circuit :

Ik2 = cUn / |Z1 + Z2| = cUn / (2 * |Z1|)
where :
9 Z2 = R2 + jX2 = total negative sequence impedance ()
9 Z1 = Z2 ../..
page 182
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Initial symmetrical short-circuit current Ik (2/2)
Strongly single-phase-to-earth short circuit :

Ik1 = 3 cUn / [Z1 + Z2 + Z0] = 3 cUn / [2*Z1 + Z0]
where :
9 Z2 = R2 + jX2 = total negative sequence impedance (
9 Z0 = R0 + jX0 = total zero sequence impedance ()
9 Z1 = Z2
../..
page 183
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - D.C. aperiodic component of the short-circuit current IDC
IDC(t) = 2 * Ik * exp(-2 f t * R/X)
where :
9 Ik = initial symmetrical short-circuit current
9 f = nominal frequency (50Hz or 60Hz)
9 t = time
9 R/X = ratio (R / X) (see in the next pages)
../..
page 184
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Peak short-circuit current Ip
Ip = 2 * Ik
where :
9 = factor as defined in the following figures
The factor may also be calculated by the approximate equation :

1.02 + 0.98*exp(-3R/X) ../..
page 185
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Symmetrical short-circuit breaking current Ib (1/2)
For far-from-generator short circuits :

Note : far-from-generator short circuits short-circuit currents without
a.c. component decay
Ib = Ik
where :
../..
page 186
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Symmetrical short-circuit breaking current Ib (2/2)
For near-to-generator short circuits :

Note : far-from-generator short circuits short-circuit currents with a.c. component
decay
Ib = Ik where :
9 = factor calculated as below
for tmin 0.02s : = 0.84 + 0.26 * exp(-0.26 IkG / IrG)

where :
9 tmin = minimum time delay of a circuit breaker
9 IkG = initial symmetrical short-circuit current at the terminals of the generator
9 IrG = rated current of the generator
In the case of induction motors, replace (IkG / IrG) by (IkM / IrM)

../..
page 187
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
Formulae - Steady-state short-circuit current Ik (1/4)
For far-from-generator short circuits :

Note : far-from-generator short circuits short-circuit currents without
a.c. component decay
Ik = Ik
where :
../..
page 188
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
For near-to-generator short circuits :

Note : far-from-generator short circuits short-circuit currents with a.c. component
decay
Maximum steady-state short-circuit current Ikmax :
Ik = max IrG
where :
9 max = factor obtained as in the next pages
Minimum steady-state short-circuit current Ikmin :
Ik = min IrG
where :
9 min = factor obtained as in the next pages
../..
page 189
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
../..
page 190
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Standard IEC 909
../..
page 191
FAULT CALCULATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
page 192
FAULT CALCULATIONS
Bibliography
Network Protection & Automation Guide :

Book written by AREVA T&D Protection & Control
Chapter 4 : Fault Calculations
Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering :

Book written by J.L. Blackburn
ISBN: 0-8247-8767-6, ( Edit. marcel dekker)
Standard IEC 909 :

Short-circuit current calculation in three-phase a.c. systems
../..
page 193

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Fault Calculations

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FAULT CALCULATIONS

An understanding and working knowledge of power system fault

Analysis of load and fault conditions provide useful information for :

All Protection Engineers should have a full understanding to :

At the first step on a power system analysis, a preliminary short-circuit

About all the electrical equipments of the studied network :

About the measurement reducers (CTs) :

At the first step on a power system analysis, a preliminary short-circuit

In most cases, these faults are due to short-circuit appearance :

These short-circuit must be cut thanks to the breakdown of the faulty

External events that can cause short-circuit (faults) are :

Internal faults definition :

Example : overvoltage appearance due to physical phenomena such as :

c The self-extinguish faults :

d The fugitive faults :

e The semi-continuous faults :

f The continuous faults :

g The evolving faults :

h The intermittent faults :

UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into two categories :

The most common are :

UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into two categories :

The most common are :

9 two blown fuses

The shunt faults category :

c The one-phase-to-ground faults :

d The phase-to-phase-to-ground faults :

e The phase-to-phase faults :

f The three-phase faults :

g The cross-country faults :

Feeder n1 Feeder n2 ../..

e Phases b and c open :

f Phase a and Neutral open :

h Equal impedance in Phase b and c :

i Impedances in Phase a and in Neutral :

These faults involve this very approximate percentage of occurrence :

However, fault occurrence can be quite variable, depending on the type of

occurrence on faults Three-phase

(1) : Self-extinguish faults not included

A primary objective of all power systems is to maintain a very high continuity of

Usually, this improves the continuity of service by causing only a momentary

System faults usually provide significant changes to the system quantities,

c Effects linked to the r.m.s. (root-mean-square) value of the fault current on a

e Effects linked to the maximum peak value of the fault current :

Hence, this criteria offers the possibility to verify :

the maximum admissible peak value ;

Necessary and adequate for the majority of simple applications

Useful when no access is available to computers and programmes on site

Necessary to verify the results of fault simulation softwares through

Programme calculation methods understanding is important !!

Widely available, particularly in large power utilities

Powerful for large power systems

Sometimes overcomplex for simple circuits

Not always user friendly

Software used by AREVA T&D EAI Protection & Control : PSAF-FAULT

The common pictorial form to represent electrical and magnetic

Sometimes useful is the conjugate form :

The modulus (or magnitude or absolute value) of the vector c is :

Rotating vectors can be used to represent sinusoidal electrical quantities