Applying The Kinetic Theory The Kinetic Theory Can Be Used To Explain Some of

Need to know
Kinetic theory
The kinetic model of matter is based on the Kinetic Theory, which makes the
following assumptions about matter:
Matter is made up of tiny particles, such as molecules
The particles of matter are always in motion.
There are strong forces between particles separated by very short distances.
Collisions between these particles are perfectly elastic. This means that, overall,
energy is not lost by particles during collisions.
Only certain types of substances consist of molecules. A solid conductor does not
consist of molecules since it has a structure of a vibrating lattice of ions through
which electrons meander freely. An ionic solid (e.g. sodium chloride) consists of a
lattice arrangement of positive (Na+) and negative (Cl) ions. The kinetic model of
matter applies to these types of substances as well. In this chapter, we are going to
examine the evidence for the kinetic model of matter. We will then use the model to
account for elastic behaviour, states of matter, evaporation, boiling, gas pressure,
temperature, and expansion of matter when heated. Evidence for the Kinetic Theory
The word kinetic stems from the Greek word kinema, which means motion. The
Kinetic Theory is therefore a theory involving motion. The theory states that matter
is made up of particles which are always in motion and that there are forces
between these particles. There are several pieces of evidence that support the
Kinetic Theory of matter. The evidence, though, is indirect.
Applying the Kinetic Theory The Kinetic Theory can be used to explain some of
the macroscopic properties and behaviours of matter, such as temperature,
pressure, states of matter, change of state and thermal expansion. The explanations
are discussed in the sections that follow. Temperature The degree of hotness or
coldness of an object, which are both relative terms, is called its temperature. The
Kinetic Theory, however, does not associate temperature with the highly subjective
impression of hotness or of coldness. It relates temperature to the average kinetic
energy of the particles of an object. Thus, at high temperatures, particles are
moving at high speeds. At low temperatures, they are moving at low speeds. At the
absolute zero of temperature, particle motion would cease. Gas pressure and
volume The Kinetic Theory can also account for the pressure that a gas, or a vapour,
exerts on the walls of its container. The pressure exists because a gas consists of
molecules that are traveling randomly at high speeds and thus are constantly
colliding with the walls of their containers. To put this in more precise terms, there is
a change in direction of the velocity of a particle when it bounces off a surface, so
there is a momentum change (see gure 11.8). As described by Newtons Second
Law (see page 113) the steady changing of momentum by the particles results in a
force on the surface, observed as a pressure on the walls of the container. Suppose
we were to reduce the volume of the container without letting any gas escape. The
particles would now travel shorter distances before colliding with the walls. There
would be more collisions on the wall each second and, hence, a great rate of change
of momentum, a greater force on the container walls and, as a result, a greater gas
pressure. We would need, therefore, to apply an increased force on the gas in order
to reduce the volume it occupies
Experiments on the nature of heat Count

Rumfords experiments The American-born Benjamin Thompson,
later known as Count Rumford, was puzzled that a brass cannon tube and the chips
that came from it became very hot when the hole was being bored. The chips
caused water to boil! Rumford was acquainted with the prevailing Caloric Theory, in
which heat was thought of as a massless uid that could enter or leave objects.
Where did the caloric (heat) come from when the cannon was being bored? It
seemed that the supply of caloric was inexhaustible; as long as the boring of the
cannon continued, the brass chips (and the cannon tube) felt very hot to the touch
i.e. gave off caloric. Thompson decided to test a theory that maybe caloric (heat),
which was already present in substances, was being squeezed out of the brass
during the boring. Thompson used equal masses of brass chips and unbored brass
at 99C and placed them in equal amounts of water at 15C. Both types of brass
gave the same temperature rise in the water. Hence, they both gave off the same
amount of caloric and therefore must have had the same caloric content a
contradiction of the squeezing out theory. Thompson also measured the masses of
objects before and after heating and found that the masses before heating were the
same as the masses after heating. Thus, if the uid, caloric, existed, it had no mass.
To Thompson, the concept of a massless uid was unsatisfactory. His experiments,
carried out in the late 18th century, contributed signicantly to the abandonment of
the Caloric Theory. Thompson suggested that heat was not a substance as such, but
was obtained from friction. That was why the supply of heat was almost
inexhaustible; as long as the boring continued, heat was produced. Thompsonalso
suggested that the motion involved in the boring caused particles within the
substance to vibrate. He suggested that heat ow was related to the vibrating
motion of these particles.
Joules historic experiment An English brewer, James Prescott Joule, made some
measurements which conrmed Rumfords conclusions. In one of Joules
experiments carried out in 1843 (gure 13.4), a mass, m, falling a distance, h,
caused a paddle to turn in a container of water. The work done in overcoming the
friction forces between the paddle, and the water produced heat, which caused the
temperature of the water to rise. Joule calculated the work, W, done by the falling
mass (W = mgh; see chapter 9, page 130) and the number of calories of heat
produced. Joules calculations showed that a xed amount of work done resulted in
1 cal of heat being produced. (The xed amount of work has been established as
4.186 joules, or approximately 4.2 J.) Thus
4.186 J = 1 cal
The equivalence between work and heat was now established, and the work that
had to be done to produce 1 calorie of heat became known as the mechanical
equivalent of heat. Thus, the heat gain in Joules experiment was the result of
mechanical work being done. Since work is an energy conversion process, it meant
that the potential energy of the mass must have been converted to heat energy by
the mechanical work process. Other experiments using electrical energy, carried out
by later researchers and by Joule himself, produced the same numerical results
initially obtained by Joule. The Caloric Theory of heat was therefore eventually
abandoned in favour of the energy transfer theory that we use today. Since 1 cal of
heat was the quantity of heat which raises the temperature of one gram of water
by one degree Celsius (see above), this meant that 4.186 J of energy transferred to
1 g of water would raise the temperature of the water by 1C. Similarly, a drop in
the temperature of an object came to be regarded as being caused by transfer of
heat energy away from the object. (The direction in which heat transfer takes place
is shown below in gure 13.6.)
Youngs
In 1802 Thomas Young performed what is now called the Youngs slits experiment.
We can do a similar experiment as follows (in a room that can be blacked-out). 1
Blacken one side of a glass slide by holding it in the smoke of a candle ame or by
treating one surface of the slide with aquadag. 2 To make the pair of slits, hold two
razor blades together with their edges parallel and pull them along the blackened
surface of the glass slide. The slits will be very close together (less than 0.5 mm
apart). Mount the slide in a retort clamp so that the slits are vertical. 3 Set up a
straight lament lamp in another stand about 50 cm in front of the slits so that the
lament is parallel to the slits. 4 Set up (also in a clamp) a sheet of red lter
between the lamp and the slits. 5 Make the screen by taping a sheet of greaseproof
paper over a stiff cardboard frame about 20 cm square. Support this screen in a
clamp about 1 m behind the plane of the slits and parallel to it

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Experiments on the nature of heat Count

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