CHEMICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS-II

(CH.E 307)

By
Muhammad Asif Akhtar
imasif@uet.edu.pk
Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
GAS POWER CYCLES

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

 Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains a
gas throughout the entire cycle.

Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.

Review the operation of reciprocating engines.

Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.

Solve problems based on the Otto and Diesel cycles

Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with regeneration;
Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration.
INTRODUCTION

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are

often called engines, and the thermodynamic cycles they
operate on are called power cycles.

The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect

are called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat pumps, and
the cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.

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INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas

cycles and vapor cycles, depending on the phase of the
working fluid.

In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase

throughout the entire cycle, whereas in vapor cycles the
working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the
cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another

way: closed and open cycles.

In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state

at the end of the cycle and is recirculated.

In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the end of each

cycle instead of being recirculated.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES

The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze

because of the presence of complicating effects, such as friction,
and the absence of sufficient time for establishment of the
equilibrium conditions during the cycle.

When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal

irreversibilities and complexities, we end up with a cycle that
resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of
internally reversible processes. Such a cycle is called an ideal
cycle.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES

The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the

analysis of power cycles can be summarized as follows:

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working
fluid does not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or
devices such as heat exchangers.

2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi

equilibrium manner.

3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well

insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we

utilize the following approximations, commonly
known as the air-standard assumptions:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously

circulates in a closed loop and always behaves
as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are
internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-
addition process from an external source
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-
rejection process that restores the working
fluid to its initial state.
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Air-standard Cycle

A cycle for which the air-standard

assumptions are applicable is frequently
referred to as an air-standard cycle.

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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

The basic components of a reciprocating engine are shown:

The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called the
top dead center (TDC) and the bottom dead center (BDC)

TDC:
The position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume in the cylinder.

BDC:
The position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder.

Stroke Of The Engine

The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance that the
piston can travel in one direction, and it is called the stroke of the engine.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING
ENGINES

BORE
The diameter of the piston is called the bore.

The air or airfuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through

the intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled
from the cylinder through the exhaust valve.

CLEARANCE VOLUME
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston
is at TDC is called the clearance volume.

DISPLACEMENT VOLUME
The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC
and BDC is called the displacement volume.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING
ENGINES

The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the

minimum (clearance) volume is called the compression ratio r
of the engine.

Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI)

engines or compression-ignition (CI) engines, depending on
how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

In SI engines, the combustion of the airfuel
mixture is initiated by a spark plug.

In CI engines, the airfuel mixture is self-ignited

as a result of compressing the mixture above its
selfignition temperature.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

 OTTO CYCLE:
THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition

reciprocating engines.

In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four

complete strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the
cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions
for each thermodynamic cycle. These engines are called
four-stroke internal combustion engines.

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Actual Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engine

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Ideal Cycle in Spark-ignition Engines And P-v Diagram

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IDEAL OTTO CYCLE

The thermodynamic analysis of the actual

four-stroke or two-stroke cycles can be
simplified significantly if the air-standard
assumptions are utilized. The resulting
cycle, which closely resembles the actual
operating conditions, is the ideal Otto
cycle.
It consists of four internally reversible
processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression

2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
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 CONCLUSIONS

Under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the

thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle
depends on the compression ratio of the
engine and the specific heat ratio of the
working fluid.

Thermal efficiency curve is rather steep at low

compression ratios but flattens out starting
with a compression ratio value of about 8.
Therefore, the increase in thermal efficiency
with the compression ratio is not as
pronounced at high compression ratios. Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
Muhammad
 SI Engine

When high compression ratios are used, the

temperature of the airfuel mixture rises above the
auto ignition temperature of the fuel during the
combustion process, causing premature ignition.

The requirement that auto ignition not be allowed

places an upper limit on the compression ratios that
can be used in spark ignition internal combustion
engines.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

THE IDEAL OTTO CYCLE

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the

beginning of the compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17C,
and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-
volume heat-addition process. Accounting for the variation of
specific heats of air with temperature, determine

(a) the maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the
cycle,
(b) the net work output,
(c) the thermal efficiency, and

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

P-v diagram for the Otto cycle

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 DIESEL CYCLE
THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines.

The CI engine is very similar to the SI engine differing mainly in

the method of initiating combustion.

In spark-ignition engines (also known as gasoline engines), the

airfuel mixture is compressed to a temperature that is below the
auto ignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process
is initiated by firing a spark plug.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

DIESEL ENGINES

In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is

compressed to a temperature that is above the auto
ignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts
on contact as the fuel is injected into this hot air.

Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor are replaced

by a fuel injector in diesel engines

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

Gasoline & Diesel Engine

In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and

fuel is compressed during the
compression stroke, and the
compression ratios are limited by the
onset of auto ignition or engine knock.

In diesel engines, only air is compressed

during the compression stroke,
eliminating the possibility of auto
ignition. Therefore, diesel engines can
be designed to operate at much higher
compression ratios, typically between
12 and 24. Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
T-s And P-v Diagrams For The Ideal
Diesel Cycle.

1-2 Isentropic Compression,

2-3 Constant-pressure Heat -Addition
3-4 Isentropic Expansion,
4-1 Constant-volume Heat Rejection.

Cutoff Ratio rc:

The ratio of the cylinder volumes after
and before the combustion process.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

Diesel Cycle

Under the cold-air-standard assumptions,

the efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs
from the efficiency of an Otto cycle by
the quantity in the brackets.

When both cycles operate on the same

compression ratio.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

Diesel Engines

Diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios and thus are usually
more efficient than the spark-ignition (gasoline) engines.

The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since they usually operate
at lower revolutions per minute and the airfuel mass ratio is much higher than
spark-ignition engines.

Thermal efficiencies of large diesel engines range from about 35 to 40

percent.

The higher efficiency and lower fuel costs of diesel engines make them attractive
in applications requiring relatively large amounts of power, such as in locomotive
engines, emergency power generation units, large ships, and heavy trucks.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

Ideal Diesel Cycle

An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working

fluid has a compression ratio of 18 and a
cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the
compression process, the working fluid is at
14.7 psia, 80F, and 117 in3. Utilizing the
cold-air standard assumptions, determine
(a) the temperature and pressure of air at
the end of each process, (b) the net work
output and the thermal efficiency,

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
 BRAYTON CYCLE
THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS
TURBINE ENGINES

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

 An Open-cycle Gas-turbine Engine

Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle.

Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the
compressor, where its temperature and pressure are
raised.
The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion
chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure.
The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the
turbine, where they expand to the atmospheric
pressure while producing power.
The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown out
(not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified
as an open cycle.
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A Closed-cycle Gas-turbine Engine

The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be

modeled as a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard
assumptions.

The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in

this closed loop is the Brayton cycle, which is made
up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

BRAYTON CYCLE

Under the cold-air-standard

assumptions, the thermal efficiency
of an ideal Brayton cycle depends
on the pressure ratio of the gas
turbine and the specific heat ratio
of the working fluid. The thermal
efficiency increases with both of
these parameters Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
CLASS ACTIVITY

A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton

cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is
300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine
inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions, determine

(a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor

and the turbine,
(b) the back work ratio, and
(c) the thermal efficiency.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307

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