Gas Power Cycles: Mechanical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

GAS POWER CYCLES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil
fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working
fluid flow circuit.
In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion of the high-temperature and high
pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is
applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance,
transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.
Here is the sketch of a reciprocating internal combustion engine

consisting of a piston that moves within a cylinder fitted with two valves.
The sketch is labeled with some special terms.
The bore of the cylinder is its diameter.
The stroke is the distance the piston moves in one direction.
The piston is said to be at top dead center when it has moved to a

position where the cylinder volume is a minimum.
When the piston has moved to the position of maximum cylinder

volume, the piston is at bottom dead center.
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at

FIG. 1. NOMENCLATURE OF top dead center is called the clearance volume.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
The volume swept out by the piston as it moves from the top dead center to the bottom dead center
position is called the displacement volume.
𝜋
𝑽̇𝑫 = 𝐿𝐴𝑁 = 𝐷 𝐿𝑁
4
Where L is the stroke length
D is the cylinder bore or piston diameter
N is the rotational speed constant, N = nnc/a
a = 2 for four stroke, 1 for two stroke
nc is the number of cylinders
n is the rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
The compression ratio r is defined as the volume at bottom dead center divided by the volume at top
dead center. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to rotary motion by a crank mechanism.
Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

JANUARY 2020
In a four-stroke internal combustion engine, the piston executes four distinct strokes within the
cylinder for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
FIG. 2. FOUR STROKE CYCLE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
1. With the intake valve open, the piston makes an intake stroke to draw a fresh charge into the
cylinder. For spark-ignition engines, the charge is a combustible mixture of fuel and air. Air alone
is the charge in compression-ignition engines.
2. With both valves closed, the piston undergoes a compression stroke, raising the temperature and
pressure of the charge. This requires work input from the piston to the cylinder contents. A
combustion process is then initiated, resulting in a high-pressure, high-temperature gas mixture.
Combustion is induced near the end of the compression stroke in spark-ignition engines by the
spark plug. In compression-ignition engines, combustion is initiated by injecting fuel into the hot
compressed air, beginning near the end of the compression stroke and continuing through the first
part of the expansion.
3. A power stroke follows the compression stroke, during which the gas mixture expands and work
is done on the piston as it returns to bottom dead center.
4. The piston then executes an exhaust stroke in which the burned gases are purged from the
cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
A parameter used to describe the performance of reciprocating piston engines is the mean effective
pressure, or mep. The mean effective pressure is the theoretical constant pressure that, if it acted on the
piston during the power stroke, would produce the same network as actually developed in one cycle.
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝒑𝒎 = =
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝑫
Two principal types of reciprocating internal combustion engines are the spark-ignition engine and
the compression-ignition engine. In a spark-ignition engine, a mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark
plug. In a compression-ignition engine, air is compressed to a high enough pressure and temperature that
combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is injected.

JANUARY 2020
AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE
 The Otto cycle is the ideal thermodynamic cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.
 Named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the
cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862
 It is composed of two constant volume and two isentropic processes. (SVSV Cycle)
 It consists of the four main processes namely:
FIG. 3. P-v AND T-s DIAGRAMS OF AN IDEAL AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE.
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

Process 2-3: Constant-volume heat addition
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion
Process 4-1: Constant-volume heat rejection
FIG. 4. ACTUAL AND IDEAL CYCLES FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES.

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THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE
1. State Properties
𝑇 =𝑇𝑟 ; 𝑃 =𝑃𝑟
𝑇 =𝑇𝑟 ;𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑟
𝑇 =𝑇 ; 𝑃 =𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑉 𝑉
= ; = ; =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑐 𝑉 𝑉
𝒓= = = ; 𝒄= =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑐 𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
2. Heat Added
𝑸𝑨 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
3. Heat Rejected
𝑸𝑹 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
4. Cycle Net Work

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶 [(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) − (𝑇 − 𝑇 )]
5. Cycle Thermal Efficiency

1
𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 1 − 𝑥 100%
𝑟
6. Mean Effective Pressure
𝑊 𝑊 𝜂 𝑞
𝒑𝒎 = = =
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 1
𝜐 1−
𝑟
Where r is the compression ratio
c is the percent clearance
VD is the volume displacement
Cv is the constant volume specific heat of air
Cv = 0.7186 kJ/ kg – K = 0.1714 BTU/ lbm – oR
k is the specific heat ratio of air (k=1.4)
Sample Problem:
The temperature and pressure at the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard Otto cycle with
a compression ratio of 8 are 300 K and 1 bar, respectively. The maximum temperature during the cycle is
2000 K. Determine (a) the temperature and pressure at the end of each process of the cycle, (b) the thermal
efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure, in atm.

JANUARY 2020
AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE
 The Diesel cycle is the ideal thermodynamic cycle for compression-ignition reciprocating engines.
 Developed by Rudolf Diesel and characterized by constant-pressure heat addition, constant-volume

heat rejection, and isentropic compression and expansion. (SPSV Cycle)
 Air is compressed to a high temperature. Fuel is injected to compressed air and its ignition is due to
the high air temperature. Combustion occurs at constant pressure and the piston expands
isentropically to bottom dead center, where heat is rejected at constant volume.
 It is composed of the following processes:

Process 2-3: Constant-pressure heat addition
FIG. 5. P-v AND T-s DIAGRAMS OF AN IDEAL AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE.
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DIESEL CYCLE
1. State Properties
𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 ;𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟
𝑇 =𝑇 ; 𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃
𝑇 𝑉 𝑃 𝑃 𝑉 𝑉
= ; = ; =
𝑇 𝑉 𝑇 𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
𝒓= = = ; 𝒄= =
𝑇 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝒓𝒄 = = ; 𝒓𝒆 = =
𝑇 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

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2. Heat Added
𝑸𝑨 = ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
3. Heat Rejected
𝑸𝑹 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
4. Cycle Net Work

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) − 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑘(𝑟 − 1) 𝑟 − 𝑟 −1
𝑘−1

1 𝑟 −1
𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 1 − 𝑥 100%
𝑟 𝑘(𝑟 − 1)

𝑊 𝑊 𝜂 𝑞
𝒑𝒎 = = =
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉 1
𝜐 1−
𝑟
𝑃 𝑘(𝑟 − 1) 𝑟 − 𝑟 −1
𝒑𝒎 =
𝑘−1 1
1−
𝑟
Where r is the compression ratio
rc is the cut-off ratio
re is the expansion ratio
Cp is the constant pressure specific heat of air
Cp = 1.0062 kJ/ kg – K = 0.24 BTU/ lbm – oR
k is the specific heat ratio of air (k=1.4)
Sample Problem:
At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard Diesel engine operating with a compression
ratio of 18, the temperature is 300 K and the pressure is 0.1 MPa. The cutoff ratio for the cycle is 2.
Determine (a) the temperature and pressure at the end of each process of the cycle, (b) the thermal efficiency,
(c) the net power output if the air intake flow rate is 2500 lpm, and (d) the mean effective pressure, in MPa.

JANUARY 2020
AIR STANDARD DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE
 It is the combination of ideal Otto and Diesel cycles and also known as the “mixed or limited pressure”
cycle. (SVPSV Cycle)
 Heat addition occurs during constant pressure and constant volume processes.

Process 2-3: Constant-volume heat addition
Process 3-4: Constant-pressure heat addition
FIG. 6. P-v AND T-s DIAGRAMS OF AN IDEAL AIR STANDARD DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE.
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE
1. State Properties
𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 ;𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 ;𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟
𝑇 =𝑇 ; 𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃
𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝑉 𝑃 𝑃 𝑇 𝑟
= ; = ; = ; =
𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝑉 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟
𝒓= = = ; 𝒄= =
𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝑉
𝒓𝒑 = = ; 𝒓𝒄 = =
𝑇 𝑃 𝑇 𝑉

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2. Total Heat Added in the Cycle
𝑸𝑨 = 𝑸𝑨𝒗 + 𝑸𝑨𝒑 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐻 = 𝑚 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
3. Heat Rejected
𝑸𝑹 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
4. Cycle Net Work

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑄 − 𝑄

1 𝑟 𝑟 −1
𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 1 − 𝑥 100%
𝑟 (𝑟 − 1) + 𝑘𝑟 (𝑟 − 1)

𝑊 𝑊 𝜂 𝑞
𝒑𝒎 = = =
𝑉𝑉 −𝑉 1
𝜐 1−
𝑟
𝑃 𝑟 𝑘𝑟 (𝑟 − 1) + (𝑟 − 1) − 𝑟 (𝑟 𝑟 − 1)
𝒑𝒎 =
𝑘−1 𝑟−1
where r is the compression ratio

rc is the cut-off ratio
rp is the pressure ratio
Sample Problem:
At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard dual cycle with a compression ratio of
18, the temperature is 300 K and the pressure is 0.1 MPa. The pressure ratio for the constant volume part of
the heating process is 1.5:1. The volume ratio for the constant pressure part of the heating process is 1.2:1.
Determine (a) the temperature and pressure at each point in the cycle, (b) the total amount of heat added in
the cycle per unit mass, (c) the amount of heat rejected per unit mass, (d) the cycle net work per unit mass,
(e) the thermal efficiency and (f) the mean effective pressure, in MPa.

JANUARY 2020
GAS TURBINE
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
FIG. 6. OPEN AND CLOSED GAS TURBINE SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM.

The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that air is
used instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher
pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a
high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to
the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive
the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy
that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a
high velocity.
AIR STANDARD BRAYTON CYCLE

 It is the thermodynamic cycle for gas turbines. Heat addition and heat rejection occurs during
constant pressure processes. (SPSP Cycle)
Process 2-3: Constant- pressure heat addition
Process 4-1: Constant- pressure heat rejection
FIG. 7. T-s AND P-v DIAGRAMS OF AN IDEAL AIR STANDARD BRAYTON CYCLE.

JANUARY 2020
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF BRAYTON CYCLE
1. State Properties
𝑇 =𝑇𝑟 ;𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟
𝑇 =𝑇 ; 𝑇 =𝑇
𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃 ; 𝑃 =𝑃 =𝑃
𝑃
𝒓𝒑 =
𝑃
𝑇 ( )
𝒓𝒑 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑇
2. Compressor Work
𝑘 𝑃
𝑾𝑪 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 −1
𝑘−1 𝑃
3. Heat Added in the Combustor
𝑸𝑨 = ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
4. Turbine Work
𝑾𝑻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
5. Cycle Net Work
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑊 − 𝑊
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑚𝐶 𝑇 +𝑇 −2 𝑇 𝑇
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 1
𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝑥 100% = 1 − 𝑥 100%
𝑸𝑨
𝑟
7. Back work Ratio
𝑾 𝑪 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟 −1
𝑩𝑾𝑹 = = =
𝑾 𝑻 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
1− 𝑟
where rp is the pressure ratio
Sample Problem:
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 10. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard
assumptions, determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine, (b) the back
work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency.

JANUARY 2020
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2
• PURE SUBSTANCE – a substance that has a fixed chemical composition all throughout.
• SATURATION TEMPERATURE – the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
pressure.
• SATURATION PRESSURE – the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
temperature.
PHASE DIAGRAMS
1. T-v Diagram
2. p-v Diagram

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3. T-s Diagram
4. p-T Diagram

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• SATURATED LIQUID – a pure liquid that is about to vaporize and attained saturated conditions.
• SUBCOOLED LIQUID – a liquid of lower temperature than its saturation temperature at a given
pressure.
• COMPRESSED LIQUID – a liquid of lower pressure than its saturation pressure at a given
temperature.
• SATURATED VAPOR – a vapor that is about to condense at saturated conditions.

• SUPERHEATED VAPOR – a vapor of higher temperature than its saturation temperature at a given
pressure.
• DEGREES OF SUPERHEAT – the difference between actual temperature of a superheated vapor and
the saturation temperature at a given pressure.
• DEGREES SUBCOOLED – the difference between actual temperature of a sub-cooled liquid and the
saturation temperature at a given pressure.
• QUALITY OF VAPOR – the ratio of the mass of saturated vapor to the mass of the saturated
mixture, also known as the DRYNESS FRACTION.
𝒎𝒗 𝒎𝒈
𝒙= =
𝒎𝒗 + 𝒎 𝒍 𝒎 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒇
• MOISTURE CONTENT OF VAPOR – the ratio of saturated liquid to the mass of the saturated
mixture.
𝒎𝒍 𝒎𝒇
𝒚=𝟏−𝒙= =
𝒎𝒗 + 𝒎𝒍 𝒎 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒇

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• WET STEAM/ VAPOR – a saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
𝝂 = 𝝂𝒇 + 𝒙 (𝝂𝒈 − 𝝂𝒇 )
𝒖 = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒙(𝒖𝒈 − 𝒖𝒇 ) = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒙𝒖𝒇𝒈
𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙(𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇 ) = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙𝒉𝒇𝒈
𝒔 = 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒙(𝒔𝒈 − 𝒔𝒇 ) = 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒙𝒔𝒇𝒈
• SENSIBLE HEAT – the heat required to cause a change in temperature without a change in phase.
𝑸𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪∆𝒕
• LATENT HEAT – the heat required to cause a change in phase without a change in temperature.
𝑸𝑳 = 𝒎𝑳
• LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION – the amount of heat added required to vaporize a saturated
liquid at a given temperature or pressure, also known as the enthalpy of vaporization.
• CRITICAL POINT – the condition of a pure substance at which its saturated liquid and vapor states
are identical.
• TRIPLE POINT – the condition of a pure substance at which its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas
phase) coexist in equilibrium.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Steam has a quality of 90% at 200°C. Determine (a) the enthalpy and (b) the specific volume.
2. A tank contains exactly one kilogram of water consisting liquid and vapor in equilibrium at 1 MPa. If the
liquid and vapor each occupy half the volume of the tank, what is the enthalpy of the contents of the
tank?
3. A 500-liter tank contains a saturated mixture of steam and water at 300°C. Determine (a) the mass of
each phase if their volumes are equal; (b) the volume occupied by each phase if their masses are equal.

FEBRUARY 2021
PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2
1. CONSTANT PRESSURE (ISOBARIC) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a pure

substance with the pressure remains the same.
Change in Internal Energy, in kJ/kg ∆u = u2 – u1

Change in Enthalpy, in kJ/kg ∆h = h2 – h1
Non-flow Work, in kJ/kg wNF = p (v2 – v1)
Steady flow Work, in kJ/kg wSF = ∆h - ∆ke + q
Heat Transfer, in kJ/kg q = ∆h = h2 – h1
Change in Entropy, in kJ/kg-K ∆s = s2 – s1
2. CONSTANT VOLUME (ISOMETRIC) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a pure

substance with the volume remains the same.

Non-flow Work, in kJ/kg wNF = 0
Steady flow Work, in kJ/kg wSF = v (p2 – p1)
Heat Transfer, in kJ/kg q = ∆u = u2 – u1
3. CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (ISOTHERMAL) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a

pure substance with the temperature remains the same.

Non-flow Work, in kJ/kg wNF = q - ∆u
Steady flow Work, in kJ/kg wSF = q - ∆h - ∆ke
Heat Transfer, in kJ/kg q = T∆s = T (s2 – s1)
4. CONSTANT ENTROPY (ISENTROPIC) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a pure

substance with the entropy remains the same.

Non-flow Work, in kJ/kg wNF = - ∆u = u1 – u2
Steady flow Work, in kJ/kg wSF = - ∆h = h1 – h2
Heat Transfer, in kJ/kg q=0
Change in Entropy, in kJ/kg-K ∆s = 0

JANUARY 2015
PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2
5. CONSTANT ENTHALPY (ISENTHALPIC) PROCESS, also known as the THROTTLING PROCESS, is an

adiabatic irreversible process or change of state with no energy leaving the system as work and the
enthalpy does not change during the process.
𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐
𝒉𝒇𝟏 + 𝒙𝒉𝒇𝒈𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A piston-cylinder containing steam at 700 kPa and 250°C undergoes a constant-pressure process until
the quality is 70%. Determine per kg (a) the work done, (b) the heat transferred, (c) the change of
internal energy and (d) the change of enthalpy.
2. A 0.5 m3 tank contains saturated steam at 300 kPa. Heat is transferred until the pressure reaches 100
kPa. Determine (a) the final temperature and final steam quality, (b) the change in enthalpy, (c) the
heat transferred, (d) the work done, and (e) the change in entropy.
3. Steam at 400°C and with entropy of 5.6105 kJ/kg-K expands isothermally to 0.515 MPa. For a mass
flow rate of steam of 5 kg/s, calculate (a) the change in entropy, (b) the change in internal energy, (c)
the change of enthalpy, (d) the heat transferred, (e) the nonflow and steady flow work.
4. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 300°C and 400 kPa. It exits as a saturated vapor at 30 kPa.
Determine (a) the change of enthalpy; (b) the work; (c) the change of internal energy.
5. Saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water in a steam line at 20 bars is throttled to 1 bar and 1200C. What
is the quality in steam line?

JANUARY 2015
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2
RANKINE CYCLE
 It is the thermodynamic power cycle for STEAM POWER PLANTS.
 It overcomes many of the operational difficulties encountered with the Carnot cycle when the working fluid is
vapor. In this cycle, heat addition and heat rejection processes occur at constant pressure and operates in two
pressure levels: steam generator pressure and condenser pressure.
 It does not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes:
Process 1–2: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid through the turbine from saturated vapor at state 1 to
the condenser pressure.
Process 2–3: Constant Pressure Heat transfer from the working fluid as it flows at constant pressure through the
condenser with saturated liquid at state 3.
Process 3–4: Isentropic compression in the pump to state 4 in the compressed liquid region.
Process 4–1: Constant Pressure Heat transfer to the working fluid as it flows at constant pressure through the
boiler to complete the cycle.
CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Cycle Properties
PB = steam generator or boiler pressure
PC = condenser pressure
h1 = enthalpy of saturated steam leaving the boiler
h2 = enthalpy of steam-water mixture leaving the turbine
h3 = enthalpy of saturated liquid leaving the condenser
h4 = enthalpy of compressed liquid leaving the pump
ms = mass flow rate of steam
ν = specific volume of liquid

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 Turbine Work. Vapor from the boiler at state 1, having an elevated temperature and pressure, expands through
the turbine to produce work and then is discharged to the condenser at state 2 with relatively low pressure.
Neglecting heat transfer with the surroundings, and applying the general equation from the first law of
thermodynamics for a control volume around the turbine reduce at steady state,
Where ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0, and Q = 0,
 Heat Rejected by the Cycle. In the condenser there is heat transfer from the vapor to cooling water flowing in a
separate stream. The vapor condenses and the temperature of the cooling water increases. At steady state,
applying the general equation from the first law of thermodynamics for a control volume enclosing the
condensing side of the heat exchanger,
Where ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0, and W = 0,
 Pump Work. The liquid condensate leaving the condenser at 3 is pumped from the condenser into the higher
pressure boiler. Taking a control volume around the pump and assuming no heat transfer with the surroundings,
and applying the first law of thermodynamics,
Where ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0, and Q = 0,
*Approximate Pump Work. Assumptions will be that the liquid water is practically incompressible that makes
the volume remains constant and the change of internal energy is negligible during the process. From the first
law of thermodynamics and taking the pump as a steady flow open system,
Where ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0, ΔU = 0 and Q = 0,
̇ ̇
JANUARY 2015
 Heat Added to the Cycle. The working fluid completes a cycle as the liquid leaving the pump at 4, called the
boiler feedwater, is heated to saturation and evaporated in the boiler. Taking a control volume enclosing the
boiler tubes and drums carrying the feedwater from state 4 to state 1, and applying the general equation from
the first law of thermodynamics,
Where ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0, and W = 0,
 Cycle Net Work. From the first law of thermodynamics,
 Cycle Thermal Efficiency. It is the ratio of the network produced by the cycle to that of the heat added to the
cycle.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Steam is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle. Saturated vapor enters the turbine at 8.0 MPa (hg = 2758 kJ/kg, sg =
5.7432 kJ/ kg-K) and saturated liquid exits the condenser at a pressure of 0.008 MPa (hf = 173.88 kJ/kg hfg = 2403.1 kJ/kg,
sf = 0.5926 kJ/ kg-K, sfg = 7.6361 kJ/ kg-K, ν = 1.0084 x 10-3 m3/kg). The net power output of the cycle is 100 MW.
Determine:
(a) the cycle thermal efficiency (31.7%)

(b) the cycle back work ratio (0.84%)
(c) the mass flow rate of the steam, in kg/h, (377,000 kg/h)
(d) the rate of heat transfer, into the working fluid as it passes
through the boiler, in MW (269.77 MW)
(e) the rate of heat transfer, from the condensing steam as it
passes through the condenser, in MW (169.75 MW)
(f) the mass flow rate of the condenser cooling water, in kg/h, if
cooling water enters the condenser at 150C and exits at 350C.
(7,300,000 kg/h)

JANUARY 2015
Mechanical Engineering
Thermodynamics 2:
VAPOR POWER SYSTEMS
By
ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA

Professor
Modeling Vapor Power Systems 2
Vapor Power System Model

Rankine Cycle 3
Tools: Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy (First Law)
Entropy balance (Second Law)
Thermodynamic properties
Energy balances:
For the turbine:
W
 h1  h2
m
For the condenser:
Q Q
 h6  h5
 h2  h3
m mc.w.
For the pump:
W  WP 
 v3  p4  p3 
4
m
 h4  h3  
3
vdP   
 m int.rev
For the boiler:
Q
 h1  h4
m
Rankine Cycle 4
Process 1-2: Isentropic expansion Process 3-4: Isentropic

of the fluid through the turbine compression of fluid to compressed
from saturated vapor to the liquid.
condenser pressure.
Process 2-3: Heat transfer at Process 4-1: Heat transfer at

constant pressure through the constant pressure through the
condenser to saturated liquid. boiler to saturated vapor
Wcycle WT  W P
  
Q in Q in
Modified Rankine Cycle 5
In addition to being able to work with the

Ideal Rankine Cycle, you should also be
prepared to evaluate performance that
includes the following modifications
-- Superheating: Heating of the fluid past a

saturated vapor and well into the
superheated region by the steam generator.
-- Reheating: Reheating fluid after it has

passed through one turbine and then
passing through a second turbine at lower
pressure.
-- Regenerative Feedwater Heating: A

process where some of the steam is bled off
and used to partially reheat the condensate
from the condenser.
Modified Rankine Cycle 6
In addition to being able to work with the

Ideal Rankine Cycle, you should also be
prepared to evaluate performance that
includes the following modifications
-- Non-Ideal Rankine (with irreversibilities):

Similar to the Ideal Rankine cycle except
the processes through the turbine and
pump are not isentropic. Turbine and pump
efficiencies need to be used to determine
work in each of the components.
-- Cogeneration: A process where some of

the steam is bled off for use by other parts
of the plant, such as for heating, cleaning,
etc.
Superheat and Reheat 7
How can the efficiency of the Rankine cycle be increased?

Raise the Average High Temperature.
As the temperature is raised, note that the sat. vapor location
also shifts to the left, so that when the fluid expands through the
turbine, a lower quality of the fluid is obtained. Why is this bad?
Net work is decreased as area under
the curve get narrower and there are
physical effects on the turbine that
involve more blade wear. It is more
desirable to have the exit quality of
the steam, x2, be above 90%
How can the cycle maintain high

boiler Pressure and Temperature
and still maintain a higher exit
quality?
Superheat the steam.

8
How is steam superheated?

Superheating:
It is not necessary to have the exit from the boiler be a
saturated vapor (xboiler exit = 1).
Operate the boiler, such that the exit of the boiler is a
superheated vapor.
The only difference in calculating cycle performance from the Ideal

Rankine Cycle, is that state 3 is no longer expected to fall along the
saturated vapor curve, but will be found on the superheated steam table.
When Reheating is implemented, there is a multistage stage turbine

(often identified as a High Pressure and Low Pressure turbine.)
Before vapor starts to condense (reaches saturation), the vapor is
sent back to the boiler and reheated.
This affects the Ideal Rankine Cycle model because there are additional states
to determine properties for, a second pass through the turbine, and a second
heat exchange with the boiler. Therefore, identify additional properties
states (1, 2, 3, and 4) and then rework the 1st law equations as applied to the
turbine and boiler.
0  WHP _ turbine  m(h1  h2 ) and 0  WLP _ turbine  m(h3  h4 )
Boiler Reheat Equation
0  Qreheat  m(h2  h3 )
12
What is Regeneration?
• Goal of regeneration
▫ Reduce the fuel input requirements (Qin)
▫ Increase the temperature of the feedwater entering
the boiler
 Increases the average high temperature in the cycle
• Result of regeneration
▫ Increased thermal efficiency
• Energy source for regeneration
▫ High pressure steam from the turbines
• Regeneration equipment
▫ Feedwater heater (FWH)
 A heat exchanger that utilizes the high pressure steam
from the turbines to heat the boiler feedwater
Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 13
Regenerative Feedwater Heating. (regeneration)

Steam is diverted to use in a mixing chamber to preheat the
condensate prior to entering boiler. This is useful since water is
typically cooled below saturated level out of the condenser.
Note: This rerouting will diminish the net work output. The
reduction in Qboiler should be less than the reduction of Wcycle.
Open feedwater analysis: #2
Mass Balance: m 1  m 2  m 3
#1 #3
Often will use the term “blend fraction”
m 2 m 3
y consequently, 1 y 
m 1 m 1
Energy Balance: 0   m i hi 
0m  2 h2  m 3h3  m 1h1  m
 2 h2  m
 3h5  m
 1h6
m 2 m 3 m 1
0 h2  h5  h6  yh2  1  y h5  h6
m 1 m 1 m 1 Thus: h6  h5
y
h2  h5
Energy balances:
For the turbines:
WT 1 WT 2
 h1  h2 and  1  y h2  h3 
m m
For the condenser:
Q out
 1  y h3  h4 
m 
For the pump:
W P
 h7  h6   1  y h5  h4 

m
For the boiler:
Q in
 h1  h7
m
16
Regeneration – Closed FWH

There are two types of closed feedwater heaters
Closed FWH with Closed FWH with

Drain Pumped Drain Cascaded
Forward Backward
17
Regeneration – Closed FWH

Example – Closed FWH with Drain Cascaded Backward
18
Regeneration – Multiple FWH

Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 19
Non - Ideal Rankine Cycle.

For real processes, there is some
heat transfer with the surroundings,
and thus an increase in entropy. In
the turbine and pump, this can be
quantified using the isentropic
efficiencies.
For Turbine:
T 
W m
T

h1  h2
W m 
real
T S
h1  h2 S
For Pump:
P 
W m
P


h4 S  h3
W m 
S
P real
h4  h3
But, for a real process, the inefficiencies associated with combustion are
more significant. These, however, are external to the power cycle, so are
not analyzed as part of the Rankine Cycle analysis.

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GAS POWER CYCLES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 2

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Here is the sketch of a reciprocating internal combustion engine

The bore of the cylinder is its diameter.

The stroke is the distance the piston moves in one direction.

The piston is said to be at top dead center when it has moved to a

When the piston has moved to the position of maximum cylinder

The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

FIG. 2. FOUR STROKE CYCLE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE

 It consists of the four main processes namely:

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

FIG. 4. ACTUAL AND IDEAL CYCLES FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES.

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE

4. Cycle Net Work

5. Cycle Thermal Efficiency

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

 Developed by Rudolf Diesel and characterized by constant-pressure heat addition, constant-volume

 It is composed of the following processes:

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DIESEL CYCLE

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

4. Cycle Net Work

5. Cycle Thermal Efficiency

7. Mean Effective Pressure

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

AIR STANDARD DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

 It is composed of the following processes:

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

2. Total Heat Added in the Cycle

4. Cycle Net Work

5. Cycle Thermal Efficiency

6. Mean Effective Pressure

where r is the compression ratio

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

FIG. 6. OPEN AND CLOSED GAS TURBINE SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM.

AIR STANDARD BRAYTON CYCLE

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF BRAYTON CYCLE

3. Heat Added in the Combustor

where rp is the pressure ratio

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

• SATURATED VAPOR – a vapor that is about to condense at saturated conditions.

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

• WET STEAM/ VAPOR – a saturated liquid-vapor mixture.

Prepared by ENGR. ROBERT A. MENDOZA, ME

1. CONSTANT PRESSURE (ISOBARIC) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a pure

Change in Internal Energy, in kJ/kg ∆u = u2 – u1

2. CONSTANT VOLUME (ISOMETRIC) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a pure

Change in Internal Energy, in kJ/kg ∆u = u2 – u1

3. CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (ISOTHERMAL) PROCESS is an internally reversible change of state of a

Change in Internal Energy, in kJ/kg ∆u = u2 – u1