AETPaperIIYR2 PDF

UNIT 1
Chassis Frame and Body

Structure
1.1 Introduction of chassis frame
1.2 Layout of chassis and its main components
1.3 Functions of the chassis frame
1.4 Types of chassis frame
1.5 Various loads acting on the chassis frame
1.6 Different bodies used in Automobiles
1.7 Requirement of bodies for various types of vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will able to learn about
Requirement of chassis frame
Types of Chassis frame
Loads acting on chassis frame
Layout of chassis and its parts
Different types of automobile bodies
1.1 Introduction of Chassis Frame
Chassis frame is the basic frame work of the automobile. It supports all
the parts of the automobile attached to it. It is made of drop forged steel. All the
parts related to automobiles are attached to it only. All the systems related to
automobile like powerplant,transmission, steering, suspension, braking system
etc are attached to and supported by it only.
1.2 Layout of Chassis and its main components
Chassis a French term which means the complete Automobiles without
Body and it includes all the systems like power plant, transmission, steering,
suspension , wheels tyres , auto electric system etc. without body. If Body is
also attached to it them it is known as the particular vehicle as per the shape and
design of the body.
Front Shackle Frame Shackel

Rear
Dumb spring Spring
Iron Engine Gear box
Prope l le r Rear Axle
Radiator Clutch
Shaft
Side members Horizontal Pet rol

Member Tank
Fig 1.1 Chassis

90 Automobile Engineering Technician
1.3 The Functions of the Chassis frame

1. To carryall the stationary loads attached to it and loads of passenger
and cargo carried in it .
2. To withstand torsional vibration caused by the movement of the vehicle
3. To withstand the centrifugal force caused by cornering of the vehicle
4. To control the vibration caused by the running of the vehicle
5. To withstand bending stresses due to rise and fall of the front and rear
axles.
1.4 Types of Chassis frame
There are different types of chassis frame sections
1. Channel section
2. Box section
3. Tubular section
The conventional frame is also known as Non-load carrying frame. In
this types of frame , the loads on the vehicle are transferred to the suspension by
the frame which is the main skeleton of the vehicle.
The channel section is used in long members and box section in short
members. Tubular section is used now-a-days is three wheelers, scooters,
matadors and pickup vans.
The frames should be strong enough to bear load while sudden brakes
and accidents.
1.5 Various loads acting on the Chassis frame
The loads acting on the chassis frame are as follow
1. Stationary loads namely the loads of permanent attachment like all
the parts of the chassis, body etc.
2. Short duration loads while turning , braking etc.
3. Momentary loads while quick acceleration , sudden braking etc.
4. Loads applied while crossing roads of irregular and uneven surfaces
5. Loads caused by sudden accidents, head on collusions etc.
6. Loads caused by irregular and overloading of vehicle.
Paper - II Auto Chassis and Body Engineering 91
1.6 Different Bodies used in Automobiles

The automobiles bodies are designed according to the requirement of
the vehicle. According to design and requirement of the vehicle , there are
different types of Automobiles bodies. Some of them are listed as below :
(i) Car
(ii) Straight truck or Punjab truck body
(iii) Truck with half body
(iv) Platform type truck
(v) Tractor
(vi) Tractor with articulated trailer
(vii) Tanker
(viii) Bus
(ix) Dumper truck
(x) Delivery van
(x) Station wagon
(xi) Pick up van
(xii) Jeep
(xiv) Long wheel base truck etc
1.7 Requirement of Bodies for various types of vehicle
According to requirement , automobile bodies are classified mainly into
different types namely private vehicle, commercial vehicle, fleet transport vehicle,
passenger transport vehicle, Ambulances vehicle used for transport of Army
personal, Ammunition etc., different types of tanker vehicle etc. If it is a private
vehicle, the vehicle is used for luxury personal travelling , private cargo transport
etc, namely car , mini van , Omni bus, matador etc.
If it is commercial vehicle the vehicle is used for transportation of goods
some other vehicles, freezer boxes etc. If it is tanker, it is used to transport milk
, water, edible oils, petroleum products , gases , acids etc. The tanker bodies
are designed according to the relevant requirement .
If it is an army vehicles, the vehicle are separately designed namely Arm

truck, heavy long wheel base cargo trucks , long platform trucks etc. These are
exclusively used to carry the army personal, arms and ammunitions etc.
Some automobiles manufacturing companies are using long wheel base
trucks with closed body structure for transporting of the vehicle produced in
their factories to different market outlets.
The private vehicles used in different fields namely Buses of different
types, air conditioned Buses, station Wagons etc, Usually Road Transport
organization of a state is a fleet organized jointly by the state Government an
exclusive body which is to operate buses for travelling of passenger to various
places within the state as well as Inter-State travelling also the Road transport
corporation organization is having differently designed buses namely ordinary
body buses, Deluxe buses , semi luxury buses, Air conditioned buses and also
buses with sleeper coach etc.
Summary
Chassis is the basic framework of the automobile. It supports all the
parts of the automobile.
It has to withstand centrifugal force while cornering and bending
stresses due to rise and fall of front and rear axles.
Different types of chassis frames are i. Channel section ii. Box
section iii. Tubular section.
The loads acting on chassis frame are
i. Stationary loads of permanent attachments.
ii. Short duration loads while turning, braking etc.
iii. Loads applied while crossing irregular and uneven surfaces.
iv. Loads caused by irregular and overloading of the vehicle.
v. Loads caused by sudden accidents.
vi. Momentary loads while quick acceleration, sudden braking
etc.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define chassis.
2. Mention the types of chassis frame.
3. What is the purpose of chassis frame?

4. Mention any eight types of automobile bodies.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. List out the functions of chassis frame.
2. Mention various loads acting on chassis frame.
3. Discuss about the requirements of different automobile bodies.
UNIT 2
Steering System
Structure
2.1 Requirement of vehicle steering system
2.2 Types of steering Gear boxes
2.3 Types of Steering systems and power steering.
2.4 Steering linkages
2.5 Under Steering, Over steering and Turning Radius.
2.6 Steering gear mechanisms.
2.7 Steering geometry - Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination, toe-in and
toe-out.
2.8 Steering defects - wheel wobble and shimmy.
2.9 List out the types of steering systems used in various vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit ,the student should be able to learn the
(i) Requirement of vehicle steering
(ii) Types of steering system
(iii) Types of steering gears and their application in various vehicles
(iv) Different measurement and angles in steering gears measurement

and angles in steering geometry namely castor angle, camber angle,
king inclination Toe-etc.
(v) Different defects in steering namely wheel wobble , hard steering
etc.
2.1 Requirements of Vehicle Steering System
The steering system of a vehicle is having the following requirements
(1) It should be able to turn the vehicle with more mechanical advantage
and less efforts.
(2) It should turn the wheel within shortest possible time
(3) There should be self-centering action in the steering geometry
(4) It should be certain degree irreversible so that the shocks of the
roads surface are not transmitted to the hands of the driver.
2.2 Types of Steering Gear Xoxes
1. Worm and wheel steering gear
2. Worm and roller steering gear
3. Worm and sector steering gear
4. Can and lever steering gear
5. Rack and pinion steering gear
6. Re circulating ball steering gear
2.2.1 Worm and wheel steering gear
In this type of steering gear box there will be worm at the bottom end
of steering inner column. This worm meshes with a wheel in steering gear box
housing. When steering wheel turned, the steering column revolves and the wheel
is rotated along with it . This causes the drop arm to move and thereby move
drag link and other steering linkages like Tie-rod king pin etc.
2.2.2 Worm and Roller
In this steering gear, there will be a worm at the bottom end of inner
column and a roller is there in the steering gear box. When the worm rotates, the
roller which is attached to it also rotates causing the Roller to rotate and there by
moving drop arm.
Fig 2.1 Worm and Roller steering Gear
2.2.3 Worm and Sector Steering Gear
Fig 2.2 Worm and Sector steering Gear

In this type of steering gear, there will be a worm at the bottom end of
steering inner column and a part of sector shape is there in the steering gear
housing. The worm meshes with sector and it moves by the rotation of worm
and there by moving drop arm which is attached to it.
Cam and Lever steering gear
In this type of steering gear, a special worm called cam is located at the
end of inner column which it attached to column in the steering gear. When the
worm is rotated, the lever is also moved in the groove provided in the worm.
This causes the lever to swing through an arc.
2.2.4 Recirculating Ball Steering Gear
In this steering gear there will be some steel balls in the grooves of
steering inner column which move along with the steering worm. This enables to
control the friction among them and there by reducing noise. It increases the
mechanical advantage of the operator for easy and smooth operation of steering.
Fig 2.3 Recirculating Ball steering Gear

2.2.5 Rack and pinion Steering gear

In this steering gear, a pinion is mounted at the end of the steering inner
column. It engages the rack which has ball joints at each end to allow the raise
and fall of the wheels, the rods are connected with ball joints to the sub axles.
The rotary movement of steering wheel turn the pinion which moves the rock
sideways parallel to tie rod.
Fig 2.4 Rack and Pinion steering gear
2.3 Types of Steering system

The steering system is said to be of different types according to its
position along with the vibration of front wheels.
When deflection of the steered wheels due to road surface is transmitted
through the steering linkage and steering gear box to the steering wheel, the
system is said to be Reversible steering
If every small imperfection of the road surface cause the steering to
rotate it is known as Reversible steering . But it is not advisable. Some degree of
reversibility is needed so that the wheels will find to strength up after negotiating
a bending. This effect is called semi reversible . When steered wheels do not
cause any deflects due to road irregularities it is known as irreversible steering.
The semi reversible steering is always desired.
Power Steering
The power steering system provides additional assistance to the turning
effort applied to the manual steering system.
The power steering is of two types Hydraulic and electric/ electronic
. A hydraulic electric hybrid system is also possible.
A hydraulic power steering (HPS) used hydraulic pressure applied by
on engine driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel.
Electric power steering (EPS ) is more effects than the hydraulic power
steering since the electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance
when the steering wheels turned where as the hydraulic pump must run constantly.
The main components of an integral power steering system consist of a hydraulic
pump assembly connected with hoses. A rotary valve power steering gear for
the integral system using recirculating ball type worm and wheel steering gear is
most commonly used one.
Hydraulic pump
assembly
Return Line
Hose assembly
Pressume Hose
Assembly
Steering Gear
Assembly
Fig 2.5 Power steering Gear
2.4 Steering linkages

The steering linkage is a connection of various links between the steering
gear box and the front wheels. The motion of pitman arm of steering gearbox is
transferred to the steering knuckles of the front wheels through the steering
linkage.
Fig 2.6 Power steering Gear

When the steering wheel is turned to the left or right , the pitman arm
swings from one side to the other. This movement of the pitman arm gives angular
movement to the front wheels through the steering linkage.
The most commonly use steering linkage is conventional steering linkage.
The pitman Arm (drop arm) is connected directly by a connecting link namely
drag link to a steering knuckle arm attached to the left hand steering knuckle.
The motion is carried across from this arm to a steering arm on the right side
steering knuckle by means of the rod. The drag link and drop arm (Pitman
Arm) are mounted on the left side of the frame.
In some designs the drag link is connected between the drop arm and
right steering knuckle arm by locating drop arm beneath the steering gear.
In direct cross type steering linage, the pitman arm (Drop Arm) is
connected directly to one and of the rod which its turn is connected to another.
The other ends of the rods are connected to the steering arms.
Fig 2.7 Conventionaal steering linkage
2.5 Under Steering, Over steering and Turning Radius

While taking a turn, the wheels are not always pointing in direction in
which the vehicle is moving, due to distortion of tyretread. The angle between
the wheel inclination and the path taken by the wheel is known as Slip angle .
When the slip angle is greater at the rear than of the front, the vehicle tends to
over steer the vehicle is to turn into the curve more than the driver intended.
When the slip angle is smaller at the rear than at the front, the vehicle tends to
under steer .
The under steer is most commonly preferred because correction by the
driver involves rotating the steering wheel a little more in the direction of the
turn.
It can be noted that the slip angle is affected by the road camber side
winds, tyre inflation and variations in the load on either the front or rear axle.
Turing Radius : Turning radius is the radius of the circle on which the
outside front wheel moves when the front wheels are turned to their extreme
outer position.
This radius is 5 to 7m for buses and trucks. The turning radius is usually
proportioned to the wheel base of the vehicle , because the maximum rotation
of the steering knuckle is seldom more than 35 degrees.
2.6 Steering Gear Mechanism
There are two types of steering gear mechanism.
1. Davis steering gear
2. Ackerman steering gear
The Davis steering gear has sliding pairs, whereas the Ackerman steering
gear has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more friction than the turning
pair. Therefore the Davis steering gear will wear out earlier and become inaccurate
after certain time.
Although, the Ackerman steering gear is not mathematically accurate
except in their position, contrary to the Davis steering gear which is mathematically
correct in a position
However, Ackerman steering gear is preferred to Davis steering gear
Davis steering Gear : The Davis steering gear mechanism consist of a
cross link KL sliding parallel to another link AB and its connecting to the
stub axles of the two front wheels by means of two similar bell crane levers
ACK and DBL pivoted at A on the B respectively. The cords link
KL slides on the bearing and carries pins at its ends K and L. The slide
blocks are pivoted on these pins and move with the turning of bell crane levers
as the steering wheel is operated. When the vehicle is running straight, the gear
is said to be in mid position. The short Arms AK and BL are inclined at an
angle of 90 + 0C to their stub axles AC and BD respectively
b
Tan =
2l
Where b = AB = distance between the points of front axles.
l = wheel base
The range of b/l is 0.4 to 0.5
Hence the angle lies between 11.3o and 14.1 o
Fig 2.8 Davis steering gear mechanism
Ackerman steering gear : The Ackerman steering gear mechanism

consist of cross link KL connected to the short axels AC and BD of the
two front wheel through the sort arms AK and BL forming bell crane levers
CAKL and BDKL respectively .
When the vehicle is taking a turn, the inside wheel must follow a tight
curve than the outside wheel .
When the vehicle is running straight the cross link KL is parallel to
AB the short arms AK and BL both make angle to the horizontal axis
of chassis.
The angles 0 and are shown in figure. The value of b/L is between 0.4
to 0.5.
For correct steering
Cot cot = b/l.
In Ackerman steering gear, there are three positions to be observed
infact. The value of will be different as the vehicle is running straight, vehicle is
taking a left turn and vehicle is taking a right turn.
Fig 2.9 Ackerman steering gear
2.7 Steering geometry - Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination,

toe-in and toe-out.
Steering Geometry : It refers to the positioning of the front wheels
and steering mechanism that gives the vehicle directional stability , promotes
ease of steering and reduces tyre wear to a minimum. It also refers to the angular
relationship between the front wheels and parts attached to the front wheel,
frame of the vehicle. It depends upon the following terms. Caster angle, camber
angle, King Pin inclination , Toe-in Toe-Out on turn.
Caster angle: It is the angle of tilting the king pin axis either forward or
backward from the vertical line. This tilting is known as Caster. The angle between
the vertical line and the king pin centre line in the plane of the wheel (When
viewed from the side) is called the Caster angle.
Center of contact is di- Swivel line(steering axis) con-

rectly under spindle tacts ground plane ahead of
contact patch
Fig 2.10 Caster angle

When the top of the king pin is backward, the caster angle is positive,
and when it is forward, the caster angle is negative. Usually the caster angle in
modern vehicles ranges from 2 to 8 degrees.
The main purpose of caster angle is to create self centering effect in the
steering. It provides the directional stability. It positive caster increase the efforts
required to steer and tries to keep the wheels straight ahead. In heavy duty
trucks negative caster is preferred. This makes the steering easier.
Camber Angle : It is the angle between the centre line of the tyre and
the vertical. When viewed from the front of the vehicle when the angle is outward,
so that the wheels are farther apart at the top the camber is Positive when the
angle is inward, so that the wheels are closer together at the top, the camber is
Negative. The usual value of camber angle should not exceed 2o.
When the camber angle is positive, it causes slip out prevention lightens
the perpendicular load and lessen the required steering effort. If it is a Zero
camber, it prevents uneven wear of tyres. When the camber angle is negative,
the camber thrust increase with increase in tyre inclination relative to the road
surface.
- Negative + Positive
CAMBER
Fig 2.11 Camber angle

King Pin Inclination or steering Axis Inclination

It is the angle between the vertical line and the center of the King pin the
steering axis when viewed from the front. The Kingpin inclination, in combination
with caster angle, is used to provide directional stability . It also reduces steering
effort particularly when the vehicle is stationary. It reduces tyre wear also. The
kingpin inclination in modern vehicle ranges from 4o to 8o. It is also known as
steering Axis inclination.
Fig 2.12 King pin inclination
Toe-In : It is the inward tilting of front wheels at the front so that the
distance between the front wheels at the front is less than the distance between
at the front wheels at the rear when viewed from the top. The Amount of the
Toe-in is usually 3 to 5 mm .
Fig 2.13Toe-in
The toe-in is provided to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels to

stabilize steering and prevent side slipping of front wheels and thereby prevent
excessive tyre wear.
Toe-Out : Toe-out is the differenence in angles between the two front
wheels and the car frame during turns. The steering system is designed to the
turn the inside wheel through a larger angle than the outside wheel when making
a turn. The toe-out is secured by providing the proper relationship between
steering knuckle arms, tie rods and pitman arm (drop arm).
Fig 2.14 Toe-out
2.8 Steering defects - Wheel Wobble and Shimmy

(i) Wheel wobble and shimmy : when the vehicle go through an uneven
or rough road, the front wheel will get shaken for a while. This problem can also
be seen when the vehicle is slowing down. This problem may caused by the
following reason.
Reason Remedy
1. Unbalanced wheels 1. The wheels should be balanced at
wheel balance
2. Unevenly worn out tyres 2 . Rotate the tyres or Replace with
new ones if necessary
3. Inoperative shock absorbers 3. Replace them
4. Incorrect Toe-in 4. Adjust the Toe-in
5. Loose spring U-Bolts 5. Tighten
6. Loose steering linkages 6. Tighten
7. Worn out kingpin steering , 7. Tighten or Replace as per
linkages the necessity wheel bearings,
steering gear
8. Inoperative stabilizer 8. Replace
2.9 List out the types of steering systems used in various

vehicles
Summary
The steering system of a vehicle should be able to turn the vehicle with
less effort and more mechanical advantage.
Types of steering gears
i. Worm and Wheel
ii. Worm and Roller
iii. Worm and sector
iv. Cam and lever
v. Rack and pinion
vi. Recirculating Ball
When deflection of steered wheels due to road surface is transmitted
through steering linkage and steering gear to the steering wheel, the
system is reversible steering.
The steering linkages are the connections of various links between
steering gear box and the front wheels.
The angle between the wheel inclination and the path taken by the
wheel is known as Slip angle.
When the slip angle is greater at rear than at front, it is known as
Over steer.
When the slip angle is smaller at rear than at front, it is known as
Under steer.
Turning radius: It is the radius of the circle on wheel the outside front
wheel moves when the front wheels are turned to their extreme outer
position.
Caster angle is the angle of tilting of king pin axis either forward or
backward from the vertical line. When the top of the king pin is
backward, the castor angle is positive and when it is forward, the
caster angle is negative. Usually caster angle varies from 2 to 8
degrees.
Camber angle is the angle between the centre line of the tyre and the
vertical line when viewed from the front of the vehicle. when the angle
is outward it is known as positive and when the angle is inward it is

known as negative. The usual value of camber should not exceed 2o.
King pin inclination is the angle between the vertical line and the
centre line of the king pin when viewed from the front. Its usual value
ranges from 4 to 8 degrees.
Toe-in : It is the inward tilting of front wheels at the top. Its amount is
usually 3 to 5mm.
Toe-out: It is the difference in angles between the two front wheels
and the car frame during turning.
1. What is the purpose of steering system?
2. Mention the types steering gears.
3. What is ship angle?
4. Define Under steer and Over steer.
5. What is meant by Turning Radius?
6. Define castor angle. What is its usual value?
7. Define camber angle. Mention its usual value
8. What is king pin inclination?
9. Define Toe-in and write its usual value.
1. Briefly explain recirculating ball steering gear with neat sketch?
2. Briefly explain Rack and Pinion steering gear with neat sketch.
3. Briefly explain power steering with diagram.
4. Briefly explain Ackerman steering principle with neat sketch.
5. Discuss about the steering defect - Wheel Wobble.
UNIT 3
Braking System
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Functions of Brakes
3.2 Requirement of automobile Brakes
3.3 Stopping time and stopping distance
3.4 Types of Braking system - Disc and Drum Braking system
3.5 Construction and working of Mechanical, Hydraulic and Air brakes.
3.6 Bleeding of brakes in Hydraulic brakes.
3.7 List out types of Brakes used in various vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After learning this unit, the student should be able to learn about .
Purpose of brake, fundamental types of brakes in different vehicles
Stopping time and stopping distance.
Application of different types of brakes in various types of vehicle
Commonly occured troubles in brakes with their rectification
Paper - II Automobile Chassis and Body Engineering 111
3.0 Introduction
In Automobiles brakes play important role in slowing down and stopping
of the vehicle as and when required by the driver. Fundamentally the brakes are
of two types (i) Internal expanding (ii) External contracting type . Different
types of brakes are used in different vehicles as per the requirement . According
to application, the brakes are of different types-mechanical , hydraulic air,
vacuum , Air assisted Hydraulic.
3.1 Functions of Brakes
(i) To slow down or to stop the vehicle as and when required.
(ii) To control the vehicle when the vehicle is rolling down on a slope
road down ward.
(iii) To travel smoothly and safely even in heavy flow of traffic by
controlling the movement of the vehicle.
3.2 Requirement of Automobile Brakes
(i) The brakes must stop the vehicle within shortest possible distance.
(ii) These must be released suddenly after releasing them
(iii) Total control of the vehicle should be there
3.3 Stopping time and Stopping Distance
The stopping time and stopping distance shows the efficiency of brakes.
The maximum retarding force applied by the brake at the wheels, F,
depends upon the coefficient of friction between the road and tyre surface
and the component of the weight of the vehicle on the wheel, w.
F = w
In actual practice 100% of brakes efficiency is not used. The stopping
time and distance depend upon
(i) Vehicle speed
(ii) Condition of road surface
(iii) Condition of tyre tread.
(iv) Coefficient of friction between the tyre tread and road surface.
(v) Coefficient of friction between brake drum and brake lining (in
case of Drum brakes).
(vi) Coefficient of friction between the disc and the friction pad (in
case of Disc brakes).
(vii) Brake force applied by the driver.
However, during emergency braking, the reaction of the driver and
response time of the brakes also play an important role. The total stopping
distance in case of emergency braking may be divided into three parts :
(i) Distance travelled during the reaction time of the driver.
(ii) Distance travelled between the time elapsed between driver
pressing the brake pedal and actual application of brakes at
wheels.
(iii) Net stopping distance, depending upon the deceleration.
Keeping all the factors in view, the assumed brake efficiencies for
some of the vehicle may be like the valves given in the table approximately.
Efficiency % Approximate stopping distance (in metres) for the speeds
30 Km/H 50 Km/H 80 Km/H 100 Km/H

100 3.5 9.8 25.2 39.3
80 4.4 12.2 31.5 49.1
60 6.0 16.3 42.0 65.5
30 12.0 32.6 84.0 131.0
These values depend upon the distance travelled during the reaction
time of the driver and distance travelled between applying pedal and actual
application of brakes at wheels.
3.4 Types of Braking system - Disc and Drum Braking
system
Disc Brakes
The disc brake consists a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a
stationary housing called calliper. The Calliper is connected to some stationary
part of vehicle, like axle casing or the stab axle and is cast in two parts, each
part containing a piston. In between each piston and the disc, there is a
friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc.
Fluid from Lines
Caliper
Actuating piston
with friction pad
Revolving Disc
Fig 3.1 Disc Brake
When the brakes are applied, hydrautically actuated piston move the
friction pads into contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on
the later. On releasing brakes, the rubber sealing rings act as return springs
and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the disc.
Drum Brakes
Retracting spring
Brake Drum Brake Lining
Toe of Shoe
Brake Shoe Back Plate
Heel of shoe
Adjuster Anchor
Fig 3.2 Drum Brake

In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle

hub whereas on the axle casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle,
the brake plates are bolted to the steering knuckle. The back plate is made of
pressed steel and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide support for the
expanding brake shoes. These brakes are also known as internal expanding
brakes.
3.5 Construction and working of Mechanical, Hydraulic
and Air brakes.
3.5.1 Construction and working of Mechanical Brakes
These brakes are operated completely through mechanical links and
lever. These are applied in two wheelers and these wheeler. These are also
applied in four wheeler as parking or Emergency brakes . In the wheel drum
there are two brake shoes which are linked closely by a retracting spring. There
will be a can between the two shoes. When brake pedal is applied, the can will
rotate causing the brake shoes expand against the force of the returning spring.
This causes the shoes to rub against rotating wheel drum and thereby stopping
it. When brake pedal is released, the can inside wheel drum will come back to
its position causing the brake shoes to come back with the presence of returning
position and thus releasing brakes.
3.5.2 Construction and working of hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic brakes are being operated in the Pascals law which states
that The pressure applied on any liquid is equally transmitted to all the direction
at the same time. In the same manner the pressure of brake pedal which is
applied on the brake fluid in the master cylinder is transmitted to all the four
wheel cylinder with equal pressure and at the same time. In this way the brake
shoes which are attached to the wheel cylinder (s) are expanded and thus the
brakes are applied.
The parts of hydraulic braking system one (i) Brake pedal (ii) Pull and
push rod (iii)- Master cylinder (iv) Brake pipe lines (v) wheel cylinder (vi) brake
shoes .
When the brake pedal is applied the piston inside the master cylinder in
pushed forward and it caused the pressurized brake fluid moves forward to all
the four wheel cylinder at the same time with same pressure. There at the wheel
cylinder the brakes shoes will be expanded with the developed pressure in
the wheel cylinder. All the wheel cylinder will be operated at the same time
according to Pascals law. This is how the brakes are applied. While releasing
brakes with contracting of brake shoes with spring force the brake fluid in the
wheel cylinder will try to go back to the master cylinder. As there is no pressure
on the position of the master cylinder, the brake fluid push the check valve of
master cylinder and the enter into the reservoir through barrel and by pass valve
of master cylinder.
Fig 3.3 Hydraulic Brake System
Master cylinder
It is the most important part of hydraulic braking system . It contains
two main chambers .
(i) Fluid reservoir which stores the brake fluid in it
(ii) Barrel-which is compressor and develops pressure in brake fluid
(i) Reservoir : The reservoir also contains two parts . The larger part is
called filler or intake port and the smaller port is called by pas through which the
returned fluid from the system will enter into reservoir from barrel.
(ii) Barrel : In the barrel of master cylinder the parts are (a) Primary
cup (b) Position (c) Secondary cup (d) Return spring (d) Return spring (e)
Check value .
When the brake pedal is applied the push rod will push the piston of
master cylinder and there by the pressure is applied on the Hydraulic Brake
fluid. The pressurized brake fluid will enter into system through check valve
which does not allow the fluid to return back. This causes the pressure on the
system and applying brakes at the wheel cylinder.
Fig 3.4 Master Cylinder
Wheel cylinder
Fig 3.5 Wheel Cylinder

Wheel cylinder or slave cylinder assist the main master cylinder in

covering the pressure to the piston inside it and push the brake shoes attached
to it . Some of the wheel cylinder having one piston and some having two pistons.
The wheel cylinder having one piston will operate only one brake shoe and the
two wheel cylinder are require to operate two brake shoes. In some wheel
cylinder, both brake shoes are operated as they are having two piston in them.
When brakes are applied the brake fluid enter into the cylinder through
a brake pipe line. It cause to force out the piston. This motion is transmitted to
brake shoes causing them to expand against the running wheel drum to hold it
tightly and stop it. .
3.6 Bleeding of brakes in Hydraulic brakes.
In Hydraulic Brakes, the removal of air from the entire Hydraulic system
starting from master cylinder to different wheel cylinders is known as Brake
Bleeding
Fig 3.6 Wheel Cylinder
It includes the following process :

(i) At first check all the pipe lines and junction boxes from master cylinder
to wheel cylinder. Whether there is any leak among them.
(ii) Ask one person to pump the brake pedal and keep it in pressing
position
(iii) The second person should loosen the bleeding nipple at the back
plate of the wheel cylinder position.
(iv) Keep the bleeding nipple in open until the air bubbles disappear and
the brake fluid comes out with a force . Collect the brake fluid in a
glass tumbler.
(v) Then tighten the bleeding nipple
(vi) Repeat this process in all the wheel cylinders starting from the
farthest wheel to the master cylinder and ending with the nearest
wheel.
(vii) Make sure that the level of brake fluid in master cylinder is less
than the top covers while filling it.
Air Brakes
The manufacturers of braking systems offer a variety of air brake equip-
ment. However, the simplest system consists of an air compressor, a brake
valve, series of brake chambers, unloader valve, a pressure gauge and a safety
valve. These are all connected by lines of tubing. The other braking systems
may have additional components such as stop-light switch, a low pressure
indicator, an air supply valve to supply air for tyre inflation, a quick release
valve to release air quickly from the front brake chambers when pedal is re-
leased, a limiting valve for limiting the maximum pressure in the front brake
chambers and a relay valve to help in quick admission and release of air
from rear brake chambers.
B r a k e Governor
Chamber
Slack Slack Adjuster
Hose Brake
Adjuster Quick Chamber
re lease Guage Tubing
valve Tee
Hose
Safety Valve
Hose Reservoir
Stop light switch
Fig 3.7 Air Brake

The compressor sends compressed air to the-reservoirs which are

connected to the brake. valve. The lines of tubing from the brake valve extend
to the front and rear brake chambers. When the drive depresses the pedal, it
operates the brake valve thus admitting compressed air to all the brake chambers.
The compressed air operates the diaphragm of the brake chambers thereby
applying the brakes.
3.7 List out types of Brakes used in various vehicles.
S.No
3
4
5
8
9
Summary
Brakes are used to slow down or to stop the vehicle as and when
required by the driver.
Brakes are of two types
i. Internal Expanding brakes.
ii. External contracting brakes.
According to usage, the brakes are classified as
i. Mechanical brakes
ii. Hydraulic brakes
iii. Air brakes
iv. Vacuum brakes
v. Air assisted hydraulic brakes
vi. Hydrovac brakes etc.
Requirements of Brakes
i. The brakes must stop the vehicle within shortest possible
distance.
ii. These must be released suddenly immediately after releasing
them.
iii. Total control of the vehicle should be ther.
Mechanical brakes are operated through mechanical links and levers.
These are used in two wheelers and in case of 4 wheeler. These are
used as Parking Brakes or Emergency Brakes.
Hydraulic brakes are operated according to pascals law which states
that the pressure applied on any liquid is equally transmitted to all
the directions at the same time.
Main parts of hydraulic brakes system are
i. Brake pedal
ii. Master cylinder
iii. Brake pipe line
iv. Wheel cylinder

v. Brake drum
Air brakes are operated with the assistance of compressed air.
1. What is the purpose of Brakes?
2. Define stopping distance?
3. Mention the main parts of hydraulic brakes.
4. On which law the hydraulic brakes work?
5. What is meant by Brake bleeding?
1. Briefly explain the construction and working of mechanical brakes.
2. Explain the hydraulic brakes with neat sketch.
3. Explain the master cylinder with neat diagram.
4. Explain the brake bleeding process with sketch.
5. Explain the air braking system with sketch.
UNIT 4
Suspension System
Structure
4.1 Requirements of Automobiles Suspension system
4.2 Types of suspension system - conventional and Independent
4.3 Types of Springs - Laminated Spring, coil spring, helical spring.
4.4 Need of Shock absorber
4.5 Stabilizers bar and torsion bar.
4.6 List out the type of suspension system used in various vehicles.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student should be able to learn the
Requirement of suspension system in automobiles
Types of suspension system, types of springs
Need of shock absorber, stabilizer bar, torsion bar.
Types of suspension system used in different vehicles.
4.1 Requirement of automobiles suspension system
The automobile suspension system is having the following requirement
(i) To have minimum deflection to the vehicles with required stability
(ii) To have minimum wheel hop.

(iii) To safe guard the occupants and cargo against road shocks
(iv) To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the
mechanism of the vehicle.
(v) To keep the body perfect in level while travelling over rough and
uneven roads.
(vi) To keep the body of the vehicle safe from road shocks.
4.2 Types of suspension system - conventional and
Independent
There are different types of suspension system provided in different
vehicles. Those are
(i) Conventional suspension system
(ii) Independent suspension system
4.2.1 Conventional suspension system
In this suspension system. The wheels are fitted on beam type which
are attached to the chassis frame through road springs. In this type of suspension,
the effect on one wheel is directly transmitted to the other side wheel through the
axle.
Fig 4.1 Conventional Suspension System

4.2.2 Independent suspension system

In this system the suspension for each wheel in an independent unit and
in free from the effect of one another. There will be no effect of road shocks on
the vehicle directly.
4.2.3 Types of independent suspension system
(i) Wishbone arm system
(ii) Trailing ling system
(iii) Sliding pillar system
Wishbone arm system
Wishbone arm type independent suspension system is most popular
type of all independent suspension system. In this system transverse springs
along with coil, springs are mostly used. In European cars, torsion bars instead
of coil springs are used. In this system there are two suspension or control arms
are used in each side of the vehicle. There arm are like two legs of chicken
wishbone or better V, . These wishbone arms are connected with chassis
frame on the open end. The closed end spread out of the chassis frame. One
arm is below whereas the other is above the frame. The closed ends of both
upper and lower suspension arms are connected with steering knuckle support
to which the steering knuckle is attached by means of kingpin. A coil spring is
placed between the frame and the lower wishbone arm. Mostly the open end of
upper control arm is connected with the sock absorber shaft which is fitted at
the frame when there is a bump, the wheel tends to go up, the control since the
shock absorber is fitted with the upper control arm, ti damps the vibrations set
up in the coil spring due to road irregularities.
Trailing link system
The trailing link independent suspension use parallelogram linkages lying
beside the frame side members usually a horizontal coil springs is used in this
type of suspension system. During compression and rebound, the spring winds
and unwinds . In some vehicles the torsion bar may also be fitted instead of
horizontal coil spring.
Sliding pillar system
In this system the pillar or elongated king pin is attached to the wheel
and slides up and down in the axle type beam a fixed rigidly to the vehicle frame.
4.3 Types of Springs - Laminated Spring, coil spring, helical

spring
The springs support the chassis frame. The entire weight of the vehicle
live engine, power train, body, passengers, cargo etc, falls on the chassis frame.
The spring damp the road shocks transmitted to the wheels as they travel over
the road thereby protecting the units supported directly by the frame. The springs
are placed between the chassis frame and the axle.
Types of springs
(i) Leaf springs
(ii) Coil springs
(iii) Helical Springs
(i) Leaf springs : The leaf springs are of different types namely-full
elliptic three quarter elliptic, semi elliptic, quarter elliptic transverse. In almost all
automobiles which are having conventional suspension system the semi elliptic
leaf springs are most commonly used.
Fig 4.2 Leaf Springs
The leaf springs are made of long flat strip steel. Several strips are placed
one on the other and held together by means of centre bolt and champs. Each
strip is called is leaf. There is one main leaf which is extended to full length.
Each succeeding leaf is shorter than the preceeding one. The main leaf
contains eyes are both ends for making connections with the frame. The entire
set is fitted from the chassis frame by hanging with a shackle at one side and the
other side is fixed to frame. During jerks, the leaf spring bounces and each strip
flexes and rebounces again and again.
(ii) Coil springs : Coil spring is made of a length of special spring

steel, usually round in section which is wound in the shape of coil The ends of
coil spring are kept flat so that could seat properly . They can store twice energy
per unit volume in comparison to leaf spring. To seat the coil springs pan shaped
brackets or spring seats are attached to the axles. This suspension is also used
in combination with torque tube or torque rod.
Fig 4.3 Coil Springs
(iii) Helical Springs : The helical springs are preferably used in

combination with independent suspension system. The length and diameter of
the spring wire greatly affect the stiffness of the spring. But the length is controlled
by the diameter of the coil and the number of active coils.
4.4 Need of Shock absorber
Shock absorber compresses with the road shock and rebalances while
travelling on uneven roads due to usage of this, the effect of road shock in
required by the shock absorber suddenly and releases slowly whole travelling
on uneven roads.
There shock absorber are of two types

(i) Mechanical type
(ii) Hydraulic type
Hydraulic Shock Absorber
The shock absorber develop resistance to the spring by forcing a fluid
through check valves and small holes. Double acting shock absorber offer
resistance both during compression and rebound of the spring. The Double
acting Hydraulic telescopic shock absorber are the commonly used shock
absorber which are described as shown in the figure below
Fig 4.4 Hydraulic shock absorber
Its upper eye is connected to the axle and the lower eye to the chassis
frame. A two way valve A is attached to as rod G . Another two way valve B
is attached to the lower and of the cylinder C . The fluid is in the space above
and below the cylinder C and tube D, which is connected to the space below
the valve B. The J has glad H . Any fluid scrapped off the rod G is brought
down into the annuler space through the inclined passage.
Fig 4.5 Hydraulic shock absorber(detailed construction)
When the vehicle comes across a bump the lower eye E moves up.
Therefore the fluid passes from the lower side of the vehicle A to its types side
.But since the volume of the space above valve A is less than the volume B. This
pressure of the fluid through the valve opening provides the damping force.
Similarly when the lower eye E moves down., the fluid passes from the upper
side of the valve A to the lower side and also from the lower of the valve B to the
upper side.
4.5 Stabilizers bar and torsion bar

4.5.1 Stabilizer
A stabilizer or a sway bar, is necessarily used in all independent front
suspension units. It reduces the tending the vehicle to roll or tip and either side
when taking a turn. This tendency has been increased due to the use of softer
springs and independent front end suspension.
Fig 4.6 Stabilizer
A stabilizer is simply a bar of as long steel with arms at each and

connected to the lower wishbone arm of independent suspension or to the axle.
It is supported i bush bearing fixed to the frame and is parallel to the cross
member. When both the wheels deflect up or down by the same amount the
stabilizer bar simply turns in the bearings. When only one wheel deflects then
only one end of stabilizers moves, thus twisting the stabilizer has which acts as
a springs between two sides of independent suspension system. In this way, the
stabilizer reduces healing or tipping of the vehicle on curves.
4.5.2 Torsion bar
In independent suspension system, the torsion bar is attached to the
axle with the king pin of the front axle. The torsion bar axles the shock by
moving in certain angle with the axle. It is almost being used along with any kind
of independent suspension system. It is used along with rubber torsion units.
Upper Control Arm
Pivot pin Upper Ball Joint
Steering Knickel
Frame
Lower Ball
Lowe r Point
Control
Bearing
Torison Bar Support Arm
Anchor
Fig. 4.7
4.6 List out the type of suspension system used in various

vehicles
Front Suspension Rear Suspension

Sl. No. Make Type Type Shock Absorbers
1 Hindustan Independent Semi-ellipse Hydraulic tele-
Ambassador torsion bar leaf scopic double
Mark II acting
2 Fiat 1100 Independent Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele-
coil springs leaf scopic double
acting
3 Jeep (J-3B) Semi-ellipse Semi-ellipse Hydraulic tele-
leaf leaf scopic double
acting
4 Ashok Semi-elliptic Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele-
Leyland leaf leaf scopic double
Comet acting
passenger
5 Dodge / Semi-elliptic Semi-elliptic Hydraulic tele-
Fargo model leaf leaf scopic double
89 M4 acting
Summary
Suspension system is provided to safeguard the occupants and cargo
in the vehicle against road shocks and to give a smooth and comfortable
drive.
Types of Suspension drive
i. Conventional suspension system.
ii. Independent suspension system.
Types of Springs
i. Leaf springs
ii. Coil springs
iii. Helical springs
Types of Independeng suspension system
i. Wishbone arm system.
ii. Trailing link system
iii. Sliding pillar system.
Shock absorber compresses with the road shock and rebounces
while travelling on uneven roads
A stabilizer is used in independent front suspension units. It reduces
the tendency of the vehicle to roll or tip on either side while taking a
turn.
In independent suspension system, the torsion bar is attached to the
angle with king pin.
The torsion bar absorbs shock by moving in certain angle with the
axle.
1. What is the purpose of suspension system?
2. Mention the types of suspension system.
3. What is the purpse of stailbilzer?
4. What is meant by independent suspension system?
5. What is the purpose of shock absorber?

6. What is the purpose of Torsion bar?
1. Briefly explain leaf spring with neat sketch?
2. Explain about a hydraulic shock absorber with neat sketch.
3. Explain the wishbone arm independent suspension system with a neat
sketch.
UNIT 5
Seat, Door and Window
mechanism
Structure
5.1 Construction and working of door lock mechanism
5.2 Construction and working of Manual window regulating mechanism
5.3 Construction and working of Power window regulating mechanism
5.4 Construction and working of Seat Adjustment mechanism.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will be able to understand
Construction or working, door, door locking mechanism
Construction of working on window regulating mechanism (manual
and power)
Construction and working of seat adjustment
5.1 Construction and working of door lock mechanism
In automobiles the doors play an important role of closing of the vehicle
for protecting of passengers and cargo as the case may be. In cargo transport
vehicles, the doors are closed as plain doors by using simple plain tower locking
mechanism.
In cars and luxury vehicles, the door locking provision is almost all
vehicles separately. In some door locking mechanism locks are provided outwards
and in some other vehicles inward direction .In some recent models they are
operated with remote control.
Door
Weatherstrip
Door
O u ts id e
M oul
Front door
Door Upper glass runn
hinge Front door
tr im
Door outside scrape
Door Lower Hinge Front door

g la ss
Front door Panel
Font door indide scrape

Glass Bottom channel Rubber
Glass Bottom channel
Front door rear

sash
Window regulator
Regulator handle escution

Window regulator Handle
Water Proof Film
Fig 5.1 Doorregulating mechanism

Method of door locking mechanism

Almost in all kinds of automobiles, the door locking mechanism is just
closing the door and the lock will be automatically operated For unlocking any
of the following methods may be applied.
(a) With a key
(b) By pressing the unlock button inside the vehicle
(c) By using a combination lock outside the door
(d) By pulling up the knob inside the door panel
(e) With a keyless entry remote control
(f) By a signal from control centre
Some of the vehicles, are having different methods of self check for
door locking. It will warn you if is not properly locked by lighting the body light
or beeping a horn etc. In power lock mechanism, body controller monitors are
the possible sources of locking and unlocking signals. There will be an actuator
in the door and a latch will be connected to the locking handle. When the
actuator moves, it connects the handle to lock the door. To unlock it the body
controller supplies power to the door lock actuated for timed interval.
A key less remote entry device consists of a fob in the key ring and a
radio receiver controller inside the car, which opens and closes the car doors on
the receipt of a signal form the fob.
5.2 Construction and working of Manual window regulating
mechanism
In cars and in some luxury vehicles, the window glasses can be operated
for opening and closing to some extent as per the necessity. This can be done of
manually or by using a single button of at each window or by using a panel of
buttons at the control of the driver.
In olden days only manually operated window regulating mechanism were being
used. There will be handle inside the door to regulate it. This can be operated
manually by rotating the handle to the extent required . There will be a wheel
inside of door panel which is connected to this handle.
5.3 Construction and working of Power window regulating
mechanism
In modern days the window regulating mechanisms are being operated
with power. By using the switches the height of closing and opening of window
glasses can be regulated. It is operated with electricity from the battery. In some
cars, these can be operated with remote control.
5.4 Construction and working of Seat Adjustment
mechanism
In automobiles the seat adjustment plays an important role in almost all
kinds of vehicles. The seat should be in proper manner for comfort sitting as per
the requirement of the operator. The space between the seat and operation
pedals like accelerator, clutch, brake etc. Should be in a proper manner that the
operater can reach them and it should be as long as possible if the operator is
tall. The seat can be moved to and from the front dash board. Its height also can
be increased or decreased as the case may be .
In buses of high comfort, the passenger seats can be adjusted according
to the requirements . These can be adjusted like an easy chair for a comfort
sitting or even for sleeping.
The seats used in cars are of various types such as rigid, folding back
and bucket type . The front seats may be single type or full bench type with seat
cushion and back rest . In case of two doors cars, the seat back rest in folding
type, so that it swings forwards to allow access into back seat. Front seats are
provided with adjustment that allows the seat to move back and forth or up and
down as per the requirements. These adjustment are done manually or by using
electric motor also.
Summary
There are two types of Door locking mechanism.
i. Manual
ii. Automatic
Sophisticated sensor operated door and window locking system are
there.
Window regulating mechanism is also either manually or battery
operated can also be used. These are operated with remote control.
The seat also can be adjusted according to the height of the person
and also giving sufficient space for legs.

1. What is the purpose of window regulating?
2. Howmany types of door locking mechanism are there.
3. What is the necessity of seat adjustment?
1. Briefly explain manual and power of operated window regulating
mechanism.
UNIT 6
Air Conditioning of Motor
Vehicles
Structure
6.1 Neccesity of automobiles air conditioning
6.2 Construction and working of passenger car air conditioning.
Leaning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to understand
The neccesity of automobile air conditioning
Constructional details and working of it
6.1 Neccesity of Automobiles Air Conditioning
The air conditioning of automobiles is very essential to maintain human
comfort and improve internal atmosphere of an automobile in an enclosed space.
It is required for proper control of freshness, temperature, humidity and cleanliness
of air which is done by automobile air conditioning.
Working Principle
In an automobile air conditioning system, three main processes of heating,
cooling and dehumidification are involved.
The heat required to warm the automobile is derived form the engine
coolant or circulating warm water after passing through a heating coil. For
producing cooling effect an evaporator coil is placed inside the chamber of

automobile . The air to be circulated inside the passenger compartment is cooled
by the evaporator coil. The dust particles are entrapped by the wet surfaces of
the evaporator core and are drained off with the condensed moisture. This
provides clean and pure air for breathing.
6.2 Construction and working of passenger car air
conditioning
The automobile air conditioning system includes compressor magnetic
clutch condenser, receiver-drier -strainer , expansion valve, evaporator, blower
and the air distributor system.
Compressor : It is driven by a belt from the crankshaft pulley. A magnetic
clutch engages the compressor shaft. The applied voltage to compressor clutch
coil, the clutch plate is locked by the magnetic force and the compressor shaft is
turned with the pulley. When the voltage is interrupted the springs in the clutch
plate and hub assembly automatically moves the plate away from the pulley
which causes the compressor to stop. The compressor compresses the refrigerant
to a maximum of about 20 kgf/cm2 at 1000C.
Magnetic clutch : It is essentially controlled and is housed in pulley
assembly. Its controlling switch is provided in the controlling panel. In the off or
vent position the compressor and its clutch are off. In other four positions of the
selector switch, the clutch is engaged or disengaged depending upon the
temperature of air.
Condenser : Condenser is basically a fin and tube radiator .It is usually
placed in front of radiator .It receives heated and compressed refrigerant vapour
from the compressor and is cooled by the air passing across the condensers.
Receiver - driver (or Dehydrator )
The refrigerant is stored under pressure in the receiver-driver. The
pressure in the receiver lies in between 5 kg/cm2 to 20kg f/cm2 depending upon
the compressor speed and surrounding air temperature. The drier removes any
traces of moisture present in the system to avoid freezing of moisture at low
temperature. Drier is usually a silica gel filter that absorbs any water.
Expansion valve : The refrigerant goes from dehydrator to expansion
valve where a sudden expansion to a much lower pressure occurs. The refrigerant
changes back to vapour state and this causes cooling effect. It is operated by
opposing pressures on either side of the diaphragm.
Evaporator : It is located inside the passenger compartment. It gives

cooling effect . A high capacity blower circulates the air in the interior part of the
vehicle across the evaporator coils and this drops the temperature. The heat
picked up by the refrigerant goes back to the compressor in the form of vapour
where the refrigerant is again compressed to a high pressure.
Suction throttling valve : It ensures that the refrigerant in the evaporator
stays at such a pressure that the evaporator core surface temperature does not
fall below the freezing point of water (00C), thus preventing ice formation in the
evaporator.
Fig 6.1 Automobile air-conditioning system
Summary
The air conditioning of automobiles is very essential to maintain comfort
and improve internal atmosphere of an automobile in an enclosed space.
In automobile air conditioning, there main processes of heating, cooling
and dehumidification are involved.
Main parts of Automobile air conditioning are compressor, magnetic
clutch, condensor, receiver - drier, strainer, expansion valves, evaporation, blower
and air distributor system.

1. What is the necessity of Automobile air conditioning?
2. What is the working principle of automobile air conditioning?
1. Briefly explain the construction and working of Automobile air
conditioning with neat sketch.
UNIT 7
Painting of Automobiles
Structure
7.1 Constitutents of paints
7.2 Methods of painting
7.3 Painting Procedure
7.4 Reasons for failure of paint.
Leaning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will able to understand the
Constituents of automobile paint
Painting methods and processes
Reasons for failure of paints in automobiles.
7.1 Constituents of Paints
Usually a paint consist of the following ingredients
1. Vehicle
2. Pigment
3. Enamel
4. Drier
5. Thinner
Vehicle
It is the main constituent of paint in solid form. It is the actual colour
ingredient of the paint which forms the film. It is also known as binder. The most
commonly used binders are synthetic or natural resins such as acrylics vinyl-
acrylics, Vinyl-acetate/ethylenes; polyurethanes polyester, melamine resins, epoxy
or oils.
Pigment
Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute colour.
The pigments impart toughness, texture to give the paint special properties. It
does not allow the main vehicle to loosen the paint particles. Titanium dioxide is
used as pigment inmost paints Silica, Alumina ,Zirconium are also used as
pigments .These materials give better exterior durability or better hiding
performance.
Enamel
The enamel portion of paint is mixed with vehicle and pigment to give it
glazing appearance.
Drier
The drier in the paint allows the paint to dry as fast as possible so that
the paint may not slip down from the body of the automobile to give it a uniform
appearance at all parts of the body. Driers are oxygen carrying catalysts. They
accelerate the drying of the oil film by oxidation , polymerization and
condensation. Most effective driers used are resinates, linoleates , tungstates
and naphthalenes of copper, manganese, lead and zinc.
Thinners
The thinner in the paint is used to make it thin while mixing the vehicle,
pigments and drier . It enables the paint to spread easily and also to be sprayed
as the case may be. It is a volatile substance. Therefore evaporates after the
paint has been applied. Popularly used thinners are turpentines , mineral, spirits,
benzene, dipentene, napthalene, xylot, kerosene, methylated naphthalene etc.
7.2 Methods of Painting
Different types of painting methods are being applied for painting of
automobiles
(i) Brushing
(ii) Dipping
(iii) Roller coating

(iv) Spraying
(v) Tumbling
Brushing
In automobiles some of the inner parts which can not be in reach of
spray gun, can be painted by brushing with automobiles paints using paint brush.
Dipping
The parts of irregular shape and small in size can either be sprayed nor
brushed. Such parts can be removed from the vehicle and dipped in a drum
filled with paint.
Roller Coating
In automobiles the parts which are in sheet shaped can be painted by
roller coating . The sheet shaped articles are passed though the rollers which are
dipped in paint. By rotating the rollers on the sheets, the paint will be applied
uniformly.
Spraying
The entire outer surface of the vehicle body is painted by means by
spraying the paint with spray gun. In this method the paint is atomized by the
force of compressed air or by the action of high pressure compression of paint
and turning of paint into small particles which travel to the article to be painted.
Tumbling
Small sized articles are painted by this method. They are put in a rotating
barrel containing properly mixed paint . The barrel is closed and rotated for a
suitable amount of time. Articles get coated with paint and after taking out, they
will be finally dried.
7.3 Painting Procedure
As anyone whos ever detailed by hand can tell you, painting a car is
anything but simple. However, automotive manufacturers have developed several
different techniques for body painting that yield effective, reliable results. The
process is completely automated and works mainly through sealed chambers
built onto the assembly line.
Step 1: Electrocoating
To keep the paint from peeling off or forming unsightly bubbles of rust
underneath, the entire exterior must be protected from corrosion. Getting into
each and every crevice with aerosol-sprayed paint can be difficult and expensive,
even with a completely automated system. Instead, chains are attached to the
chassis and the body is lowered by machine into a solution of ionically charged
paint particles. The chain is electrically conductive and linked to a larger circuit.
Meanwhile, the vat containing the paint solution is equipped with electrodes
linked to the same circuit. When the body gets submerged, the circuit is
completed, causing the current to flow from the vat electrodes, into the metal
exterior and up the chain. In the process, this electrical field pulls the ionic paint
particles toward the metal exterior, completely coating it.
After about 15 minutes of electrocoating, the body is hoisted out of the
vat and carried (via a ceiling-mounted track) to a drying chamber where heat
lamps dry the excess paint.
Step 2: Primer
Once the anti-corrosive layer has been electroplated on, primer is applied
to add smoothness and allow a top paint layer to stick to the body. First, the
body is lowered off the chains to rest on a floor apparatus attached to a track.
To apply the primer, the body moves down the track into a special sealed room
called a flow chamber (Figure 1). The flow chamber features a constant flow
of air that takes vaporized primer particles from openings in the ceiling where
they gently deposit on the exterior for a uniform thickness. Meanwhile, the bottom
of the chamber has several outlet openings attached to a vacuum, removing
excess primer to be collected and reused. After about 10 minutes, the body is
moved down the track to another drying room.
Step 3: Base Coat
Once the primer has dried, the body moves into another flow chamber
for the application of the base coat. The base coat constitutes the actual color
of the car, including textural details like aluminum flakes for a sparkle effect.
Like the primer, the base coats application involves the continual flow of
vaporized paint across the body for about 10 minutes, followed by a trip to a
drying room.
Step 4: Clear Coat

Just as the electrocoating protects metal from corrosion, the clear coat
protects the base coat against light scratches, organic solvents, water and UV
sun damage. As the name suggests, it is transparent, showcasing the base coat
like glass does a picture. Typically, a flow chamber applies the clear coat as
well.
7.4 Reasons for Failure of Paint
Chalking
It is the progressive powdering of paint film on the painted surface. This
occurs because of improper dispersion of pigment and vehicle.
Flaking
Peeling out of paint film from the painted surface is known as flaking.
This is due to the presence of dust or greasy matter in the paint. Improper
surface preparation may also cause this.
Cracking
Cracking of paint occurs because of
(i) Unequal expansion and contraction of coats
(ii) Variation of temperature of exposed film.
This can be prevented by applying a primary hard coat.
Colour Change
This happens because of chemical effects of atmospheric gases in the
environment.
Summary
A paint consists of the following ingredients :
i. Vehicle
ii. Pigment
iii. Enamel
iv. Drier
v. Thinner
A vehicle is the actual color ingredient and is also known as binder.
Pigments are granual solids to contribute colour.

Enamel is used in painting for glazing appearance.
Drier allows the paint to drug as fast as possible.
Methods of painting - Brushing, Dipping, Roller coating, Spraying,
Tumbling.
Reason for failure of paint - Chalking, Flaking, Cracking, Colour
change.
1. What are the constituents of Paint?
2. Mention the methods of vehicle painting.
3. What is chalking in painting of automobile?
4. What is flaking of Automobile painting?
1. Explain the ingredients of painting.
2. Briefly explain the painting methods.
3. Explain step by step process of Automobile painting.
UNIT 8
Automobile Pollution
Structure
8.1 Effects of automobile pollution on environment and human beings
8.2 Types of automobile emissions
8.3 Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic convertors
8.4 Exhaust gas Analyzer
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit the student will able to understand the
The effects of automobile pollution on environment and human beings.
Types of automobiles emissions
Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic convertors
Measuring of percentage of pollutants form petrol and Diesel vehicles
by using Exhaust gas analyzers
8.1 Effects of automobile pollution on environment and
human beings
The major sources of automobile air pollution are the exhaust gases of
the automobiles . The exhaust gases of automobiles contains severe pollutants in
the form of nitrogen oxides which are toxic. The oxides of nitrogen together
with Hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight and form petrochemical

smog. Its bad effects include crop damage.
8.2 Types of automobile emissions
(i) Exhaust emissions
(ii) Evaporative emissions
(iii) Crank case blowy
Exhaust emissions
The exhaust emissions contain the specific substances- Hydrocarbons
(HC) Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Oxides of nitrogen (NO). Hydrocarbons
are the unburned fuel vapours coming out with the exhaust due to incomplete
combustion.Hydrocarbons also occur in crank case blowy and fuel evaporation.
Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust . It is the exhaust of incomplete
combustion due to insufficient amount of air fuel mixture or insufficient time for
complete combustion. Oxides of nitrogen are the combination of nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which occurs only in exhaust . At high
temperatures nitrogen and oxygen heat with each other causing creation of NO.
Evaporative emissions
These emissions take place from the fuel supply system. About 30% of
the total Hydrocarbon emission occur from fuel tank, pipe lines, carburettor etc.
Crank case Blow by
Crank case blow by means the leakage of fresh charge past the piston
and piston rings form the cylinder to crank case. It is almost 20% of the total
HC emissions form the engine and about 30 % if piston rings are worn. In these
gases about 85% raw hydrocarbons and 15% of burnt gases will be leaked.
These gases can be controlled by crank case ventilation.
From the alone process, the major pollutants are released .Those are
(i) Carbon monoxide
(ii) Unburnt Hydrocarbons
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Lead oxides
(v) Sulphur dioxide
(vi) Smoke
Of the above pollutants, carbon monoxide (CO) is most undesirable.

The effect of CO inhalation are headaches, sickness or loss of mental alertness.
Carbon monoxide reacts with haemoglobin (HB) in the blood to give
carboxyhemoglobin (COHB) and this causes decrease of HB for oxygen
transport.
A combination of strong sunshine and stagnant air allows unburnt
hydrocarbons and oxides to nitrogen to combine chemically to produce
Photochemical smog. This causes damage to rubber, clothing , paint, and
exposed surfaces.
Lead present in lead oxides in exhaust gases can be harmful particularly
for children in the age group of 1 to 5 years.
Sulphur dioxide causes visibility attennation, bronchitis and even lung
cancer also.
8.3 Treatment of exhaust gases by using catalytic converters
The exhaust gases from the engine are passed through Catalytic
convertor which is a cylindrical unit about the size of a small silencer and is
installed into the exhaust system of a vehicle between exhaust manifold and
silencer. Inside the converter there is a honeycomb structure of a ceramic or
metal, which is coated with alumina base materials and thereafter a second
coatings of precious metal like platinum, palladium or rhodium. This second
coating serves as catalyst . A catalyst is a substance which causes a chemical
reaction . As a result of this reaction when the exhaust gases pass over the
convertor substance, toxic gases such as CO, HC and NO are converted into
harmless CO2, H2 and N2.
8.4 Exhaust gas Analyzer
The analysis of exhaust gases can be done with the help of infrared
analyzer. The analyzer is capable of measuring the hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide. The probe is inserted into the tail pipe of vehicle and the analyzer is
switched on. The exhaust sample is moved by an internal pump, through the
sample line and filter. Then it is vented to atmosphere. In the sample cell, a beam
of infrared light is made to pass through the exhaust sample. The analyzer then
determines the quantities of Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with the helps
of processing electronics and indicates the same by moving the respective
indicators. The quantities indicated are in parts per million (PPM).
Ve h i c l e Sample Wa t e r
Exhaust Probe Line trap Pump Filter Vent
Sample
Cell
Processing
e le c tr o ni c
unit
Fig 8.1 Operation of Exhaust gas Analyzer
Specifications of a typical modern gas analyzers

CO Ranges : 0-9.9%
Accuracy : + 0.21%
Repeatability + 2% fs.
HC Ranges 0-5000 ppm

Accuracy + 40 ppm at 0-2000 RPM
Repeatability + 150 ppm at 2000-5000 RPM
O2 Ranges 0-20.9%
Accuracy + 0.4% at 0-5%
+ 1.0 % at 5 - 20.9%
Repeatability + 2 % fs.
CO2 Ranges 0-20.0%
Accuracy + 0.9% at 0-0%
+ 0.48% at 10-16%
+ 1.44% at 16-20 %
Repeatability + 2% fs
Warm up time : 10 minutes at 200C

Response time : 14 seconds for 90% for final reading (10 m pipe)
Operating temperature : 20C to 430C
Dimension : 315 mm (w) x 282 mm (H) x 270 mm (D)

Weight : 14.3 kg.
Power : 200-24, v, 50-60 HZ, 100W.
Options : (i) Printer
(ii) RPM/ Oil temperature display
For Diesel engines it is also required to measure the smoke capacity
and K-value for which a smoke meter is used. Main specification of a typical
smoke meter (Manatec - DSM 2000) are as follows
Measurement Range Resolution
parameters
Opacity 0-99.9% 0.10%
K- Value 0.99.9% 0.10%
Other specification +
Linearity + 0.1 m-1
Repeatability 0.1 m-1
Response time physical < 0.4 sec
Response time - electrical < 1 ms
Warm up time < 3 minutes
Smoke measuring call length 430 mm.
Summary
The major sources of automobile air pollution are the exhaust gases
of automobiles.
The exhaust gases of automobile contain severe pllutants in the form
of nitrogen oxides.
Types of Automobile emmission.
i. Exhaust emission
ii. Evaporative emissions
iii. Crank case blow by

1. Mention the types of automobile emission.
2. Mention the pollutant released while crank case blow by.
3. What is the purpose of exhaust gas analyzer.
1. Briefly explain the working of catalytic converter.
2. Explain the operation of Exhaust gas analyzer.
3. Explain the effects of automobile pollution on environment and human
beings.
UNIT 9
Legal aspects of MotorVehicles
Structure
9.1 Traffic signs and signals
9.2 Requirements regarding registration of vehicle
9.3 Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles.
9.4 Insurance coverage
9.5 Procedure for obtaining Driving license
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student can be able to understand
Traffic signs and signals
Requirements regarding registration
Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles with insurance coverage
Procedure for obtaining driving license.
9.1 Traffic signs and signals
9.1.1 Traffic signs
(a) Mandatory
(b) Cautionary
(c) Informatory
a. Mandatory Signs
Fig 9.1 Mandatory speed limit
Fig 9.2 Weight limit

Fig 9.3 Total prohibition
Arrow in white
Red disc
Fig 9.4 Direction sign
Arrow in white
Red disc
Fig 9.5 No Parking

Fig 9.6 Overtaking Prohibited
cross and Border - Red

background - white device -
B la c k
Fig 9.7 Use of sound signals prohibited
Red Border centre white
White black ground red

border and band
Fig 9.8 Main road ahead

b. Cautionary Signs
8 cm Red Border
Centre white or hol-

low
Explanatory device
All devices printe black

Red Border
Painted in 25cm Black and

White Bands
Fig 9.9 General Design
Fig 9.10 Rough road, Zig-zag(right) and Zig - zag (left)

Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.11 Cross Roads Fig 9.12 Level Crossing Fig 9.13 Level Crossing
(Guarded) (Unguarded)
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.14 Right turn Fig 9.15 Left turn Fig 9.16 School
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.17 Dead end Fig 9.18 Side road Fig 9.19Side Road
cross road (right) (left)
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.22Hair Pin
Fig 9.20 Steep Hill Fig 9.21 Perry
Bend (right)
Red Border
Red Border
Fig 9.23 Hair Pind Bend (Left) Fig 9.24 Narrow

bridge red borders
c. Informatory signs
Fig 9.25 Flood Guage Side elevation

Fig 9.26 Road junction approach
Blue Black Ground

60 cm Square
Fig 9.27 Road junction approach
9.1.2 Traffic Light Signals

1. Red means stop. Wait behind the stop line on the carriages way.
2. Red and Amber also means stop. Do not pass through or start until
Green shows.
R R W
W W
W W G
W R
R
W W
W W
W
W
R W
W W R
W G W
Fig 9.28 Light Signals
9.1.3 Police Signals

1. To stop a vehicle approaching from behind
2. To stop a vehicle coming from front
3. To stop vehicles approaching simultaneously from front and behind
4. To stop traffic approaching from left and wanting to turn right.
5. To stop traffic approaching form the right to allow traffic from the left
to turn right.
6. To allow traffic coming form the right and turning right by stopping
traffic approaching from the left.
7. Warming signal closing all traffic
8. Beckoning on vehicles approaching form left

9. Beckoning on vehicles approaching form left
10. Beckoning on vehicles form front.
Fig 9.29 Police Signals
9.2 Requirements regarding registration of vehicle

Necessity for registration
According to Rule 22 in chapter III of motor vehicles Act No person shall
drive any motor vehicle and no owner of a motor vehicle shall cause or permit
the vehicle to be driven in any public place or in any other place for the purpose
of carrying passengers or goods unless the vehicle is registered in accordance
with this unit and the certificates of registration of the vehicle has not been
suspended or cancelled and the vehicle carries registration make displayed in
the prescribed manner.
Registration where to be made
According to section 23 of M.Y Act is Every Owner of a motor
vehicle shall cause the vehicle to the registered b a registering authority in the
state in which he is residing or the place of business where the vehicle is normally
kept.
9.3 Necessity of permits for commercial vehicles

According to Section 42 in chapter IV of M.V. Act
1. No owner to a transport vehicle shall use or permit the use of the
vehicle in any public place, whether or not such vehicle is actually
carrying any passenger of a permit granted or counter signed by a
Regional or State Transport Authority or Commission authorizing the
use of the vehicle in that place in the manner in which the vehicle is
being used. Provided that stage carriage permit shall subject to any
conditions that may be specified in the permit, authorize the use of the
vehicle as a contract carriage of goods for or in connection with a
trade or business carried on by him.
2. In determining for the purpose this chapter whether a transport vehicle
is or is not used for the carriages of goods for hire or reward.
(a) The delivery or collection by or on behalf of the owner of goods
sold, used or left or hire or give purchase the course of any trade or business
carried on by him other them the trade of business or providing transport.
(b) The delivery or collection by or on behalf of the owner of the goods,
which have been or which are to be subjected to a process treatment in the
course of trade or business or providing transport.
(c) The carriages of goods in a transport vehicle by a manufacturer of
or agent or order in such gods whilst the vehicle is being used
for demonstration purpose.
Shall not be deemed to constitute a carrying of the goods for hire or
rewards , but the carriage in a transport vehicle of goods by a person not being
a dealer in such good who had acquired temporary ownership of good for the
purpose of transporting ownership shall be deemed to constitute a carrying of
the goods for hire or rewards.
3. Sub section (1) Shall not apply
(a) To any transport vehicle owned by the central government and used
for Government purpose unconnected with any commercial
enterprise.
(b) To any transport vehicle owned by a local authority or by a person

acting under contract with a local authority and used solely for road cleansing
road watering conservancy purposes.
(c) To any transport vehicle used solely police, fire brigade or ambulance
purposes.
(d) To any transport vehicle used solely for conveyance purposes.
(e) To any transport vehicle used for towing a disabled vehicle or for
removing goods from a disabled vehicle to a place of safety.
(f) To any transport vehicle used for any other public purpose prescribed
in this behalf.
(g) To any transport vehicle used by a person who manufacture or deals
in manufacturer or in motor vehicles or builds body for attachment
to chassis.
(h) To any transport vehicle owned by or solely for the purpose or nay
educational institution which is recognized by the State Government or whose
managing committee is a society registered under the societies registration act,
1860 (XXI of 1860).
(i) To any goods vehicle which is light motor vehicle and does not ply
for reward to any two wheeled, trailer which a registered weight not exceeding
800 kilogram and down by a motor car.
(j) Subjected to such condition as the control government may
notification in the official gazette specify, to any transport vehicle, purchased
in one state and proceeding to a place situated in other state, without carrying
any gods or passengers.
(k) To any transport vehicle has been temporarily registered under
section 25, while proceeding empty of any place for the purpose of registration
to the vehicle under section 24.
(l) To any transport vehicle used for such purposes other than plying for
hire or rewards as the central Government may, by notification in the official
Gazette, specify.
(m) To any transport vehicle, which , wing, to flood earthquake or any
other natural calamity is required within or outside, with a view to enabling it to
reach is destination or
4. Subjected to provisions of subsection (3) sub section (1) shall of the

state Government by rule made under section 68 to prescribes apply to any
motor vehicle adopted to carry more than nine person excluding the diver.
9.4 Insurance coverage
(Chapter (viii) of M.V. Act 1939)
(i) Authorized insurer means an insurer in whose case the requirements
of the insurance Act 1938 (IV of 1938 ) the complied with
(ii) Certificate of insurance : Issued by an authorized insurer in persuade
of sub section (4) section 95, and includes a cover note complying with such
requirements as may be prescribed and where more than one certificate has
been issued in connected with policy or where a copy of certificate has been
issues.
(iii) Property includes road, bridges, culverts, cause ways, trees, pots
and milestones.
(iv) Third party includes the government.
(v) Necessity for insurance against third party risk (1) No person shall
use except as a passenger or cause or allow any other person to use a motor
vehicle in public place unless there is in force in relation to the use of vehicle by
that person or that other person as the case may be policy of insurance complying
with the requirements to this unit.
(2) Subsection (1) shall not apply to any vehicle owned by the central
Government purpose unconnected with any commercial enterprise.
(3) The appropriate government may be order exempt form the operation
Government sub section (1) any vehicle owned by any of the following authorities
namely .
(a) The Central government or state government if the vehicle is used
for government purposes connected with any commercial enterprise.
(b) Any local authority.
(c) Any state transport undertaking with in the meaning of section 68A,
provided that no such order shall be made in relation to any such authority
unless a final has been established and is maintained by that authority in
accordance with the rules made in that behalf under this act for meeting any
liability arising out of the of any vehicle of that authority which that authority or
nay person in its employment may occur to third parties.
9.5 Procedure for obtaining driving license

Driving license is must for driving a motor vehicle. The driving license
authorities the person to drive the vehicle.
For obtaining a driving license of a two wheeler / three wheeler/ light
motor vehicle of 4 wheelers ,a person should complete the age of eighteen
years and for a transport vehicle the person should complete the age of twenty
years.
The person should apply for a learning license before applying for any
type of license. It will be valued for a period of six months. The person should
apply for a permanent license before the expiry of a learning license.
For learning a person should carry the learning license and the vehicle
on which he is being trained to drive should be posted with L boards at front and
rear sides of the vehicles.
After being inspector under the regional transport authority, the person
will be issued a permanent driving license (According to third schedule or M.C.
Act)
A medical certificates issued in form C is the first schedule of M.V. Act
is also should be produced by the applicant for obtaining driving license.
A driving license shall specify whether the holder is entitled to drive as a
paid employee and whether he is entitled to drive a transport vehicle and shall
further be expressed as entitling the holder to drive a motor vehicle of one or
more of the following classes namely.
(a) Motor cycle
(b) Invalid carriage
(c) Light motor vehicle
(d) Medium motor vehicle
(e) Heavy motor vehicle
(f) Road Roller
(g) Motor vehicle of a specified description.
Summary
The vehicle should be registered at the Regional Transport Authority of
that Particular area.
Traffic signals are of three types a) Mandatory signals b) Cautionary
Signals c) Informatory Signals
For transportation, the vehicle should be permitted properly according
to section 42 of M.V. Act.
Before applying for driving license, one must apply for Learning License
for a particular vehicle.
1. Write any two mandatory traffic signals.
2. Write any four cautionary traffic signals.
3. Write any two informatory traffic signals.
1. Explain the procedure for obtaining a driving license.

AETPaperIIYR2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AETPaperIIYR2 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AETPaperIIYR2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT 1

Chassis Frame and Body

Front Shackle Frame Shackel

Side members Horizontal Pet rol

Fig 1.1 Chassis

1.3 The Functions of the Chassis frame

1.6 Different Bodies used in Automobiles

If it is an army vehicles, the vehicle are separately designed namely Arm

3. What is the purpose of chassis frame?

(iv) Different measurement and angles in steering gears measurement

Fig 2.1 Worm and Roller steering Gear

2.2.3 Worm and Sector Steering Gear

Fig 2.2 Worm and Sector steering Gear

Fig 2.3 Recirculating Ball steering Gear

2.2.5 Rack and pinion Steering gear

Fig 2.4 Rack and Pinion steering gear

2.3 Types of Steering system

Fig 2.5 Power steering Gear

2.4 Steering linkages

Fig 2.6 Power steering Gear

Fig 2.7 Conventionaal steering linkage

2.5 Under Steering, Over steering and Turning Radius

Fig 2.8 Davis steering gear mechanism

Ackerman steering gear : The Ackerman steering gear mechanism

Fig 2.9 Ackerman steering gear

2.7 Steering geometry - Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination,

Center of contact is di- Swivel line(steering axis) con-

Fig 2.10 Caster angle

Fig 2.11 Camber angle

King Pin Inclination or steering Axis Inclination

Fig 2.12 King pin inclination

The toe-in is provided to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels to

Fig 2.14 Toe-out

2.8 Steering defects - Wheel Wobble and Shimmy

2.9 List out the types of steering systems used in various

is outward it is known as positive and when the angle is inward it is

Efficiency % Approximate stopping distance (in metres) for the speeds

30 Km/H 50 Km/H 80 Km/H 100 Km/H

80 4.4 12.2 31.5 49.1

60 6.0 16.3 42.0 65.5

30 12.0 32.6 84.0 131.0

Fluid from Lines

Fig 3.1 Disc Brake

Brake Shoe Back Plate

Fig 3.2 Drum Brake

In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle

Fig 3.3 Hydraulic Brake System

Fig 3.4 Master Cylinder

Fig 3.5 Wheel Cylinder

Wheel cylinder or slave cylinder assist the main master cylinder in

Fig 3.6 Wheel Cylinder

It includes the following process :

Stop light switch

Fig 3.7 Air Brake

The compressor sends compressed air to the-reservoirs which are

iv. Wheel cylinder

(ii) To have minimum wheel hop.

Fig 4.1 Conventional Suspension System

4.2.2 Independent suspension system