48 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

IV.4 Potential flows

According to Lagranges theorem (IV.19), every flow of a perfect barotropic fluid with conservative
volume forces which is everywhere irrotational at a given instant remains irrotational at every time.
Focusing accordingly on the incompressible and irrotational motion of an ideal fluid with con-
servative volume forces, which is also referred to as a potential flow (xli) , the dynamical equations
can be recast such that the main one is a linear partial differential equation for the velocity potential
(Sec. IV.4.1), for which there exist mathematical results (Sec. IV.4.2). Two-dimensional potential
flows are especially interesting, since one may then introduce a complex velocity potentialand
the corresponding complex velocity, which is a holomorphic function (Sec. IV.4.3). This allows
one to use the full power of complex analysis so as to devise flows around obstacles with various
geometries by combining elementary solutions and deforming them (Sec. IV.4.4).

IV.4.1 Equations of motion in potential flows

Using a known result from vector analysis, a vector field whose curl vanishes everywhere on a
simply connected domain of R3 can be written as the gradient of a scalar field. Thus, in the case
~ ~v(t,~r) = ~0, the velocity field can be expressed as
of an irrotational flow

~
~v(t,~r) = (t,~
r) (IV.28)

with (t,~r) the so-called velocity potential .(xlii) .

Remarks:
The minus sign in definition (IV.28) is purely conventional. While the choice adopted here is
not universal, it has the advantage of being directly analogous to the convention in electrostatics
~ =
(E ~ Newt. ).
~ Coul. ) or Newtonian gravitation physics (~g =

Since Lagranges theorem does not hold in a dissipative fluid, in which vorticity can be created
or annihilated (Sec. ??), the rationale behind the definition of the velocity potential disappears.

Using the velocity potential (IV.28) and the relation ~aV = ~ expressing that the volume
forces are conservative, the Euler equation (III.20) reads
( 2 )
~
(t,~ ~
r) ~ (t,~ r) 1 ~
+ + (t,~r) = P (t,~r).
t 2 (t,~r)

Assuming that the flow is also incompressible, and thus constant, this becomes
( 2 )
~
(t,~ ~
r) ~ (t,~ r) P (t,~r)
+ + + (t,~r) = ~0. (IV.29)
t 2
(xli) (xlii)
Potentialstrmung Geschwindigkeitspotential
IV.4 Potential flows 49

or equivalently
2
~

(t,~r) (t,~
r) P (t,~r)
+ + + (t,~r) = C(t), (IV.30)
t 2

where C(t) denotes a function of time only.

~ ~v(t,~r) = 0 leads to the
Eventually, expressing the incompressibility condition [cf. Eq. (II.12)]
Laplace equation (p)
4(t,~r) = 0 (IV.31)
for the velocity potential .
Equations (IV.28), (IV.30) and (IV.31) are the three equations of motion governing potential
flows. Since the Laplace equation is partial differential, it is still necessary to specify the corre-
sponding boundary conditions.
In agreement with the discussion in III.3.2 c, there are two types of condition: at walls or
obstacles, which are impermeable to the fluid; and at infinityfor a flow in an unbounded domain
of space, where the fluid flow is generally assumed to be uniform. Choosing properly reference
frame R, this uniform motion of the fluid may be turned into having a fluid at rest. Denoting by
S(t) the material surface associated with walls or obstacles, which are assumed to be moving with
velocity ~vobs. in R, and by ~en (t,~r) the unit normal vector to S(t) at a given point ~r, the condition
of vanishing relative normal velocity reads
~
~en (t,~r) (t,~
r) = ~en (t,~r) ~vobs. (t,~r) on S(t). (IV.32a)

In turn, the condition of rest at infinity reads

(t,~r) K(t), (IV.32b)
|~r|

where the scalar function K(t) will in practice be given.

Remarks:
Since the Laplace equation (IV.31) is linearthe non-linearity of the Euler equation is in
Eq. (IV.30), which is trivial once the spatial dependence of the velocity potential has been
determined, it will be possible to superpose the solutions of simple problems to obtain the
solution for a more complicated geometry.

In potential flows, the dependences on time and space are somehow separated: The Laplace equa-
tion (IV.31) governs the spatial dependence of and thus ~v ; meanwhile, time enters the boundary
conditions (IV.32), thus is used to normalize the solution of the Laplace equation. In turn, when
is known, relation (IV.30) gives the pressure field, where the integration constant C(t) will also
be fixed by boundary conditions.

IV.4.2 Mathematical results on potential flows

The boundary value problem consisting of the Laplace differential equation (IV.31) together with
the boundary conditions on normal derivatives (IV.32) is called a Neumann problem.(q) For such
problems, results on the existence and unicity of solutions have been established, which we shall
now state without further proof.
IV.4.2 a Potential flows in simply connected regions
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
The simplest case is that of a potential flow on a simply connected domain D of space. D may
be unbounded, provided the condition at infinity is that the fluid be at rest, Eq. (IV.32b).
(p) (q)
P.-S. (de) Laplace, 17491827 C. Neumann, 18321925
50 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

On a simply connected domain, the Neumann problem (IV.31)(IV.32) for the velocity
potential admits a solution (t,~r), which is unique up to an additive constant. (IV.33)
In turn, the flow velocity field ~v(t,~r) given by relation (IV.28) is unique.

For a flow on a simply connected region, the relation (IV.28) between the flow velocity and its
potential is easily invertible: fixing some reference position ~r0 in the domain, one may write
Z
(t,~r) = (t,~r0 ) ~v(t,~r0 ) d~`(~r0 ) (IV.34)
~

where the line integral is taken along any path ~ on D connecting the positions ~r0 and ~r.

That the line integral only depends on the path extremities ~r0 , ~r, not on the path itself, is
clearly equivalent to Stokes theorem stating that the circulation of velocity along any closed
contour in the domain D is zeroit equals the flux of the vorticity, which is everywhere zero,
through a surface delimited by the contour and entirely contained in D.

Thus, (t,~r) is uniquely defined once the value (t,~r0 ), which is the arbitrary additive constant
mentioned above, has been fixed.
This reasoning no longer holds in a multiply connected domain, as we now further discuss.
IV.4.2 b Potential flows in doubly connected regions
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
As a matter of fact, in a doubly (or a fortiori multiply) connected domain, there are by definition
non-contractible closed paths. Considering for instance the domain D traversed by an infinite
cylinderwhich is not part of the domainof Fig. IV.1, the path going from ~r0 to ~r2 along ~02
0 (19) cannot be continuously shrunk to a point without leaving D.
then coming back to ~r0 along ~02
This opens the possibility that the line integral in relation (IV.34) depend on the path connecting
two points.
~r2

~ 0
602

~02
00
~02
6
6

~ 0
-01
~
r1
~r0 -
~01

Figure IV.1

In a doubly connected domain D, there is only a single hole that prevents closed paths from
being homotopic to a point, i.e. contractible. Let (t) denote the circulation at time t of the
velocity around a closed contour, with a given positive orientation, circling the hole once. One
easily checkse.g. invoking Stokes theoremthat this circulation has the same value for all closed
paths with the same orientation going only once around the hole, since they can be continuously
(19) 0
More precisely, if ~02 is parameterized by [0, 1] when going from ~r0 to ~r2 , a path from ~r2 to ~r0 with the
0 0
same geometric supportwhich is what is meant by coming back along ~02 is 7 ~02 (1 ).
IV.5 Waves in perfect fluids 51

deformed into each other without leaving D. Accordingly, the universal circulation (t) is also
referred to as cyclic constant (xliii) of the flow.
More generally, the circulation at time t of the velocity around a closed curve circling the hole
n times and oriented in the positive resp. negative direction is n(t) resp. n(t).
Going back to the line integral in Eq. IV.34, its value will generally depend on the path ~ from
~r0 to ~ror more precisely, on the class, defined by the number of loops around the hole, of the
path. Illustrating this idea on Fig. IV.1, while the line integral from ~r0 to ~r2 along the path ~02
0
will have a given value I, the line integral along ~02 will differ by one (say, positive) unit of (t)
00 , which makes one more negatively oriented
and be equal to I +(t). In turn, the integral along ~02
loop than ~02 around the cylinder, takes the value I (t).
These preliminary discussions suggest that if the Neumann problem (IV.31)(IV.32) for the
velocity potential on a doubly connected domain admits a solution (t,~r), the latter will not be
a scalar function in the usual sense, but rather a multivalued function, whose various values at a
given position ~r at a fixed time t differ by an integer factor of the cyclic constant (t).
All in all, the following result holds provided the cyclic constant (t) is known, i.e. if its value
at time t is part of the boundary conditions:

On a doubly connected domain, the Neumann problem (IV.31)(IV.32) for the velocity
potential with given cyclic constant (t) admits a solution (t,~r), which is unique (IV.35)
up to an additive constant. The associated flow velocity field ~v(t,~r) is unique.

The above wording does not specify the nature of the solution (t,~r):
if (t) = 0, in which case the flow is said to be acyclic, the velocity potential (t,~r) is a
univalued function;

if (t) 6= 0, i.e. in a cyclic flow , the velocity potential (t,~r) is a multivalued function of its
spatial argument. Yet as the difference between the various values at a given ~r is function of
time only, the velocity field (IV.28) remains uniquely defined.

Remarks:
Inspecting Eq. (IV.30), one might fear that the pressure field P (t,~r) be multivalued, reflecting
the term (t,~r)/t. Actually, however, Eq. (IV.30) is a first integral of Eq. (IV.29), in which the
~r-independent multiples of (t) distinguishing the multiple values of (t,~r) disappear when the
gradient is taken. That is, the term (t,~r)/t is to be taken with a grain of salt, since in fact it
does not contain (t) or its time derivative.

In agreement with the first remark, the author should remember that the velocity potential
(t,~r) is just a useful auxiliary mathematical function,(20) yet the physical quantity is the velocity
itself. Thus the possible multivaluedness of (t,~r) is not a real physical problem.

(20) ~ ..
Like its cousins: gravitational potential Newt. , electrostatic potential Coul. , magnetic vector potential A.
(xliii)
zyklische Konstante