UNIT III

Concrete Technology

Objective: To know different types of concretes and their workability

Syllabus: Fresh Concrete & Special Concretes Fresh Concrete: Workability Factors affecting
workability Measurement of workability by different tests Setting times of concrete Effect of
time and temperature on workability Segregation & bleeding, Steps in manufacture of concrete
Quality of mixing water, Tolerable concentrations of some impurities in mixing water, permissible
limit for solids as per IS456-2000, use of sea water for mixing concrete. Ready mixed concrete-
Introduction, Advantages and Disadvantages

Special Concretes: Light weight aggregates Light weight aggregate concrete Cellular concrete
No-fines concrete High density concrete Fibre reinforced concrete Different types of fibres
Factors affecting properties of F.R.C, Polymer concrete Types of Polymer concrete Properties of
polymer concrete, High performance concrete Self consolidating concrete, Ferrocement: Casting
techniques guniting, applications.

Learning outcomes:
Students will be able to

(i) Understand the properties of ingredients of concrete

(ii) Understand the setting times of concrete
(iii) Understand about the properties of fresh concrete and special concretes
(iv) Understand the impurities in water

Definition of Workability

The property of fresh concrete which is indicated by the amount of useful internal work
required to fully compact the concrete without bleeding or segregation in the finished
product.

Factors affecting workability:

Cement content of concrete

Water content of concrete

Mix proportions of concrete

Size of aggregates

Shape of aggregates

Grading of aggregates

Surface texture of aggregates

 Use of admixtures in concrete

Use of supplementary cementitious materials

The primary materials of concrete are cement, fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates and
water. Many times admixtures are used in concrete to enhance its properties. Therefore,
properties of these materials and their content affect the workability of concrete. Following
are the general factors affecting concrete workability

Cement Content of Concrete:

Cement content affects the workability of concrete in good measure. More the quantity of
cement, the more will be the paste available to coat the surface of aggregates and fill the
voids between them. This will help to reduce the friction between aggregates and smooth
movement of aggregates during mixing, transporting, placing and compacting of concrete.
Also, for a given water-cement ratio, the increase in the cement content will also increase the
water content per unit volume of concrete increasing the workability of concrete. Thus
increase in cement content of concrete also increases the workability of concrete.

Type and Composition of Cement:

There are also effect of type of cement or characteristics of cement on the workability of
concrete. The cement with increase in fineness will require more water for same workability
than the comparatively less fine cement. The water demand increased for cement with high
Al2O3 or C2S contents.

Water / Cement Ratio or Water Content of Concrete:

Water/cement ratio is one of the most important factor which influence the concrete
workability. Generally, a water cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.6 is used for good workable concrete
without the use of any admixture. Higher the water/cement ratio, higher will be the water
content per volume of concrete and concrete will be more workable.

Higher water/cement ratio is generally used for manual concrete mixing to make the mixing
process easier. For machine mixing, the water/cement ratio can be reduced. These generalised
method of using water content per volume of concrete is used only for nominal mixes. For
designed mix concrete, the strength and durability of concrete is of utmost importance and
hence water cement ratio is mentioned with the design. Generally designed concrete uses low
water/cement ratio so that desired strength and durability of concrete can be achieved.

Mix Proportions of Concrete:

Mix proportion of concrete tells us the ratio of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates w.r.t.
cement quantity. This can also be called as the aggregate cement ratio of concrete. The more
cement is used, concrete becomes richer and aggregates will have proper lubrications for easy
mobility or flow of aggregates. The low quantity of cement w.r.t. aggregates will make the
less paste available for aggregates and mobility of aggregates is restrained.

Size of Aggregates:
Surface area of aggregates depends on the size of aggregates. For a unit volume of aggregates
with large size, the surface area is less compared to same volume of aggregates with small
sizes. When the surface area increases, the requirement of cement quantity also increase to
cover up the entire surface of aggregates with paste. This will make more use of water to
lubricate each aggregates. Hence, lower sizes of aggregates with same water content are less
workable than the large size aggregates.

Shape of Aggregates:

The shape of aggregates affects the workability of concrete. It is easy to understand that
rounded aggregates will be easy to mix than elongated, angular and flaky aggregates due to
less frictional resistance. Other than that, the round aggregates also have less surface area
compared to elongated or irregular shaped aggregates. This will make less requirement of
water for same workability of concrete. This is why river sands are commonly preferred for
concrete as they are rounded in shape.

Grading of Aggregates:

Grading of aggregates have the maximum effect on the workability of concrete. A well
graded aggregates have all sizes in required percentages. This helps in reducing the voids in a
given volume of aggregates. The less volume of voids makes the cement paste available for
aggregate surfaces to provide better lubricating to the aggregates.

With less volume of voids, the aggregate particles slide past each other and less compacting
effort is required for proper consolidation of aggregates. Thus low water cement ratio is
sufficient for properly graded aggregates.

Surface Texture of Aggregates:

Surface texture such as rough surface and smooth surface of aggregates affects the
workability of concrete in the same way as the shape of aggregates. With rough texture of
aggregates, the surface area is more than the aggregates of same volume with smooth texture.
Thus concrete with smooth surfaces are more workable than with rough textured aggregates.

Use of Admixtures in Concrete:

There are many types of admixtures used in concrete for enhancing its properties. There are
some workability enhancer admixtures such as plasticizers and super plasticizers which
increases the workability of concrete even with low water/cement ratio. They are also called
as water reducing concrete admixtures. They reduce the quantity of water required for same
value of slump.

Air entraining concrete admixtures are used in concrete to increase its workability. This
admixture reduces the friction between aggregates by the use of small air bubbles which acts
as the ball bearings between the aggregate particles.
Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials:

Supplementary cementitious materials are those which are used with cement to modify the
properties of fresh concrete. Fly ash, fibers, silica fume, slag cements are used as
supplementary cementitious materials.

The use of fly ash in improves the workability of concrete by reducing the water content
required for same degree of workability or slump value.

The use of steel or synthetic fibers in concrete reduces the workability of concrete as it
makes the movement of aggregates harder by reducing the lubricating effect of cement paste.

The workability of concrete is reduced and increased based on the quantity of silica fume.
The use of silica fume in concrete can improves workability when used at low replacement
rates, but can reduce workability when added at higher replacement rates. Silica fume are
used as pumping aid for concrete when used as 2 to 3% by mass of cement.

The use of slag cement also improves workability but its effect depends on the
characteristics of the concrete mixture in which it is used.

Different Test Methods for Workability Measurement

Depending upon the water cement ratio in the concrete mix, the workability may be
determined by the following three methods.

1. Slump Test
2. Compaction Factor Test
3. Vee-bee Consistometer Test

1. Slump Test

This method is suitable only for the concrete of high workability.

This test is carried out with a mould called slump cone whose top diameter is 10 cm, bottom
diameter is 20 cm and height is 30 cm.
Procedure

The test is performed in the following steps:

1. Place the slump mould on a smooth flat and non-absorbent surface.

2. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained
and then add the required quantity of water in it.
3. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about one-fourth of its height.
4. Compact the concrete 25 times with the help of a tamping rod uniformly all over the
area.
5. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about half of its height and compact it again.
6. Similarly, place the concrete upto its three-fourth height and then up to its top.
Compact each layer 25 times with the help of tamping rod uniformly. For the second
and subsequent layers, the tamping rod should penetrate into underlying layer.
7. Strike off the top surface of mould with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is
filled to its top.
8. Remove the mould immediately, ensuring its movement in vertical direction.
9. When the settlement of concrete stops, measure the subsidence of the concrete in
millimeters which is the required slump of the concrete.

Recommended Slump Values for Various Concrete Works

Recommend slump in mm
Type of Construction
Minimum Maximum
Pavements 25 50
Mass concrete structure 25 50
Unreinforced footings 25 75
Caissons and bridge decks 25 75
Reinforced foundation, footings and
50 100
walls
Reinforced slabs and beams 30 125
Columns 75 125

Limitations of Slump Test

Following are the limitations

Not suitable for concrete containing aggregates larger than 40 mm.

Not suitable for concrete of dry mix.
Not suitable for very wet concrete.
Not reliable because slump may be of any shape.

2. Compaction Factor Test

According to this test, the workability may be defined as the amount of applied work required
to compact the concrete to its maximum density.

This method is adopted for determining the workability of concrete mix in laboratories. It
gives fairly good results for concrete of low workability.

Procedure

The apparatus required for performing the compaction factor test is shown below.
 1. The test is performed in the following steps:
2. Clean and dry the internal surface of the mould.
3. With the help of hand scoop, place the concrete in upper hopper A.
4. Open the trap door of hopper in order to facilitate the falling of the concrete into
lower hopper B. the concrete sticking to the sides of the hopper A, should be pushed
downward with the help of a steel rod.
5. Open the trap door of the hopper B and allow the concrete to fall into cylinder C.
6. Remove the surplus concrete from the top of the cylinder with the help of a trowel.
Wipe and clean the outside surface of the cylinder.
7. Weigh the cylinder with partially compacted concrete nearest to 10 g.
8. Fill in the cylinder with fresh concrete in layers not exceeding 5 cm in thickness and
compact each layer till 100 percent compaction is achieved.
9. Wipe off and clean the outside surface of the cylinder and weigh the cylinder with
fully compacted concrete nearest to 10 g.
10. Calculate the value of compaction factor using the following formula.

Compaction factor = weight of partially compacted concrete/weight of fully compacted

concrete
Recommended Values of Workability for Various Placing Conditions

Conditions Degree Values of Workability

20 10 seconds Vee-Bee time
Concreting of shallow sections
Very low
with vibrations
or 0.75 to 0.80 compacting factor
10 5 seconds Vee-Bee time or
Concreting of lightly reinforced
Low
sections with vibrations
0.80 to 0.85 compacting factor
5-2 seconds Vee-Bee time or
Concreting of lightly reinforced
sections without vibrations or 0.85 to 0.92 compacting factor or
Medium
heavily reinforced sections with
vibrations 25 75 mm slumps for 20 mm
aggregates
Concreting of heavily reinforced Above 0.92 compacting factor or 75
High
sections without vibrations 125 mm slump for 20 mm aggregates.

Advantages of Compaction Factor Test

Following are the advantages:

Suitable for testing workability in laboratories

Suitable for concrete of low workability
Suitable to detect the variation in workability over a wide range
Its results are more precise and sensitive.

3. Vee-bee Consistometer Test

The apparatus used in this method of test is shown below.

This method is suitable for dry concrete having very low workability

Procedure

The test is performed as given described below

1. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained
and then add the required quantity of water.
2. Pour the concrete into the slump cone with the help of the funnel fitted to the stand.
3. Remove the slump mould and rotate the stand so that transparent disc touches the top
of the concrete.
4. Start the vibrator on which cylindrical container is placed.
5. Due to vibrating action, the concrete starts remoulding and occupying the cylindrical
container. Continue vibrating the cylinder till concrete surface becomes horizontal.
6. The time required for complete remoulding in seconds is the required measure of the
workability and it is expressed as number of Vee-bee seconds.

COMPARISON OF WORKABILITY MEASUREMENTS BY VARIOUS METHODS

Workability Vee-bee Time in
Slump in mm Compacting Factor
Description Seconds

Extremely dry 32 18

Very stiff 18 10 0.70

Stiff 0 25 10 5 0.75

Stiff plastic 25 50 53 0.85

Plastic 75 100 30 0.90

Flowing 150 175 0.95

SETTING TIME OF CONCRETE:

Setting time of concrete differs widely from setting time of cement. Setting time of concrete
does not coincide with the setting time of cement with which the concrete is made. The
setting time of concrete depends upon the W/C ratio, temperature conditions, type of cement,
use of mineral admixtures, use of plasticizers particular retarding plasticizers. When the
retarding plasticizers are used, increasing setting time, the duration up to which concrete
remains in plastic condition is of special interest.

The setting time of concrete is found by penetrometer test.(IS:8142-1976)

PROCEDURE

The apparatus consists of a container which should have minimum lateral dimension of
150mm and minimum depth of 150mm. There are six penetration needles with bearing areas
of 16,32,65,161,323 and 645mm2 . each needle is stem is scribed circumferentially at a
distance of 25mm from the bearing area.

Fig: Needle with different bearing area

A device is provided to measure the force required to cause penetration of the needle. The
test procedure involves the

Collection of representative sample of concrete insufficient quantity and sieve it

through 4.75mm sieve and the resulting mortar is filled in the container.
Compacting the mortar by rodding , tamping or by vibrating.
Level the surface and keep it covered to prevent the loss of moisture.
Remove bleeding water, if any , by means of pipette.
Insert a needle of appropriate size, depending upon the degree of setting of the mortar
in following manner.
Bring the bearing surface of the needle in contact with the mortar surface.
Gradually and uniformly apply a vertical force downwards on the apparatus until the
needle penetrates to a depth of 251.5mm, as it indicated by the scribe mark.
The time taken to penetrate 25mm depth could be about 10 secs.
Record the force required to produce 25mm penetrations and the time of inserting
from the time water is added to cement.
Calculate the penetration resistance by dividing the recorded force by the bearing area
of the needle. This is the penetration resistance.
The clear distance should be two times the diameter of the bearing area. Needle is
inserted at least 25mm away from the wall of container.
From the graph penetration resistance has ordinate and elapsed time is abscissa.
Temperature Effect On Concrete Workability

When fresh concrete is laid at the site then proper curing of concrete is required, because
structures are exposed to the environment and in these conditions if there is no such an
arrangement against the environment, then there are many factors that affect the workability
of concrete and temperature is One of them. Temperature, almost in every aspect has negative
effects on the properties of concrete and same is the case with the workability of fresh
concrete.

When temperature increases, then in the same proportion workability of fresh concrete
decreases. The reason that stands behind is when temperature increases then evaporation
rate also increases due to that hydration rate decreases and hence, concrete will gain strength
earlier . Due to fast hydration of concrete, a hardening comes in concrete and that decreases
the workability of fresh concrete. Therefore, In return manipulation of concrete become very
difficult.

Time Effect On Concrete Workability

Effect of time:

The fresh concrete loses workability with time mainly because of the loss of moisture due to
evaporation. A part of mixing water is absorbed by aggregate or lost by evaporation in the
presence of sun and wing, and part of it is utilized in the chemical reaction of hydration of
cement. The loss of workability varies with the type of cement, the concrete mix proportions,
the initial workability and the temperature of the concrete. On an average a 125 mm slump
concrete may loss about 50 mm slump in the first one hour. The workability in terms of
compacting factor decreases by about 0.10 during the period of one hour from the time of
mixing. The decrease in workability with time after mixing may be more pronounced in
concrete with admixtures like plasticizers. For some particular total time after mixing, the
loss in workability is small and initial level could be regained without loss in the strength of
hardened concrete simply by adding extra water.

Bleeding and segregation

Bleeding is a form of segregation where some of the water in the concrete tends to rise to the
surface of the freshly placed material. This arises due to the inability of the solid components
of the concrete to hold all of the mixing water when they settle downwards (water being the
lightest of all the mix constituents). Bleeding of the water continues until the cement paste
has stiffened enough to end the sedimentation process.

Cement types can influence bleeding capacity, increased proportions of, for example, cement
combinations containing ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs), leading to an increase
in the time for bleeding continue due to a longer setting time. The presence of an adequate
proportion of very fine aggregate (smaller than 150m) reduces bleeding. Similarly
polypropylene micro-fibres are known to reduce bleeding.

If the bleed water is remixed during the finishing of the top surface, a weak top surface will
result. To avoid this, the finishing operations can be delayed until the bleed water has
evaporated. Conversely, if evaporation of the surface water is faster than the rate of bleed,
plastic shrinkage cracking may occur. BS 8500-1: 2015 Table A.9 c) states that "Cements or
combinations containing more than a mass fraction of 55% ggbs might not be suitable for the
wearing surfaces of pavement concrete due to the possibility of surface scaling in the top few
millimetres."

In more severe cases, segregation of aggregates can also occur, with the heavier coarse
particles moving towards the bottom of the concrete, leaving a cement sand paste layer on the
top surface.

Excessive working of a concrete prone to bleeding can prolong bleeding and encourage
further aggregate settlement.

Finishing an unformed surface can be adversely effected by bleeding

STEPS IN MANUFACTURE OF CONCREE:

Process of Manufacture of Concrete: It is interesting to note that the ingredients of good

concrete and bad concrete are the same.

If meticulous care is not exercised, and good rules are not observed, the resultant concrete is
going to be of bad quality.

With the same material if intense care is taken to exercise control at every stage, it will result
in good concrete.

The various stages of manufacture of concrete are: (a ) Batching (b) Mixing (c ) Transporting
(d ) Placing (e) Compacting (f ) Curing (g) Finishing.

Batching :

Volume Batching:

Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the
difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms of volume. Volume of moist sand in
a loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry compacted sand. The effect
of bulking should be consider for moist fine aggregate. For unimportant concrete or for any
small job, concrete may be batched by volume.
 Typical gauge box

Vol. Of gauge box = width(33.33cm) X height(30cm) X depth (35cm)

Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials.

Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and simplicity.

Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.

On large work sites, the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment's are used.

Mixing

Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete.

The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and
consistency.

There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete: (i ) Hand mixing (ii )Machine mixing

Mixing: Hand mixing

Hand mixing is practised for small scale unimportant concrete works.

As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more cement
to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
Hand mixing should be done over an impervious concrete or brick floor of sufficiently large
size to take one bag of cement.

Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate layers.
Mixing: Hand mixing

Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by shovel, turning the mixture over and
over again until uniformity of colour is achieved.

Water is taken in a water-can fitted with a rose-head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over.

This operation is continued till such time a good uniform, homogeneous concrete is obtained.

Mixing: Machine Mixing

Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete work
and for medium or large scale mass concrete work

Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete to
be produced is large.

They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.

Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time interval, whereas continuous mixers
produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is working. Mixing:
Machine Mixing

In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used. Batch mixer may be of pan type
or drum type.

The drum type may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action type.
As per I.S. 17911985, concrete mixers are designated by a number representing its nominal
mixed batch capacity in litres. The following are the standardized sizes of three types:

a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T

b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT, 375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT

c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R

TRANSPORTING: Concrete can be transported by variety of methods and equipments.

The precaution to be taken while transporting concrete is that the homogeneity obtained at the
time of mixing should be maintain while being transported to the final place of deposition.
The methods adopted for transportation of concrete are ; mortar pan, wheel barrow, hand cart,
crane, ropeway and truck mixer and dumpers etc.

PLACING: it is of utmost importance that the concrete must be placed in systematic

manner to yield optimum results. The precautions should be taken the methods adopted while
placing concrete in the under mention situations.
 a) Placing concrete within earth mould.

Ex: foundation concrete for a wall or column

b) Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber plank formwork

Ex: road slab and airfield slab

c) Placing concrete Usual form work (Ex: columns, beams & floors)
d) Placing concrete under water.

CURING: Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from
concrete during cement hydration. It may be either after it has been placed in position (or
during the manufacture of concrete products), thereby providing time for the hydration of the
cement to occur. Since the hydration of cement does take time days, and even weeks rather
than hours curing must be undertaken for a reasonable period of time if the concrete is to
achieve its potential strength and durability. Curing may also encompass the control of
temperature since this affects the rate at which cement hydrates.The curing period may
depend on the properties required of the concrete, the purpose for which it is to be used, and
the ambient conditions, ie the temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding
atmosphere. Curing is designed primarily to keep the concrete moist, by preventing the loss
of moisture from the concrete during the period in which it is gaining strength. Curing may
be applied in a number of ways and the most appropriate means of curing may be dictated by
the site or the construction method.

COMPACTION OF CONCRETE:IT IS the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air
from the concrete.

The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete:

a) Hand compaction

i) Rodding
ii) Ramming
iii) Tamping

b) Compaction by vibration

i) Internal vibrator(needle vibrator)

ii) Formwork vibrator(external vibrator)
iii) Table vibrator
iv) Platform vibrator
v) Surface vibrator
vi) Vibratory roller

c) Compaction by pressure and jolting

d) Compaction by spinning
FINISHING OF CONCRETE: finishing operation is the last operation for making
concrete. Finishing may not be applicable where as for the concrete road pavements, airfield
pavement or for the flooring of a domestic building, careful finishing is of great importance.

Quality of mixing water:

The water used for the mixing and curing of concrete should be free from injurious amounts
of deleterious materials. The unwanted situations, leading to the distress of concrete, have
been found to be a result of, among others, the mixing and curing water being of
inappropriate quality. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete.
In the case of doubt about the suitability of water, particularly in remote areas or where water
is derived from sources not normally utilized for domestic purposes, water should be tested.

TABLE: PERMISSIBLE LIMIT FOR SOLIDS AS PER IS 456:2000

Material Tested as per Permissible limits Max (in

ppm)
Organic IS 3025 part 18 200
Inorganic IS 3025 part 18 3000
Sulphates(SO3) IS 3025 part 24 400
Chlorides(Cl) IS 3025 part 32 2000 for P.C.C & 500 for
RCC
suspended IS 3025 part 17 2000

Table I: Recommended limits and possible hazardous effects of dissolved chemical

impurities in water

Impurities Limit Remarks

NaNO3 and KNO3 No limit available Sodium and potassium

nitrates give strength little
inferior to those obtained with
sodium chloride.

CaSO4 No limit available Water saturated with calcium

sulfate is satisfactory for the
liquid phase in cement paste
which is normally saturated
or even super-saturated with
this compound.

Ca(NO3)2 1.7% weight of cement Calcium nitrate added 1.7%

weight of cement accelerates
setting time and strength
reduction.
Na2SO4, MgCl2, 10,000 ppm 1% concentration of these
MgSO4 common ions, exclusive of
carbonate and bicarbonate,
could be present without
much effect on strength.

(FeSO4) No limit available In mix water, if 0.5, 1, 2, and

4 % weight by water shows
28 days and 3 years tensile
strengths which is exceeding
10 and 15% of control
specimens.

Zinc oxide 0.01% weight of cement No significant effect but 0.1%

strongly retarded setting time
and lowered strength.

Ammonium ion No limit available Ammonium chloride

increased strength. 0.4, 0.8
and higher percentage by
weight of water of
ammonium nitrate give same
strength as with similar
percentage of NaCl in water
for making concrete.

Tannic acid 0.5% weight of water No effect on strength but may

have a considerable effect on
setting time of concrete.

Tolerable concentrations of some impurities in mixing water:

S.no Impurity Tolerable concentration

1 Sodium and potassium carbonates and 1000 ppm(total) if this is exceeded, it
bi-carbonates is advisable to make tests both for
setting time and 28 days strength
2 Chlorides 10000 ppm
3 Sulphuric anhydride 3000 ppm
4 Calcium chloride 2% by weight of cement in pre
stressed concrete
5 Sodium iodate, sodium sulphate, Very low
sodium botate
6 Sodium sulphide Even 100 ppm warrants testing
Sodium hydroxide 0.5% by weight of cement, provided
7 quick set is not induced.
Salt and suspended particles 2000 ppm. Mixing water with a high
8 content of suspended solids should be
allowed to stand in a setting basin
before use.
 9 Total dissolved salts 15000 ppm
10 Organic material 3000 ppm. Water containing humic
acid.

11 PH Shall not be less than 6

Use of Sea Water for Mixing Concrete

It is advisable, as stated above, to use clean water fit for drinking purposes for making cement
concrete. However, at places where sea water is available in abundance and potable water is
costly, the sea water can be used for making cement concrete. The problem of using sea
water for mixing concrete has to be studied from the following two aspects:

(1)Strength
(2) Corrosion of reinforcement

(1) Strength:

Below table shows the analysis of average sea water. It contains about 3.50 per cent of
dissolved salts. The approximate percentages of various salts are 78 per cent of sodium
chloride, 15 per cent of magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate and the rest 7 per cent
of calcium sulphate, potassium sulphate, etc.

Now all chlorides tend to accelerate the setting of cement and to improve the strength of
concrete in early stages. On the other hand, the sulphates tend to retard the setting of cement
and to discourage the strength of concrete in early stages.

It is found that the net effect of these two contradictory actions is the fall in strength of
concrete to the tune of about 8 to 20 per cent. Hence the sea water can be used for mixing
cement concrete for structures where such fall in strength is permissible or where it is
possible to correct the same by adjusting water- cement ratio, cement content in concrete, etc.

The sea water tends to develop dampness and efflorescence. Hence it can be adopted for
concrete structures where finishing characteristics are not important or where persistent
dampness of the surface is permissible.
 (2) Corrosion of reinforcement:

It is found that the sea water does not lead to the corrosion of reinforcement, provided the
concrete is dense and there is enough cover to the reinforcement.

The minimum cement content for concrete permanently under sea water should be 3 kN per
m3 and the minimum cover over the reinforcement should be 75 mm. However it is not
advisable to take the risk of corrosion of reinforcement for prestressed concrete and hence the
sea water should not be used for making prestressed concrete.

Ready Mixed Concrete: A concrete whose constituents are weight-batched at a central

batching plant, mixed either at the plant itself or in truck mixers, and then transported to the
construction site and delivered in a condition ready to use, is termed as ready mixed concrete.

Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete:

1. Quality assured concrete:- Concrete is produced under controlled conditions using consistent
quality of raw material.
2. High speed of construction- Speed of construction can be vary fast in case RMC is used.
3. Reduction in cement consumption by 10 12 % due to better handling and proper mixing.
Further reduction is possible if mineral admixtures or cementitious materials are used.
4. Versatility in uses and methods of placing: The mix design of the concrete can be tailor made
to suit the placing methods of the contractor.
5. Since ready mixed concrete (RMC) uses bulk cement instead of bagged cement, dust
pollution will be reduced and cement will be saved.
6. Conservation of energy and resources because of saving of cement.
7. Environment pollution is reduced due to less production of cement.
8. With better durability of structure, their overall service life increase and there is saving in
life-cycle cost.
9. Eliminating or minimizing human error and reduction in dependency on labour.
10. Timely deliveries in large as well as small pours.
11. No need for space for storing the materials like coarse and fine aggregate, cement, water and
admixtures.
12. No delay due to site based batching plant erection/ dismantling; no equipment to hire; no
depreciation of costs.
13. Reduced noise and air pollution; less consumption of petrol and
diesel and less time loss to business.
DISADVANTAGES OF READY MIXED CONCRETE:

The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the
traveling time from the plant to the site is critical over longer distances. Some sites are
just too far away, however the use of admixtures like retarder can be added.
Furthermore, access roads and site access have to be able to carry the greater weight
of the ready-mix truck plus load. (Green concrete is approx. 2.5 tonne per m.) This
problem can be overcome by utilizing so-called 'mini mix' companies which use
smaller 4m capacity mixers able to reach more-restricted sites.
Concrete's limited time span between mixing and curing means that ready-mix should
be placed within 210 minutes of batching at the plant. Modern admixtures can modify
that time span precisely, however, so the amount and type of admixture added to the
mix is very important.

Lightweight Aggregates
Lightweight aggregate is a type of coarse aggregate that is used in the production
oflightweight concrete products such as concrete block, structural concrete, and pavement.
Most lightweight aggregate is produced from materials such as clay, shale, or slate.
Blastfurnace slag, natural pumice, vermiculite, and perlite can be used as substitutes,
however. To producelightweight aggregate, the raw material (excluding pumice) is expanded
to about twice the originalvolume of the raw material. The expanded material has properties
similar to natural aggregate, but is less dense and therefore yields a lighter concrete product.

Applications where lightweight aggregates are used include:

lightweight concrete masonry

structural lightweight and semi-lightweight cast-in-place concrete
low-density precast concrete units
low-density mortars for radiant heat floor and refractories
geotechnical low-density engineered fill
insulating concrete fill
concrete roofing tile and ballast
ground cover and soil-less mixes

Lightweight concrete

Lightweight concretes can either be lightweight aggregate concrete, foamed concrete or

autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC). Lightweight concrete blocks are often used in house
construction.

It can be three methods

1. Aerated concrete

2. No fines concrete

3. Using light weight aggregate

Lightweight aggregate concrete

Lightweight aggregate concrete can be produced using a variety of lightweight aggregates.

Lightweight aggregates originate from either:

Natural materials, like volcanic pumice.

The thermal treatment of natural raw materials like clay, slate or shale.
Manufacture from industrial by-products such as fly ash.
Processing of industrial by-products such as pelletised expanded slab.

The required properties of the lightweight concrete will have a bearing on the best type of
lightweight aggregate to use. If little structural requirement, but high thermal insulation
properties, are needed then a light, weak aggregate can be used. This will result in relatively
low strength concrete.

Cellular concrete

Cellular concrete is a lightweight cement-based material, containing many gas bubbles evenly
distributed in the volume, produced by blending and maturing of a mixture of cement, filler,
water, agent generating cells.

By the method of generating the air or gas cells there exist foam concrete and gas concrete.
Gas concrete is presented mainly in the form of pre-cast blocks, the majority of its
applications however demand it to be cast-in-place.

Cellular concrete is produced with various densities (volume weights) from 250 kg/m to
1600 kg/m. CFC is harder in comparison with traditional insulation materials, especially
when chemical and fire resistance is needed.

The specialists of CFC International LLC developed and patented a fundamentally new
approach to the preparation and application of aerated concrete in construction. A dry mix of
cellular gas concrete was created - Cellular Fibro Concrete ("Fibro" indicates that the cellular
concrete is reinforced with synthetic fibres). The dry mix is packed in 25 kg paper bags, 500
kg and 1000 kg big-bags, or transported in mobile silo-bunkers or in special vehicles with
built in mixers, directly to the construction sites.

The advantages of using cellular concrete for road construction are:

 Capillary blocking - using cellular concrete within the roadway and the sidewalk
reduces significantly the damage from frost heaving during the spring thaw;
The use of cellular concrete as a base for the sidewalk and the road creates an
extremely rigid foundation, thus, prolonging the life of the pavement and reducing
maintenance costs;
Lower costs - cellular concrete, replacing the insulation and bulk materials in
construction, requires a much smaller thickness according to its characteristics, so as a
result of this there are significant financial savings;
Easy to use - cellular concrete has a liquid consistency, so it is not afraid of the
roughness of the excavation. Monolithic porous concrete can be cast and aligned
exactly to the required thickness;
Less excavation - cellular concrete typically requires three to four times less thickness
than the loose materials (sand, gravel), and therefore reduces equally the depth of the
pit;
Protection from adverse weather conditions - the use of cellular concrete protects the
soil from the subgrade softening in precipitation;
Reduction of external damage - dumping and compacting of loose materials may
violate and weaken the base of the soil subgrade. Cellular concrete is poured in liquid
form, so no need of packing or vibration.

No-Fines Concrete

No-Fines Concrete is a method of producing light concrete by omitting the fines from
conventional concrete. No-fines concrete as the term implies, is a kind of concrete from
which the fine aggregate fraction has been omitted. This concrete is made up of only coarse
aggregate, cement and water. Very often only single sized coarse aggregate, of size passing
through 20 mm retained on 10 mm is used. No-fines concrete is becoming popular because of
some of the advantages it possesses over the conventional concrete.

The single sized aggregates make a good no-fines concrete, which in addition to having large
voids and hence light in weight, also offers architecturally attractive look.

In some occasions no fines concrete is used in houses because of its good thermal insulation
properties. Basically no fines concrete consists of coarse aggregates and cement without any
fine aggregates. It is essential that no fines concrete should be designed with a certain amount
of voids to enhance thermal insulation. The size of these voids should be large enough to
avoid the movement of moisture in the concrete section by capillary action. It is common for
no fines concrete to be used as external walls in houses because rains falling on the surface of
external walls can only penetrate a short horizontal distance and then falls to the bottom of
the walls. The use of no fines concrete guarantees good thermal insulation of the house.

High Density Concrete

High density concrete is a concrete having a density in the range of 6000 to 6400 kg/cu.m.
High density concrete is also known as Heavy weight concrete. High density concrete is
mainly used for the purpose of radiation shielding, for counterweights and other uses where
high density is required.
Properties of High Density Concrete:

Fiber-reinforced concrete

Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and
randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers
each of which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-
reinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution,
orientation, and densities.

The concept of using fibers or as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as
reinforcement since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in
mudbricks. In the 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete. In the 1950s, the concept of
compositematerials came into being and fiber-reinforced concrete was one of the topics of
interest. Once the healthrisks associated with asbestos were discovered, there was a need to
find a replacement for the substance in concrete and other building materials. By the 1960s,
steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic fibers such as polypropylene fibers were used in concrete.
Research into new fiber-reinforced concretes continues today.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FIBRES

1. Steel fibres
2. Glass fibre
3. Plastic fibres
4. Polypropylene fibres
5. Asbestos fibre
6. Carbon fibre etc.

FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF FRC:

1. Relative fibre matrix stiffness

2. Volume of fibres
3. Aspect ratio of the fibres
4. Orientation of fibres
5. Workability and compaction of concrete
 6. Size of coarse aggregate
7. Mixing

Benefits

Polypropylene and Nylon fibers can:

Improve mix cohesion, improving pump ability over long distances

Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
Improve impact resistance and abrasionresistance
Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing
Improve structural strength
Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
Improve ductility
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability

Steel fibers can:

Improve structural strength

Reduce steel reinforcement requirements
Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability
Improve impact and abrasionresistance
Improve freeze-thaw resistance

Polymer concrete:

Polymer concretes are a type of concrete that use polymers to replace lime-type cements as a
binder. In some cases the polymer is used in addition to Portland cement to form Polymer
Cement Concrete (PCC) or Polymer Modified Concrete (PMC)

In polymer concrete, thermoplastic polymers may be used, but more typically thermosetting
resins are used as the principal polymer component due to their high thermal stability and
resistance to a wide variety of chemicals. Polymer concrete is also composed of aggregates
that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone, and other high quality material. The aggregate
must be of good quality, free of dust and other debris, and dry. Failure to fulfill these criteria
can reduce the bond strength between the polymer binder and the aggregate.

Uses

Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete. The
adhesive properties of polymer concrete allow repair of both polymer and conventional
cement-based concretes. The low permeability and corrosive resistance of polymer concrete
allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage channels,
electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids or corrosive
chemicals. It is especially suited to the construction and rehabilitation of manholes due to
their ability to withstand toxic and corrosive sewer gases and bacteria commonly found in
sewer systems. Unlike traditional concrete structures, polymer concrete requires no coating or
welding of PVC-protected seams.It can also be used as a bonded wearing course for asphalt
pavement, for higher durability and higher strength upon a concrete substrate.

Polymer concrete has historically not been widely adopted due to the high costs and difficulty
associated with traditional manufacturing techniques. However, recent progress has led to
significant reductions in cost, meaning that the use of polymer concrete is gradually
becoming more widespread.

Properties

The exact properties depend on the mixture, polymer, aggregate used etc. etc. but generally
speaking with mixtures used:

The binder is more expensive than cement

Significantly greater tensile strength than unreinforced Portland concrete (since
plastic is 'stickier' than cement and has reasonable tensile strength)
Similar or greater compressive strength to Portland concrete
Much faster curing
Good adhesion to most surfaces, including to reinforcements
Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
Good chemical resistance
Good resistance against corrosion
Lighter weight (slightly less dense than traditional concrete, depending on the resin
content of the mix)
May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
Allows use of regular form-release agents (in some applications)
Dielectric
Product hard to manipulate with conventional tools such as drills and presses due to
its density. Recommend getting pre-modified product from the manufacturer
Small boxes are more costly when compared to its precast counterpart however pre
cast concretes induction of stacking or steel covers quickly bridge the gap.

TYPES OF POLYMER CONCRETE

1. Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)

2. Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
3. Polymer concrete (PC)
Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC): Polymer impregnated concrete is one of the
widely used polymer composite. It is nothing but a precast conventional concrete,
cured and dried in oven, or by dielectric heating from which the air in the open cell is
removed by vacuum. Then a low viscosity monomer is diffused through the open cell
and polymerized by using radiation, application of heat or by chemical initiation
Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)

Polymer cement concrete (PCC): Polymer cement concrete is made by mixing

cement, aggregates, water and monomer. Such plastic mixture is cast in moulds,
cured, dried and polymerized. The monomers that are used in PCC are: (a) Polyster-
styrene. (b) Epoxy-styrene. (c) Furans. (d) Vinylidene Chloride. Polymer Cement
Concrete (PCC)
 Polymer concrete (PC): Polymer concrete is an aggregate bound with a polymer
binder instead of Portland cement as in conventional concrete. The main technique in
producing PC is to minimize void volume in the aggregate mass so as to reduce the
quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregates. This is achieved by properly
grading and mixing the aggregates to attain the maximum density and minimum void
volume. The graded aggregates are prepacked and vibrated in a moulds. Monomer is
then diffused up through the aggregates and polymerization is initiated by radiation or
chemical means. A Silone coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the
bond strength between the polymer and the aggregate. In case polyester resins are
used no polymerization is required.

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE: High performance concrete is a concrete mixture,

which possess high durability and high strength when compared to conventional concrete.
This concrete contains one or more of cementious materials such as fly ash, Silica fume or
ground granulated blast furnace slag and usually a super plasticizer. The term high
performance is somewhat pretentious because the essential feature of this concrete is that its
ingredients and proportions are specifically chosen so as to have particularly appropriate
properties for the expected use of the structure such as high strength and low permeability.
Hence High performance concrete is not a special type of concrete. It comprises of the same
materials as that of the conventional cement concrete. The use of some mineral and chemical
admixtures like Silica fume and Super plasticizer enhance the strength, durability and
workability qualities to a very high extent.

High Performance concrete works out to be economical, even though its

initial cost is higher than that of conventional concrete because the use of High Performance
concrete in construction enhances the service life of the structure and the structure suffers less
damage which would reduce overall costs.

SELF CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE: Self-consolidating concrete or self-compacting

concrete is a concrete mix which has a low yield stress, high deformability, good segregation
resistance (prevents separation of particles in the mix), and moderate viscosity (necessary to
ensure uniform suspension of solid particles during transportation, placement (without
external compaction), and thereafter until the concrete sets).

In everyday terms, when poured, SCC is an extremely fluid mix with the following
distinctive practical features - it flows very easily within and around the formwork, can flow
through obstructions and around corners ("passing ability"), is close to self-levelling
(although not actually self-levelling), does not require vibration or tamping after pouring, and
follows the shape and surface texture of a mold (or form) very closely once set. As a result,
pouring SCC is also much less labor-intensive compared to standard concrete mixes. Once
poured, SCC is usually similar to standard concrete in terms of its setting and curing time
(gaining strength), and strength. SCC does not use a high proportion of water to become fluid
- in fact SCC may contain less water than standard concretes. Instead, SCC gains its fluid
properties from an unusually high proportion of fine aggregate, such as sand (typically 50%),
combined with super plasticizers (additives that ensure particles disperse and do not settle in
the fluid mix) and viscosity-enhancing admixtures (VEA).

SCC can be used for casting heavily reinforced sections, places where there can be no access
to vibrators for compaction and in complex shapes of formwork which may otherwise be
impossible to cast, giving a far superior surface than conventional concrete. The relatively
high cost of material used in such concrete continues to hinder its widespread use in various
segments of the construction industry, including commercial construction, however the
productivity economics take over in achieving favorable performance benefits and works out
to be economical in pre-cast industry.

FERRO CEMENT CASTING AND GUNTING TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS

Ferro cement is a thin construction element with thickness in the order of 10-25 mm (3/81
in.) and uses rich cement mortar; no coarse aggregate is used; and the reinforcement consists
of one or more layers of continuous/ small diameter steel wire/ weld mesh netting. It requires
no skilled labour for casting, and employs only little or no formwork. In ferrocement, cement
matrix does not crack since cracking forces are taken over by wire mesh reinforcement
immediately below the surface

GUNTING: The process of gunting can be adopted for applying the mortar to the wire mesh
system. This process applied with experienced gunman can give good compact and uniform
surface. This appears to be suitable process for mass production of ferrocement prefabricated
units.

Following are the advantages of guniting

The high compressive strength is obtained. Strength of about 56 to 70 n/mm2 at 28 days

is generally obtained.
The high impermeability is achieved.
The repairs are carried out in any situation in a short time.

Properties of Ferro cement:

Highly versatile form of reinforced concrete.

Its a type of thin reinforced concrete construction, in which large amount of small
diameter wire meshes uniformly throughout the cross section.
Mesh may be metal or suitable material.
Instead of concrete Portland cement mortar is used.
Strength depends on two factors quality of sand/cement mortar mix and quantity of
reinforcing materials used.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ferro cement

Advantages:

Basic raw materials are readily available in most countries.

Fabricated into any desired shape.
Low labour skill required.
Ease of construction, low weight and long lifetime.
Low construction material cost.
Better resistance against earthquake.
Disadvantages:

Structures made of it can be punctured by collision with pointed objects.

Corrosion of the reinforcing materials due to the incomplete coverage of metal by
mortar.
It is difficult to fasten to Ferro cement with bolts, screws, welding and nail etc.
Large no of labors required.
Cost of semi-skilled and unskilled labors is high.
Tying rods and mesh together is especially tedious and time consuming.

Process of Ferro cements Construction:

Fabricating the skeletal framing system.

Applying rods and meshes.
Plastering.
Curing

Applications of Ferro cements in Construction:

Housing
Marine
Agricultural
Rural Energy
Anticorrosive Membrane Treatment.
Miscellaneous.
 Assignment-Cum-Tutorial Questions

A. Questions testing the remembering / understanding level of students

I) Objective Questions

1. In slump test for determining workability of concrete, the slump is expressed

(a) Metres

(b) centimetres

(c) millimetres

(d) kilometres

2. The concrete having a slump of 6.0 cm is said to be

(a) Plastic

(b) semi plastic

(c) earth

(d) dry

3. The dimensions of the slump cone apparatus is

(a)10cmx20cmx30cm
(b) 20cmx10cmx30cm
(c) 5cmx10cmx15cm
(d) 10cmx10cmx10cm

4. Bleeding of concrete is said to occur occurs when

(a) fine particles settle down at the bottom

(b) fine particles collect at some places in the structure

(c) coarse particles gets separated from finer materials

(d) excess water comes upon the surface

5. Segregation in concrete occurs in when _________

(a) cement gets separated from mixture due to excess water

(b) cement fails to give adequate binding quality

(c) water is driven out of concrete at a faster rate

(d) coarse aggregate tries to separate out

6. A compaction factor of 0.85 for a sample indicates

 (a) very good workability (b) good work ability

(c) a mix of medium workability (d) a mix of low workability

7.The units for vee-bee consistometer test

(a) mm (b) cm (c) hours (d) secs

8. a compacting factor of concrete 0.80 then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium (d) high

9. a compacting factor of concrete 0.85 then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium (d) high

10. a compacting factor of concrete 0.93 then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium (d) high

II) Descriptive Questions

1. Define workability.
2. Define setting time of concrete.
3. Define segregation and bleeding.
4. What is RMC plant and mention any two advantages and disadvantages.
5. Define gunting.
6. What are the applications of ferrocement products.
7. Define FRC and factors effecting on FRC.
B. Questions testing the ability of students in applying the concepts.
I) Multiple Choice Questions:
1. If the value of slump is 25-75 mm then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium (d) high

2. If the value of slump is 50-100 mm then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium ( d) high

3. If the value of slump is 100-150 mm then the degree of workability is

(a) very low (b) low (c) medium (d) high

4. Measurement of workability of concrete by

(a) slump test (b) compacting factor test

(c) flow test (d) vee-bee consistometer test (e) all

5. The type failures of concrete occurs in workability by slump cone test

 (a) true slump (b) shear (c) collapse (d) any of the above

6. A concrete is said to be workable if

(a) it shows signs of bleeding

(b) it shows signs of segregation

(c) it can be easily mixed, placed & compacted

(d) it contains more than optimum quantity of water

7. Concrete is considered as unsuitable for compaction by vibration if it is

(a) plastic (b) semi plastic (c) dry (d) moist earth

8. If a concrete gives more strength than the designed value

(a) cement content is reduced

(b) water % is increased

(c) proportion of sand is changed

(d) water cement ratio is changed

9. According to ISI the full strength of concrete is achieved after

(a) 7 days (b) 14 days (c) 21 days (d) 28 days

10. The strength of concrete is decreased by

(a) reversible stress (b) vibration (c) direct impact (d) all of the above

II) Descriptive Questions

1. What is Workability and explain various factors influencing the Workability?
2. Define workability. What are the different methods for measuring the workability?
3. How is the compacting factor measured?
4. What is segregation and bleeding?
5. What are the different steps in the manufacture of concrete?
6. What are the Factors affecting properties of F.R.C?
7. Explain the following
a) Cellular concrete
b) Polymer concrete
c) High performance concrete
d) No fines concrete
e) light weight aggregate concrete
f) Self consolidating concrete
g) High density concrete
h) fibre reinforced concrete
C. Questions testing the analyzing /evaluating ability of students
1. How do you select the suitability of workability tests of different concretes?
2. Analyse the effect of time and temperature on workability.
3. How do you control the segregation and bleeding on workability?
4. Whether sea water can be used for concrete mix or not? Discuss
5. Discuss the suitability of light weight aggregate in construction.
6. Analyse the advantages of steel fibres in construction.
D. GATE/ Competitive oriented bits
1. The PH value of water for making concrete is

(a) 6-8 (b) 7-9 (c) 5-8 (d) 7-11

2. The sulphate (SO3) concentration in water for making concrete should not be more than

(a) 400 ppm (b) 3000 ppm (c) 5000 ppm (d) 10000 ppm

3. Organic matter in water for making concrete should not be more than

(a) 200 ppm (b) 2000 ppm (c) 5000 ppm (d) 10000 ppm