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Educational Technology

Book February 2015

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2180.9449

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1 author:

Michael Brckner
Naresuan University
60 PUBLICATIONS 212 CITATIONS

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 Educational Technology

Related articles from the Wikipedia (Feb. 14, 2015)

Michael Brckner
Faculty of Education
Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
Contents

1 Educational technology 1
1.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Related terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Behaviorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Cognitivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Synchronous and asynchronous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Linear learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.3 Collaborative learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 Audio and video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 Computers, tablets and mobile devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.3 Social networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.4 Webcams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.5 Whiteboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.6 Screencasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.7 Virtual classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.8 Learning management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.9 Learning objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.1 Preschool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.2 K12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.3 Higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.4 Corporate and professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.5 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.6 ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.7 Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

i
ii CONTENTS

1.8 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8.1 Everest eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8.2 Over-stimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8.3 Sociocultural criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Teacher training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.10 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.11 Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.12 Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 Learning theory (education) 24

2.1 Educational psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.1 Behavior analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2 Cognitivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.3 Constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.4 Transformative learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Educational neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.1 A brain-based theory of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Multiple intelligences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Multimedia learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Other learning theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 Learning style theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Informal and post-modern theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 Philosophical anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7 Criticism of learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3 Information and communications technology 30

3.1 History of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Global costs of IT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 ICT Development Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 The WSIS Process and ICT development goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
CONTENTS iii

4 Educational software 32
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.1 1940s - 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.2 1970s 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.3 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.1 Courseware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.2 Study aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.3 Classroom aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.4 Assessment software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.5 Reference software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.6 Custom platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.7 Corporate training and tertiary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.8 Specic educational purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.9 Operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Selected reports and academic articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5 E-learning (theory) 36
5.1 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Learning theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.1 Self-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Teacher use of technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 Instructional design 39
6.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.2 1946 Edgar Dales Cone of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.3 Mid-1950s through mid-1960s - The Programmed Instruction Movement . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.4 Early 1960s - The Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.5 1965 - Domains of Learning, Events of Instruction, and Hierarchical Analysis . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.6 1967 - Formative Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.7 The 1970s - Growing of Interest in the Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.8 The 1980s - Introduction of Personal Computers into the Design Process . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.9 The 1990s - A Growing Interest in Constructivist Theory and the Importance of Performance 40
6.1.10 The 2000s - Rise of the Internet and Online Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.11 2010 and forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Instructional Media History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
iv CONTENTS

6.3 Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.4 Gagn's Theory of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1 Overview of Gagns instructional theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5 Learning design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.6 Instructional design models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.6.1 ADDIE process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.6.2 Rapid prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.6.3 Dick and Carey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.6.4 Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.6.5 Other instructional design models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.7 Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.7.1 The ARCS Model of Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.7.2 Motivating Opportunities Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.8 Inuential researchers and theorists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7 Synchronous learning 51
7.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8 Asynchronous learning 52
8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2 Development of an asynchronous community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.3 Roles of instructors and learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.4 Strengths of asynchronous learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.5 Shortcomings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

9 Computer-supported collaborative learning 56

9.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.2 Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.2.1 Precursor theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.2.2 Collaboration theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.3 Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.4 Teacher roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.5 Criticism and concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
CONTENTS v

9.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

10 Electronic portfolio 60
10.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.2 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.2.1 E-portfolios in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.2.2 Other Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.3 Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

11 Distance education 63
11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.1.1 First distance education courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.1.2 University correspondence courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.1.3 Radio and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.1.4 Open University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.1.5 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.2 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.3 Paced and self paced models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
11.4 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
11.5 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
11.6 Educational technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

12 OpenCourseWare 73
12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.3 edX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.5 Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.5.1 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.5.2 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.5.3 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.6 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.6.1 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.6.2 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
12.6.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
vi CONTENTS

12.6.4 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
12.7 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.7.1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.7.2 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.7.3 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.7.4 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.7.5 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.8 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

13 Virtual learning environment 78

13.1 Major components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.2 Similar terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.3 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.4 Justication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.5 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.6 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.7 Systems available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

14 Learning management system 82

14.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.1.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.1.3 LMS and CMS compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.1.4 LMS and LCMS compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.1.5 LMS as the ubiquitous term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.2 Technical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.3 Learning management industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.5 Further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
14.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
14.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

15 History of virtual learning environments 86

15.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
CONTENTS vii

15.2 Pre-1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
15.3 1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4 1950s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4.1 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4.2 19531956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4.3 1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4.4 19561958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.4.5 1957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.4.6 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.4.7 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.5 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.5.1 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.5.2 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.5.3 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.5.4 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.5.5 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.5.6 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.5.7 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.5.8 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.6 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.6.1 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.6.2 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.6.3 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.6.4 1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.6.5 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.6.6 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.6.7 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.6.8 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.6.9 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.6.10 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.7 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.7.1 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.7.2 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.7.3 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.7.4 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.7.5 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.7.6 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.7.7 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.7.8 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.7.9 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.7.10 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
viii CONTENTS

15.8 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

15.8.1 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15.8.2 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15.8.3 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15.8.4 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15.8.5 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.8.6 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.8.7 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.8.8 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.9 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.9.1 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.9.2 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.9.3 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.9.4 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.9.5 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.9.6 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.9.7 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
15.9.8 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.9.9 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.9.10 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
15.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

16 Moodle 111
16.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
16.1.1 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
16.1.2 Plugins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
16.1.3 Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
16.1.4 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
16.1.5 Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16.2 Elearning standards compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16.3 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16.4 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16.5 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.5.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.5.2 Pedagogical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.5.3 Origin of name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.6 Moodle statistics and market share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.7 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
16.8 Services Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.8.1 Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
CONTENTS ix

16.9 Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

16.10Moodle conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
16.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.13.1 Moodle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
16.13.2 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

17 Blackboard Learning System 116

17.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
17.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
17.3 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
17.4 Product development and competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
17.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
17.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
17.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

18 Learning object 118

18.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
18.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
18.3 Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.4 Mutability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.5 Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.6 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
18.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

19 Learning object metadata 121

19.1 IEEE 1484.12.1 2002 Standard for Learning Object Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
19.1.1 In brief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
19.2 Technical details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
19.2.1 How the data model works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
19.2.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
19.2.3 Related specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
19.2.4 Application proles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
19.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
19.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

20 Intelligent tutoring system 125

20.1 History of ITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
x CONTENTS

20.1.1 Early mechanical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

20.1.2 Early electronic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
20.1.3 Microcomputers and intelligent systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20.1.4 Modern ITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20.3 Design and development methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
20.4 Use in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
20.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
20.5.1 Examples in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.5.2 Examples in corporate training and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20.6 Eectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.7 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.8 Current and Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.9 ITS conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.11Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.11.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.11.2 Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

21 Serious game 137

21.1 Denition and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
21.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
21.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
21.4 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
21.5 Research and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
21.6 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
21.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
21.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
21.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
21.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

22 Sharable Content Object Reference Model 144

22.1 SCORM versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
22.1.1 SCORM 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
22.1.2 SCORM 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
22.1.3 SCORM 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
22.1.4 Experience API (Tin Can API) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
22.2 SCORM timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
22.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
22.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
CONTENTS xi

22.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

23 E-learning 146
23.1 History, theory, types of media and information and communication technologies, and usage settings 146
23.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
23.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

24 M-learning 148
24.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
24.2 Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
24.2.1 Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
24.2.2 At work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
24.2.3 Lifelong learning and self-learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
24.2.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
24.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
24.3.1 Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
24.3.2 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
24.3.3 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
24.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
24.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

25 Oine mobile learning 153

25.1 Mobile Learning: Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
25.2 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25.3 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25.4 Specic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
25.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

26 E-assessment 155
26.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
26.2 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
26.3 E-assessment standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
26.4 Hand-held student response systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
26.5 Note on terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
26.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
26.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
26.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
26.9 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
26.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
26.11Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
26.12Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
xii CONTENTS

26.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

26.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
26.12.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Chapter 1

Educational technology

Educational technology is the eective use of techno- ternet in networked learning, underlie many e-learning
logical tools in learning. As a concept, it concerns an processes.[6]
array of tools, such as media, machines and networking
Educational technology and e-learning can occur in or
hardware, as well as considering theoretical perspectives out of the classroom. It can be self-paced, asynchronous
for their eective application.[1][2]
learning or may be instructor-led, synchronous learning.
Educational technology is not restricted to high It is suited to distance learning and in conjunction with
technology.[3] Nonetheless, electronic educational face-to-face teaching, which is termed blended learning.
technology has become an important part of society Educational technology is used by learners and educators
today.[4] Modern educational technology includes (and in homes, schools (both K-12 and higher education), busi-
is broadly synonymous with) e-learning, instructional nesses, and other settings.
technology, information and communication technology
(ICT) in education, EdTech, learning technology, mul-
timedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), 1.1 Denition
computer-based instruction (CBI), computer managed
instruction, computer-based training (CBT), computer-
assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction Richey dened educational technology as the study
(CAI), internet-based training (IBT), exible learning, and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improv-
web-based training (WBT), online education, virtual ing performance by creating, using and managing ap-
education, personal learning environments, networked propriate technological processes and resources.[1] The
learning, virtual learning environments (VLE) (which Association for Educational Communications and Tech-
are also called learning platforms), m-learning, and nology (AECT) denoted instructional technology as the
digital education. These labels have been variously theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
used and understood, and conate to the broad domain management, and evaluation of processes and resources
of educational technology and e-learning.[5] These for learning.[2][7][8] As such, educational technology
alternative descriptive terms are all more restrictive refers to all valid and reliable applied education science,
than educational technology in that they individually such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures,
emphasize a particular digitization approach, component that are derived from scientic research, and in a given
or delivery method. For example, m-learning emphasizes context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic
mobility, but is otherwise indistinguishable in principle processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technol-
from educational technology. ogy.

Theoretical perspectives and scientic testing may inu-

ence instructional design. The application of theories of 1.1.1 Scope
human behavior to educational technology derives input
from instructional theory, learning theory, educational Educational technology thus refers to the use of both
psychology, media psychology and human performance physical hardware and educational theoretics. It en-
technology. compasses several domains, including learning theory,
Educational technology includes numerous types of me- computer-based training, online learning, and, where mo-
dia that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and bile technologies are used, m-learning. Accordingly,
streaming video, and includes technology applications there are several discrete aspects to describing the intel-
and processes such as audio or video tape, satel- lectual and technical development of educational technol-
lite TV, CD-ROM, and computer-based learning, as ogy:
well as local intranet/extranet and web-based learning.
Information and communication systems, whether free- educational technology as the theory and practice
standing or based on either local networks or the In- of educational approaches to learning

1
2 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

educational technology as technological tools and and multi-modal instruction, virtual education, personal
media that assist in the communication of knowl- learning environments, networked learning, virtual learn-
edge, and its development and exchange ing environments (VLE) (which are also called learning
platforms), m-learning, and digital education.
educational technology for learning system man-
agement (LMS), such as tools for student and cur- Every one of these numerous terms has had its ad-
riculum management, and education management vocates, who point up particular potential distinctions.
information systems (EMIS) In practice, as technology has advanced, the particu-
lar narrowly dened aspect that was initially empha-
educational technology itself as an educational sized has blended into the general eld of educational
subject; such courses may be called Computer technology and e-learning.[5] As an example, virtual
Studies or "Information and Communication Tech- learning in a narrowly dened semantic sense implies
nology (ICT)" entering the environmental simulation within a virtual
world,[10][11] for example in treating posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD).[12][13] In practice, a virtual education
1.1.2 Related terms course refers to any instructional course in which all, or
at least a signicant portion, is delivered by the Internet.
Virtual is used in that broader way to describe a course
that not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through a
substitute mode that can conceptually be associated vir-
tually with classroom teaching, which means that people
do not have to go to the physical classroom to learn. Ac-
cordingly, virtual education refers to a form of distance
learning in which course content is delivered by vari-
ous methods such as course management applications,
multimedia resources, and videoconferencing. Students
and instructors communicate via these technologies.[14]
Bernard Luskin, an educational technology pioneer, ad-
vocated that the e of e-learning should be interpreted
to mean exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, ex-
tended, excellent, and educational in addition to elec-
tronic. This broad interpretation focuses on new appli-
cations and developments, as well as learning theory and
media psychology.[15] Parks suggested that the e should
refer to everything, everyone, engaging, easy.[16]

Early 19th century abacus used in a Danish elementary school.

1.2 History
Educational technology is an inclusive term for the tools
that technologically or electronically support learning Main article: Educational software
and teaching. Educational technology is not re- The historical foundations of devising means to help
stricted to high technology.[3] However, modern elec-
tronic educational technology has become an impor-
tant part of society today.[4] Technology Depending
on whether a particular aspect, component or deliv-
ery method is given emphasis, a wide array of simi-
lar or overlapping terms has been used. As such, ed-
ucational technology encompasses e-learning, instruc-
tional technology, information and communication tech-
nology (ICT) in education, EdTech, learning technol-
ogy, multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learn-
ing (TEL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer
managed instruction, computer-based training (CBT),
computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruc-
tion (CAI),[9] internet-based training (IBT), exible
learning, web-based training (WBT), online educa- 19th century classroom, Auckland
tion, digital educational collaboration, distributed learn-
ing, computer-mediated communication, cyber-learning, people learn in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or
1.2. HISTORY 3

less expensive than previous means can be traced back ford and others he helped develop computer-assisted in-
to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings struction. Working with the Rand Corporation, Luskins
on cave walls.[17][18] Various types of abacus have been landmark UCLA dissertation in 1970 analyzed obstacles
used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for to computer-assisted instruction.
at least a millennium.[19] From their introduction, books
and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education.
From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines
such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices
were used to produce short copy runs (typically 1050
copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for
instructional purposes is generally traced back to the rst
decade of the 20th century[20] with the introduction of ed-
ucational lms (1900s) and Sidney Presseys mechanical
teaching machines (1920s). The rst all multiple choice,
large scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to as-
sess the intelligence and more specically the aptitudes
of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use
of technologies was employed in training soldiers during
and after WWII using lms and other mediated materials,
such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is
traced to Bushs description of memex in 1945.

Artistic portrait of Ivan Illich by Amano1.

In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely inuential book

called, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned
learning webs as a model for people to network the
learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable
contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Tur-
o and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Insti-
tute of Technology[22] as well as developments at the
University of Guelph in Canada.[23] In 1976, Bernard
Luskin launched Coastline Community College as a col-
lege without walls using television station KOCE-TV
Cuisenaire rods as a vehicle. In the UK the Council for Educational
Technology supported the use of educational technology,
Slide projectors came into widespread use during the in particular administering the governments National
1950s and were widely used in educational institutional Development Programme in Computer Aided Learn-
settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and ing[24] (197377) and the Microelectronics Education
saw widespread use from the late 1950s. Programme (198086).
In 1960, the University of Illinois initiated a classroom By the mid-1980s, accessing course content become pos-
system based in linked computer terminals where stu- sible at many college libraries. In computer-based train-
dents could access informational resources on a particular ing (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL), the learn-
course while listening to the lectures that were recorded ing interaction was between the student and computer
via some form of remotely linked device like a television drills or micro-world simulations.
or audio device.[21] Digitized communication and networking in education
In the early 1960s, Stanford University psychology pro- started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions be-
fessors Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson experi- gan to take advantage of the new medium by oer-
mented with using computers to teach math and reading ing distance learning courses using computer network-
to young children in elementary schools in East Palo Alto, ing for information. Early e-learning systems, based on
California. Stanfords Education Program for Gifted computer-based learning/training often replicated auto-
Youth is descended from those early experiments. In cratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning
1963, Bernard Luskin installed the rst computer in a system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as
community college for instruction. Working with Stan- opposed to systems developed later based on computer
4 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

supported collaborative learning (CSCL), which encour- feedbacks from their students.
aged the shared development of knowledge. Online education is rapidly increasing and is becoming as
Videoconferencing was an important forerunner to the viable an alternative as traditional classrooms. Accord-
educational technologies known today. This work was ing to a 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of
especially popular with Museum Education. Even in re- Education, during the 2006-2007 academic year about
cent years, videoconferencing has risen in popularity to 66% of postsecondary public and private schools partic-
reach over 20,000 students across the United States and ipating in student nancial aid programs oered some
Canada in 2008-2009. Disadvantages of this form of distance learning courses; records show 77% of enroll-
educational technology are readily apparent: image and ment in for-credit courses with an online component.[32]
sound quality is often grainy or pixilated; videoconfer- In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement en-
encing requires setting up a type of mini-television stu- dorsing e-learnings potential to drive equality and edu-
dio within the museum for broadcast, space becomes an cation improvements across the EU.[33]
issue; and specialised equipment is required for both the Today, the prevailing paradigm is computer-mediated
provider and the participant.[25] communication (CMC), where the primary interaction is
The Open University in Britain[23] and the University of between learners and instructors, mediated by the com-
British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into puter. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-
Blackboard Inc., was rst developed) began a revolution study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor fa-
of using the Internet to deliver learning,[26] making heavy cilitation and requires scenarization of exible learning
use of web-based training, online distance learning and activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education
online discussion between students.[27] Practitioners such with tools for sustaining learning communities and asso-
as Harasim (1995)[28] put heavy emphasis on the use of ciated knowledge management tasks.
learning networks.
Students growing up in this digital age have extensive ex-
Cassandra B. Whyte researched about the ever-increasing posure to a variety of media.[34][35] Major high-tech com-
role that computers would play in higher education. This panies such as Google, Verizon, Microsoft are funding
evolution, which includes computer-supported collabora- schools to provide them the ability to teach their students
tive learning in addition to data management, has been through technology, which may lead to improved student
realized.[29] performance.
With the advent of World Wide Web in the 1990s, teach-
ers embarked on the method using emerging technolo-
gies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text- 1.3 Theory
based online virtual reality systems, to create course web-
sites along with simple sets of instructions for its students. Main articles: Educational psychology, E-learning
In 1993, Graziadei described an online computer- (theory), Learning theory (education) and Educational
delivered lecture, tutorial and assessment project using philosophies
electronic mail. By 1994, the rst online high school
had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria Various pedagogical perspectives or learning theories
for evaluating products and developing technology-based may be considered in designing and interacting with
courses include being portable, replicable, scalable, af- educational technology. E-learning theory examines
fordable, and having a high probability of long-term cost- these approaches. These theoretical perspectives are
eectiveness.[30] grouped into three main theoretical schools or philo-
By 1994, CALCampus presented its rst online curricu- sophical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism and
lum. CALCampus is where concepts of online-based constructivism.
school rst originated, this allowed to progress real-time
classroom instructions and Quantum Link classrooms.[31]
With the drastic shift of Internet functionality, multime- 1.3.1 Behaviorism
dia began introducing new schemes of communication;
through the invention of webcams, educators can simply This theoretical framework was developed in the early
record lessons live and upload them on the website page. 20th century based on animal learning experiments by
There are currently wide varieties of online education that Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman,
are reachable for colleges, universities and K-12 students. Clark L. Hull, and B.F. Skinner. Many psychologists
In fact, the National Center for Education Statistics es- used these results to develop theories of human learning,
timate the number of K-12 students enrolled in online but modern educators generally see behaviorism as one
distance learning programs increased by 65 percent from aspect of a holistic synthesis.
2002 to 2005. This form of high learning allowed for B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of
greater exibility by easing the communication between teaching based on his functional analysis of verbal behav-
teacher and student, now teachers received quick lecture ior[36] and wrote The Technology of Teaching,[37][38]
1.4. PRACTICE 5

an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contempo- 1.4 Practice

rary education as well as promote his system he called
programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley developed a
Main article: Instructional design
learning system, named Celeration, that was based on
behavior analysis but that substantially diered from
Kellers and Skinners models. The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other
learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on
a continuum from none to fully online distance learn-
ing.[40][41] A variety of descriptive terms have been em-
1.3.2 Cognitivism ployed (somewhat inconsistently) to categorize the extent
to which technology is used. For example, 'hybrid learn-
Cognitive science underwent signicant change in the ing' or 'blended learning' may refer to classroom aids and
1960s and 1970s. While retaining the empirical frame- laptops, or may refer to approaches in which traditional
work of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, and is re-
beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by con- placed with some online learning.[42][43][44] 'Distributed
sidering how human memory works to promote learn- learning' may describe either the e-learning component
ing. The Atkinson-Shirin memory model and Badde- of a hybrid approach, or fully online distance learning
leys working memory model were established as the- environments.[40]
oretical frameworks. Computer Science and Informa-
tion Technology have had a major inuence on Cogni-
tive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of work-
ing memory (formerly known as short term memory) and 1.4.1 Synchronous and asynchronous
long term memory have been facilitated by research and
technology from the eld of Computer Science. An- E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous.
other major inuence on the eld of Cognitive Science Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all partic-
is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating ipants interacting at the same time, while asynchronous
on topics like cognitive load, information processing and learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage
media psychology. These theoretical perspectives inu- in the exchange of ideas or information without the de-
ence instructional design.[39] pendency of other participants involvement at the same
time.
Synchronous learning refers to the exchange of ideas
1.3.3 Constructivism and information with one or more participants during
the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion,
online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback,
Educational psychologists distinguish between several
types of constructivism: individual (or psychological) Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual class-
rooms where everyone is online and working collabora-
constructivism, such as Piagets theory of cognitive de-
velopment, and social constructivism. This form of tively at the same time.
constructivism has a primary focus on how learners con- Asynchronous learning may use technologies such as
struct their own meaning from new information, as they email, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards, as well as web-
interact with reality and with other learners who bring supported textbooks,[45] hypertext documents, audio[46]
dierent perspectives. Constructivist learning environ- video courses, and social networking using web 2.0. At
ments require students to use their prior knowledge and the professional educational level, training may include
experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive virtual operating rooms.Asynchronous learning is partic-
concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of ularly benecial for students who have health problems or
the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guid- have child care responsibilities and regularly leaving the
ance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. home to attend lectures is dicult. They have the oppor-
Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior tunity to complete their work in a low stress environment
learning experiences are appropriate and related to the and within a more exible timeframe.[27] In asynchronous
concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests well- online courses, students proceed at their own pace. If they
structured learning environments are useful for novice need to listen to a lecture a second time, or think about a
learners and that ill-structured environments are only question for a while, they may do so without fearing that
useful for more advanced learners. Educators utiliz- they will hold back the rest of the class. Through online
ing a constructivist perspective may emphasize an active courses, students can earn their diplomas more quickly,
learning environment that may incorporate learner cen- or repeat failed courses without the embarrassment of be-
tered problem based learning, project-based learning, and ing in a class with younger students. Students have access
inquiry-based learning, ideally involving real-world sce- to an incredible variety of enrichment courses in online
narios, in which students are actively engaged in critical learning, and can participate in college courses, intern-
thinking activities. ships, sports, or work and still graduate with their class.
6 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.4.2 Linear learning logical Web 2.0 advances, sharing information between
multiple people in a network has become much easier and
Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced use has increased.[48]:1 One of the main reasons for its
learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld usage states that it is a breeding ground for creative and
device such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially deliv- engaging educational endeavors.[48]:2
ered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented con-
Using Web 2.0 social tools in the classroom allows for
tent linearly, much like reading an online book or manual.
students and teachers to work collaboratively, discuss
For this reason, CBT is often used to teach static pro-
ideas, and promote information. According to Sendall
cesses, such as using software or completing mathemat-
(2008),[49] blogs, wikis, and social networking skills are
ical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually
found to be signicantly useful in the classroom. After
similar to web-based training (WBT), the primary dier-
initial instruction on using the tools, students reported an
ence being that WBTs are delivered via Internet using a
increase in knowledge and comfort level for using Web
web browser.
2.0 tools. The collaborative tools prepare students with
Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that technology skills necessary in todays workforce.
can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple
Locus of control remains an important consideration in
choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simula-
successful engagement of e-learners. According to the
tion or other interactive means. Assessments are easily
work of Cassandra B. Whyte, the continuing attention to
scored and recorded via online software, providing im-
aspects of motivation and success in regard to e-learning
mediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users
should be kept in context and concert with other ed-
are often able to print completion records in the form of
ucational eorts. Information about motivational ten-
certicates.
dencies can help educators, psychologists, and technol-
CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learn- ogists develop insights to help students perform better
ing methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom- academically.[50]
based instruction. For example, CBTs oer user-friendly
solutions for satisfying continuing education require-
ments. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learn- Classroom 2.0
ing materials since rich media, including videos or ani-
mations, can be embedded to enhance the learning. Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual en-
vironments (MUVEs) that connect schools across geo-
However, CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typi-
graphical frontiers. Known as eTwinning, computer-
cally, the creation of eective CBTs requires enormous
supported collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners
resources. The software for developing CBTs (such as
in one school to communicate with learners in another
Flash or Adobe Director) is often more complex than a
that they would not get to know otherwise,[51][52][53] en-
subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. In addi-
hancing educational outcomes and cultural integration.
tion, the lack of human interaction can limit both the type
Examples of classroom 2.0 applications are Blogger and
of content that can be presented and the type of assess-
Skype.[54]
ment that can be performed. Many learning organizations
are beginning to use smaller CBT/WBT activities as part
of a broader online learning program which may include
E-learning 2.0
online discussion or other interactive elements.
Main article: Computer-supported collaborative learning
1.4.3 Collaborative learning
E-learning 2.0 is a type of computer-supported collab-
Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) uses orative learning (CSCL) system that developed with the
instructional methods designed to encourage or require emergence of Web 2.0.[55][56] From an e-learning 2.0 per-
students to work together on learning tasks. CSCL is sim- spective, conventional e-learning systems were based on
ilar in concept to the terminology, e-learning 2.0 and instructional packets, which were delivered to students
networked collaborative learning (NCL).[47] using assignments. Assignments were evaluated by the
Collaborative learning is distinguishable from the tradi- teacher. In contrast, the new e-learning places increased
tional approach to instruction in which the instructor is emphasis on social learning and use of social software
the principal source of knowledge and skills. For exam- such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and virtual worlds such as
ple, the neologism e-learning 1.0 refers to the direct Second Life.[57] This phenomenon has been referred to as
transfer method in computer-based learning and train- Long Tail Learning[58]
ing systems (CBL). In contrast to the linear delivery E-learning 2.0, in contrast to e-learning systems not based
of content, often directly from the instructors material, on CSCL, assumes that knowledge (as meaning and un-
CSCL uses blogs, wikis, and cloud-based document por- derstanding) is socially constructed. Learning takes place
tals (such as Google Docs and Dropbox). With techno- through conversations about content and grounded inter-
1.5. MEDIA 7

action about problems and actions. Advocates of social casts can be asynchronous. Classroom microphones, of-
learning claim that one of the best ways to learn some- ten wireless, can enable learners and educators to interact
thing is to teach it to others.[58] more clearly.
In addition to virtual classroom environments, social Video technology[62] has included VHS tapes and DVDs,
networks have become an important part of E-learning as well as on-demand and synchronous methods with digi-
2.0. Social networks have been used to foster online tal video via server or web-based options such as streamed
learning communities around subjects as diverse as test video from YouTube, Teacher Tube, Skype, Adobe Con-
preparation and language education.[59] Mobile Assisted nect, and webcams. Telecommuting can connect with
Language Learning (MALL) is the use of handheld speakers and other experts.
computers or cell phones to assist in language learn- Interactive digital video games are being used at K-12 and
ing. Traditional educators may not promote social net- higher education institutions.[63]
working unless they are communicating with their own
colleagues.[60] Podcasting allows anybody to publish les to the Inter-
net where individuals can subscribe and receive new les
from people by a subscription.[64]
1.5 Media
1.5.2 Computers, tablets and mobile de-
vices

A 2.5m teaching slide rule compared to a normal sized model

Educational media and tools can be used for: Teaching and learning online

task structuring support: help with how to do a task Computers and tablets enable learners and educators to
(procedures and processes), access websites as well as programs such as Microsoft
Word, PowerPoint, PDF les, and images. Many mobile
access to knowledge bases (help user nd informa- devices support m-learning.
tion needed)
Mobile devices such as clickers and smartphones can be
alternate forms of knowledge representation (multi- used for interactive feedback.[65] Mobile learning can
ple representations of knowledge, e.g. video, audio, provide performance support for checking the time, set-
text, image, data) ting reminders, retrieving worksheets, and instruction
manuals.[66][67]
Numerous types of physical technology are currently OpenCourseWare (OCW) gives free public access to in-
used:[61] digital cameras, video cameras, interactive formation used in undergraduate and graduate programs.
whiteboard tools, document cameras, electronic media, Participating institutions are MIT[68][69] and Harvard,
and LCD projectors. Combinations of these techniques Princeton, Stanford, University of Pennsylvania, and Uni-
include blogs, collaborative software, ePortfolios, and versity of Michigan.[70]
virtual classrooms.

1.5.3 Social networks

1.5.1 Audio and video
Group webpages, blogs, and wikis allow learners and ed-
Radio oers a synchronous educational vehicle, while ucators to post thoughts, ideas, and comments on a web-
streaming audio over the internet with webcasts and pod- site in an interactive learning environment.[71] Social net-
8 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

working sites are virtual communities for people inter- 1.5.6 Screencasting
ested in a particular subject or just to hang out to-
gether. Members communicate by voice, chat, instant Screencasting allows users to share their screens directly
message, video conference, and blogs, and the service from their browser and make the video available online so
typically provides a way for members to contact friends of that other viewers can stream the video directly.[78] The
other members.[72] The National School Boards Associ- presenter thus has the ability to show their ideas and ow
ation found that 96% of students with online access have of thoughts rather than simply explain them as simple text
used social networking technologies, and more than 50% content. In combination with audio and video, the edu-
talk online specically about schoolwork. These statistics cator can mimic the one-on-one experience of the class-
support the likelihood of being able to bring these tech- room and deliver clear, complete instructions. Learners
nologies into our classrooms and nd successful teach- have an ability to pause and rewind, to review at their own
ing methods to employ their use in an educational set- pace, something a classroom cannot always oer.
ting. Social networking inherently encourages collabora-
tion and engagement.[73] Social networking can be used
as a motivational tool to promote self-ecacy amongst 1.5.7 Virtual classroom
students. In a study by Bowers-Campbell (2008) Face-
book was used as an academic motivation tool for stu- Main articles: Virtual Learning Environment and MUVE
dents in a developmental reading course.[74] Group mem-
bers may respond and interact with other members.[75]
Student interaction is at the core of constructivist learn- A Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), also known as a
ing environments and Social Net-working Sites provide a learning platform, simulates a virtual classroom or meet-
platform for building collaborative learning communities. ings by simultaneously mixing several communication
By their very nature they are relationship-centred and pro- technologies. For example, web conferencing software
mote shared experiences. With the emphasis on user- such as GoToTraining, WebEx Training or Adobe Con-
generated-content, some experts are concerned about the nect enables students and instructors to communicate
traditional roles of scholarly expertise and the reliability with each other via webcam, microphone, and real-time
of digital content. Students still have to be educated and chatting in a group setting. Participants can raise hands,
assessed within a framework that adheres to guidelines answer polls or take tests. Students are able to whiteboard
for quality. Every student has his or her own learning re- and screencast when given rights by the instructor, who
quirements, and a Web 2.0 educational framework pro- sets permission levels for text notes, microphone rights
vides enough resources, learning styles, communication and mouse control.
tools and exibility to accommodate this diversity.[74] A virtual classroom provides the opportunity for students
Social networking is important for educators themselves. to receive direct instruction from a qualied teacher in
On the social media website Twitter, there are daily an interactive environment. Learners can have direct and
chats and informational sharing between educators that immediate access to their instructor for instant feedback
are labelled (hashtag) "#edtech. Postings take place and direction. The virtual classroom provides a struc-
throughout the day and educators are linked internation- tured schedule of classes, which can be helpful for stu-
ally through the Internet. This learning network is shared dents who may nd the freedom of asynchronous learning
globally.[76] to be overwhelming. In addition, the virtual classroom
provides a social learning environment that replicates the
traditional brick and mortar classroom. Most virtual
classroom applications provide a recording feature. Each
1.5.4 Webcams class is recorded and stored on a server, which allows for
instant playback of any class over the course of the school
Webcams and webcasting have enabled creation of virtual year. This can be extremely useful for students to review
classrooms and virtual learning environment.[77] material and concepts for an upcoming exam. This pro-
vides students with the opportunity to watch any class that
they may have missed, so that they do not fall behind.
Parents and auditors have the conceptual ability to mon-
1.5.5 Whiteboards itor any classroom to ensure that they are satised with
the education the learner is receiving.
Interactive whiteboards and smartboards allow learners In higher education especially, the increasing tendency
and instructors to write on the touch screen. The screen is to create a virtual learning environment (VLE) (which
markup can be on either a blank whiteboard or any com- is sometimes combined with a Management Information
puter screen content. Depending on permission settings, System (MIS) to create a Managed Learning Environ-
this visual learning can be interactive and participatory, ment) in which all aspects of a course are handled through
including writing and manipulating images on the inter- a consistent user interface throughout the institution. A
active whiteboard. growing number of physical universities, as well as newer
1.5. MEDIA 9

online-only colleges, have begun to oer a select set of or it can host the content itself. The Aviation Industry
academic degree and certicate programs via the Inter- Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) specica-
net at a wide range of levels and in a wide range of disci- tion provides support for content that is hosted separately
plines. While some programs require students to attend from the LMS.
some campus classes or orientations, many are delivered A recent trend in LCMSs is to address this issue through
completely online. In addition, several universities oer crowdsourcing (cf.SlideWiki[84] ).
online student support services, such as online advising
and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchases,
student governments and student newspapers.
Augmented reality (AR) provides students and teachers Computer-aided assessment
the opportunity to create layers of digital information,
that includes both virtual world and real world elements, Computer-aided assessment (e-assessment) ranges from
to interact with in real time. There are already a variety automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated
of apps which oer a lot of variations and possibilities. systems. With some systems, feedback can be geared to-
wards a students specic mistakes or the computer can
navigate the student through a series of questions adapt-
1.5.8 Learning management system ing to what the student appears to have learned or not
learned.
Main article: Learning management system
The best examples follow a formative assessment struc-
ture and are called Online Formative Assessment. This
A learning management system[79] (LMS) is software involves making an initial formative assessment by sift-
used for delivering, tracking and managing training and ing out the incorrect answers. The author of the assess-
education. For example, an LMS tracks attendance, time ment/teacher will then explain what the pupil should have
on task, and student progress. Educators can post an- done with each question. It will then give the pupil at least
nouncements, grade assignments, check on course ac- one practice at each slight variation of sifted out ques-
tivity, and participate in class discussions. Students can tions. This is the formative learning stage. The next stage
submit their work, read and respond to discussion ques- is to make a summative assessment by a new set of ques-
tions, and take quizzes.[71] An LMS may allow teach- tions only covering the topics previously taught.
ers, administrators, students, and permitted additional
parties (such as parents if appropriate) to track vari- Learning design is the type of activity enabled by soft-
ous metrics. LMSs range from systems for managing ware that supports sequences of activities that can be both
training/educational records to software for distributing adaptive and collaborative. The IMS Learning Design
courses over the Internet and oering features for online specication is intended as a standard format for learn-
collaboration. The creation and maintenance of compre- ing designs, and IMS LD Level A is supported in LAMS
hensive learning content requires substantial initial and V2.elearning and has been replacing the traditional set-
ongoing investments of human labor. Eective transla- tings due to its cost eectiveness.
tion into other languages and cultural contexts requires
even more investment by knowledgeable personnel.[80]
Internet-based learning management systems include Electronic performance support system
Canvas, Blackboard Inc. and Moodle. These types of
LMS allow educators to run a learning system partially An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is, ac-
or fully online, asynchronously or synchronously. Black- cording to Barry Raybould, a computer-based system
board can be used for K-12 education, Higher Education, that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-
Business, and Government collaboration.[81] Moodle is a job access to integrated information, advice, and learn-
free-to-download Open Source Course Management Sys- ing experiences.[85] Gloria Gery denes it as an inte-
tem that provides blended learning opportunities as well grated electronic environment that is available to and eas-
as platforms for distance learning courses.[82] Eliademy is ily accessible by each employee and is structured to pro-
a free cloud based Course Management System that pro- vide immediate, individualized on-line access to the full
vides blended learning opportunities as well as platforms range of information, software, guidance, advice and as-
for distance learning courses.[83] sistance, data, images, tools, and assessment and moni-
toring systems to permit job performance with minimal
support and intervention by others.[86][87]
Learning content management system
Student data systems have a signicant impact on edu-
A learning content management system (LCMS) is soft- cation and students.[88] Over-the-counter data (OTCD)
ware for author content (courses, reusable content ob- refers to a design approach which involves embedding la-
jects). An LCMS may be solely dedicated to produc- bels, supplemental documentation, and a help system and
ing and publishing content that is hosted on an LMS, making key package/display and content decisions.[89]
10 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.5.9 Learning objects Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is

a collection of standards and specications that applies
Main article: Learning object to certain web-based e-learning. Other specications
such as Schools Framework allow for the transporting of
learning objects, or for categorizing metadata (LOM).

Content

Content is a core component of e-learning and includes is- 1.6 Settings

sues such as pedagogy and learning object re-use. While
there are a number of means of achieving a rich and in- 1.6.1 Preschool
teractive elearning platform, one option is using a design
architecture composed of the Five Types of Content in Various forms of electronic media are a feature of
eLearning (Clark, Mayer, 2007).[90] preschool life.[91] Although parents report a positive ex-
Content normally comes in one of ve forms: perience, the impact of such use has not been systemati-
cally assessed.[91]
Fact - unique data (e.g. symbols for Excel formula, The age when a given child might start using a particular
or the parts that make up a learning objective) technology such as a cellphone or computer might depend
on matching a technological resource to the recipients
Concept - a category that includes multiple examples developmental capabilities, such as the age-anticipated
(e.g. Excel formulas, or the various types/theories of stages labeled by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget.[92] Pa-
Instructional Design) rameters, such as age-appropriateness, coherence with
sought-after values, and concurrent entertainment and
Process - a ow of events or activities (e.g. how a educational aspects, have been suggested for choosing
spreadsheet works, or the ve phases in ADDIE) media.[93]
Procedure - step-by-step task (e.g. entering a for-
mula into a spreadsheet, or the steps that should be
followed within a phase in ADDIE)
1.6.2 K12

Strategic Principle - task performed by adapting

guidelines (e.g. doing a nancial projection in a
spreadsheet, or using a framework for designing
learning environments)

Pedagogical elements

Pedagogical elements are dened as structures or units of

educational material. They are the educational content
that is to be delivered. These units are independent of
format, meaning that although the unit may be delivered
in various ways, the pedagogical structures themselves are
not the textbook, web page, video conference, Podcast, Teacher showing primary school students how to work a program
lesson, assignment, multiple choice question, quiz, dis- at a primary school in Santa Fe, Mexico City.
cussion group or a case study, all of which are possible
methods of delivery. E-learning is utilized by public K12 schools in the
United States as well as private schools. Some e-learning
environments take place in a traditional classroom, others
Learning objects standards
allow students to attend classes from home or other loca-
Much eort has been put into the technical reuse of tions. There are several states that are utilizing virtual
electronically based teaching materials and in particu- school platforms for e-learning across the country that
lar creating or re-using learning objects. These are self- continue to increase. Virtual school enables students to
contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or log into synchronous learning or asynchronous learning
other metadata, and often stored in an XML le format. courses anywhere there is an internet connection.
Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of E-learning is increasingly being utilized by students who
learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, may not want to go to traditional brick and mortar
non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed reposi- schools due to severe allergies or other medical issues,
tories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository. fear of school violence and school bullying and students
1.6. SETTINGS 11

whose parents would like to homeschool but do not feel ucation and declined after the initial expansion, but are
qualied.[94] Online schools create a haven for students expected to remain in some form.[105]
to receive a quality education while almost completely Private organizations also oer classes, such as Udacity,
avoiding these common problems. Online charter schools with free computer science classes, and Khan Academy,
also often are not limited by location, income level or with over 3,900 free micro-lectures available via
class size in the way brick and mortar charter schools YouTube. There already is at least one counterstream to
are.[95] MOOC; Distributed open collaborative course or DOCC
E-learning also has been rising as a supplement to the tra- challenges the role of the Instructor, the hierarchy, the
ditional classroom. Students with special talents or in- role of money and role of massiveness. DOCC recog-
terests outside of the available curricula use e-learning to nizes that the pursuit of knowledge may be achieved bet-
advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions.[96] Some ter by not using a centralized singular syllabus, that ex-
online institutions connect students with instructors via pertise is distributed throughout all the participants in a
web conference technology to form a digital classroom. learning activity, and does not just reside with one or two
National private schools are also available online. These individuals.[106]
provide the benets of e-learning to students in states University of the People (UoPeople; www.UoPeople.
where charter online schools are not available. They also edu) is the worlds rst non-prot, tuition-free, accredited
may allow students greater exibility and exemption from online university dedicated to opening access to higher
state testing. education globally. Using open-source technology, Open
Virtual education in K-12 schooling often refers to virtual Educational Resources, peer-to-peer learning, and the as-
schools, and in higher education to virtual universi- sistance of academic volunteers, UoPeople is especially
ties. Virtual schools are cybercharter schools"[97] with designed to provide access to college studies for qualied
individuals, despite nancial, geographic or societal con-
innovative administrative models and course delivery
technology.[97] straints.
Coursera, an online-enrollment platform, is now oer-
ing education for millions of people around the world. A
1.6.3 Higher education certication is consigned by Coursera for students who
are able to complete an adequate performance in the
course. Free online courses are administered by the
Enrollments for fully online learning increased by an av-
website- elds like computer science, medicine, networks
erage of 1214 percent annually between 2004 and 2009,
and social sciences are accessibly oered to pursuing
compared with an average of approximately 2 per cent
students. The lectures are recorded into series of short
increase per year in enrollments overall.[98][99] Almost a
videos discussing dierent topics and assignments in a
quarter of all students in post-secondary education were
weekly basis.
taking fully online courses in 2008.[98] In 2009, 44 per-
cent of post-secondary students in the USA were taking This virtual curriculum complement the curriculum
some or all of their courses online, this gure is projected taught in the traditional education setting by providing
to rise to 81 percent by 2014.[100] equality for all students, despite disability, and geograph-
ical location and socioeconomic status.
Although a large proportion of for-prot higher educa-
tion institutions now oer online classes, only about half According to Fortune magazine, over a million people
of private, non-prot schools do so. Private institutions worldwide have enrolled in free online courses.[107]
may become more involved with on-line presentations
as the costs decrease. Properly trained sta must also
be hired to work with students online.[101] These sta
members need to understand the content area, and also
be highly trained in the use of the computer and Inter-
net. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online 1.6.4 Corporate and professional
doctoral programs have even developed at leading re-
search universities.[102] E-learning has now been adopted and used by various
Although massive open online courses (MOOCs) may companies to inform and educate both their employees
have limitations that preclude them from fully replac- and customers. Companies with large and spread out
ing college education,[103] such programs have signi- distribution chains use it to educate their sales sta about
cantly expanded. MIT, Stanford and Princeton Univer- the latest product developments without the need of orga-
sity oer classes to a global audience, but not for college nizing physical onsite courses. Compliance has also been
credit.[104] University-level programs, like edX founded a big eld of growth with banks using it to keep their
by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard stas CPD levels up. Another area of growth is sta
University, oer wide range of disciplines at no charge. development, where employees can learn valuable work-
MOOCs have not had a signicant impact on higher ed- place skills.
12 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.6.5 Public health principles of constructivism may not be appropriate for

ADHD learners; these principles include active learning,
There is an important need for recent, reliable, and high- self-monitoring, motivation, and strong focus.[118]
quality health information to be made available to the
Despite the limitations, students with special needs, in-
public as well as in summarized form for public health
cluding ADHD, have expressed an overall enthusiasm for
providers.[108] Providers have indicated the need for au-
e-learning and have identied a number e-learning ben-
tomatic notication of the latest research, a single search-
ets, including: availability of online course notes, ma-
able portal of information, and access to Grey litera-
terials and additional resources; the ability to work at an
ture.[109] The Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Library
independent pace and spend extra time spent formulating
is funded by the U.S. Maternal and Child Health Bu-
thoughtful responses in class discussions; help in under-
reau to screen the latest research and develop automatic
standing course lecture/content; ability to review lectures
notications to providers through the MCH Alert. An-
multiple times; and enhanced access to and communica-
other application in public health is the development of
tion with the course instructor.[116][121]
MHealth (use of mobile telecommunication and multi-
media into global public health). MHealth has been used
to promote prenatal and newborn services, with posi- 1.6.7 Disabilities
tive outcomes. In addition, Health systems have imple-
mented mHealth programs to facilitate emergency med- Design of e-learning platforms to enable access has re-
ical responses, point-of-care support, health promotion ceived attention from several directions, including the
and data collection. [110] In low and middle income coun- World Wide Web Consortium's Web Accessibility Ini-
tries, MHealth is most frequently used as one-way text tiative (WAI). WAI provides universal formatting stan-
messages or phone reminders to promote treatment ad- dards for websites so they can remain accessible to peo-
herence and gather data.[111] ple with disabilities. For example, developing or adopt-
ing e-learning material can enable accessibility for people
1.6.6 ADHD with visual impairment.[122][123] The Perkins School for
the Blind oers learning resources tailored for the visu-
There has also been a growing interest in e-learning as a ally impaired, including webcasts, webinars, download-
benecial educational method for students with Attention able science activities, and an online library that has ac-
Decit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). With the grow- cess to over 40,000 resource materials on blindness and
ing popularity in e-learning among K-12 and higher edu- deaf blindness.
cation, the opportunity to take online classes is becoming
increasingly important for students of all ages.[112] How-
ever, students with ADHD and special needs face dier- 1.7 Benets
ent learning demands compared to the typical developing
learner. This is especially signicant considering the dra- Benets of incorporating technology into learning may
matic rise in ADHD diagnoses in the last decade among include:
both children and adults.[113] Compared to the traditional
face-to-face classroom, e-learning and virtual classrooms
Improved open access to education, including access
require a higher level of executive functions, which is the
to full degree programs[124]
primary decit associated with ADHD.[114]
Lorraine Wolf [115] lists 12 executive function skills nec- Better integration for non-full-time students, partic-
essary for students to succeed in postsecondary educa- ularly in continuing education,[124]
tion: plan, set goals, organize, initiate, sustain atten-
tion/eort, exibility, monitor, use feedback, structure, Improved interactions between students and
manage time, manage materials, and follow through. instructors,[125]
These skills, along with strong independent and self- Provision of tools to enable students to indepen-
regulated learning, are especially pronounced in the on- dently solve problems,[125]
line environment and as many ADHD students suer
from a decit in one or more of these executive functions, Acquisition of technological skills through practice
this presents a signicant challenge and accessibility bar- with tools and computers.
rier to the current e-learning approach.[116][117]
No age-based restrictions on diculty level, i.e. stu-
Some have noted that current e-learning models are mov-
dents can go at their own pace.
ing towards applying a constructivism learning theory
[118]
that emphasizes a learner-centered environment [119] Defray travel costs .
and postulates that everyone has the ability to construct
their own knowledge and meaning through a process Easy-to-access course materials . Course ma-
of problem solving and discovery.[120] However, some terial on a website allows learners to engage in
1.8. DISADVANTAGES 13

asynchronous learning and study at a time and lo- The Internet has unlocked a world of opportunity for
cation they prefer and to obtain the study material students. Information and ideas that were previously
very quickly.[126] out of reach are a click away. Students of all ages can
connect, share, and learn on a global scale.
Student motivation. According to James Kulik,
who studies the eectiveness of computers used Using computers or other forms of technology can
for instruction, students usually learn more in less give students practice on core content and skills
time when receiving computer-based instruction while the teacher can work with others, conduct as-
and they like classes more and develop more posi- sessments, or perform other tasks.[134]
tive attitudes toward computers in computer-based
classes.[127] Teachers must be aware of their stu- Studies completed in computer intensive settings
dents motivators in order to successfully imple- found increases in student-centric, cooperative and
ment technology into the classroom.[128] Students higher order learning, students writing skills, prob-
are more motivated to learn when they are interested lem solving, and using technology.[136] In addition,
in the subject matter, which can be enhanced by us- positive attitudes toward technology as a learning
ing technologies in the classroom and targeting the tool by parents, students and teachers are also im-
need for screens and digital material [129] that they proved.
have been stimulated by outside of the classroom.
As indicated by the Society for Human Resource
In 2010, 70.3% of American family households Management (SHRM),[137] employers perspectives
had access to the internet.[130] In 2013, according of online education have enhanced in the course of
to Canadian Radio Television and Telecommunica- the last ve to 10 years. More than 50% of human
tions Commission Canada, 79% of homes have ac- resource managers SHRM surveyed for an August
cess to the internet.[131] Students can access and en- 2010 report said that if two candidates with the same
gage with numerous online resources at home. level of experience were applying for a job, it would
not have any kind of eect whether the candidates
Using online resources such as Khan Academy or obtained degree was acquired through an online or
TED Talks can help students spend more time on a traditional school. Seventy-nine percent said they
specic aspects of what they may be learning in had employed a candidate with an online degree in
school, but at home. These online resources have the past 12 months. However 66% said candidates
added the opportunity to take learning outside of who get degrees online were not seen as positively
the classroom and into any atmosphere that has an as a job applicant with traditional degrees.[137]
internet connection. These online lessons allow for
students who might need extra help to understand
materials outside of the classroom. These tutorials
can focus on small concepts of large ideas taught in 1.8 Disadvantages
class, or the other way around. Schools like MIT
have even made their course materials free online so Many states spend large sums of money on technology.
that anybody can access them.[132] Although some However, no state looks at technology return on invest-
aspects of a classroom setting are missed by using ment (ROI) to connect expenditures on technology with
these resources, they are helpful tools to add addi- improved student outcomes.[138]
tional support to the educational system. New technologies are frequently accompanied by unre-
Wide participation. Learning material can be used alistic hype and promise regarding their transformative
for long distance learning and are accessible to a power to change education for the better or in allowing
wider audience.[133] better educational opportunities to reach the masses. Ex-
amples include silent lm, broadcast radio, and television,
Improved student writing . It is convenient for stu- none of which have maintained much of a foothold in
dents to edit their written work on word processors, the daily practices of mainstream, formal education.[139]
which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writ- Technology, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in
ing. According to some studies, the students are bet- fundamental improvements to educational practice.[140]
ter at critiquing and editing written work that is ex- The focus needs to be on the learners interaction with
changed over a computer network with students they technologynot the technology itself. It needs to be rec-
know.[126] ognized as ecological rather than additive or subtrac-
Eective technologies use many evidence-based tive. In this ecological change, one signicant change
strategies (e.g. adaptive content, frequent test- will create total change.[141]
ing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do eective According to Branford, Brown, and Cocking, (2000)
teachers.[134] It is important for teachers to embrace technology does not guarantee eective learning and
technology in order to gain these benets so they can inappropriate use of technology can even hinder it [142]
address the needs of their digital natives [135] A University of Washington study of infant vocabulary
14 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

shows that it is slipping due to educational baby DVDs. 1.8.1 Everest eect
Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 Univer-
sity of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies sur- The learning environment is a complex system where the
veyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. interplay and interactions of many things impact the out-
The study found that for every one hour that babies 8 come of learning.[152] When computers are brought into
16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos they knew an educational setting just because they are there, the en-
6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies tire pedagogical setting of the classroom changes. This
that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzo, a surveyor is known as the Everest Eect, which leads to more
in this study states that the result makes sense, that if technology-driven teaching, where the entire meaning
the babys 'alert time' is spent in front of DVDs and TV, of an activity changes without adequate research valida-
instead of with people speaking, the babies are not go- tion. This leads to unclear learning objectives and stan-
ing to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri dards that are not met by the end of a lesson. If classroom
Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is technology continues to monopolize an activity, the stu-
mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be dents involved begin to develop the sense that life would
harmful.[143][144][145][146] scarcely be thinkable without technology.[153] This con-
cept goes along with Postmans claim that it is more im-
Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers fa-
portant for learners to reect on the implications and con-
cilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which
sequences of process of information gathering, than it is
may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an asso-
to simply acquire the skills to generate, receive, gather
ciate professor at Harvard Medical School and execu-
and distribute information in easier and faster ways.[140]
tive director of the center on Media and Child Health
in Boston, said of the digital generation, Their brains
are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to 1.8.2 Over-stimulation
the next thing. The worry is we're raising a generation
of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be In addition to the change in classroom environment,
wired dierently. [147] Students have always faced dis- technology is also rapidly and profoundly altering our
tractions; computers and cellphones are a particular chal- brains.[154] High exposure levels stimulate brain cell al-
lenge because the stream of data can interfere with fo- teration and release neurotransmitters, which causes the
cusing and learning. Although these technologies aect strengthening of new neural pathways and the weaken-
adults too, young people may be more inuenced by it as ing the old ones. This leads to heightened stress levels
their developing brains can easily become habituated to on the brain that, at rst, boost energy levels, but, over
switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining time, actually augment memory,impair cognition, lead to
attention.[147] Too much information, coming too rapidly, depression, alter the neural circuity of the hippocampus,
can overwhelm thinking.[148] amygdala and prefrontal cortex. These are the brain re-
Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each gions that control mood and thought. If continued to
students ability and calculate their scores, but this en- be unchecked, even more underlying structures of the
courages students to work individually rather than so- brain could be altered.[155] Dr. Rich of Harvard Medi-
cially or collaboratively (Kruse, 2013). Social rela- cal School believed that downtime to the brain is what
tionships are important but high-tech environments may sleep is to the body. But kids are in a constant mode of
compromise the balance of trust, care and respect be- stimulation.[156] There are also concerns that this over-
tween teacher and student [149] stimulation due to technology begins too young. When
children are exposed before the age of seven, important
Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs), although
developmental tasks may be delayed and bad learning
quite popular in discussions of technology and education
habits might develop, which could lead to poor motiva-
in developed countries (more so in US), are not a ma-
tion. In turn, this deprives children of the exploration
jor concern in most developing or low-income countries.
and play that they need to develop. [157]
One of the stated goals of MOOCs is to provide less for-
tunate populations (i.e., in developing countries) an op-
portunity to experience courses with US-style content and 1.8.3 Sociocultural criticism
structure. However, research shows only 3% of the regis-
trants are from low-income countries and although many Phantom objectivity
courses have thousands of registered students only 5-10%
of them complete the course [150] MOOCs also implies Leo Marx identies the word technology itself as
that certain curriculum and teaching methods are superior problematic,[158] susceptible to reication and phantom
and this could eventually wash over (or possibly washing objectivity, which conceals its fundamental nature as
out) local educational institutions, cultural norms and ed- something that is only valuable insofar as it benets the
ucational traditions [151] human condition. Technology ultimately comes down
to aecting the relations between people, but this no-
tion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an ab-
1.9. TEACHER TRAINING 15

stract notion devoid of good and evil. Langdon Winner ple where the unintended consequences could, perhaps,
makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelop- have been foreseen.
ment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology im-
overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the sup- pacts human cultures, including the culture of class-
posedly dichotomous notions of the making versus the rooms, and that this is a consideration even more impor-
uses of new technologies, and that a narrow focus on tant than considering the eciency of a new technology
use leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral as a tool for teaching.[161] Regarding the computers im-
in moral standing.[159] These critiques would have us ask pact on education, Postman writes (p. 19):
not, How do we maximize the role or advancement of
technology in education?, but, rather, What are the so-
cial and human consequences of adopting any particular What we need to consider about the com-
technology? puter has nothing to do with its eciency as a
teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it
is altering our conception of learning, and how
Cultural impact in conjunction with television, it undermines
the old idea of school.
Winner [159] argues that it is useful to view technology as
a form of life that not only aids human activity, but also
represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and Digital divide
its meaning. For example, the use of robots in the indus-
trial workplace may increase productivity, but they also Main article: Digital divide
radically change the process of production itself, thereby
redening what is meant by work in such a setting. In The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those
education, standardized testing has arguably redened the who have access to digital technologies and those who
notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly do not.[162] Access may be associated with age, gender,
reect on how strange a notion it is that a number be- socio-economic status, education, income, ethnicity, and
tween, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reect a persons geography.[162][163]
knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the
recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an un-
conscious process that we learn to take for granted. Win-
ner writes,
1.9 Teacher training
Teachers have gaps in understanding the appropriate uses
By far the greatest latitude of choice ex- of technology in a learning environment.[164] Similar to
ists the very rst time a particular instrument, learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to en-
system, or technique is introduced. Because suring the eective integration of classroom technology.
choices tend to become strongly xed in mate- The current school curriculum tends to guide teachers in
rial equipment, economic investment, and so- training students to be autonomous problem solvers.[163]
cial habit, the original exibility vanishes for This has become a signicant barrier to eective training
all practical purposes once the initial commit- because the traditional methods of teaching have clashed
ments are made. In that sense technological in- with what is now expected in the present workplace. To-
novations are similar to legislative acts or po- days students in the workplace are increasingly being
litical foundings that establish a framework for asked to work in teams, drawing on dierent sets of ex-
public order that will endure over many gener- pertise, and collaborating to solve problem.[163] These ex-
ations. (p. 29) periences are not highly centered on in the traditional
classroom, but are twenty-rst century skills that can be
Seymour Papert (p. 32) points out a good example of a attained through the incorporation and engagement with
(bad) choice that has become strongly xed in social habit technology.[165] Changes in instruction and use of tech-
and material equipment: our choice to use the QW- nology can also promote a higher level of learning among
ERTY keyboard.[160] The QWERTY arrangement of let- students with dierent types of intelligence.[166] Please
ters on the keyboard was originally chosen, not because it see the presentation on Ted Talks by Sir Kenneth Robin-
was the most ecient for typing, but because early type- son where he discusses the ways in which schools kill
writers were prone to jam when adjacent keys were struck creativity.[167] Therefore, since technology is not the end
in quick succession. Now that typing has become a digi- goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be
tal process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the
arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very dif- technology being used and its advantages over more tra-
cult to change. This example illustrates that when adopt- ditional methods. If there is a lack in either of these areas,
ing new technologies, as Winner warns us, there may be technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benet
only one best chance to get it right. This is also an exam- to the goals of teaching.
16 CHAPTER 1. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers and an example is the Organization for Economic Co-
who may experience themselves as perpetual novices.[168] operation and Developments Program for International
Marc Prensky discusses the idea that teachers are digi- Student Assessment (PISA) test. PISA is for 15 year
tal immigrants, and students are digital natives. Teach- olds and it is held in 70 countries every three years. This
ers must continuously work at learning this new tech- exam will be next held in 2015, and it will include adap-
nological language, whereas students were born into re- tive components to evaluate hard-to-measure skills such
trieving information, problem solving, and communicat- as collaborative problem solving. However, critics state
ing with this technology.[169] The ways in which teachers that when learning is data driven it threatens the essence
are taught to use technology is also outdated because the of schooling and turns them into factories.[171] Technol-
primary focus of training is on computer literacy, rather ogy is pushed into the learning environment as a tool for
than the deeper, more essential understanding and mas- assessment but it is an initiative for-prot business. Al-
tery of technology for information processing, commu- though computers have started to assess student abilities,
nication, and problem solving.[168] New resources have it is far from the skills that teachers have acquired over
to be designed and distributed whenever the technolog- years of experience and have done for decades. Those
ical platform has been changed. However, nding qual- who oppose the use of technology in education believe
ity materials to support classroom objectives after such that instead of invest
changes is often dicult. Random professional devel-
opment days are inadequate.[168] Learning is an ongo-
ing process, which takes time and a strong commitment
among the community of educators.[168] 1.11 Expenditure
Teachers may not feel the need to change the traditional
The worldwide e-learning industry is economically sig-
education system because it has been successful in the
nicant, and was estimated in 2000 to be over $48 bil-
past.[163] This does not necessarily mean it is the right way
lion according to conservative estimates.[172] Commercial
to teach for the current and future generations. However,
growth has been brisk.[173] For example, in 2013 Lynda
learning styles and the methods of collecting information
took in $103 million of growth equity from Accel Part-
have evolved, and students often feel locked out of the
ners and Spectrum Equity.[174] In 2014, the worldwide
worlds described in their textbooks through the deper-
commercial market activity was estimated at $6 billion
sonalized and abstract prose used to describe them.[163]
venture capital over the past ve years,[173]:38 with self-
Even though technology can provide a more personalized,
paced learning generating $35.6 billion in 2011.[173]:4
yet collaborative, and creative, yet informative, approach
North American e-learning generated $23.3 billion in
to learning, it may be dicult to motivate the use of these
revenue in 2013, with a 9% growth rate in cloud based
contemporary approaches among teachers who have been
authoring tools and learning platforms.[173]:19
in the eld for a number of years.
The top ten publicly traded e-learning companies are
Adobe, Oracle, BlackBoard, Desire2Learn, Articulate,
1.10 Assessment Lynda, Tribal, iSpring, Kineo, and Skillsoft. These com-
mercial vendors oer an array of products and services.
There are two distinct issues of assessment. First, there is Developments in internet and multimedia technologies
the issue of assessing learning technologies and the learn- are the basic enabler of e-learning, with consulting, con-
ing outcomes they support. Second, there is the issue of tent, technologies, services and support being identied
using technologies for the purposes of assessing students. as the ve key sectors of the e-learning industry.[175]
Assessment of technology E-learning expenditures dier within and between coun-
tries. Finland, Norway, Belgium and Korea appear to
There is a great deal of apprehension associated with as-
have comparatively eective programs.[176]
sessing the eectiveness of technology in the classroom
and its development of information-age skills. This is
because information-age skills, also commonly referred
to as twenty-rst-century literacies, are relatively new to 1.12 Careers
the eld of education.[170] According to the New Me-
dia Consortium, these include the set of abilities and Main articles: Educational technologist and Educational
skills where aural, visual, and digital literacy overlap.[163] psychologist
Jenkins modies this denition by acknowledging them
as building on the foundation of traditional literacy, re-
search skills, technical skills and critical-analysis skills Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic
taught in the classroom.[163] educational and psychological research into an evidence-
based applied science (or a technology) of learning or
Assessment with technology instruction. These professions typically require a grad-
Technology for assessment is used in many countries, uate degree (Masters, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a
1.14. REFERENCES 17

eld related to educational psychology, educational me- Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
dia, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or,
more purely, in the elds of Educational, Instructional Technology integration
or Human Performance Technology or Instructional Sys- Usability testing
tems Design. The transformation of educational technol-
ogy from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed Virtual school / Virtual university
by Shurville et al.[177]
Virtual world language learning
Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational
1.13 See also Television Project
Web-based simulation
ADDIE Model
University of the People
Andragogy / Heutagogy

Assistive technology
1.14 References
Blended learning

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1.16. EXTERNAL LINKS 23

1.15 Further reading

Encyclopedia of Educational Technology, a collec-
tion of short multimedia articles on a variety of top-
ics related to the elds of instructional design and
education and training, published by the Depart-
ment of Educational Technology, San Diego State
University

Suppes, Patrick, The Uses of Computers in Edu-

cation, Scientic American, v215 n3 p206-20 Sep
1966
Courts, B., & Tucker, J. (2012). Using Technology
To Create A Dynamic Classroom Experience. Jour-
nal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 9(2),
121-128.
Jacoy, Christine, and David DiBiase. Plagiarism
by Adult Learners Online: A Case Study in Detec-
tion and Remediation. IRRODL The International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning.
2006. Web. 17 Mar. 2011.

1.16 External links

Digital Media and Learning. The John D. and
Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

The FITS Foundation - Framework for ICT Techni-

cal Support

UNESCO Guide To Measuring Information And

Communication Technologies (ICT) In Education
Top Learning Management System Software
Chapter 2

Learning theory (education)

human learner.

2.1 Educational psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

2.1.1 Behavior analysis

Main article: Behaviorism

A classroom in Norway. Learning also takes places in many Main article: Applied behavior analysis
other settings.

The term behaviorism was coined by John Watson

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describ- (18781959). Watson believed that theorizing thoughts,
ing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained intentions or other subjective experiences was unscien-
during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmen- tic and insisted that psychology must focus on measur-
tal inuences, as well as prior experience, all play a part able behaviors.[3] Behaviorism has since become one of
in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or three domains of behavior analysis, the other two being
changed, and knowledge and skills retained.[1][2] the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, and Applied Be-
havior Analysis.
Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning
and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in edu- Methodological behaviorism is based on the theory of
cation. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe treating public events, or observable behavior. Skinner
that the denition of learning as a change in behavior is introduced another type of behaviorism called Radical
too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than their behaviorism, or the Conceptual Analysis of Behavior,
environment, and in particular the complexities of human which is based on the theory of treating private events;
memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe that for example, thinking and feeling. Radical behaviorism
a learners ability to learn relies to a large extent on what forms the conceptual piece of behavior analysis.
he already knows and understands, and that the acquisi- In behavior analysis, learning is the acquisition of a new
tion of knowledge should be an individually tailored pro- behavior through conditioning and social learning.
cess of construction. Transformative learning theory fo-
cuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in
a learners preconceptions and world view. Learning and conditioning
Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques
to directly observe the functioning of the brain dur- There are three types of conditioning and learning:
ing the learning process, such as event-related potential
and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes
educational neuroscience. As of 2012, such studies are a reex response to an antecedent stimulus.
beginning to support a theory of multiple intelligences,
where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens Operant conditioning, where an antecedent stim-
of dierent functional areas in the brain, each with their uli is followed by a consequence of the behavior
own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular through a reward (reinforcement) or a punishment.

24
2.1. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 25

Social learning theory, where an observation of be- to promote learning, and an understanding of short term
havior is followed by modeling. memory and long term memory is important to educa-
tors inuenced by cognitive theory.[11] They view learn-
Classical conditioning was noticed by Ivan Pavlov when ing as an internal mental process (including insight, infor-
he saw that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food mation processing, memory and perception) where the
with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive
will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of development.[6] The individual learner is more important
food. Classical conditioning regards this form of learning than the environment.
to be the same whether in dogs or in humans.[4] Operant Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shirin mem-
conditioning reinforces this behavior with a reward or a ory model[12] and Baddeleys working memory model[13]
punishment. A reward increases the likelihood of the be- were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive
havior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.[5] psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began
Social learning theory observes behavior and is followed to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, re-
with modeling. searchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load
These three learning theories form the basis of Applied and information processing theory. These theories of
behavior analysis, the application of behavior analysis, learning play a role in inuencing instructional design.[14]
which uses analyzed antecedents, functional analysis, re- Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social
placement behavior strategies, and often data collection role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to
and reinforcement to change behavior. The old practice age.
was called behavior modication, which only used as-
sumed antecedents and consequences to change behavior
without acknowledging the conceptual analysis; analyz- 2.1.3 Constructivism
ing the function of behavior and teaching new behaviors
that would serve the same function was never relevant in Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)
behavior modication.
Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in be- Built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner,
havior, and will arrange the environment to elicit de- constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active
sired responses through such devices as behavioral objec- involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for
tives, Competency-based learning, and skill development themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based
and training.[6] Educational approaches such as Early In- upon current knowledge and past experience. It asks why
tensive Behavioral Intervention, curriculum-based mea- students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or
surement, and direct instruction have emerged from this reading from a textbook. To design eective teaching en-
model.[7] vironments, it believes, one needs a good understanding
of what children already know when they come into the
classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way
2.1.2 Cognitivism that builds on what the pupil already knows and is allowed
to develop with them.[15] Begin with complex problems
Main article: Cognitivism (psychology) and teach basic skills while solving these problems.[16]
This requires an understanding of childrens cognitive de-
Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, devel- velopment, and constructivism draws heavily on psycho-
oped in Germany in the early 1900s and brought to Amer- logical studies of cognitive development.
ica in the 1920s. The German word gestalt is roughly The learning theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori,
equivalent to the English conguration or pattern and and David Kolb serve as the foundation of constructivist
emphasizes the whole of human experience.[8] Over the learning theory.[17] Constructivism has many varieties:
years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge build-
and described principles to explain the way we organize ing are three, but all versions promote a students free
our sensations into perceptions.[9] exploration within a given framework or structure.[18]
Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students
dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They to discover principles for themselves and to construct
propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.
events.[10] Gestalt views of learning have been incorpo-
rated into what have come to be labeled cognitive the-
ories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive ap-
2.1.4 Transformative learning theory
proach: that the memory system is an active organized
processor of information and that prior knowledge plays Main article: Transformative learning
an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look
beyond behavior to consider how human memory works Transformative learning theory seeks to explain how hu-
26 CHAPTER 2. LEARNING THEORY (EDUCATION)

mans revise and reinterpret meaning.[19] Transformative area?[25] Although the eld of neuroscience is young, it is
learning is the cognitive process of eecting change in a expected that with new technologies and ways of observ-
frame of reference.[20] A frame of reference denes our ing learning, the paradigms of what students need and
view of the world. The emotions are often involved.[21] how students learn best will be further rened with actual
Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not scientic evidence. In particular, students who may have
correspond to their particular values, associations and learning disabilities will be taught with strategies that are
concepts.[20] more informed.
Our frames of reference are composed of two dimen-
sions: habits of mind and points of view.[20] Habits of 2.2.1 A brain-based theory of learning
mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than
points of view. Habits of mind inuence our point The dierences of opinion and theory in psychology indi-
of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associ- cate that the learning process is not yet understood. Neu-
ated with them, but points of view may change over roscience shows that the brain can be modelled not with
time as a result of inuences such as reection, appro- a central processor where 'intelligence' lies, but in hav-
priation and feedback.[20] Transformative learning takes ing perhaps 70 functional areas. Mental activity requires
place by discussing with others the reasons presented several areas to work together. What appear as dierent
in support of competing interpretations, by critically ex- types of intelligence result from dierent combinations
amining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of of well-developed functional areas. Learning is a process
view.[20] When circumstances permit, transformative by which neurons join by developing the synapses be-
learners move toward a frame of reference that is more tween them. Knowledge is arranged hierarchically, with
inclusive, discriminating, self-reective, and integrative new knowledge being linked to existing neural networks.
of experience.[20]

2.3 Multiple intelligences

2.2 Educational neuroscience
Main article: Theory of multiple intelligences
Main article: Educational neuroscience
The existence of multiple intelligences is proposed by
psychologist Howard Gardner, who suggests that dier-
American Universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins,
ent kinds of intelligence exists in human beings.[26] It is
University of Southern California and others, in the rst
a theory that has been fashionable in continuous profes-
decade of the twenty-rst century, began oering ma-
sional development (CPD) training courses for teachers.
jors and degrees dedicated to educational neuroscience
or neuroeducation. Such studies seek to link an under-
standing of brain processes with classroom instruction
and experiences.[22] Neuroeducation seeks to analyze the 2.4 Multimedia learning
biological changes that take place in the brain as new
information is processed. It looks at what environmen-
tal, emotional and social situations are best in order for
new information to be retained and stored in the brain via
the linking of neurons, rather than allowing the dendrites
to be reabsorbed and the information lost. The 1990s
were designated The Decade of the Brain, and advances
took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace.
The three dominant methods for measuring brain activi-
ties are: event-related potential, functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging and magnetoencephalography (MEG).[23]
The integration and application to education of what we
know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the
American Federation of Teachers stated: It is vital that
we identify what science tells us about how people learn A multimedia classroom at Islington College, in the United King-
in order to improve the education curriculum.[24] What dom
is exciting about this new eld in education is that modern
brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some Main article: Multimedia learning
sense, to watch the brain as it learns, and the question
then arises: can the results of neuro-scientic studies of Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and audi-
brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this tory teaching materials that may include video, computer
2.6. PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 27

and other information technology. Multimedia learning motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation may cre-
theory focuses on the principles that determine the eec- ate a more self-regulated learner,[32] yet schools un-
tive use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on us- dermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the
ing both the visual and auditory channels for information average student learning in isolation performs signi-
processing. cantly less well than those learning with collaboration and
[33]
The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, mediation. Students
[34][35]
learn through talk, discussion, and
and the visual channel processes information that is seen. argumentation.
The visual channel holds less information than the audi-
tory channel. If both the visual and auditory channels are
presented with information, more knowledge is retained. 2.6 Philosophical anthropology
However, if too much information is delivered it is inade-
quately processed, and long term memory is not acquired. Main article: Philosophical anthropology
Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability
to stimulate both the visual and auditory channels of the
learner, resulting in better progress.[27] Every well-constructed theory of education has at its cen-
ter a philosophical anthropology.[36]

2.5 Other learning theories

2.7 Criticism of learning theory
Other learning theories have also been developed for
more specic purposes. For example, andragogy is the Critics of learning theories that seek to displace
art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is a re- traditional educational practices claim that there is no
cent theory of networked learning which focuses on learn- need for such theories; that the attempt to compre-
ing as making connections. The Learning as a Network hend the process of learning through the construc-
(LaaN) theory builds upon connectivism, complexity the- tion of theories creates problems and inhibits personal
ory, and double-loop learning. It starts from the learner freedom.[37][38]
and views learning as the continuous creation of a per-
sonal knowledge network (PKN).[28]
2.8 See also
2.5.1 Learning style theory Andragogical learning theory

Main article: Learning styles Cognitivism (learning theory)

Constructivism (learning theory)

Learning style theory proposes that individuals learn in
dierent ways, that there are four distinct learning styles Cultural-historical psychology
feeling, watching, thinking and doing and that knowl-
edge of a learners preferred learning style will lead to Instructional theory
faster and more satisfactory improvement.[29]
Instructional design

Kinesthetic learning
2.5.2 Informal and post-modern theories
Learning by teaching
In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an
informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowl- Science, technology, society and environment edu-
edge to help students gain a broad understanding of cation
concepts.[30] New knowledge cannot be told to students, it
believes, but rather the students current knowledge must Connectivism (learning theory)
be challenged. In this way, students will adjust their ideas Evidence-based education
to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.[30]
By using this method students gain the broad understand-
ing they're taught and later are more willing to learn and About accelerating the learning process
keep the specics of the concept or theory. This theory
further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and cognitive acceleration
the language of a subject should be split into multiple
steps.[31] spaced repetition

Other informal learning theories look at the sources of incremental reading

28 CHAPTER 2. LEARNING THEORY (EDUCATION)

About the mechanisms of memory and learning [13] Baddeley, A.D.; Hitch, G.J.L. (1974). G.A. Bower, ed.
The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in
research and theory (8 ed.). New York: Academic Press.
neural networks in the brain
pp. 4789.
sleep and learning
[14] deJong, T. (2010). Cognitive Load Theory, Educa-
latent learning tional Research, and Instructional Design: Some Food for
Thought. Instructional Science: An International Journal
memory consolidation of the Learning Sciences: 38.

short-term memory versus working memory [15] Smith, M. K. (2002). Jerome Bruner and the Process of
Education. Retrieved 26 August 2007, fromhttp://www.
long-term memory infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm.

declarative memory versus procedural memory [16] Yount, William R. (1996). Created to Learn. Nashville:
Broadman & Holman. p. 202.
the cerebellum and motor learning
[17] Lombardi, S.M. (2011). Internet Activities for a Preschool
Technology Education Program Guided by Caregivers.
About learning theories related to classroom learning Doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University.
pp. 13940.

[18] Devries, B.; Zan, B. (2003). When children make rules.

Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2:
Educational Leadership 61 (1): 647.
The Learning Process
[19] Taylor, E.W. (2008). Transformative learning theory.
New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education.
2.9 References Jossey-Bass. pp. 515.

[20] Mezirow, J (1997). Transformative Learning: Theory to

[1] Illeris, Knud (2004). The three dimensions of learning. Practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Educa-
Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co. ISBN 9781575242583. tion. Jossey-bass. pp. 512.

[2] Ormrod, Jeanne (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). [21] Ileris, K (April 2001). Transformative Learning in
Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780132595186. the Perspective of a Comprehensive Learning The-
ory. Journal of Transformative Education (2): 7989.
[3] Good and Brophey. Realistic Approach. p. 155. doi:10.1177/1541344603262315.
[4] Myers, David G. (2008). Exploring Psychology. New [22] Wolf, P. (2010). Brain Matters: Translating Research into
York, New York: Worth. p. 223. Classroom Practice (2nd ed.). ASCD.
[5] Myers, David G. (2008). Exploring Psychology. New [23] ed. by Sawyer, R. Keith (2006). Cambridge Handbook of
York, New York: Worth. p. 222. the Learning Sciences. New York, New York: Cambridge
[6] Smith, M.K. Learning Theory, the encyclopedia of infor- University Press. p. 20.
mal education.. the encyclopedia of informal education. [24] Radin, J.P. (Fall 2009). Brain-Compatible Teaching and
Retrieved June 2011. Learning: Implications for Teacher Education.. Educ
[7] Kim, T and Axelrod, S. (2005): Direct Instruction: An Horiz 88 (1).
Educators Guide and a Plea for Action - The Behavior
[25] Rowland (2010). The brain that changes itself: Stories
Analyst Today, 6.(2), p. 111
of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science.
[8] Yount, William R. (1996). Created to Learn. Nashville: Journal of Academic Language and Learning.
Broadman & Holman. p. 192.
[26] Allen, I. E., J. Seaman, et al. (2007). Blending In: The Ex-
[9] Myers, David G. (2008). Exploring Psychology. New tent and Promise of Blended Education in the United States.
York, New York: Worth. p. 163. Needham, M.A., The Sloan Consortium.

[10] Merriam, Sharan B. (2007). Learning In Adulthood. San [27] Understanding multimedia learning: Integrating mul-
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. timedia in the k-12 classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://s4.brainpop.com/new_common_images/files/76/
[11] Lilienfeld, Scott; Lynn, Steven J.; Namy, Laura L.; Woolf, 76426_BrainPOP_White_Paper-20090426.pdf
Nancy J. (2010). A Framework for Everyday Thinking.
Psychology 1: 248. [28] Mohamed Amine Chatti: The LaaN Theory. In: Per-
sonalization in Technology Enhanced Learning: A Social
[12] Atkinson, R.C. & Shirin, R.M. (1968). K.W. Spence Software Perspective. Aachen, Germany: Shaker Verlag,
and J.T. Spence, ed. The psychology of learning and mo- 2010, pp. 19-42. http://mohamedaminechatti.blogspot.
tivation (2 ed.). New York: Academic Press. pp. 89125. de/2013/01/the-laan-theory.html
2.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 29

[29] Smith, M., M. Doyle, et al. (2007). David a. kolb on ex-

periential learning. Retrieved 24 August 2007, fromhttp:
//www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm.

[30] Marzano, Robert (1991). Fostering thinking across the

curriculum through knowledge restructuring. Journal of
Reading 34: 51825.

[31] Brown, B; Ryoo, K (2008). Teaching Science as a Lan-

guage: A Content-First Approach to Science Teaching.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching 45 (5): 52953.
doi:10.1002/tea.20255.

[32] Deci, E.L. (1995). Why We Do What We Do: The Dynam-

ics of Personal Autonomy. New York: Putnams Sons.

[33] Wells, G. (2007). Semiotic Mediation, Dialogue and the

Construction of Knowledge. Human Development 50
(5): 24474. doi:10.1159/000106414.

[34] Wink, J. (2002). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

[35] Vygotsky, L (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge,

Ma: MIT Press.

[36] Theodora Polito, Educational Theory as Theory of Cul-

ture: A Vichian perspective on the educational theories of
John Dewey and Kieran Egan Educational Philosophy and
Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005

[37] Holzman, Lois (1997). When Democratic Education

is Developmental: The Sudbury Valley School Model,
Schools for growth: radical alternatives to current edu-
cational models. Retrieved April 1, 2010.

[38] Daniel Greenberg (1987), A New Look at Learning, The

Sudbury Valley School Experience. Retrieved April 1,
2010.

2.10 Further reading

Leonard, David (2002). Learning theories, A to Z.
Westport, Conn: Oryx Press. ISBN 1573564133.

Merriam, Sharan (2007). Learning in adulthood

a comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9780470229224.

2.11 External links

Social Science Research Network. How to Become
an Expert Law Teacher by Understanding the Neu-
robiology of Learning
ERIC Digest. How People Learn (and What Tech-
nology Might Have To Do with It)
Instructional Design Learning theories

Learning theories Wiki Learning theories

Chapter 3

Information and communications

technology

Information and communications technology (ICT) 3.2 Global costs of IT

is often used as an extended synonym for information
technology (IT), but is a more specic term that stresses The money spent on IT worldwide has been most recently
the role of unied communications[1] and the integra- estimated as US $3.5 trillion and is currently growing at
tion of telecommunications (telephone lines and wire- 5% per year doubling every 15 years. The 2014 IT bud-
less signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise get of US federal government is nearly $82 billion.[8] IT
software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, costs, as a percentage of corporate revenue, have grown
which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manip- 50% since 2002, putting a strain on IT budgets. When
ulate information.[2] looking at current companies IT budgets, 75% are recur-
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of rent costs, used to keep the lights on in the IT depart-
audio-visual and telephone networks with computer net- ment, and 25% are cost of new initiatives for technology
[9]
works through a single cabling or link system. There are development.
large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to elim- The average IT budget has the following breakdown:[9]
ination of the telephone network) to merge the telephone
network with the computer network system using a single
31% personnel costs (internal)
unied system of cabling, signal distribution and manage-
ment. 29% software costs (external/purchasing category)

26% hardware costs (external/purchasing category)

14% costs of external service providers (exter-

nal/services).

3.1 History of the term 3.3 ICT Development Index

The ICT Development Index compares the level of ICT
The phrase Information and Communication Technology use and access across the world.[10]
has been used by academic researchers since the 1980s,[3]
and the term ICT became popular after it was used in
a report to the UK government by Dennis Stevenson in 3.4 The WSIS Process and ICT de-
1997[4] and in the revised National Curriculum for Eng-
land, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000. But in 2012, velopment goals
the Royal Society recommended that the term ICT should
no longer be used in British schools as it has attracted On 21 December 2001, the United Nations General As-
too many negative connotations,[5] and with eect from sembly approved Resolution 56/183, endorsing the hold-
2014 the National Curriculum was changed to use the ing of the World Summit on the Information Society
word computing reecting the addition of computer pro- (WSIS) to discuss the opportunities and challenges fac-
gramming to the curriculum.[6] A leading group of uni- ing todays information society.[11] According to this res-
versities consider ICT to be a soft subject and advise stu- olution, the General Assembly related the Summit to
dents against studying A-level ICT, preferring instead A- the United Nations Millennium Declaration's goal of
level Computer Science.[7] implementing ICT to achieve Millennium Development

30
3.7. FURTHER READING 31

Goals. It also emphasized a multi-stakeholder approach [5] Royal Society, Shut down or restart? The way forward for
to achieve these goals, using all stakeholders including computing in UK schools, 2012, page 18.
civil society and the private sector, in addition to gov-
[6] National curriculum in England: computing programmes
ernments. of study.

[7] http://www.russellgroup.org/InformedChoices-latest.
3.5 See also pdf. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[8] http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/
Cloud computing assets/egov_docs/2014_budget_priorities_20130410.
pdf
Cognitive infocommunications
[9] IT Costs The Costs, Growth And Financial Risk Of
DICOM Software Assets. OMT-CO Operations Management
Technology Consulting GmbH. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
Digital divide
[10] Measuring the Information Society. International
Example of Information and communication tech- Telecommunication Union. 2011. Retrieved 25 July
nologies for education 2013.

Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative [11] Basic information : about wsis. International Telecom-
munication Union. 17 January 2006. Retrieved 26 May
Hospital information system 2012.
ICT Development Index
Infocommunications 3.7 Further reading
Information Age
Caperna A., Integrating ICT into Sustainable Local
Information and communication technologies for Policies. ISBN 9781615209293
development
Carnoy, Martin. "ICT in Education: Possibilities
Information and communication technologies for and Challenges. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya,
environmental sustainability 2005.
Market information systems "Good Practice in Information and Communica-
tion Technology for Education. Asian Develop-
Mobile Web ment Bank, 2009.
Picture archiving and communication system Grossman, G. and E. Helpman (2005), Outsourc-
ing in a global economy, Review of Economic
Studies 72: 135-159.
3.6 References
Mete Feridun and Stelios Karagiannis (2009)
[1] Murray, James (2011-12-18). Cloud network architec- Growth Eects of Information and Communica-
ture and ICT - Modern Network Architecture. ITKnowl- tion Technologies: Empirical Evidence from the En-
edgeExchange. TechTarget. Retrieved 2013-08-18. larged EU, Transformations in Business and Eco-
nomics, 8(2), 86-99.
[2] Information and Communication Technology from.
FOLDOC. 2008-09-19. Oliver, Ron. "The Role of ICT in Higher Education
for the 21st Century: ICT as a Change Agent for
[3] William Melody et al., Information and Communication
Education. University, Perth, Western Australia,
Technology: Social Sciences Research and Training: A Re-
port by the ESRC Programme on Information and Com- 2002.
munication Technologies, ISBN 0-86226-179-1, 1986.
Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologiz-
Roger Silverstone et al., Listening to a long conversation:
ing of the Word (London, UK: Routledge, 1988), in
an ethnographic approach to the study of information and
communication technologies in the home, Cultural Stud- particular Chapter 4
ies, 5(2), pages 204-227, 1991.
Measuring the Information Society: The ICT De-
[4] The Independent ICT in Schools Commission, velopment Index. International Telecommunication
Information and Communications Technology in UK Union. 2013. p. 254.
Schools: An Independent Inquiry, 1997. Impact noted in
Jim Kelly, What the Web is Doing for Schools, Financial
Times, 2000.
Chapter 4

Educational software

See also: List of educational software 4.1.2 1970s 1980s

Educational software is computer software, the primary The arrival of the personal computer, with the Altair
purpose of which is teaching or self-learning. 8800 in 1975, changed the eld of software in gen-
eral, with specic implications for educational software.
Whereas users prior to 1975 were dependent upon uni-
versity or government owned mainframe computers with
timesharing, users after this shift could create and use
4.1 History software for computers in homes and schools, comput-
ers available for less than $2000. By the early 1980s, the
availability of personal computers including the Apple
4.1.1 1940s - 1970s II (1977), Commodore PET (1977), Commodore VIC-
20 (1980), and Commodore 64 (1982) allowed for the
creation of companies and nonprots which specialized
The use of computer hardware and software in educa-
in educational software. Brderbund and The Learn-
tion and training dates to the early 1940s, when Amer-
ing Company are key companies from this period, and
ican researchers developed ight simulators which used
MECC, the Minnesota Educational Computing Consor-
analog computers to generate simulated onboard instru-
tium, a key non-prot software developer. These and
ment data. One such system was the type19 synthetic
other companies designed a range of titles for personal
radar trainer, built in 1943. From these early attempts in
computers, with the bulk of the software initially devel-
the WWII era through the mid-1970s, educational soft-
oped for the Apple II.
ware was directly tied to the hardware, usually mainframe
computers, on which it ran. Pioneering educational
computer systems in this era included the PLATO sys-
tem (1960), developed at the University of Illinois, and 4.1.3 1990s
TICCIT (1969). In 1963, IBM had established a part-
nership with Stanford Universitys Institute for Mathe- Major developments in educational software in the early
matical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS), directed and mid-1990s were made possible by advances in com-
by Patrick Suppes, to develop the rst comprehensive puter hardware. Multimedia graphics and sound were
CAI elementary school curriculum which was imple- increasingly used in educational programs. CD-ROMs
mented on a large scale in schools in both California became the preferred method for content delivery with
and Mississippi.[1] In 1967 Computer Curriculum Cor- several digital encyclopedias released as Multimedia ap-
poration (CCC, now Pearson Education Technologies[2] ) plication CD-ROMs. With the spread of the internet in
was formed to market to schools the materials developed the second half of the 1990s, new methods of educa-
through the IBM partnership. Early terminals that ran tional software delivery appeared. In the history of virtual
educational systems cost over $10,000, putting them out learning environments, the 1990s were a time of growth
of reach of most institutions. Some programming lan- for educational software systems, primarily due to the ad-
guages from this period, particularly BASIC (1963), and vent of the aordable computer and of the Internet. To-
LOGO (1967) can also be considered educational, as they day Higher Education institutions use virtual learning en-
were specically targeted to students and novice com- vironments like Blackboard Inc. to provide greater ac-
puter users. The PLATO IV system, released in 1972, cessibility to learners.
supported many features which later became standard in
educational software running on home computers. Its
features included bitmap graphics, primitive sound gen-
eration, and support for non-keyboard input devices, in- 4.2 Types
cluding the touchscreen.

32
4.2. TYPES 33

4.2.1 Courseware tional institutions are seeking alternative ways of assess-

ment and testing, which has always traditionally been
Courseware is a term that combines the words 'course' known to use up vasts amount of paper. Assessment
with 'software'. Its meaning originally was used to de- software refers to software with a primary purpose of
scribe additional educational material intended as kits for assessing and testing students in a virtual environment.
teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students, usually Assessment software allows students to complete tests
packaged for use with a computer. The terms meaning and examinations using a computer, usually networked.
and usage has expanded and can refer to the entire course The software then scores each test transcript and outputs
and any additional material when used in reference an results for each student. Assessment software is avail-
online or 'computer formatted' classroom. Many compa- able in various delivery methods, the most popular be-
nies are using the term to describe the entire package ing self-hosted software, online software and hand-held
consisting of one 'class or 'course' bundled together with voting systems. Proprietary software and open-source
the various lessons, tests, and other material needed. The software systems are available. While technically falling
courseware itself can be in dierent formats, some are into the Courseware category (see above), Skill evalua-
only available online such as html pages, while others can tion lab is an example for Computer-based assessment
be downloaded in pdf les or other types of document software with PPA-2 (Plan, Prove, Assess) methodol-
les. Many forms of educational technology are now be- ogy to create and conduct computer based online exam-
ing blended with term courseware. Most leading educa- ination. Moodle is an example of open-source software
tional companies solicit or include courseware with their with an assessment component that is gaining popularity.
training packages. Other popular international assessment systems include
QuestionMark, EvaluNet XT and QuestBase.

4.2.2 Study aids

4.2.5 Reference software
Software to help with learning and organization of study
material. Similar to having a tutor to assist with studying. Main article: Reference software
StudyX ash card maker is a great example, and includes
millions of subjects and can be customized for almost any
learning. Many publishers of print dictionaries and encyclopedias
have been involved in the production of educational ref-
erence software since the mid-1990s. They were joined
4.2.3 Classroom aids in the reference software market by both startup com-
panies and established software publishers, most notably
See also: Interactive whiteboard Microsoft.
The rst commercial reference software products were
Some educational software is designed for use in school reformulations of existing content into CD-ROM edi-
classrooms. Typically such software may be projected tions, often supplemented with new multimedia content,
onto a large whiteboard at the front of the class and/or including compressed video and sound. More recent
run simultaneously on a network of desktop computers products made use of internet technologies, to supple-
in a classroom. This type of software is often called ment CD-ROM products, then, more recently, to replace
classroom management software. While teachers of- them entirely.
ten choose to use educational software from other cat- Wikipedia and its ospins (such as Wiktionary) marked a
egories in their IT suites (e.g. reference works, childrens new departure in educational reference software. Previ-
software), a whole category of educational software has ously, encyclopedias and dictionaries had compiled their
grown up specically intended to assist classroom teach- contents on the basis of invited and closed teams of spe-
ing. Branding has been less strong in this category than cialists. The Wiki concept has allowed for the develop-
in those oriented towards home users. Software titles are ment of collaborative reference works through open co-
often very specialized and produced by various manufac- operation incorporating experts and non-experts.
turers, including many established educational book pub-
lishers.
4.2.6 Custom platforms

Some manufacturers regarded normal personal comput-
ers as an inappropriate platform for learning software
4.2.4 Assessment software for younger children and produced custom child-friendly
pieces of hardware instead. The hardware and software
With the impact of environmental damage and the need is generally combined into a single product, such as a
for institutions to become "paperless",[3] more educa- child laptop-lookalike. The laptop keyboard for younger
34 CHAPTER 4. EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE

children follows an alphabetic order and the qwerty or-

der for the older ones. The most well-known example
are Leapfrog products. These include imaginatively de-
signed hand-held consoles with a variety of pluggable ed-
ucational game cartridges and book-like electronic de-
vices into which a variety of electronic books can be
loaded. These products are more portable than general
laptop computers, but have a much more limited range
of purposes, concentrating on literacy.

4.2.7 Corporate training and tertiary edu-

cation

Earlier educational software for the important corporate

and tertiary education markets was designed to run on
a single desktop computer (or an equivalent user de-
vice). The history of such software is usefully summa-
rized in the SCORM 2004 2nd edition Overview (section
1.3), unfortunately, however, without precise dates. In
the years immediately following 2000, planners decided
to switch to server-based applications with a high degree
of standardization. This means that educational software
runs primarily on servers which may be hundreds or thou-
sands of miles from the actual user. The user only re-
ceives tiny pieces of a learning module or test, fed over
the internet one by one. The server software decides on
what learning material to distribute, collects results and Educational software for learning Standard Chinese using
displays progress to teaching sta. Another way of ex- Pinyin.
pressing this change is to say that educational software
morphed into an online educational service. US Govern-
mental endorsements and approval systems ensured the Language learning software (KVerbos or English in
rapid switch to the new way of managing and distributing a Flash, for example)
learning material.
See also: Mind Mapping Software such as MindGenius which
provides a focal point for discussion, helps make
classes more interactive, and assists students with
SCORM studying, essays and projects.
Virtual learning environment, LMS (learning man-
agement system) Notetaking

Web-based training Software for enabling simulated dissection of human

and animal bodies (used in medical and veterinary
college courses)[4]
4.2.8 Specic educational purposes
Spelling tutor software
There are highly specic niche markets for educational
software, including:
Typing tutors (KTouch, Mario Teaches Typing,
TypingWeb, Ratatype or Mavis Beacon, for exam-
teacher tools and classroom management software ple)

(remote control and monitoring software, letransfer Medical and healthcare educational software
software, document camera and presenter, free tools,...)
Apps or applications (Gojimo for example) created
Driving test software for educational purposes that are installed on mo-
bile devices and provide information on a specic
Interactive geometry software subject.
4.4. SEE ALSO 35

4.2.9 Operating systems 4.4 See also

While mainstream operating systems are designed for Adaptive learning
general usages, and are more or less customized for ed-
ucation only by the application sets added to them, a Computer-assisted language learning
variety of software manufacturers, especially Linux dis-
Educational game
tributions, have sought to provide integrated platforms
for specically education. Among the most popular Educational technology
are Sugar, aimed primarily at preschool and elementary
grades; DoudouLinux (www.doudoulinux.org) - a system Educational entertainment Edutainment
targeting young children; Edubuntu, foremost targeted
Instructional technology
to middle and secondary grades; and, UberStudent, de-
signed for the academic success of higher education and Comparison of operating systems for children
college-bound secondary students. In addition, Portos,
designed by Cornell University, is a complete educational
operating system designed to teach programming.[5] 4.5 References
[1] Instructional Systems Development
4.3 Selected reports and academic [2] Pearson Education Technologies launches concert. | North
articles America > United States from AllBusiness.com

[3] ABC News October 7: School Tries to Go Paperless.

Virvou, M., Katsionis, G., & Manos, K. (2005). Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2012-12-06.
Combining Software Games with Education: Eval- [4] April Kung, The Case for Educational Software in the
uation of its Educational Eectiveness. Educational Life Sciences (2004)" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-06.
Technology & Society, 8 (2), 54-65.
[5] Portos: An Educational Operating System.
Cs.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2012-12-06.
Seels, B. (1989). The instructional design move-
ment in educational technology. Educational
Technology, May, 11-15. http://www.coe.uh.edu/
courses/cuin6373/idhistory/1960.html 4.6 External links
Niemiec, R.P. & Walberg, H.T. (1989). From Graphite: Educational Software Reviews
teaching machines to microcomputers: Some mile- Software & Information Industry Association: Education
stones in the history of computer-based instruction. Division
Journal of Research on Computing in Education,
21(3), 263-276.

Annetta, L., Minogue, J., Holmes, S., & Cheng, M.

(2009). Investigation the impact of video games on
high school students engagement and learning ge-
netics. Computers and Education, 53, 74-85.

Bainbridge, W. (2007). The scientic research po-

tential of virtual worlds. Science, 317, 27, 471-476.

Barab, S., Scott, B., Siyahhan, S., Goldstone, R., Ingram-

Goble, A., Zuiker, S., & Warren, S. (2009).Transforma-
tional play as a curricular scaold: Using videogames to
support science education. Journal of Science Education
Technology,18, 305-320.

Bourgonjon, J., Valcke, M., Soetaert, R., & Schel-

lens, T., (2010). Students perceptions about the use
of video games in the classroom. Computers and
Education, 54, 1145-1156.
Chapter 5

E-learning (theory)

E-learning theory describes the cognitive science prin- eect systems like automobile braking systems, how a bi-
ciples of eective multimedia educational technology use cycle pump works, or cloud formation. However, sub-
in e-learning.[1][2][3] Cognitive research and theory sug- sequent investigations found that the modality eect ex-
gest that selection of appropriate concurrent multimedia tended to other areas of learning.
modalities may enhance learning, as may application of
Split attention eect Mayer found that Students learn
several other principles. better from animation and narration than from animation,
narration, and on-screen text.[3]
Thus, it is better to eliminate redundant material. Learn-
5.1 Principles ers do not learn as well when they both hear and see the
same verbal message during a presentation. This is a spe-
Main article: Modality eect cial case of the split attention eect of Sweller and Chan-
dler.
Richard E. Mayer's modality principle states that if ma- Learning is enhanced when related components such as
terials contain both verbal and graphical information, the words and pictures are presented in spatial contigu-
verbal information should be given in auditory format ity, referring to the components being physically close
only, and not as written text as well.[3][4] to each other on the page or screen, rather than being
Theoretically, the modality principle is based on a model separated.[3] Similarly, temporal contiguity refers to si-
of working memory by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch multaneous presentation of corresponding words and pic-
who proposed that working memory has two largely in- tures, rather than successive delivery.[3] Learning is more
dependent sub-components that tend to work in parallel - eective when extraneous material is excluded rather
one visual and one verbal/acoustic.[5] This gave rise to than included, which Meyer termed, coherence.[3] The
dual-coding theory, rst proposed by Allan Paivio and eects of improved design have more benet for low-
later applied to multimedia by Richard Mayer. Accord- knowledge than high knowledge learners, and for high-
ing to Mayer,[3] separate channels of working memory spatial than for low-spatial learners.[3]
process auditory and visual information. Consequently, Such principles may not apply outside of laboratory con-
a learner can use more cognitive processing capacities to ditions. For example, Muller found that adding approx-
study materials that combine auditory verbal information imately 50% additional extraneous but interesting mate-
with visual graphical information than to process materi- rial did not result in any signicant dierence in learner
als that combine printed (visual) text with visual graphical performance.[6] There is ongoing debate concerning the
information. In other words, the multi modal materials mechanisms underlying these benecial principles,[7] and
reduce the cognitive load imposed on working memory. on what boundary conditions may apply.[8]
In a series of studies Mayer and his colleagues tested
Paivios dual-coding theory, with multimedia. They re-
peatedly found that students learning given multimedia
with animation and narration consistently did better on 5.2 Learning theories
transfer questions than those who learn from animation
and text-based materials. That is, they were signicantly Main article: Learning theory (education)
better when it came to applying what they had learned af-
ter receiving multimedia rather than mono-media (visual Good pedagogical practice has a theory of learning at
only) instruction. These results were then later conrmed its core. However, no single best-practice e-learning
by other groups of researchers. standard has emerged, and may be unlikely given the
The initial studies of multimedia learning were limited range of learning and teaching styles, the potential
to logical scientic processes that centered on cause-and- ways technology can be implemented and the ways in

36
5.3. TEACHER USE OF TECHNOLOGY 37

which educational technology itself is changing.[9] Var- e-moderator, acting as a facilitator of student learning.
ious pedagogical approaches or learning theories may be Some criticism is now beginning to emerge. Her model
considered in designing and interacting with e-learning does not easily transfer to other contexts (she developed it
programs. with experience from an Open University distance learn-
Social-constructivist this pedagogy is particularly well ing course). It ignores the variety of learning approaches
aorded by the use of discussion forums, blogs, wiki and that are possible within computer mediated communica-
on-line collaborative activities. It is a collaborative ap- tion (CMC) and the range of learning theories that are
proach that opens educational content creation to a wider available (Moule 2007).
group including the students themselves. The One Laptop
Per Child Foundation attempted to use a constructivist
approach in its project.[10] 5.2.1 Self-regulation
Laurillards Conversational Model[11] is also particu-
larly relevant to eLearning, and Gilly Salmon's Five-Stage Self-regulated learning refers to several concepts that play
Model is a pedagogical approach to the use of discussion major roles in learning, and which have signicant rele-
boards.[12] vance in e-learning. Zimmerman (1998) explains that in
order to develop self-regulation, learning courses should
Cognitive perspective focuses on the cognitive processes
oer opportunities for students to practice strategies and
involved in learning as well as how the brain works.[13]
skills by themselves. Self-regulation is also strongly re-
Emotional perspective focuses on the emotional aspects lated to a students social sources such as parents and
of learning, like motivation, engagement, fun, etc.[14] teachers. Moreover, Steinberg (1996) found that high-
Behavioural perspective focuses on the skills and be- achieving students usually have high-expectation
[20]
parents
havioural outcomes of the learning process. Role-playing who monitor their children closely.
and application to on-the-job settings.[15] With the academic environment, self-regulated learn-
Contextual perspective focuses on the environmental ers usually set their academic goals and monitor and
and social aspects which can stimulate learning. Inter- react themselves in process in order to achieve their
action with other people, collaborative discovery and the goals.Schunk argues, students must regulate not only
importance of peer support as well as pressure.[16] their actions but also their underlying achievement-
related cognitions, beliefs, intentions and aects"(p.
Mode Neutral Convergence or promotion of trans- 359). Moreover, academic self-regulation also helps stu-
modal learning where online and classroom learners can dents develop condence in their ability to perform well
coexist within one learning environment thus encour- in e-learning courses.[20]
aging interconnectivity and the harnessing of collective
intelligence.[17]
For many theorists its the interaction between student
and teacher and student and student in the online environ-
5.3 Teacher use of technology
ment that enhances learning (Mayes and de Freitas 2004).
Pasks theory that learning occurs through conversations Computing technology was not created by teachers.
about a subject which in turn helps to make knowledge There has been little consultation between those who pro-
explicit has an obvious application to learning within a mote its use in schools and those who teach with it. Deci-
VLE.[18] sions to purchase technology for education are very often
political decisions. Most sta using these technologies
Salmon developed a ve stage model of e-learning and did not grow up with them.[21] Training teachers to use
e-moderating that for some time has had a major inu- computer technology did improve their condence in its
ence where online courses and online discussion forums use, but there was considerable dissatisfaction with train-
have been used.[19] In her ve stage model individual ac- ing content and style of delivery.[22] The communication
cess and the ability of students to use the technology are element in particular was highlighted as the least satisfac-
the rst step to involvement and achievement. The sec- tory part of the training, by which many teachers meant
ond step involves students creating an identity online and the use of a VLE and discussion forums to deliver on-
nding others with whom to interact; online socialisa- line training (Leask 2002). Technical support for online
tion is a critical element of the e-learning process in this learning, lack of access to hardware, poor monitoring of
model. In step 3 students are giving and sharing infor- teacher progress and a lack of support by online tutors
mation relevant to the course to each other. Collabora- were just some of the issues raised by the asynchronous
tive interaction amongst students is central to step 4. The online delivery of training (Davies 2004). They are also
fth step in Salmons model involves students looking for likely to be more constructivist-oriented in their approach
benets from the system and using resources from out- to learning.[23]
side of it to deepen their learning. Throughout all of this
the tutor/teacher/lecturer fullls the role of moderator or Newer generation web 2.0 services provide customizable,
inexpensive platforms for authoring and disseminating
38 CHAPTER 5. E-LEARNING (THEORY)

multimedia-rich e-learning courses, and do not need spe- [12] E-moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online
cialised information technology (IT) support.[24] Gilly Salmon , Kogan Page, 2000, ISBN 0-7494-4085-6
Pedagogical theory may have application in encouraging [13] Bloom, B. S., and D. R. Krathwohl. (1956). Taxonomy
and assessing on-line participation.[25] Assessment meth- of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1
ods for on-line participation have reviewed.[25]
[14] Bth, J. A. (1982) Distance Students Learning Em-
pirical Findings and Theoretical Deliberations

5.4 See also [15] Areskog, N-H. (1995) The Tutorial Process the Roles
of Student Teacher and Tutor in a Long Term Perspective
Cognitive load [16] Black, J. & McClintock, R. (1995) An Interpretation
Construction Approach to Constructivist Design.
Modality eect
[17] Smith B, Reed P & Jones C (2008) Mode Neutral ped-
Split attention eect agogy. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-
learning.
Worked-example eect
[18] Allen, I. E., J. Seaman, et al. (2007). Blending In: The
Dual-coding theory
Extent and Promise of Blended Education in the United
States. Needham, M.A., The Sloan Consortium.

5.5 References [19] Salmon, G. (2005). E-moderating, the key to teaching and
learning online. Routledge Falmer.
[1] Mayer, R. E.; R. Moreno (1998). A Cognitive Theory [20] Peter E. Williams and Chan M. Hllman(Feb.,2004). Dif-
of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Princi- ferences in self-regulation for online learning between
ples. rst-and second-generation college students.Research in
Higher Education, Vol. 45, No.1, pp. 71-82.http://www.
[2] Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (1999). Cognitive principles jstor.org/stable/40197287
of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contigu-
ity. Journal of Educational Psychology 91 (2): 358368. [21] Laurillard, D. (2006). Rethinking University Teaching: a
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.358. framework for the eective use of learning technologies.
Abingdon, Oxon., RoutledgeFalmer.
[3] Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78749-1. [22] Galanouli, D., C. Murphy, et al. (2004). Teachers per-
ceptions of the eectiveness of ICT-competence train-
[4] Ginns, Paul (2005). Meta-analysis of the
ing. Computers and Education 43(1-2): 63-79.
modality eect. Learning and Instruction.
doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.001. [23] Conlon, T. and M. Simpson (2003). Silicon Valley ver-
sus Silicon Glen: the impact of computers upon teaching
[5] Baddeley, A.D.; G.J. Hitch (1974). Working Memory.
and learning: a comparative study. British Journal of Ed-
In Bower, G.A. The psychology of learning and motiva-
ucation Technology 34(2): 137-150.
tion: advances in research and theory 8. New York: Aca-
demic Press. pp. 4789. [24] Tam CW, Eastwood A. Available, intuitive and
free! Building e-learning modules using web
[6] Muller, D. A.; Lee, K. J.; Sharma, M. D. (2008).
2.0 services.Med Teach. 2012;34(12):1078-80.
Coherence or interest: Which is most important in on-
doi:10.3109/0142159X.2012.731105
line multimedia learning?". Australasian Journal of Edu-
cational Technology 24 (2): 211221. Retrieved October [25] Ho, S. (2002). Evaluating students participation in on-
19, 2008. line discussions.
[7] Tabbers, Martens, Merrinboer. The modality eect in
multimedia instructions. Open University of the Nether-
lands. Retrieved 2012-01-25.

[8] Reinwein (2012). Does the Modality Eect Exist? and if

So, Which Modality Eect?". Journal of Psycholinguistic
Research.

[9] Meredith, S. and B. Newton (2003). Models of eLearn-

ing: Technology Promise vs Learner Needs Literature Re-
view. The International Journal of Management Educa-
tion 3(3).

[10] Wiki.Laptop.org

[11] Informal description of Laurillards Model

Chapter 6

Instructional design

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Sys- 6.1.3 Mid-1950s through mid-1960s - The
tems Design (ISD)) is the practice of creating instruc- Programmed Instruction Movement
tional experiences which make the acquisition of knowl-
edge and skill more ecient, eective, and appealing.[1] In B. F. Skinners 1954 article The Science of
The process consists broadly of determining the current Learning and the Art of Teaching, he stated that ef-
state and needs of the learner, dening the end goal fective instructional materials, called programmed
of instruction, and creating some intervention to as- instructional materials, should include small steps,
sist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by frequent questions, immediate feedback, and allow
pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically self-pacing.[5]
(adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take
place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based
The Popularization of Behavioral Objectives -
settings. The outcome of this instruction may be di-
Robert Mager popularized the use of learning ob-
rectly observable and scientically measured or com-
jectives with his 1962 article Preparing Objectives
pletely hidden and assumed. There are many instruc-
for Programmed Instruction. In the article, he de-
tional design models but many are based on the ADDIE
scribes how to write objectives including desired be-
model with the ve phases: analysis, design, develop-
havior, learning condition, and assessment.[5]
ment, implementation, and evaluation. As a eld, in-
structional design is historically and traditionally rooted
in cognitive and behavioral psychology, though recently In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom pub-
Constructivism (learning theory) has inuenced thinking lished an inuential taxonomy of what he termed
in the eld.[2][3][4] the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what one
knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does,
physically) and Aective (what one feels, or what
attitudes one has). These taxonomies still inuence
the design of instruction.[6][7]
6.1 History

6.1.1 Origins

During World War II, a considerable amount of training

materials for the military were developed based on the
principles of instruction, learning, and human behavior.
Tests for assessing a learners abilities were used to screen
candidates for the training programs. After the success
of military training, psychologists began to view training
as a system, and developed various analysis, design, and
evaluation procedures.[5]

6.1.2 1946 Edgar Dales Cone of Experi-

ence

In 1946, Dale outlined a hierarchy of instructional Blooms Taxonomy

methods and their eectiveness.[6]

39
40 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

6.1.4 Early 1960s - The Criterion- 6.1.8 The 1980s - Introduction of Personal
Referenced Testing Movement Computers into the Design Process

Robert Glaser rst used the term criterion- During this decade, while interest in instructional
referenced measures in 1962. In contrast to design continued to be strong in business and the
norm-referenced tests in which an individuals per- military, there was little evolution of ID in schools
formance is compared to group performance, a or higher education.[5][9]
criterion-referenced test is designed to test an in-
dividuals behavior in relation to an objective stan- This was the era, however, when educators and re-
dard. It can be used to assess the learners entry level searchers began to consider how the personal com-
behavior, and to what extent learners have devel- puter could be used in an educational environment
oped mastery through an instructional program.[5] and eorts began to design instruction that utilized
this new tool.[5][6][10] PLATO (Programmed Logic
for Automatic Teaching Operation) is one exam-
ple of how computers began to be integrated into
6.1.5 1965 - Domains of Learning, Events instruction.[11] Many of the rst uses of computers in
of Instruction, and Hierarchical the classroom were for drill and skill exercises.[12]
Analysis Computer-based educational games and simulations
also became popular.

In 1965, Robert Gagne (see below for more infor- This was also the time when there was a growing
mation) described three domains of learning out- interest in how cognitive psychology could be ap-
comes (Cognitive, Aective, Psychomotor), ve plied to instructional design.[6] In the late 1980s and
learning outcomes (Verbal Information, Intellectual throughout the 1990s, cognitive load theory began to
Skills, Cognitive Strategy, Attitude, Motor Skills), nd empirical support for a variety of presentation
and nine events of instruction in The conditions techniques.[13]
of Learning, which remain foundations of instruc-
tional design practices.[5]
6.1.9 The 1990s - A Growing Interest in
Gagnes work in learning hierarchies and hierarchi- Constructivist Theory and the Im-
cal analysis led to an important notion in instruction portance of Performance
to ensure that learners acquire prerequisite skills
before attempting superordinates ones.[5] As constructivist theory began to gain traction,
its inuence on instructional design became more
prominent as a counterpoint to the more tradi-
6.1.6 1967 - Formative Evaluation tional cognitive learning theory.[9][14] Construc-
tivists believe that learning experiences should be
authentic and produce real-world learning envi-
In 1967, after analyzing the failure of training mate- ronments that allow the learner to construct their
rial, Michael Scriven suggested the need for forma- own knowledge.[9] This emphasis on the learner was
tive assessment e.g., to try out instructional ma- a signicant departure away from traditional forms
terials with learners (and revise accordingly) before of instructional design.[5][6][14]
declaring them nalized.[5]
Another trend that surfaced during this period was
the recognition of performance improvement as be-
6.1.7 The 1970s - Growing of Interest in ing an important outcome of learning that needed to
be considered during the design process.[5][10]
the Systems Approach
The World Wide Web is developed and begins to
During the 1970s, the number of instructional de- surface as a potential online learning tool with hy-
sign models greatly increased and prospered in dif- pertext and hypermedia being recognized as good
ferent sectors in military, academia, and industry.[5] tools for e-learning.[11]
Many instructional design theorists began to adopt
an information-processing-based approach to the As technology advanced and constructivist theory
design of instruction. David Merrill for instance de- gained popularity, technologys use in the class-
veloped Component Display Theory (CDT), which room began to evolve from mostly drill and skill
concentrates on the means of presenting instruc- exercises to more interactive activities that required
tional materials (presentation techniques).[8] more complex thinking on the part of the learner.[12]
6.4. GAGN'S THEORY OF INSTRUCTION 41

Rapid prototyping was rst seen during the 1990s. to refocus their attention on what was most important:
In this process, an instructional design project is pro- learning.[21]
totyped quickly and then vetted through a series of
By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had
try and revise cycles. This is a big departure from
discovered several learning eects related to cognitive
traditional methods of instructional design that took
load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention
far longer to complete.[9] eect, redundancy eect, and the worked-example ef-
fect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began
to attribute learning eects to cognitive load.[21] Mayer
6.1.10 The 2000s - Rise of the Internet and and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of
Online Learning Multimedia Learning.[22][23][24]

The Internet, with its social media tools and multi- In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to
tudes of information resources, became a very popu- be internationally accepted[25] and begun to revolutionize
how practitioners of instructional design view instruction.
lar tool for online learning, and instructional design-
ers recognized the need to integrate e-learning into Recently, human performance experts have even taken
notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to pro-
the creation of learning objects and curricula.[5][15]
mote this theory base as the science of instruction, with
[26]
There is a great increase in the number of instructional designers as the practitioners of this eld.
[27]
online courses oered by higher education Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller published a text-
institutions.[15][16] book describing how Instructional Designers can promote
ecient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cog-
Technology advanced to the point that sophisticated nitive load theory.
simulations were now readily available to learners, Instructional Designers use various instructional strate-
thus providing more authentic and realistic learning gies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think
experiences.[12] that the onscreen text should not be more than 150
words or the text should be presented in small meaning-
ful chunks.. Design of activities to engage learners follow
6.1.11 2010 and forward concepts such as chronogogy (time-lead) learning design
for online education to help facilitate learning activities
The inuence of e-tools continues to grow and has around learners schedules and access behaviour on online
seemingly encouraged the growth of informal learn- environments. The designers also use auditory and visual
ing throughout a persons lifetime. The challenge for methods to communicate information to the learner.
instructional designers is how to create learning op-
portunities that now may occur anywhere and any-
time. 6.4 Gagn's Theory of Instruction
Gagn's instructional theory is widely used in the design
6.2 Instructional Media History of instruction by instructional designers in many settings,
and its continuing inuence in the eld of educational
technology can be seen in the more than 130 times that
6.3 Cognitive load theory and the Gagn has been cited in prominent journals in the eld
design of instruction during the period from 1985 through 1990.[28] Synthesiz-
ing ideas from behaviorism and cognitivism, he provides
a clear template, which is easy to follow for designing
Cognitive load theory developed out of several empiri-
instructional events. Instructional designers who follow
cal studies of learners, as they interacted with instruc-
[17] Gagn's theory will likely have tightly focused, ecient
tional materials. Sweller and his associates began to
instruction.[29]
measure the eects of working memory load, and found
that the format of instructional materials has a direct
eect on the performance of the learners using those 6.4.1 Overview of Gagns instructional
materials.[18][19][20]
theory
While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the in-
uences of media on learning, cognitive load eects were A taxonomy of Learning Outcomes
being documented in several journals. Rather than at-
tempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive Robert Gagn classied the types of learning outcomes.
load learning eects provided an empirical basis for the To identify the types of learning, Gagn asked how learn-
use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instruc- ing might be demonstrated.[30] These can be related to the
tional design community to reassess the media debate, domains of learning, as follows:
42 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Cognitive Domain 1. Gaining attention: To ensure reception of coming

instruction, the teacher gives the learners a stimu-
1. Verbal information - is stated lus. Before the learners can start to process any new
information, the instructor must gain the attention of
2. Intellectual skills - label or classify the concepts the learners. This might entail using abrupt changes
in the instruction.
3. Intellectual skills - to apply the rules and principles
2. Informing learners of objectives: The teacher tells
4. Intellectual skills - problem solving allows generat- the learner what they will be able to do because of
ing solutions or procedures the instruction. The teacher communicates the de-
sired outcome to the group.
5. Cognitive strategies - are used for learning
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning: The teacher
asks for recall of existing relevant knowledge.
Aective Domain
4. Presenting the stimulus: The teacher gives emphasis
1. Attitudes - are demonstrated by preferring options to distinctive features.

5. Providing learning guidance: The teacher helps the

Psychomotor Domain students in understanding (semantic encoding) by
providing organization and relevance.
1. Motor skills - enable physical performance 6. Eliciting performance: The teacher asks the learners
to respond, demonstrating learning.
Types of Learning Outcomes 7. Providing feedback: The teacher gives informative
feedback on the learners performance.
Gagn, & Driscoll elaborated on the types of learning
outcomes with a set of corresponding standard verbs:[31] 8. Assessing performance: The teacher requires more
learner performance, and gives feedback, to rein-
Verbal Information: state, recite, tell, declare force learning.

9. Enhancing retention and transfer: The teacher pro-

Intellectual Skills
vides varied practice to generalize the capability.

1. Discrimination: discriminate, distinguish, dieren-

Some educators believe that Gagn's taxonomy of learn-
tiate
ing outcomes and events of instruction oversimplify the
2. Concrete Concept: identify, name, specify, label learning process by over-prescribing.[32] However, using
them as part of a complete instructional package can
3. Dened Concept: classify, categorize, type, sort (by assist many educators in becoming more organized and
denition) staying focused on the instructional goals.[33]

4. Rule: demonstrate, show, solve (using one rule)

Gagn's Inuence on Instructional Design Theorists
5. Higher Order Rule: generate, develop, solve (using
two or more rules) Robert Gagns work has been the foundation of instruc-
tional design since the beginning of the 1960s when he
conducted research and developed training materials for
Cognitive Strategy: adopt, create, originate
the military. Among the rst to coin the term instruc-
Attitude: choose, prefer, elect, favor tional design, Gagn developed some of the earliest in-
structional design models and ideas. These models have
Motor Skill: execute, perform, carry out laid the groundwork for more present-day instructional
design models from theorists like Dick, Carey, and Carey
(The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model),[34]
The Nine Events of Instruction (as Conditions of Jerold Kemps Instructional Design Model,[35] and David
Learning) Merrill (Merrills First Principle of Instruction).[35] Each
of these models are based on a core set of learning phases
According to Gagn, learning occurs in a series of learn- that include (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demon-
ing events. Each learning event must be accomplished be- stration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integra-
fore the next in order for learning to take place. Similarly, tion or these skills into real world activities. The gure
instructional events should mirror the learning events: below illustrates these ve ideas.[35]
6.5. LEARNING DESIGN 43

Gagn's main focus for instructional design was how in- ucational Researcher, 1974), Gagn dened instruction
struction and learning could be systematically connected as the set of planned external events which inuence the
to the design of instruction. He emphasized the design process of learning and thus promote learning..[41]
principles and procedures that need to take place for ef-
fective teaching and learning. His initial ideas, along with
the ideas of other early instructional designers, can be 6.5 Learning design
summed up in Psychological Principles in Systematic De-
velopment which was written by Roberts B. Miller and
The concept of learning design arrived in the litera-
edited by Gagn.[36] Gagn believed in internal learn-
ture of technology for education in the late 1990s and
ing and motivation which paved the way for theorists
early 2000s[42] with the idea that designers and instruc-
like Merrill, Li, and Jones who designed the Instructional
tors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of
Transaction Theory,[37] Reigeluth and Steins Elaboration
behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for
Theory,[38] and most notably, Kellers ARCS Model of
their online courses.[43] But the concept of learning de-
Motivation and Design (see below).
sign is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learn-
ing design might be dened as the description of the
teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of
Gagn's Inuence on Education Today learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed
learning event)".[44]
Prior to Robert Gagn, learning was often thought of [45]
as a single, uniform process.[39] There was little or no As summarized by Britain, learning design may be as-
distinction made between learning to load a rie and sociated with:
learning to solve a complex mathematical problem.[39]
Gagn oered an alternative view which developed the The concept of learning design
idea that dierent learners required dierent learning The implementation of the concept made by learn-
strategies.[39] Understanding and designing instruction ing design specications like PALO, IMS Learning
based on a learning style dened by the individual brought Design,[46] LDL, SLD 2.0, etc.
[39]
about new theories and approaches to teaching. Gagn
's understanding and theories of human learning added The technical realisations around the implementa-
signicantly to understanding the stages in cognitive pro- tion of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD LD-
cessing and instructions. [39]
For example, Gagn argued Author, etc.
that instructional designers must understand the charac-
teristics and functions of short-term and long-term mem-
ory to facilitate meaningful learning.[39] This idea encour- 6.6 Instructional design models
aged instructional designers to include cognitive needs as
a top-down instructional approach.[39]
6.6.1 ADDIE process
Gagn (1966) denes curriculum as a sequence of con-
tent units arranged in such a way that the learning of each Perhaps the most common model used for creating in-
unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the structional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym
capabilities described by specied prior units (in the se- stands for the 5 phases contained in the model (Analyze,
quence) have already been mastered by the learner.[40] Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate).
His denition of curriculum has been the basis of many Brief History of ADDIEs Development The AD-
important initiatives in schools and other educational DIE model was initially developed by Florida State Uni-
environments.[40] In the late 1950s and early 1960s, versity to explain the processes involved in the for-
Gagn had expressed and established an interest in ap- mulation of an instructional systems development (ISD)
plying theory to practice with particular interest in appli- program for military interservice training that will ade-
cations for teaching, training and learning. Increasing the quately train individuals to do a particular job and which
eectiveness and eciency of practice was of particular can also be applied to any interservice curriculum devel-
concern.[40] His ongoing attention to practice while de- opment activity.[47] The model originally contained sev-
veloping theory continues to have an impact on education eral steps under its ve original phases (Analyze, Design,
and training.[40] Develop, Implement, and [Evaluation and] Control),[47]
Gagn's work has had a signicant inuence on American whose completion was expected before movement to the
education, and military and industrial training.[41] Gagn next phase could occur. Over the years, the steps were
was one of the early developers of the concept of instruc- revised and eventually the model itself became more dy-
tional systems design which suggests the components of namic and interactive than its original hierarchical rendi-
a lesson can be analyzed and should be designed to op- tion, until its most popular version appeared in the mid-
erate together as an integrated plan for instruction.[41] In 80s, as we understand it today.
Educational Technology and the Learning Process (Ed- The ve phases are listed and explained below:[5]
44 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

ations of the ADDIE process.[48]

ADDIE Model 6.6.2 Rapid prototyping

Analyze The rst phase of content development is An adaptation of the ADDIE model, which is used some-
Analysis. Analysis refers to the gathering of information times, is a practice known as rapid prototyping.
about ones audience, the tasks to be completed, how the
learners will view the content, and the projects overall Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the
goals. The instructional designer then classies the infor- verication of the design documents saves time and
mation to make the content more applicable and success- money by catching problems while they are still easy to
ful. x. This approach is not novel to the design of instruc-
tion, but appears in many design-related domains includ-
Design The second phase is the Design phase. In ing software design, architecture, transportation plan-
this phase, instructional designers begin to create their ning, product development, message design, user expe-
project. Information gathered from the analysis phase, in rience design, etc.[48][49][50] In fact, some proponents of
conjunction with the theories and models of instructional design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understand-
design, is meant to explain how the learning will be ac- ing of a problem is incomplete without creating and eval-
quired. For example, the design phase begins with writing uating some type of prototype, regardless of the analy-
a learning objective. Tasks are then identied and broken sis rigor that may have been applied up front.[51] In other
down to be more manageable for the designer. The nal words, up-front analysis is rarely sucient to allow one to
step determines the kind of activities required for the au- condently select an instructional model. For this reason
dience in order to meet the goals identied in the Analyze many traditional methods of instructional design are be-
phase. ginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-
Develop The third phase, Development, involves the productive.[52]
creation of the activities that will be implemented. It is However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a some-
in this stage that the blueprints of the design phase are what simplistic type of model. As this argument goes,
assembled. at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase.
Implement After the content is developed, it is then After you thoroughly conduct the analysisyou can then
Implemented. This stage allows the instructional designer choose a model based on your ndings. That is the area
to test all materials to determine if they are functional and where most people get snaggedthey simply do not do
appropriate for the intended audience. a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris
Bressi on LinkedIn)
Evaluate The nal phase, Evaluate, ensures the ma-
terials achieved the desired goals. The evaluation phase
consists of two parts: formative and summative assess-
ment. The ADDIE model is an iterative process of in-
structional design, which means that at each stage the de-
signer can assess the projects elements and revise them
if necessary. This process incorporates formative assess-
ment, while the summative assessments contain tests or
evaluations created for the content being implemented.
This nal phase is vital for the instructional design team
6.6.3 Dick and Carey
because it provides data used to alter and enhance the de-
sign.
Connecting all phases of the model are external and recip-Another well-known instructional design model is The
rocal revision opportunities. As in the internal Evaluation
Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.[53] The
phase, revisions should and can be made throughout the model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick
entire process. and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic De-
Most of the current instructional design models are vari- sign of Instruction.
6.6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS 45

Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional

activities, content presentation, Learner participa-
tion, assessment
Develop and Select Instructional Materials
Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of In-
struction: Designers try to identify areas of the in-
structional materials that need improvement.
Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and
to identify poor instruction
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

With this model, components are executed iteratively and

in parallel, rather than linearly.[53]

6.6.4 Instructional Development Learning

System (IDLS)
Another instructional design model is the Instructional
Dick and Carey made a signicant contribution to the Development Learning System (IDLS).[54] The model
instructional design eld by championing a systems view was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esse, PhD
of instruction, in contrast to dening instruction as the and Mary Sullivan Esse, PhD in their book entitled
sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction IDLSPro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Val-
as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship idate Instructional Materials.[55]
between context, content, learning and instruction.
Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esse both received their
According to Dick and Carey, Components such as the
doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic
instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities,
University of America under the mentorship of Dr.
delivery system, and learning and performance envi-
Gabriel Oesh, a founding father of the Military Model
ronments interact with each other and work together to
mentioned above. Esse and Esse synthesized existing
bring about the desired student learning outcomes.[53]
theories to develop their approach to systematic design,
The components of the Systems Approach Model, also
Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS).
known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:
Also see: Managing Learning in High Performance Or-
Identify Instructional Goal(s): A goal statement de- ganizations, by Ruth Stiehl and Barbara Bessey, from
scribes a skill, knowledge or attitude (SKA) that a The Learning Organization, Corvallis, Oregon. ISBN 0-
learner will be expected to acquire 9637457-0-0.
The components of the IDLS Model are the following:
Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a
learner must recall and identify what learner must Design a task analysis
be able to do to perform particular task
Develop criterion tests and performance measures
Analyze Learners and Contexts: Identify general
characteristics of the target audience, including Develop interactive instructional materials
prior skills, prior experience, and basic demograph- Validate the interactive instructional materials
ics; identify characteristics directly related to the
skill to be taught; and perform analysis of the per-
formance and learning settings. 6.6.5 Other instructional design models
Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists Other useful instructional design models include: the
of a description of the behavior, the condition and Smith/Ragan Model,[56] the Morrison/Ross/Kemp
criteria. The component of an objective that de- Model[57] and the OAR Model of instructional design
scribes the criteria will be used to judge the learners in higher education,[58] as well as, Wiggins theory of
performance. backward design.
Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of en- Learning theories also play an important role in the design
try behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism,
of post-testing, purpose of practive items/practive constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help
problems shape and dene the outcome of instructional materials.
46 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

6.7 Motivational Design for success.[62] The model consists of four main areas:
Attention, Relevance, Condence, and Satisfaction.
Motivation is dened as an internal drive that activates Attention and relevance according to John Kellers ARCS
behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation the- motivational theory are essential to learning. The rst 2 of
ory is concerned with the process that describe why and 4 key components for motivating learners, attention and
how human behavior is activated and directed. relevance can be considered the backbone of the ARCS
Motivation Concepts Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation theory, the latter components relying upon the former.
Attention: The attention mentioned in this theory refers
Instrinsic: dened as the doing of an activity for its to the interest displayed by learners in taking in the con-
inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable cepts/ideas being taught. This component is split into
consequence. When intrinsically motivated a per- three categories: perceptual arousal, using surprise or un-
son is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed certain situations; inquiry arousal, oering challenging
rather than because of external rewards.[59] Intrinsic questions and/or problems to answer/solve; and variabil-
motivation reects the desire to do something be- ity, using a variety of resources and methods of teaching.
cause it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically moti- Within each of these categories, John Keller has provided
vated, we would not be worried about external re- further sub-divisions of types of stimuli to grab atten-
wards such as praise. tion. Grabbing attention is the most important part of the
model because it initiates the motivation for the learners.
Examples: Writing short stories because you Once learners are interested in a topic, they are willing to
enjoy writing them, reading a book because invest their time, pay attention, and nd out more.
you are curious about the topic, and playing Relevance: Relevance, according to Keller, must be es-
chess because you enjoy eortful thinking tablished by using language and examples that the learn-
ers are familiar with. The three major strategies John
Extrinsic: reects the desire to do something be- Keller presents are goal oriented, motive matching, and
cause of external rewards such as awards, money and familiarity. Like the Attention category, John Keller di-
praise. People who are extrinsically motivated may vided the three major strategies into subcategories, which
not enjoy certain activities. They may only wish to provide examples of how to make a lesson plan relevant to
engage in certain activities because they wish to re- the learner. Learners will throw concepts to the wayside
ceive some external reward.[60] if their attention cannot be grabbed and sustained and if
relevance is not conveyed.
Examples: The writer who only writes poems Condence: The condence aspect of the ARCS model
to be submitted to poetry contests, a person focuses on establishing positive expectations for achiev-
who dislikes sales but accepts a sales position ing success among learners. The condence level of
because he/she desires to earn an above average learners is often correlated with motivation and the
salary, and a person selecting a major in col- amount of eort put forth in reaching a performance ob-
lege based on salary and prestige, rather than jective. For this reason, its important that learning de-
personal interest. sign provides students with a method for estimating their
probability of success. This can be achieved in the form
John Keller[61] has devoted his career to researching and of a syllabus and grading policy, rubrics, or a time esti-
understanding motivation in instructional systems. These mate to complete tasks. Additionally, condence is built
decades of work constitute a major contribution to the when positive reinforcement for personal achievements is
instructional design eld. First, by applying motivation given through timely, relevant feedback.
theories systematically to design theory. Second, in de-
Satisfaction: Finally, learners must obtain some type of
veloping a unique problem-solving process he calls the
satisfaction or reward from a learning experience. This
ARCS Motivation.
satisfaction can be from a sense of achievement, praise
from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Feedback and
6.7.1 The ARCS Model of Motivational reinforcement are important elements and when learners
appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn.
Design
Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be in-
trinsic or extrinsic. To keep learners satised, instruc-
The ARCS Model of Motivational Design was created
tion should be designed to allow them to use their newly
by John Keller while he was researching ways to supple-
learned skills as soon as possible in as authentic a setting
ment the learning process with motivation. The model
as possible.
is based on Tolmans and Lewins expectancy-value the-
ory, which presumes that people are motivated to learn if
there is value in the knowledge presented (i.e. it fullls
personal needs) and if there is an optimistic expectation
6.9. SEE ALSO 47

Gagn, Robert M. Nine Events of Instruction

(Gagn and Merrill Video Seminar)
Hannum, Wallace H.
Heinich, Robert Instructional Media and the new
technologies of instruction 3rd ed. Educational
Technology 1989
Jonassen, David problem-solving strategies
1990s
Langdon, Danny G The Instructional Designs Li-
brary: 40 Instructional Designs, Educational Tech-
nology Publications

Summary of ARCS Model Mager, Robert F. ABCD model for instructional

objectives 1962 - Criterion Referenced Instruction
and Learning Objectives
6.7.2 Motivating Opportunities Model
Marzano, Robert J. - Dimensions of Learning,
Although Kellers ARCS model currently dominates in- Formative Assessment - 2000s
structional design with respect to learner motivation, in Mayer, Richard E. - Multimedia Learning - 2000s
2006 Hardr and Miller[63] proposed a need for a new
design model that includes current research in human mo- Merrill, M. David Component Display Theory /
tivation, a comprehensive treatment of motivation, inte- Knowledge Objects / First Principles of Instruction
grates various elds of psychology and provides designers
the exibility to be applied to a myriad of situations. Papert, Seymour Constructionism, LOGO
1970s-1980s
Hardr[64] proposes an alternate model for designers
called the Motivating Opportunities Model or MOM. Piaget, Jean Cognitive development 1960s
Hardrs model incorporates cognitive, needs, and aec-
Reigeluth, Charles Elaboration Theory, Green
tive theories as well as social elements of learning to ad-
Books I, II, and III 1990s2010s
dress learner motivation. MOM has seven key compo-
nents spelling the acronym SUCCESS- Situational, Uti- Schank, Roger Constructivist simulations 1990s
lization, Competence, Content, Emotional, Social, and
Systemic.[64] Simonson, Michael Instructional Systems and De-
sign via Distance Education 1980s
Skinner, B.F. Radical Behaviorism, Programed
6.8 Inuential researchers and the- Instruction - 1950s-1970s
orists Sweller, John Cognitive load, Worked-example ef-
fect, Split-attention eect
Alphabetic by last name
Vygotsky, Lev Learning as a social activity
1930s
Bloom, Benjamin Taxonomies of the cognitive,
aective, and psychomotor domains 1950s

Bonk, Curtis Blended learning 2000s

6.9 See also

Bransford, John D. How People Learn: Bridging ADDIE Model

Research and Practice 1990s educational assessment
Bruner, Jerome Constructivism - 1950s-1990s condence-based learning

Clark, Richard Clark-Kozma Media vs Methods educational animation

debate, Guidance debate.
educational psychology
Clark, Ruth Eciency in Learning: Evidence- educational technology
Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load /
Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory e-learning
48 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

e-learning framework [6] Clark, B. (2009). The history of instruc-

tional design and technology. Retrieved
electronic portfolio from http://www.slideshare.net/benton44/
history-of-instructional-design-and-technology?
evaluation from=embed
First Principles of Instruction [7] Blooms Taxonomy. Retrieved from Wikipedia on April
18, 2012 at Blooms Taxonomy
humancomputer interaction

instructional technology [8] Instructional Design Theories. Instructionaldesign.org.

Retrieved on 2011-10-07.
instructional theory
[9] Reiser, R. A. (2001). A History of Instructional De-
interaction design sign and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional
Design. ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2, 2001, pp. 57
learning object 67. Retrieved from https://files.nyu.edu/jpd247/public/
2251/readings/Reiser_2001_History_of_ID.pdf
learning science
[10] History of instructional media. Uploaded to YouTube
m-learning by crozitis on Jan 17, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=y-fKcf4GuOU
multimedia learning
[11] A hypertext history of instructional design. Retrieved
online education
April 11, 2012 from http://faculty.coe.uh.edu/smcneil/
instructional design coordinator cuin6373/idhistory/index.html

storyboarding [12] Markham, R. History of instructional design. Re-

trieved on April 11, 2012 from http://home.utah.edu/
training ~{}rgm15a60/Paper/html/index_files/Page1108.htm

interdisciplinary teaching [13] Paas, Fred; Renkl, Alexander; Sweller, John (2003).
Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Re-
rapid prototyping cent Developments. Educational Psychologist 38 (1).
doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1.
lesson study
[14] History and timeline of instructional de-
Understanding by Design sign. Retrieved April 11, 2012 from http:
//www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/htm/IDC_
instructionaltechnologytimeline.htm
6.10 References
[15] Braine, B., (2010). Historical Evolution of Instructional
Design & Technology. Retrieved on April 11, 2012 from
[1] Merrill, M. D., Drake, L., Lacy, M. J., Pratt, J., & http://timerime.com/en/timeline/415929/Historical+
ID2_Research_Group. (1996). Reclaiming instructional Evolution+of+Instructional+Design++Technology/
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Maddux & D. LaMont Johnson (Eds) The Web in
[2] Cognition and instruction: Their historic meeting within
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Educational Psychology, Vol 84(4), Dec 1992, 405-412.
New York, London, Oxford, ISBN 0-7890-1706-7.
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[3] Duy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Construc-
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[18] Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive Load The-
[4] Duy, T. M. , & Jonassen, D. H. (1992). Constructivism: ory and the Format of Instruction. Cognition and Instruc-
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of instruction (pp. 1-16). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [19] Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). The use of worked
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[37] Merrill, D.M., Jones, M.K., & Chongqing, L. (De-
[21] Mayer, R.E. (1997). Multimedia Learning: Are We cember 1990). Instructional Transaction Theory. Re-
Asking the Right Questions?". Educational Psychologist trieved from http://www.speakeasydesigns.com/SDSU/
32 (41): 119. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1. student/SAGE/compsprep/ITT_Intro.pdf
[22] Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge:
[38] Elaboration Theory (Charles Reigeluth), Retrieved
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Lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1): 64 trieved from http://www.internettime.com/itimegroup/Is
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Deweys.htm
[24] Mayer, R.E., Steinho, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R.
(1995). A generative theory of textbook design: Us- [40] Richey, R. C. (2000). The legacy of Robert M.Gagn
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[41] Gagn, R.M. (n.d.). Biographies. Retrieved April 18,
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nitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the com/topic/robert-mills-gagn
Interaction between Information Structures and Cog-
nitive Architecture. Instructional Science 32: 18. [42] Conole G., and Fill K., A learning design toolkit to cre-
doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0. ate pedagogically eective learning activities. Journal of
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31(3), 229241, July 2000.
[27] Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). E-
ciency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage [44] Koper R., Current Research in Learning Design, Edu-
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[45] Britain S., A Review of Learning Design: Concept,
[28] Anglin, G. J., & Towers, R. L. (1992). Reference cita- Specications and Tools A report for the JISC E-learning
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[29] Perry, J. D. (2001). Learning and cognition. [On-
Line]. Available: http://education.indiana.edu/~{}p540/ [47] Branson, R. K., Rayner, G. T., Cox, J. L., Furman, J. P.,
webcourse/gagne.html King, F. J., Hannum, W. H. (1975). Interservice pro-
cedures for instructional systems development. (5 vols.)
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(TRADOC Pam 350-30 NAVEDTRA 106A). Ft. Mon-
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roe, VA: U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command,
[31] Gagn, R. M., & Driscoll, M. P. (1988). Essentials of August 1975. (NTIS No. ADA 019 486 through ADA
learning for instruction. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice- 019 490).
Hall.
[48] Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design:
[32] Haines, D. (1996). Gagn. [On-Line]. Available: http: Learning ID fast and right.
//education.indiana.edu/~{}educp540/haines1.html
[49] Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educa-
[33] Dowling, L. J. (2001). Robert Gagn and the Conditions
tional technology.
of Learning. Walden University.

[34] Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of [50] Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of hu-
instruction. 4th ed. New York, NY: Harper Collin man performance technology.

[35] Instructional Design Models and Theo- [51] Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of inno-
ries, Retrieved April 9th 2012 from http: vation: IDEOs strategies for beating the devils advocate
//www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/htm/IDC_ & driving creativity throughout your organization. New
instructionaldesignmodels.htm#kemp York: Doubleday.
50 CHAPTER 6. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

[52] Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: A Debby Kalk, Real World Instructional Design Inter-
contemporary framework for innovation and creativity in view
instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 21
28.

[53] Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005)

[1978]. The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Al-
lyn & Bacon. pp. 112. ISBN 0-205-41274-2.

[54] Esse, Peter J. and Esse, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970].

Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th
ed.). ESF Press. pp. 112. ISBN 1-58283-037-1.

[55] ESF, Inc. Train-the-Trainer ESF ProTrainer Mate-

rials 813.814.1192. Esf-protrainer.com (2007-11-06).
Retrieved on 2011-10-07.

[56] Smith, P. L. & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design

(3rd Ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

[57] Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2001). De-

signing eective instruction, 3rd ed. New York: John Wi-
ley.

[58] Joeckel, G., Jeon, T., Gardner, J. (2010). Instructional

Challenges In Higher Education: Online Courses Deliv-
ered Through A Learning Management System By Sub-
ject Matter Experts. In Song, H. (Ed.) Distance Learning
Technology, Current Instruction, and the Future of Ed-
ucation: Applications of Today, Practices of Tomorrow.
(link to article)

[59] R. Ryan; E. Deci. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations.

Contemporary Educational Psychology. Retrieved April 1,
2012.

[60] Brad Bell. Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation

with Examples of Each Types of Motivation. Blue Fox
Communications. Retrieved April 1, 2012.

[61] Keller, John. arcsmodel.com. John M. Keller. Re-

trieved April 1, 2012.

[62] Ely, Donald (1983). Development and Use of the ARCS

Model of Motivational Design. Libraries Unlimited. pp.
225245.

[63] Hardr, Patricia; Miller, Raymond B. (2006). Toward

a current, comprehensive, integrative, and exible model
of motivation for instructional design. Performance Im-
provement Quarterly 19 (3).

[64] Hardr, Patricia (2009). The motivating opportuni-

ties model for Performance SUCCESS: Design, Develop-
ment, and Instructional Implications. Performance Im-
provement Quarterly 22 (1). doi:10.1002/piq.20043.

6.11 External links

Instructional Design An overview of Instructional
Design

ISD Handbook

Edutech wiki: Instructional design model

Chapter 7

Synchronous learning

Synchronous learning refers to a learning environment 7.3 Resources

in which everyone takes part at the same time. Lecture is
an example of synchronous learning in a face-to-face en- Foreman, Joel (JulyAugust 2003), Distance
vironment, where learners and teachers are all in the same Learning and Synchronous Interaction, The Tech-
place at the same time. Before technology allowed for nology Source Archives, University of Carolina.
synchronous learning environments, most online educa-
tion took place through Asynchronous learning methods. Asynchronous and Synchronous E-Learning, ED-
Since synchronous tools that can be used for education UCAUSE Quarterly.
have become available, many people are turning to them
Asynchronous and Synchronous E-Learning
as a way to help decrease the challenges associated with
(PDF), EDUCAUSE Quarterly 31 (4), 2008.
transactional distance that occurs in online education.
Some examples of synchronous learning environments Park, Yun Jeong; Bonk, Curtis J (Winter 2007),
are having students who are watching a live streaming 245 Synchronous Learning Experiences: Distance
of a class take part in a chat and having students and in- and Residential... (PDF), Jiol (NCOLR) 6 (3).
structors participate in a class via a web conference tool
such as BlackboardCollaborate, Adobe Connect, WebEx,
Skype, etc. These synchronous experiences can be de-
signed to develop and strengthen instructor-student and
student-student relationships, which can be a challenge
in distance learning programs.[1]
While many online educational programs started out as
and with the advent of web conferencing tools, people
can learn at the same time in dierent places as well. For
example, use of instant messaging or live chat, webinars
and video conferencing allow for students and teachers to
collaborate and learn in real time.

7.1 See also

E-learning

Blended learning

Asynchronous learning

7.2 References

[1] Orr, P. (2010). Distance supervision: Research, nd-

ings, and considerations for art therapy. The Arts in Psy-
chotherapy, 37, 106-111.

51
Chapter 8

Asynchronous learning

Asynchronous learning is a student-centered teaching universities substantial investment in computer technol-

method that uses online learning resources to facilitate ogy in the early 1980s. With seminal applications such
information sharing outside the constraints of time and as Seymour Paperts Logo programming language, stu-
place among a network of people.[1] Asynchronous learn- dents were able to learn at their own pace, free from
ing is based on constructivist theory, a student-centered the synchronous constraints of a classroom lecture.[6] As
approach that emphasizes the importance of peer-to-peer computers entered more households and schools began
interactions.[2] This approach combines self-study with connecting to the nascent Internet, asynchronous learn-
asynchronous interactions to promote learning, and it can ing networks began to take shape. These networks aug-
be used to facilitate learning in traditional on-campus ed- mented existing classroom learning and led to a new cor-
ucation, distance education, and continuing education. respondence model for solitary learners.
This combined network of learners and the electronic net- Using the web, students could access resources online and
work in which they communicate are referred to as an communicate asynchronously using email and discussion
asynchronous learning network.[1] boards. The 1990s saw the arrival of the rst telecam-
The online learning resources used to support asyn- puses, with universities oering courses and entire degree
chronous learning include email, electronic mailing lists, plans through a combination of synchronous and asyn-
threaded conferencing systems, online discussion boards, chronous online instruction.[7][8] Today, advanced multi-
wikis, and blogs. Course management systems such media and interactivity have enhanced the utility of asyn-
as CampusCruiser LMS,[3] Desire2Learn, Blackboard, chronous learning networks and blurred the divide be-
WebCT, Moodle, and Sakai, have been developed to sup- tween content-creator and content-consumer. New tools
port online interaction, allowing users to organize discus- like class blogs and wikis are creating ever-richer oppor-
sions, post and reply to messages, and upload and access tunities for further asynchronous interaction and learning.
multimedia.[4] These asynchronous forms of communica-
tion are sometimes supplemented with synchronous com-
ponents, including text and voice chat, telephone conver- 8.2 Development of an asyn-
sations, videoconferencing, and even meetings in virtual
spaces such as Second Life, where discussions can be fa- chronous community
cilitated among groups of students.[4]
Though the social relationships integral to group learn-
ing can be developed through asynchronous communica-
tion, this development tends to take longer than in tra-
8.1 History ditional, face-to-face settings.[9] The establishment of an
asynchronous community takes time and eort and tends
to follow a projected course of ve stages, as described
The roots of asynchronous learning are in the end of the
by Waltonen-Moore et al.:
19th century, when formalized correspondence education
(or distance learning) rst took advantage of the postal 1. Introductions This might include a full biog-
system to bring physically remote learners into the edu- raphy or a short getting-to-know-you questions.
cational fold. The 1920s and 1930s saw the introduction Through this step, community members begin to see
of recorded audio, desynchronizing broadcasting and rev- one another as human beings and begin to make
olutionizing the mass dissemination of information. The a preliminary, emotive connection with the other
rst signicant distribution of standardized educational members of the community. This step is often char-
content took place during World War II; the branches of acterized by emotive or extravagant language and
the US military produced hundreds of training lms, with represents group members attempts to make them-
screenings numbering in the millions.[5] selves known as living individuals behind the emo-
Online asynchronous learning began with schools and tionless technology medium.[10]

52
8.3. ROLES OF INSTRUCTORS AND LEARNERS 53

2. Identify with the group Members begin to commu- 8.3 Roles of instructors and learn-
nicate with one another by reference to their com-
monalities as group members and seek to either es-
ers
tablish or make known norms for successful mem-
bership. If this sense of group identity is not estab- Online learning requires a shift from a teacher-centered
lished, the likelihood of poor participation or attri- environment to a student-centered environment where
tion increases.[10] the instructor must take on multiple new roles. The con-
structivist theory that supports asynchronous learning de-
mands that instructors become more than dispensers of
3. Interact Members will start interacting with one knowledge; it requires that they become instructional de-
another in reference to the communitys established signers, facilitators, and assessors of both grades and their
[11]
focus and begin to share information with one teaching methods.
another.[10] If the community is an online learning As instructional designers, emphasis is placed on estab-
course, then students will begin to discuss course lishing the curriculum, methods and the media through
content. which the content will be eectively delivered. Once the
design is in place and executed, the instructor must then
facilitate the communication and direct the learning. Es-
4. Group cohesion and individual reection mem- tablishing a communal spirit is vital, requiring much time
bers of the group will begin to validate one anothers commitment from the instructor, who must spend time
ideas and opinions while, at the same time, being re- reading, assessing, reinforcing, and encouraging the in-
ective of their own.[10] teraction and learning that is happening.[12]
The student-centered nature of asynchronous online
learning requires students to be actively involved with and
5. Expansive questioning Now feeling completely
take more responsibility for their own learning. In addi-
comfortable within the environment, focused upon
tion to their normal duties as learners, students are re-
the content, and respectful of other group members
quired to:
thoughts and experiences, members will begin to not
only post facts and deeply held beliefs, but will ac-
Become procient with the technology required for
tually start to think out loud, allowing other group
the course;
members to take part in their personal meaning-
[10]
making and self-directed inquiry. Use new methods of communication with both peers
and instructors;
Strengthen their interdependency through collabora-
Asynchronous communities that progress eciently
tion with their peers.[13]
through these stages tend to share at least three common
attributes:
First, the community has an active facilitator who mon- 8.4 Strengths of asynchronous
itors, guides, and nurtures the discourse.[10] Unguided
communities tend to have diculty progressing beyond learning
the second stage of development, because group mem-
bers can become distracted from the communitys in- Asynchronous learnings greatest benet to students is the
tended purpose. freedom it gives them to access the course and its instruc-
tional materials at any time they choose, and from any lo-
Second, rather than seeking to take on the role of an [1]
instructor or disseminator of knowledge, the facilita- cation, with an Internet connection. This allows for ac-
tor recognizes that knowledge is an individual construct cessibility for diverse student populations, ranging from
that is developed through interaction with other group traditional, on-campus students, to working profession-
members.[10] Thus, facilitators within successful commu- als, to international students in foreign countries.
nities tend not to be pedantic, but supportive. Asynchronous learning environments provide a high
And third, successful asynchronous communities per- degree of interactivity between participants who are
mit a certain amount of leniency for play within their separated both geographically and temporally and af-
discourse.[10] That is, communities that insist upon being ford students many of the social benets of face-to-face
overly stringent on etiquette and make no room for the interaction.[1] Since students can express their thoughts
social development that comes from play seem to drive without interruption, they have more time to reect on
away participants. Rather than enriching discourse on the and respond to class materials and their classmates than
targeted topic, such attitudes have a negative impact on in a traditional classroom.[12]
group identity development and individual comfort levels Research shows that the time required to initially de-
which will, in turn, decrease overall involvement. sign an asynchronous course is comparable to that of a
54 CHAPTER 8. ASYNCHRONOUS LEARNING

traditional synchronous course.[4] However, most asyn- Synchronous learning

chronous courses have the potential to reach far more stu-
dents than a traditional course and course-wide updates or Networked learning
modications can be disseminated far more quickly and
eciently than traditional lecture models.
Schifter notes that a perceived additional workload is a 8.7 References
signicant barrier to faculty participation in distance edu-
cation and asynchronous learning, but that perception can [1] Mayadas, F (March 1997), Asynchronous learning net-
be mitigated through training and experience with teach- works: a Sloan Foundation perspective, Journal of Asyn-
ing in these environments.[13] chronous Learning Networks 1.

Another advantage of asynchronous learning (and, as [2] Wu, D; Bieber, M; Hiltz, S (Fall 2008), Engaging stu-
technology develops, many synchronous learning envi- dents with constructivist participatory examinations in
ronments) is that there is a record of nearly everything asynchronous learning networks, Journal of Information
that occurs in that environment. All materials, correspon- Systems Education 19 (3): 32130.
dence, and interactions can be electronically archived. [3] CampusCruiser.
Participants can go back and review course materials, lec-
tures, and presentations, as well as correspondence be- [4] Bourne, JR (September 1998), Net-learning: strategies
tween participants. This information is generally avail- for on-campus and o-campus network-enabled learn-
able at any time to course participants. ing, Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 2 (2).

[5] Reiser, Robert (June 2001), A History of instructional

design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional
8.5 Shortcomings design, Educational Technology Research and Develop-
ment 49 (2).
Asynchronous learning environments pose several chal-
[6] Logothings, Wikispaces, retrieved October 15, 2008.
lenges for instructors, institutions, and students. Course
development and initial setup can be costly. Institutions [7] UTTC Overview and Mission, UT Telecampus, retrieved
must provide a computer network infrastructure, includ- October 15, 2008.
ing servers, audio/visual equipment, software, and the
technical support needed to develop and maintain asyn- [8] Shah, Angela (August 1999), College going online,
chronous learning environments. Technical support in- Austin American Statesman B1.
cludes initial training and setup, user management, data [9] Cox, B (Summer 2008), Developing interpersonal and
storage and recovery, as well as hardware repairs and group dynamics through asynchronous threaded discus-
updates.[14] Research indicates faculty members who are sions, Education, retrieved October 9, 2008.
hesitant to teach in asynchronous learning environments
are so because of a lack of technical support provided by [10] Waltonen-Moore, S; Stuart, D; Newton, E; Oswald, R;
their institutions.[13] However, for faculty to teach suc- Varonis, E (Summer 2006), From virtual strangers to
cessfully in an asynchronous learning environment, they a cohesive online learning community: the evolution of
must be technically adept and comfortable enough with online group development in a professional development
course, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 14
the technological tools to optimize their use.
(2), retrieved October 9, 2008.
To participate in asynchronous learning environments,
students must also have access to computers and the In- [11] McQuiggan, CA (Fall 2007), The role of faculty devel-
ternet. Although personal computers and web access opment in online teachings potential to question teach-
ing beliefs and assumptions, Online Journal of Distance
are becoming more and more pervasive every day, this
Learning Administration 10, retrieved October 11, 2008
requirement can be a barrier to entry for many stu-
dents and instructors. Students must also have the com- [12] Shea, PJ; Pickett, AM; Pelz, WE (2003), A follow-up
puter/technology skills required to participate in the asyn- investigation of teaching presence in the SUNY Learning
chronous learning program. Also this is good for a suc- Network, Journal for Asynchronous Learning Networks
cessful online degree or courses. 7: 6180.

[13] Garrison, DR (2004), Student role adjustment in on-

line communities of inquiry: model and instrument val-
8.6 See also idation, Journal for Asynchronous Learning Networks 8:
6174.
E-learning
[14] Palmer, S; Holt, D; Bray, S (2008), Does the discussion
Educational technology help? the impact of a formally assessed online discussion
on nal student results, British Journal of Educational
Blended learning Technology 39 (5): 84758.
8.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 55

8.8 External links

The Sloan-C International Conference on Asyn-
chronous Learning
ALTMODES-Alternative Modes of Delivery:
Asynchronous Learning
Chapter 9

Computer-supported collaborative
learning

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) ciety of the Learning Sciences (ISLS) was established to
is a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place via run the CSCL and ICLS conference series and the In-
social interaction using a computer or through the Inter- ternational Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
net. This kind of learning is characterized by the sharing Learning (ijCSCL) and JLS journals.[6]
and construction of knowledge among participants using The ijCSCL was established by the CSCL research com-
technology as their primary means of communication or munity and ISLS. It began quarterly publication by
as a common resource.[1] CSCL can be implemented in Springer in 2006. It is peer reviewed and published both
online and classroom learning environments and can take online and in print. Since 2009, it has been rated by ISI
place synchronously or asynchronously. as being in the top 10% of educational research journals
The study of computer-supported collaborative learn- based on its impact factor.[7]
ing draws on a number of academic disciplines, in-
The rapid development of social media technologies and
cluding instructional technology, educational psychol- the increasing need of individuals to understand and use
ogy, sociology, cognitive psychology, and social psychol-
those technologies has brought researchers from many
ogy.[2] It is related to collaborative learning and computer disciplines to the eld of CSCL.[4] CSCL is used today
supported cooperative work (CSCW). in traditional and online schools and knowledge-building
communities such as Wikipedia.

9.1 History
9.2 Theories
Interactive computing technology was primarily con-
ceived by academics, but the use of technology in edu- The eld of CSCL draws heavily from a number of learn-
cation has historically been dened by contemporary re- ing theories that emphasize that knowledge is the result
search trends. The earliest instances of software in in- of learners interacting with each other, sharing knowl-
struction drilled students using the behaviorist method edge, and building knowledge as a group. Since the eld
that was popular throughout the mid-twentieth century. focuses on collaborative activity and collaborative learn-
In the 1970s as cognitivism gained traction with educa- ing, it inherently takes much from constructivist and so-
tors, designers began to envision learning technology that cial cognitivist learning theories.[4]
employed articial intelligence models that could adapt to
individual learners.[3] Computer-supported collaborative
learning emerged as a strategy rich with research implica- 9.2.1 Precursor theories
tions for the growing philosophies of constructivism and
social cognitivism.[4] The roots of collaborative epistemology as related to
Though studies in collaborative learning and technology CSCL can be found in Vygotsky's social learning the-
took place throughout the 1980s and 90s, the earliest pub- ory. Of particular importance to CSCL is the theorys
lic workshop directly addressing CSCL was Joint Prob- notion of internalization, or the idea that knowledge is de-
lem Solving and Microcomputers" which took place in veloped by ones interaction with ones surrounding cul-
San Diego in 1983. Six years later in 1989, the term ture and society. The second key element is what Vy-
computer-supported collaborative learning was used in gotsky called the Zone of proximal development. This
a NATO-sponsored workshop in Maratea, Italy.[1][5] A refers to a range of tasks that can be too dicult for a
biannual CSCL conference series began in 1995. At the learner to master by themselves but is made possible with
2002 and 2003 CSCL conferences, the International So- the assistance of a more skilled individual or teacher.[8]

56
9.3. STRATEGIES 57

These ideas feed into a notion central to CSCL: knowl- preserved, and re-learned through the media of language
edge building is achieved through interaction with others. and artifacts in group interaction. There are four cru-
Cooperative learning, though dierent in some ways from cial themes in collaboration theory: collaborative knowl-
collaborative learning, also contributes to the success of edge building (which is seen as a more concrete term than
teams in CSCL environments. The ve elements for ef- learning); group and personal perspectives intertwining
fective cooperative groups identied by the work of John- to create group understanding; mediation by artifacts (or
son and Johnson are positive interdependence, individ- the use of resources which learners can share or imprint
ual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, meaning on); and interaction analysis using captured ex-
amples that can be analyzed as proof that the knowledge
and group processing.[9] Because of the inherent relation- [11]
ship between cooperation and collaboration, understand- building occurred.
ing what encourages successful cooperation is essential to Collaboration theory proposes that technology in support
CSCL research. of CSCL should provide new types of media that foster
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Marlene Scardamalia the building of collaborative knowing; facilitate the com-
and Carl Bereiter wrote seminal articles leading to the de- parison of knowledge built by dierent types and sizes
velopment of key CSCL concepts: knowledge-building of groups; and help collaborative groups with the act of
communities and knowledge-building discourse, inten- negotiating the knowledge they are building. Further,
tional learning, and expert processes. Their work led to these technologies and designs should strive to remove
an early collaboration-enabling technology known as the the teacher as the bottleneck in the communication pro-
Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environment cess. In other words, the teacher should not have to act
(CSILE).[10] Characteristically for CSCL, their theories as the conduit for communication between students or as
were integrated with the design, deployment, and study of the avenue by which information is dispensed. Finally,
the CSCL technology. CSILE later became Knowledge collaboration theory-inuenced technologies will strive to
Forum, which is the most widely used CSCL technology increase the quantity and quality of learning moments via
[11]
world-wide to date. computer-simulated situations.

Other learning theories that provide a foundation for

CSCL include distributed cognition, problem-based
learning, cognitive apprenticeship, and situated learning. 9.3 Strategies
Each of these learning theories focuses on the social
aspect of learning and knowledge building, and recog-
Currently, CSCL is used in instructional plans in class-
nizes that learning and knowledge building involve inter-
rooms both traditional and online from primary school
personal activities including conversation, argument, and
[4] to post-graduate institutions. Like any other instructional
negotiation.
activity, it has its own prescribed practices and strategies
which educators are encouraged to employ in order to use
it eectively. Because its use is so widespread, there are
9.2.2 Collaboration theory
innumerable scenarios in the use of CSCL, but there are
several common strategies that provide a foundation for
Only in the last 15 to 20 years have researchers begun to
explore the extent to which computer technology could group cognition.
enhance the collaborative learning process. While re- One of the most common approaches to CSCL is
searchers, in general, have relied on learning theories collaborative writing. Though the nal product can be
developed without consideration of computer-support, anything from a research paper, a Wikipedia entry, or
some have suggested that the eld needs to have a theory a short story, the process of planning and writing to-
tailored and rened for the unique challenges that con- gether encourages students to express their ideas and
front those trying to understand the complex interplay of develop a group understanding of the subject matter.
technology and collaborative learning.[11] Tools like blogs, interactive whiteboards, and custom
Collaboration theory, suggested as a system of analysis spaces that combine free writing with communication
for CSCL by Gerry Stahl in 2004, postulates that knowl- tools can be used to share work, form ideas, and write
[13][14]
edge is constructed in social interactions such as dis- synchronously.
course. The theory suggests that learning is not a mat- Technology-mediated discourse refers to debates, dis-
ter of accepting xed facts, but is the dynamic, on-going, cussions, and other social learning techniques involving
and evolving result of complex interactions primarily tak- the examination of a theme using technology. For ex-
ing place within communities of people. It also empha- ample, wikis are a way to encourage discussion among
sizes that collaborative learning is a process of construct- learners, but other common tools include mind maps,
ing meaning and that meaning creation most often takes survey systems, and simple message boards. Like col-
place and can be observed at the group unit of analysis.[12] laborative writing, technology-mediated discourse allows
The goal of collaboration theory is to develop an under- participants that may be separated by time and dis-
standing of how meaning is collaboratively constructed, tance to engage in conversations and build knowledge
58 CHAPTER 9. COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

together.[14][15] of the skills necessary to solve problems by themselves.

Group exploration refers to the shared discovery of a Ideally, teachers provide what is called scaolding, a
place, activity, environment or topic among two or more platform of knowledge that they can build on. A unique
people. Students do their exploring in an online environ- benet of CSCL is that, given proper teacher facilitation,
ment, use technology to better understand a physical area, students can use technology to build learning foundations
or reect on their experiences together through the Inter- with their peers. This allows instructors to gauge the di-
net. Virtual worlds like Second Life and Whyville as well culty of the tasks presented and make informed decisions
as synchronous communication tools like Skype are ideal about the extent of the scaolding needed.[18]
for this kind of learning.[16][17]
Problem-based learning is a popular instructional activ- 9.5 Criticism and concerns
ity that lends itself well to CSCL because of the social
implications of problem solving. Complex problems call
for rich group interplay that encourages collaboration and Though CSCL holds promise for enhancing education,
creates movement toward a clear goal.[18][19] it is not without barriers or challenges to successful im-
plementation. Obviously, students or participants need
Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learn- sucient access to computer technology. Though access
ing in that it creates impetus to establish team roles and to computers has improved in the last 15 to 20 years,
set goals. The need for collaboration is also essential for teacher attitudes about technology and sucient access
any project and encourages team members to build ex- to Internet-connected computers continue to be barriers
perience and knowledge together. Any le sharing or to more widespread usage of CSCL pedagogy.
communication tools can be used to facilitate CSCL in
problem- or project-based environments.[20] Furthermore, instructors nd that the time needed to
monitor student discourse and review, comment on, and
grade student products can be more demanding than what
is necessary for traditional face-to-face classrooms. The
9.4 Teacher roles teacher or professor also has an instructional decision to
make regarding the complexity of the problem presented.
Though the focus in CSCL is on individuals collaborat- To warrant collaborative work, the problem must be of
ing with their peers, teachers still have a vital role in fa- sucient complexity, otherwise team work is unneces-
cilitating learning. Most obviously, the instructor must sary. Also, there is risk in assuming that students instinc-
introduce the CSCL activity in a thoughtful way that con- tively know how to work collaboratively. Though the task
tributes to an overarching design plan for the course. The may be collaborative by nature, students may still need
design should clearly dene the learning outcomes and as- training on how to work in a truly cooperative process.
sessments for the activity. In order to assure that learners Others have noted a concern with the concept of script-
are aware of these objectives and that they are eventu- ing as it pertains to CSCL. There is an issue with possi-
ally met, proper administration of both resources and ex- bly over-scripting the CSCL experience and in so doing,
pectations is necessary to avoid learner overload. Once creating fake collaboration. Such over-scripted collab-
the activity has begun, the teacher is charged with kick- oration may fail to trigger the social, cognitive, and emo-
starting and monitoring discussion to facilitate learning. tional mechanisms that are necessary to true collaborative
He or she must also be able to mitigate technical issues learning.[5]
for the class. Lastly, the instructor must engage in assess-
ment, in whatever form the design calls for, in order to There is also the concern that the mere availability of
ensure objectives have been met for all students.[21] the technology tools can create problems. Instructors
may be tempted to apply technology to a learning activ-
Without the proper structure, any CSCL strategy can lose ity that can very adequately be handled without the inter-
its eectiveness. It is the responsibility of the teacher to vention or support of computers. In the process of stu-
make students aware of what their goals are, how they dents and teachers learning how to use the user-friendly
should be interacting, potential technological concerns, technology, they never get to the act of collaboration. As
and the time-frame for the exercise. This framework a result, computers become an obstacle to collaboration
should enhance the experience for learners by support- rather than a supporter of it.[25]
ing collaboration and creating opportunities for the con-
struction of knowledge.[22][23] Another important consid-
eration of educators who implement online learning en-
vironments is aordance. Students who are already com-
9.6 See also
fortable with online communication often choose to in-
teract casually. Mediators should pay special attention to Collaborative learning
make students aware of their expectations for formality Educational technology
online.[24] While students sometime have frames of refer-
ence for online communication, they often do not have all Computer supported cooperative work
9.7. REFERENCES 59

Collaborative information seeking [13] Onrubia, J. & Engel, A. (2009). Strategies for Collab-
orative Writing and Phases of Knowledge Construction
Educational Psychology in CSCL Environments. Computers & Education, 53(4),
1256-1265.
Group cognition
[14] Larusson, J., & Alterman, R. (2009). Wikis to sup-
Online Community of Practice port the collaborative part of collaborative learning. In-
ternational Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
Mobile Computer Supported Collaborative Learn-
Learning, 4(4), 371-402. doi:10.1007/s11412-009-9076-
ing
6

[15] Asterhan, C., & Schwarz, B. (2010). Online moderation

9.7 References of synchronous e-argumentation. International Journal of
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 5(3), 259-
82. doi:10.1007/s11412-010-9088-2
[1] Stahl, G., Koschmann, T., & Suthers, D. (2006).
Computer-supported collaborative learning: An historical [16] Nelson, B., & Ketelhut, D. (2008). Exploring em-
perspective. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook bedded guidance and self-ecacy in educational multi-
of the learning sciences (pp. 409-426). Cambridge, UK: user virtual environments. International Journal of
Cambridge University Press. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 3(4), 413-
27. doi:10.1007/s11412-008-9049-1
[2] Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2006). Analyzing collaborative
learning: Multiple approaches to understanding processes [17] Ioannidou, A., Repenning, A., Webb, D., Keyser, D.,
and outcomes. Proceedings of the 7th international con- Luhn, L., & Daetwyler, C. (2010). Mr. Vetro: A Collec-
ference on Learning sciences, USA, 1059-1065. ISBN tive Simulation for teaching health science. International
0-8058-6174-2 Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning,
5(2), 141-66. doi:10.1007/s11412-010-9082-8
[3] Koschmann, T. (1996) CSCL: Theory and practice of an
emerging paradigm Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [18] Lu, J., Lajoie, S., & Wiseman, J. (2010). Scaolding
problem-based learning with CSCL tools. International
[4] Resta, P. & Laferrire, T. (2007). Technology in Sup-
Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning,
port of Collaborative Learning. Educational Psychology
5(3), 283-98. doi:10.1007/s11412-010-9092-6
Review, 19, 6583. doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9042-7
[19] Koschmann, T., Feltovich, P., Myers, A., & Barrows,
[5] Bannon, Liam J. (1989). Issues in computer supported
H. (1992). Implications of CSCL for problem-based
collaborative learning. Chapter to appear in Proceedings
learning:Special issue on computer supported collabora-
of NATO Advanced Workshop on Computer-Supported
tive learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(3),
Collaborative Learning (Claire O'Malley, Editor) held in
32-35. doi:10.1145/130893.130902
Maratea, Italy, Sept. 1989.
[20] Blumenfeld, P., Soloway, E., Marx, R., Krajcik, J., Guz-
[6] International Society for the Learning Sciences. (2010).
dial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating Project-
Conferences. Retrieved 10/20/2010.
Based Learning: Sustaining the Doing, Supporting the
[7] ijCSCL . Learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4), 369.

[8] Kearsley, G. (13 Oct 10). The Theory Into Practice [21] Shank, P (2008). Competencies for online instructors.
Database. Learning Peaks, Retrieved October 16, 2008.

[9] Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (2002). Circles [22] Kobbe, L., Weinberger, A., Dillenbourg, P., Harrer, A.,
of learning: Cooperation in the classroom. Edina, MN: Hmlinen, R., Hkkinen, P. & Fischer, F. (2007) Spec-
Interaction Book Company, p. 95-118, ISBN 0-939603- ifying computer-supported collaboration scripts. Interna-
12-8. tional Journal of Computer Supported Learning, 2(2-3),
211-224.
[10] Scardamali, M & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support
for knowledge building communities. The Journal of the [23] Schoonenboom, J. (2008). The eect of a script and
Learning Sciences. 3(3), 265-283. a structured interface in grounding discussions. Inter-
national Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
[11] Stahl, G. (2002). Contributions to a theoretical frame- Learning, 3(3), 327-41. doi:10.1007/s11412-008-9042-
work for CSCL. In G. Stahl (Ed.), Computer support for 8
collaborative learning: Foundations for a CSCL commu-
nity. Proceedings of CSCL 2002 (pp. 62-71). Boulder, [24] Stahl, G. & Hesse, F. (2009). Practice perspectives in
CO: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CSCL. International Journal of Computer Supported Col-
laborative Learning, 4(2), pp. 109-114
[12] Stahl, G. (2004). Building collaborative knowing: Ele-
ments of a social theory of CSCL. In J.-W. Strijbos, P. [25] Dillenbourg, P. (2002). Over-scripting CSCL: The risks
Kirschner & R. Martens (Eds.), What we know about of blending collaborative learning with instructional de-
CSCL: And implementing it in higher education (pp. 53- sign.
86). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Chapter 10

Electronic portfolio

An electronic portfolio (also known as an eportfolio, employment. When it is used for job application it is
e-portfolio, digital portfolio, or online portfolio)[1] is sometimes called career portfolio. Most e-portfolios are
a collection of electronic evidence assembled and man- a mix of the three main types to create a hybrid portfolio.
aged by a user, usually on the Web. Such electronic evi-
dence may include inputted text, electronic les, images,
multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. E-portfolios are 10.2 Usage
both demonstrations of the users abilities and platforms
for self-expression, and, if they are online, they can be
Today, electronic portfolios are gaining popularity in:
maintained dynamically over time.
An e-portfolio can be seen as a type of learning record Schools (see also Technology Integration)
that provides actual evidence of achievement. Learn-
ing records are closely related to the Learning Plan, an Higher education
emerging tool that is being used to manage learning by
Continuing professional development
individuals, teams, communities of interest, and organi-
zations. To the extent that a Personal Learning Environ- Job applications/professional advertisements
ment captures and displays a learning record, it also might
be understood to be an electronic portfolio. Therapy groups
E-portfolios, like traditional portfolios, can facilitate stu- Assessment
dents reection on their own learning, leading to more
awareness of learning strategies and needs.[2] Results of Accreditation
a comparative research, by M. van Wesel and Prop, be- Recognition of prior learning (RPL)
tween paper-based portfolios and electronic portfolios in
the same setting, suggest use of an electronic portfolio
leads to better learning outcomes.[3] 10.2.1 E-portfolios in Education
In education the electronic portfolio is a collection of a
10.1 Types students work that can advance learning by providing
a way for them to organize, archive, and display work.
The electronic format allows an instructor to evaluate stu-
There are three main types of e-portfolios, although they
dent portfolios via the Internet, CD-ROM, DVD, or zip
may be referred to using dierent terms:
disk. Electronic portfolios have become a popular al-
ternative to paper-based portfolios because they provide
developmental (e.g., working) the opportunity to review, communicate and give feed-
back in an asynchronous manner. In addition, students
assessment
are able to reect on their work, which makes the expe-
showcase rience of creating the e-portfolio meaningful. A student
e-portfolio may be shared with a prospective employer
A developmental e-portfolio can show the advancement or used to record the achievement [4]
of program or course
of skill over a period of time rubrics. The main purpose specic learning outcomes.
is to provide an avenue for communication between stu- The uses of e-portfolios are most common in the courses
dent and instructor. An assessment portfolio will demon- with departments of education. Most preservice teach-
strate skill and competence in a particular domain or area. ers are asked to compile an e-portfolio to demonstrate
A showcase portfolio highlights stellar work in a specic competencies needed to gain teaching certication or li-
area, it is typically shown to potential employers to gain censure. Student e-portfolios are increasingly being used

60
10.3. SERVICES 61

in other disciplines such as communications, math, busi- submitting an electronic portfolio which demonstrates ev-
ness, nursing, engineering and architecture. In education idence of technology being used in the classroom.[8] This
e-portfolios have six major functions: consortium is an organization aimed to make Michigan
one of the leaders in integrating technology into the train-
Document, skills and learning; ing of young professionals.

Record and track development within a program;

Plan educational programs;
10.2.2 Other Uses

Evaluate and monitor performance; Some e-portfolio applications permit varying degrees of
audience access, so the same portfolio might be used for
Evaluate a course; multiple purposes. According to Anderson, e-portfolios
can then go viral and be passed on to be easily viewed by
Find a job
many on the web.[9]
In general e-portfolios promote critical thinking and sup-
port the development of technology literacy skills. Fac-
ulty now use e-portfolios to record course or discipline 10.3 Services
designs that may be shared with colleagues to promote
teaching and learning. A teaching e-portfolio is used to
showcase career accomplishments.[4] 10.4 See also
Best practices have been developed to guide e-portfolio
Career portfolio
use in college classrooms. Faculty is encouraged to use
e-portfolios to foster collaborative learning environment
Artists portfolio
where more competent students can provide feedback to
peers. When students are given the opportunity to guide Inter/National Coalition for Electronic Portfolio Re-
others it facilitates peer to-peer learning and deeper un- search (INCEPR)
derstanding of the lesson. Next generation education e-
portfolios like Digication can assist students to archive in-
formation that is specic to each lesson in a course. Using
e-portfolios in this way promotes data and knowledge cu- 10.5 References
ration and assists students in conducting research in an
organized and discriminating way.[5] [1] Zimmerman, Eilene (30 June 2012). Career couch:
Showcasing Your Work, in an Online Portfolio. New
E-portfolios also help to foster an independent and au-
York Times. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
tonomous way of thinking, according to Strivens.[6] This
is in large part because people must focus on their collec- [2] Moon, Jenny. Guide for Busy Academics No. 4: Learn-
tive work, think about how it will be portrayed, and what ing through reection. The Higher Education Academy.
the work says about them as an individual. The individ- Retrieved 7 June 2014.
ual is then in charge of their learning and the choice of
where to demonstrate their prociency. People are also [3] M. van Wesel & A. Prop (2008). The inuence of Portfo-
forced to reect on what they have learned and how they lio media on student perceptions and learning outcomes.
plan to build and improve in the future. This helps peo- Maastricht University.
ple to become better critical thinkers and helps them to
[4] Lorenzo, George; Ittelson, John (2005). An Overview of
develop their writing and multimedia skills. Today, many
E-Portfolios. Educause. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
students are using multimedia such as Facebook, Twitter,
and textingall informal settings. The electronic port- [5] http://www.edutopia.org
folio, on the other hand, is a more formal setting where
students must apply both their knowledge of how the web [6] Strivens, Janet (February 2007). A survey of e-pdp and
works and the message they want to convey. In this sense, e-portfolio practice in UK Higher Education. Higher Ed-
students use and comfort with the web at times can he a ucation Academy. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
hindrance if they are not taught to use electronic portfo-
lios in the correct fashion, suggests Lane.[7] Many univer- [7] Lane, C. (2007). The Power of e: Using e- Portfolios
to Build Online Presentation Skills. Innovate 3 (3): 5.
sities and schools are currently working to make sure that
students are gaining practice and experience with elec- [8] Consortium for Outstanding Achievement in Teaching
tronic portfolios so that they are able to use them to the with Technology (2009). COATT: Preparing Teachers
best of their ability. For example, in places like Michigan for the Evolving Classroom.
students can earn the MCOATT (Michigan Certicate of
Outstanding Achievement in Teaching Technology) for [9] Anderson, C. (2010) TED: Ideas Worth Spreading.
62 CHAPTER 10. ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIO

Haag, S., Cummings, M., McCubbrey, D., Pinson-

neault, A., Donovan, R. (2006). Management In-
formation Systems for the Information Age. Build-
ing an E-portfolio(XLM-J). Toronto: Mcgraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-095569-7.

Hebert, Elizabeth A., (2001) The Power of Portfo-

lios - What children can teach us about Learning and
Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0-
7879-5871-9.

Mendoza-Caldern, Marco A.; Ramirez-Buentello,

Joaquin. (2006). Handbook of Research on ePort-
folios. Facilitating Reection Through ePortfolio at
Tecnolgico de Monterrey. Hershey, USA. Ali Jafari
(Ed). pp: 484-493 ISBN 1-59140-890-3.

Wiedemann, Julius, ed. (2008). Web Design: Flash-

folios. Icons. Hong Kong; Kln; London; Los An-
geles; Madrid; Paris; Tokyo: Taschen. ISBN 978-
3-8365-0498-0. OCLC 449678340.

Richardson, W. (2010). Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and

other powerful web tools for classrooms. (3 ed., pp.
23, 151-153). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Eective Practice with e-Portfolios. Supporting
21st century learning. JISC. 2008.

10.6 External links

Comparison of Tools
Chapter 11

Distance education

This article is about education over a distance. For learn-

ing that is spaced over time, see Distributed learning.

Distance education or distance learning is a mode of

delivering education and instruction, often on an individ-
ual basis, to students who are not physically present in a
traditional setting such as a classroom. Distance learn-
ing provides access to learning when the source of in-
formation and the learners are separated by time and dis-
tance, or both.[1] Distance education courses that require
a physical on-site presence for any reason (excluding tak-
ing examinations) have been referred to as hybrid[2] or
blended[3] courses of study. Massive open online courses
(MOOCs), aimed at large-scale interactive participation
and open access via the web or other network technolo-
gies, are a recent development in distance education.

11.1 History
The earliest distance education courses may date back to
the early 18th century in Europe. One of the earliest
examples was from a 1728 advertisement in the Boston
Sir Isaac Pitman, pioneer of distance education in the 1840s.
Gazette for Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method
of Short Hand, who sought students who wanted to learn
through weekly mailed lessons.[4]
11.1.2 University correspondence courses

11.1.1 First distance education courses The University of London was the rst university to oer
distance learning degrees, establishing its External Pro-
The rst distance education course in the modern sense gramme in 1858. The background to this innovation lay
was provided by Sir Isaac Pitman in the 1840s, who in the fact that the institution (later known as University
taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed College London) was non-denominational and, given the
into shorthand on postcards and receiving transcriptions intense religious rivalries at the time, there was an outcry
from his students in return for correction. The element against the godless university. The issue soon boiled
of student feedback was a crucial innovation of Pitmans down to which institutions had degree-granting powers
system.[5] This scheme was made possible by the in- and which institutions did not.[8]
troduction of uniform postage rates across England in The compromise solution that emerged in 1836 was that
1840.[6] the sole authority to conduct the examinations leading
This early beginning proved extremely successful, and to degrees would be given to a new ocially recognised
the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded entity called the "University of London", which would
three years later to establish these courses on a more for- act as examining body for the University of London col-
mal basis. The Society paved the way for the later forma- leges, originally University College London and Kings
tion of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country.[7] College London, and award their students University of

63
64 CHAPTER 11. DISTANCE EDUCATION

from less auent backgrounds, the External Programme

was chartered by Queen Victoria in 1858, making the
University of London the rst university to oer distance
learning degrees to students.[9][10] Enrolment increased
steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was
widely copied elsewhere.[11] This program is now known
as the University of London International Programme
and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate and Diploma
degrees created by colleges such as the London School of
Economics, Royal Holloway and Goldsmiths.[10]
In the United States, William Rainey Harper, rst pres-
ident of the University of Chicago, developed the con-
The London University in 1827, drawn by Thomas Hosmer cept of extended education, whereby the research uni-
Shepherd versity had satellite colleges of education in the wider
community. In 1892 he also encouraged the concept of
correspondence school courses to further promote educa-
London degrees. As Sheldon Rothblatt states, thus arose tion, an idea that was put into practice by Columbia Uni-
in nearly archetypal form the famous English distinction versity.[12][13] Enrollment in the largest private for-prot
between teaching and examining, here embodied in sepa- school based in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the International
rate institutions.[8] With the state giving examining pow- Correspondence Schools grew explosively in the 1890s.
ers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the Originally founded in 1888 to provide training for immi-
creation of a programme within the new university that grant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors
would both administer examinations and award qualica- or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and
tions to students taking instruction at another institution matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895. By 1906 to-
or pursuing a course of self-directed study. tal enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to
sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons,
and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen.[14][15]
There was a stark contrast in pedagogy:

The regular technical school or college

aims to educate a man broadly; our aim, on
the contrary, is to educate him only along some
particular line. The college demands that a
student shall have certain educational quali-
cations to enter it, and that all students study
for approximately the same length of time, and
when they have nished their courses they are
supposed to be qualied to enter any one of a
number of branches in some particular profes-
sion. We, on the contrary, are aiming to make
our courses t the particular needs of the stu-
dent who takes them.[16]

Education was a high priority in the Progressive Era, as

American high schools and colleges expanded greatly.
For men who were older or were too busy with family
responsibilities, night schools were opened, such as the
YMCA school in Boston that became Northeastern Uni-
versity. Outside the big cities, private correspondence
schools oered a exible, narrowly focused solution. In
1916 eciency was enhanced by the formation of the Na-
tional Association of Corporation Schools.[17]
Universities around the world used correspondence
William Rainey Harper, encouraged the development of external
courses in the rst half of the 20th century, especially
university courses at the new University of Chicago in the 1890s
to reach rural students. Australia with its vast distances
Referred to as Peoples University by Charles Dickens was especially active; the University of Queensland es-
because it provided access to higher education to students tablished its Department of Correspondence Studies in
11.1. HISTORY 65

1911.[18] In South Africa, the University of South Africa,

formerly an examining and certication body, started to
present distance education tuition in 1946. The Inter-
national Conference for Correspondence Education held
its rst meeting in 1938.[19] The goal was to provide in-
dividualized education for students, at low cost, by us-
ing a pedagogy of testing, recording, classication, and
dierentiation.[20][21]

11.1.3 Radio and television

The very rapid spread of radio in the United States in the
1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education. By Walton Hall, renovated in 1970 to act as the headquarters of the
1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of newly established Open University. (Artist: Hilary French)
education, and many colleges and universities broadcast
educational programs for the public schools.[22] One line
of thought was to use radio as a master teacher. chaired by Sir Peter Venables. The British Broadcast-
ing Corporation (BBC) Assistant Director of Engineer-
" Experts in given elds broadcast lessons ing at the time James Redmond, had obtained most of
for pupils within the many schoolrooms of his qualications at night school, and his natural enthusi-
the public school system, asking questions, asm for the project did much to overcome the technical
suggesting readings, making assignments, and diculties of using television to broadcast teaching pro-
conducting tests. This mechanizes education grammes.
and leaves the local teacher only the tasks of The University revolutionised the scope of the corre-
preparing for the broadcast and keeping order spondence program and helped to create a respectable
in the classroom.[23] learning alternative to the traditional form of education.
It has been at the forefront of developing new tech-
A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when nologies to improve the distance learning service and is
John Wilkinson Taylor, president of the University of still the largest such institution in the world. Its suc-
Louisville, teamed up with the National Broadcasting cess helped to hasten the establishment of similar institu-
Corporation to use radio as a medium for distance ed- tions elsewhere, including in the US and Japan.[25] Walter
ucation, The chairman of the Federal Communications Perry was appointed the OUs rst vice-chancellor in Jan-
Commission endorsed the project and predicted that the uary 1969, and its Foundation Secretary was Anastasios
college-by-radio would put American education 25 Christodoulou. The election of the new Conservative
years ahead. The University was owned by the city, Party government under Prime Minister Edward Heath in
and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, re- 1970 led to budget cuts under Chancellor of the Exche-
ceive their study materials in the mail, and listen by quer Iain Macleod (who had earlier called the idea of an
radio to live classroom discussions that were held on Open University blithering nonsense).[26] However, the
campus.[24] Charles Wedemeyer of the University of OU accepted its rst 25,000 students in 1971, adopting a
WisconsinMadison also promoted new methods. From radical open admissions policy. At the time, the total stu-
1964 to 1968, the Carnegie Foundation funded Wede- dent population of conventional universities in the United
meyers Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) Kingdom was around 130,000.
which brought in a variety of communications technolo-
gies aimed at providing learning to an o-campus popu- Athabasca University, Canadas Open University, was
lation. created in 1970 and followed a similar, though in-
dependently developed, pattern.[27] The Open Univer-
sity inspired the creation of Spains National Univer-
11.1.4 Open University sity of Distance Education (1972)[28] and Germanys
FernUniversitt in Hagen (1974).[29] There are now many
The Open University in the United Kingdom was founded similar institutions around the world, often with the name
by the then serving Labour Party government under Open University (in English or in the local language).
Prime Minister Harold Wilson, based on the vision of All open universities use distance education technolo-
Michael Young. Planning commenced in 1965 under gies as delivery methodologies and some have grown to
Minister of State for Education Jennie Lee, who estab- become 'mega-universities,[30] a term coined to denote
lished a model for the OU as one of widening access to the institutions with more than 100,000 students. In 1976,
highest standards of scholarship in higher education, and Bernard Luskin launched Coastline Community College
set up a planning committee consisting of university vice- as a college beyond walls, combining computer assisted
chancellors, educationalists and television broadcasters, instruction with telecourses produced by KOCE TV, the
66 CHAPTER 11. DISTANCE EDUCATION

Coast Community College District public television sta- tance education.[43]

tion. Coastline has been a landmark strategic success in
helping to establish online distance learning using mod-
ern technology for learning.

11.1.5 Internet

Main article: Virtual education 11.2 Technologies

The widespread use of computers and the internet have Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the bound-
made distance learning easier and faster, and today aries, distance education technologies are divided into
virtual schools and virtual universities deliver full cur- two modes of delivery: synchronous learning and
ricula online.[31] In 1996 Jones International University asynchronous learning.
was launched by Glenn Jones, CEO and Bernard Luskin,
Chancellor as the rst fully online university accredited In synchronous learning, all participants are present
by a regional accrediting association in the US.[32] at the same time. In this regard, it resembles tradi-
tional classroom teaching methods despite the partici-
Between 2000 and 2008, undergraduate enrollment in pants being located remotely. It requires a timetable
at least some distance programs became more and more to be organized. Web conferencing, videoconferencing,
common. The share of students in at least one distance educational television, instructional television are exam-
education class expanded from 8 percent to 20 percent, ples of synchronous technology, as are direct-broadcast
and the percentage enrolled in a distance education de- satellite (DBS), internet radio, live streaming, telephone,
gree program increased from 2 percent to 4 percent.[33]
and web-based VoIP.[44] Online meeting software such
Many private, public, non-prot and for-prot institu- as Adobe Connect has helped to facilitate meetings in
tions worldwide now oer distance education courses distance learning courses. Another form of synchronous
from the most basic instruction through the highest lev- learning that has been entering the classroom over the last
els of degree and doctoral programs. Levels of accred- couple of years is the use of robot proxies.[45]
itation vary: Widely respected universities such as Stan- In asynchronous learning, participants access course ma-
ford University and Harvard now deliver online courses terials exibly on their own schedules. Students are not
but other online schools receive little outside oversight, required to be together at the same time. Mail correspon-
and some are actually fraudulent, i.e., diploma mills. In dence, which is the oldest form of distance education,
the US, the Distance Education and Training Council is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are message
(DETC) specializes in the accreditation of distance ed- board forums, e-mail, video and audio recordings, print
ucation institutions.[34] materials, voicemail, and fax.[44]
In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third The two methods can be combined. Many courses of-
of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education
fered by both open universities and an increasing num-
had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary ber of campus based institutions use periodic sessions
institution.[35] Even though growth rates are slowing, en-
of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions
rollment for online courses has been seen to increase delivered at a distance.[46] This type of mixed distance
with the advance in technology. The majority of pub-
and campus based education has recently come to called
lic and private colleges now oer full academic pro- "blended learning" or less often hybrid learning. The
grams online.[35] These include, but are not limited to,
Open University uses a blend of technologies and a blend
training programs in the mental health,[36] occupational of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid)
therapy,[37][38] family therapy,[39] art therapy,[40] physical all under the rubric of distance learning.
therapy,[38] and rehabilitation counseling[41] elds.
Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruc-
Distance education has a long history, but its popularity tion (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online
and use has grown exponentially as more advanced tech- virtual worlds, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all
nology has become available. By 2008, online learning of which are referred to as eLearning.[46] Media psychol-
programs were available in the United States in 44 states ogy and media studies have evolved as the research area
at the K-12 level.[42] in the study of media eects. Each has grown into im-
SazmandAsfaranjan, Y., Shirzad, F., Baradari, F., Sal- portant academic areas with graduate degree programs
imi, M., & Salehi, M. in a 2013 research paper argued now providing professional research, teaching and eld
that implementation of internet forum, online discussion sta to help build understanding of the behavioral impli-
group and online learning community contribute to an ef- cations of media. The rst MA, PhD and EdD programs
cacious distance education. Researchers showed that in Media Psychology and Media Studies were launched in
socialization plays the most vital role in eective dis- 2002 by Bernard Luskin at Fielding Graduate University.
11.4. BENEFITS 67

11.3 Paced and self paced models sibilities and commitments.[50] Devolving some activities
o-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints aris-
Distance education can be delivered in a paced format, ing from the traditional demand on institutional buildings
much as traditional campus based models in which learn- and infrastructure.[50] Furthermore, there is the potential
ers commence and complete a course at the same time. for increased access to more experts in the eld and to
Paced delivery is currently the most common mode of other students from diverse geographical, social, cultural,
distance education delivery. Alternatively, some institu- economic, and experiential backgrounds.[39] As the pop-
tions oer self-paced programs that allow for continuous ulation at large becomes more involved in lifelong learn-
enrolment and the length of time to complete the course ing beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can
is set by the learners time, skill and commitment levels. benet nancially, and adult learning business courses
Paced courses may be oered in either synchronus mode, may be particularly lucrative.[50] Distance education pro-
but self-paced courses are almost always oered asyn- grams can act as a catalyst for institutional innovation[50]
chronously. Each delivery model oers both advantages and are at least as eective as face-to-face learning
and disadvantages for students, teachers and institutions. programs,[37][51] especially if the instructor is knowledge-
able and skilled.[40]
Paced models are a familiar mode as they are used almost
exclusively in campus based schools. Institutes that oer Distance education can also provide a broader method
both distance and campus programs usually use paced of communication within the realm of education. With
models as teacher workload, student semester planning, the many tools and programs that technological advance-
tuition deadlines, exam schedules and other administra- ments have to oer, communication appears to increase
tive details can be synchronized with campus delivery. in distance education amongst students and their profes-
Student familiarity and the pressure of deadlines encour- sors, as well as students and their classmates. The dis-
ages students to readily adapt to and usually succeed in tance educational increase in communication, particu-
paced models. However, student freedom is sacriced larly communication amongst students and their class-
as a common pace is often too fast for some students and mates, is an improvement that has been made to provide
too slow for others. In addition life events, professional or distance education students with as many of the opportu-
family responsibilities can interfere with a students capa- nities as possible as they would receive in in-person ed-
bility to complete tasks to an external schedule. Finally, ucation. The improvement being made in distance ed-
paced models allows students to readily form communi- ucation is growing in tandem with the constant techno-
ties of inquiry[47] and to engage in collaborative work. logical advancements. Present-day online communica-
tion allows students to associate with accredited schools
Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not and programs throughout the world that are out of reach
only can students commence studies on any date, but they for in-person learning. By having the opportunity to be
can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks involved in global institutions via distance education, a
or up to a year or longer. Students often enrol in self- diverse array of thought is presented to students through
paced study when they are under pressure to complete communication with their classmates. This is benecial
programs, have not been able to complete a scheduled because students have the opportunity to combine new
course, need additional courses or have pressure which opinions with their own, and develop a solid foundation
precludes regular study for any length of time. The self- for learning..[52] It has been shown through research that
paced nature of the programming, though is an unfa- as learners become aware of the variations in interpre-
miliar model for many students and can lead to exces- tation and construction of meaning among a range of
sive procrastination resulting in course incompletion. As- people [they] construct an individual meaning, which
sessment of learning can also be challenging as exams can help students become knowledable of a wide array
can be written on any day, making it possible for stu- of viewpoints in education.[52] To increase the likelihood
dents to share examination questions with resulting loss that students will build eective ties with one another dur-
of academic integrity. Finally, it is extremely challeng- ing the course, instructors should use similar assignments
ing to organize collaborative work activities, though some for students across dierent locations to overcome the in-
schools[48] are developing cooperative models based upon uence of co-location on relationship building.[53]
networked and connectivist pedagogies,[49] for use in self-
paced programs. The high cost of education aects students in higher ed-
ucation, to which distance education may be an alter-
native in order to provide some relief. Distance edu-
cation has been a more cost-eective form of learning,
11.4 Benets and can sometimes save students a signicant amount
of money as opposed to traditional education. Distance
education may be able to help to save students a con-
Distance learning can expand access to education and siderable amount nancially by removing the cost of
training for both general populace and businesses since transportation.[54] In addition, distance education may be
its exible scheduling structure lessens the eects of able to save students from the economic burden of high-
the many time-constraints imposed by personal respon-
68 CHAPTER 11. DISTANCE EDUCATION

priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are now avail- styles, and native languages.[61] Distance education grad-
able as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which uates, who would have never have been associated with
can oer digital textbooks for a reduced price in com- the school under a traditional system, may donate money
parison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing im- to the school.[62]
provements in technology have resulted in many school Distance Learning may also oer a nal opportunity for
libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that adolescences that are no longer permitted in the General
oer course materials for free, which can help students Education population due to behavior disorders. Instead
signicantly with educational costs.[54] of these students having no other academic opportunities,
Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that they may continue their education from their homes and
traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is earn their diplomas, oering them another chance to be
able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, an integral part of society.
allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their on-
line learning.[55] For example, students can review their
lessons more than once according to their need. Students 11.5 Criticism
can then manipulate the coursework to t their learn-
ing by focusing more on their weaker topics while breez-
Barriers to eective distance education include ob-
ing through concepts that they already have or can easily
stacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable
grasp.[55] When course design and the learning environ-
technology,[63] as well as students program costs, ade-
ment are at their optimal conditions, distance education
quate contact with teachers and support services, and a
can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learn-
need for more experience.[64]
ing experiences.[56] Studies have shown that high satis-
faction correlates to increased learning. Students who Some students attempt to participate in distance educa-
are enrolled in distance education with high satisfaction tion without proper training of the tools needed to be
in their online coursework are then motivated intrinsi- successful in the program. Students must be provided
cally to learn, which often means that their performance with training on each tool that is used throughout the pro-
in class will improve.[56][57] For those in a healthcare or gram. The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to
mental health distance learning program, online-based in- an unsuccessful experience. Schools have a responsibil-
teractions have the potential to foster deeper reections ity to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology
[65]
and discussions of client issues[38] as well as a quicker barriers.
response to client issues, since supervision happens on The results of a study of Washington state community
a regular basis and is not limited to a weekly supervi- college students showed that distance learning students
sion meeting.[41] This also may contribute to the students tended to drop out more often than their traditional coun-
feeling a greater sense of support, since they have on- terparts due to diculties in language, time management,
going and regular access to their instructors and other and study skills.[66]
students.[38][41]
Distance learning benets may outweigh the disadvan-
Distance learning may enable students who are unable to tages for students in such a technology driven society
attend a traditional school setting, due to disability or ill- however before indulging into use of educational tech-
ness such as decreased mobility and immune system sup- nology a few more disadvantages should be considered.
pression, to get a good education.[58] Children who are Some say a negative to distance education is the lack of
sick or are unable to attend classes are now able to at- direct face-to-face social interaction, however as more
tend them in person through the use of robot proxies. people become used to personal and social interaction
This helps the students have experiences of the classroom online (for example dating, chat rooms, shopping, blog-
and social interaction that they are unable to receive at ging etc.) it is becoming easier for learners to both
home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe project themselves and socialize with others. Not all
learning environment. Over the last few years more stu- courses required to complete a degree may be oered
dents are entering safely back into the classroom thanks online. Health care profession programs in particular,
to the help of robots. Attached is an article from the New require some sort of patient interaction through eld
York Times: A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu work before a student may graduate.[67] Studies have also
that explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the shown that students pursuing a medical professional grad-
classroom.[59] Distance education may provide equal ac- uate degree who are participating in distance education
cess regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area courses, favor face to face communication over professor-
of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student.[60] mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies. How-
Applying universal design strategies to distance learning ever, this is little to correlation between student perfor-
courses as they are being developed (rather than institut- mance when comparing the previous dierent distance
ing accommodations for specic students on an as-needed learning strategies.[37]
basis) can increase the accessibility of such courses to
students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning There is a theoretical problem about the application of
traditional teaching methods to online courses because
11.7. SEE ALSO 69

online courses may have no upper size limit. Daniel Bar- tween learner and teacher. This gap has been observed
wick noted that there is no evidence that large class size is to become wider if there is no communication between
always worse or that small class size is always better, al- the learner and teacher and has direct implications over
though a negative link has been established between cer- the learning process and future endeavors in Distance
tain types of instruction in large classes and learning out- Education. Distance Education providers began to in-
comes; he argued that higher education has not made a troduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to
sucient eort to experiment with a variety of instruc- increase the amount of interaction between learner and
tional methods to determine whether large class size is teacher. These measures e.g. more frequent face-to-face
always negatively correlated with a reduction in learning tutorials, increased use of Information and Communi-
outcomes.[68] Early proponents of Massive Open Online cation Technologies including teleconferencing and the
Courses (MOOC)s saw them as just the type of experi- Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional
ment that Barwick had pointed out was lacking in higher distance.[71]
education, although Barwick himself has never advocated
for MOOCs.
There may also be institutional challenges. Distance 11.7 See also
learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain
support for these programs in a traditional brick-and- Continuing education
mortar academic learning environment.[38] Furthermore,
it may be more dicult for the instructor to organize Degree completion program
and plan a distance learning program,[41] especially since
many are new programs and their organizational needs Educational technology
are dierent from a traditional learning program.
Open admissions
Another benet of distance education is one for develop-
ing countries. Judith Adler Hellman states, In the face Open-door academic policy
of the pressure on these countries to join the global infor-
mation economy, distance education appears to provide Open supported learning
the opportunity to train more people better and at lower Open universities
cost.[69]
Even though there are advantages in advancing indus- Public, educational, and government access (PEG)
trial countries, there are still negative sides to distance
List of DETC online universities
education. Hellman states, These include its cost and
capital intensiveness, time constraints and other pressures International Correspondence Schools
on instructors, the isolation of students from instructors
and their peers, instructors enormous diculty in ade- Sunrise Semester
quately evaluating students they never meet face-to-face,
and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-based Virtual education
courses.[69]
Virtual learning environment

School choice
11.6 Educational technology Media psychology

The modern use of electronic educational technology Cooling out

(also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and
independent learning by the extensive use of Information University of the People
and Communications Technology (ICT), replacing tra-
ditional content delivery by postal correspondence. In-
struction can be synchronous and asynchronous online 11.8 References
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72 CHAPTER 11. DISTANCE EDUCATION

[68] Barwick, Daniel W. Views: Does Class Size Matter?". The International Review of Research in Open and
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arly journal
[69] Hellman, Judith Adler. The Riddle of Distance Educa-
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[70] Garrison, D.R. (2011, 20 May). E-Learning in the 21st
Century: A Framework for Research and Practice. New Radio in education full text books and articles on-
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[71] Soekartawi, Haryono, A. & Librero, F. 2002. Greater Issues in Distance Education book series from
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Retrieved from http://www.seameo-journal.com/journal/ able in print for sale or online as open access.
index.php/education/article/viewFile/39/38
The Center on Accessible Distance Learning (Ac-
cessDL), DO-IT Center, University of Washington

11.9 Further reading

Anderson, Terry. Theory and Practice of Online Ed-
ucation (2nd ed 2008) online from Athabasca Uni-
versity Press

Clark, J.J. The Correspondence SchoolIts Rela-

tion to Technical Education and Some of Its Re-
sults, Science (1906) 24#611 pp. 327334 in JS-
TOR

Hampel, Robert L. The Business of Education:

Home Study at Columbia University and the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin in the 1920s and 1930s, Teachers
College Record (2010) 112#9 pp 24962571

Holmberg, Brje. Theory and Practice of Distance

Education (2nd ed 1995) online

Kett, Joseph F. Pursuit of Knowledge Under Di-

culties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education
in America (1996) excerpt and text search

Moore, Michael Grahame and William Anderson

(2012). Handbook of Distance Education (2nd ed.).
Psychology Press. online edition

Moore, M.G., ed. Contemporary issues in American

distance education (1990)

Stubbleeld, Harold W. and Patrick Keane. Adult

Education in the American Experience: From the
Colonial Period to the Present (1994) excerpt and
text search

Walsh, Taylor. Unlocking the Gates: How and Why

Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their
Courses (Princeton University Press, 2011) online

11.10 External links

Distance learning at DMOZ
Chapter 12

OpenCourseWare

OpenCourseWare (OCW) are course lessons created at 12.3 edX

universities and published for free via the Internet. OCW
projects rst appeared in the late 1990s, and after gain- Main article: edX
ing traction in Europe and then the United States have be-
come a worldwide means of delivering educational con-
tent. Ten years after the US debut of OCW, in 2012 MIT and
Harvard University announced the formation of edX, a
massive open online course (MOOC) platform to oer
online university-level courses in a wide range of disci-
12.1 History plines to a worldwide audience at no charge. This new ini-
tiative was based on MITs MITx project, announced in
The OpenCourseWare movement started in 1999 when 2011, and extends the concepts of OCW by oering more
the University of Tbingen in Germany published videos structured formal courses to online students, including in
of lectures online for its timms initiative (Tbinger In- some cases the possibility of earning academic credit or
ternet Multimedia Server).[1] The OCW movement only certicates based on supervised examinations. A major
took o, however, with the launch of MIT OpenCourse- new feature of the edX platform is the ability for students
Ware at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to interact with each other and with teachers in online
and the Open Learning Initiative at Carnegie Mellon Uni- forums. In some cases, students will help evaluate each
versity[2] in October 2002. The movement was soon re- others work, and may even participate in some of the
inforced by the launch of similar projects at Yale, the teaching online.
University of Michigan, and the University of California
Berkeley. In addition, edX is being used as an experimental research
platform to support and evaluate a variety of other new
MITs reasoning behind OCW was to enhance hu- concepts in online learning.
man learning worldwide by the availability of a web of
knowledge.[3] MIT also stated that it would allow stu-
dents (including, but not limited to its own) to become
better prepared for classes so that they may be more en- 12.4 Problems
gaged during a class. Since then, a number of universities
have created OCW, some of which have been funded by A problem is that the creation and maintenance of com-
the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.[3] prehensive OCW requires substantial initial and ongoing
investments of human labor. Eective translation into
other languages and cultural contexts requires even more
12.2 Principles investment by knowledgeable personnel. This is one of
the reasons why English is still the dominant language,
and fewer open courseware options are available in other
According to the website of the OCW Consortium, an
languages.[5] The OCW platform SlideWiki[6] addresses
OCW project:
these issues through a crowdsourcing approach.

is a free and open digital publication of high quality

educational materials, organized as courses.
12.5 Americas
is available for use and adaptation under an open li-
cense, such as certain Creative Commons licenses.
12.5.1 Brazil
does not typically provide certication or access to
faculty.[4] Fundao Getulio Vargas (FGV Online)

73
74 CHAPTER 12. OPENCOURSEWARE

Universidade Estadual de Campinas[7] universities petitioned the government to institute a pro-

gram of OpenCourseWare in China. This group included
both some of the most prestigious universities in China,
12.5.2 Mexico as well as the Central Radio and Television University,
which is Chinas central open university, covering more
Universidad de Monterrey, 2007[8] than 2 million students.
Universidad Anhuac Mxico Norte, 2010[9] As a result of this petition, the Chinese government ap-
proved to institute the CORE(China Open Resources
for Education)[13] to promote the OpenCourseWare in
12.5.3 United States Chinese Universities, with Fun-Den Wang (the head of
IETF) as chairman. The CORE is an NGO supported
This listing is roughly in the order of adoption of OCW by Hewlett Foundation, Internet Engineering Task Force
principles. (IETF) and other fundations. According to COREs web-
site, it has nearly 100 Chinese universities as members,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), including the most prestigious universities in China, such
2002[10] as Tsinghua University, Peking University and Shanghai
Jiaotong University.[14] This organization organized vol-
Carnegie Mellon University, 2002 [10]
unteers to translate foreign OpenCourseWare, mainly
MIT OpenCourseWare into Chinese and to promote the
University of California, Berkeley
application of OpenCourseWare in Chinese universities.
Stanford University [10] At February, 2008, 347 courses had been translated into
Chinese and 245 of them were used by 200 professors in
Princeton University[10] courses involving a total of 8,000 students. It also tried to
translate some Chinese courses into English, but the num-
University of Pennsylvania[10] ber is not too much and some are only title translated.[15]
University of Michigan[10] There have also been produced 148 comparative stud-
ies comparing MIT curriculum with Chinese curriculum
Harvard University[10] using the MIT OpenCourseWare material.[16] COREs
oces are hosted within the China Central Radio and
Yale University[11] Television University, and they receive partial funding
Caltech from the IETF and the Hewlett foundation.[17] They also
host annual conferences on open education, and the 2008
conference was co-located with the international Open-
The following are not directly aliated with a specic CourseWare Consortium conference, which brought a
university: large amount of foreign participants.[18]
But before the OpenCourseWare conference in Beijing
Academic Earth - privately owned
and the establishment of CORE, at April 8, 2003, the
Khan Academy - non-prot Ministry of Education had published a policy to launch
the China Quality Course ( ) program.[19] This pro-
Students Circle Network - peer to peer gram accepts applications for university lecturers that
wish to put their courses online, and gives grants of be-
Coursera - venture capital nanced[10] tween $10,000 15,000 CAD per course that is put on-
Udacity - venture capital nanced [12] line, and made available free of charge to the general
public (ibid.). The most prestigious award is for the na-
edX - non-prot tional level CQOCW, then there is provincial level and
school level. From 2003 to 2010, there have produced
3862 courses at the national level by 746 universities.[20]
12.6 Asia According to the ocial website for the China Quality
Course, the total number of the courses available online
is more than 20,000.[21] These typically include syllabus,
12.6.1 China course notes, overheads, assignments, and in many cases
audio or video of the entire lectures.[17] The scale of this
OpenCourseWare originally initiated by MIT and the project has also spurred a large research activity, and over
Hewlett Foundation, began movement in China in 3,000 journal articles have been written in Chinese about
September, 2003, when MIT and the Internet Engineer- the topic of OpenCourseWare.[22]
ing Task Force (IETF) joined together with the Beijing
Jiaotong University to organize an OpenCourseWare
conference in Beijing. As a result of this conference, 12
12.6. ASIA 75

12.6.2 Pakistan lum Frameworks, National Focus Group papers on all the
subjects and other policy documents which will be helpful
The Virtual University (Urdu: ; Vu), for teacher educators.
is a public university located in urban area of Lahore, Students/ Parents: Students can access variety of re-
Punjab, Pakistan. Its additional campus is also located sources. They should be able to access the resources
in residential area of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. grade wise, subject wise and language wise.
Established in 2002 by the Government of Pakistan to Photographers: Photographs and images which can be
promote distance education in modern information and mapped to school curriculum are invited. Photogra-
communication sciences as its primary objectives, the phers or any individual who has an access to such pho-
university is noted for its online lectures and broadcasting tographs/images can contribute to the repository making
rigorous programs regardless of their students physical it relevant for school students and teachers by appropri-
locations. The university oers undergraduate and post- ately tagging them and by providing relevant keywords.
graduate courses in business administration, economics,
computer science, and information technology. Due to Producers: Documentary lmmakers/ audio producers/
its heavy reliance on serving lectures through the inter- video producers who have produced lms/ video/ audio
net, Pakistani students residing overseas in several other programmes can contribute to the repository. Also by
countries of the region are also enrolled in the Univer- having a look at spectrum of content which the repository
sitys programs. plans to oer they can create content and contribute.
Other government and non-government organizations:
As far as e-content is concerned, it is available in abun-
12.6.3 India dance. Many organisations have been creating such con-
tent for many years. The NROER aims to bring all such
The National Programme on Technology Enhanced organisations on board so that the content created by all
Learning (NPTEL) is a Government of India sponsored these organisations can be mapped to school curriculum
collaborative educational programme. By developing and can be made available to teachers and students.
curriculum-based video and web courses the programme
aims to enhance the quality of engineering education in
India. It is being jointly carried out by 7 IITs and IISc 12.6.4 Japan
Bangalore, and is funded by the Ministry of Human Re-
sources Development of the Government of India. OpenCourseWare originally initiated by MIT and the
Hewlett Foundation, was introduced and adopted in
Flexilearn is a very useful open course portal. It was ini- Japan.
tiated by Indira Gandhi National Open University, and
apart from providing free course materials, exilearn also In 2002, researchers from the National Institute of Mul-
provides opportunities to enroll oneself for a course and timedia Education (NIME) and Tokyo Institute of Tech-
appear for exam conducted by university and thereby get nology (Tokyo Tech) studied the MIT OpenCourse-
certication. Ware, leading them to develop an OCW pilot plan
with 50 courses at Tokyo Institute of Technology in
To provide open access to the resources for school ed- September.[23] Later, in July 2004, MIT gave a lec-
ucation, Department of School Education and Literacy,
ture about MIT OpenCourseWare at Tokyo Tech that
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government prompted the rst meeting of the Japan OCW Alliance.
of India and the Central Institute of Educational Tech-
The meeting was held with four Japanese universities that
nology, National Council of Educational Research and had mainly been recruited through the eorts of MIT pro-
Training launch National Repository of Open Educa-
fessor Miyagawa, and his personal contacts. In one case,
tional Resources (NROER) Anyone can participate in, the connection was the former president of the University
contribute, curate and organise resources and activities, of Tokyo being an acquintance of Charles Vest, the for-
growing it to reach every teacher and every student in all mer president of MIT.[24]
languages. TARGET AUDIENCE
In 2006, the OCW International Conference was held
Teachers: The repository is primarily for teachers so that at Kyoto University wherein the Japanese OCW Asso-
they can have access to variety of resources available in ciation was reorganized into the Japan OCW Consor-
dierent subject areas. The idea is to introduce teach- tium.[23] At that time, Japan OCW Consortium had over
ers to a bouquet of resources and provide them with an 600 courses; currently they have 18 university members,
opportunity to pick and choose the resources which suits including the United Nations University (JOCW, n.d.).
their requirement in classroom transaction. In addition On Japanese university campuses there are few experts
to accessing resources and using them in their classroom, in content production, which makes it dicult to get sup-
teacher can also create and contribute resources. port locally, and many of the universities have had to out-
Teacher Educators: The repository aims to house various source their production of OCW. In example, the Univer-
policy documents for example copy of National Curricu- sity of Tokyo has had to mainly employ students to create
76 CHAPTER 12. OPENCOURSEWARE

OCW.[23] availability of high quality and free open access materi-

The motivation for joining the OCW movement seems als shared between universities e.g. MIT (USA). We are
to be to create positive change among Japanese universi- also exposed to an example of resource sharing through
ties, including modernizing presentation style among lec- The Open University (UK), OpenLearn platform. Kemp
turers, as well as sharing learning material.[24] Japanese (2013) proposes that teaching and learning will be en-
researchers have been particularly interested in the tech- hanced when across institutions of higher education, we
nical aspects of OCW, for example in creating seman- work together to bring our shared knowledge into class-
tic search engines. There is currently a growing interest rooms. Furthermore, when we open up this platform to
include practitioners e.g. Employers, then the relation-
for Open Educational Resources (OER) among Japanese
universities, and more universities are expected to join ship with industry will further ensure teaching and learn-
ing is available and benecial for a wider community.
the consortium.[25]
In order to become an integral institution that con-
tributes to OER, the JOCW Consortium needs to forge
solidarity among the member universities and build a
12.9 See also
rational for OER on its own, dierent from that of
MIT, which would support the international deploy- Berkeley Webcast
ment of Japanese universities and also Japanese style e-
China Open Resources for Education
Learning.[25]
Education in Japan

12.7 Europe Khan Academy

MIT OpenCourseWare
12.7.1 Germany
National Programme on Technology Enhanced
University of Tbingen, 1999 [1] Learning

SlideWiki.org (developed at University of Leipzig) Notre Dame OpenCourseWare

Open educational resources

12.7.2 France
Open.Michigan
France Universite Numerique: The Mooc portal for Open Yale Courses
French Universities, founded in 2013 with state sup-
port. Saylor Foundation

Tufts OpenCourseWare
12.7.3 Netherlands
Virtual University of Pakistan
Delft University of Technology, 2007[26]

12.10 References
12.7.4 Romania
[1] Tbinger Internet Multimedia Server
Politehnica University of Bucharest, 2012[27]
[2]

12.7.5 Turkey [3] Vest, C. M. (2004). Why MIT decided to give away all
its course materials via the Internet. The Chronicle of
Middle East Technical University Higher Education, 50(21), B20. Retrieved from

[4] OCW Consortium Members

12.8 Middle East [5] Tarasowa, Darya; Darya Tarasowa; Ali Khalili; Sren
Auer; Jrg Unbehauen (2013). CrowdLearn: Crowd-
sourcing the Creation of Highly-structured E-Learning
In the United Arab Emirates, a discussion, led by Dr.
Content. 5th International Conference on Computer Sup-
Linzi j. Kemp, American University of Sharjah,[28]
ported Education CSEDU 2013.
has begun about sharing teaching and learning materi-
als (open course ware) through a community of edu- [6] Auer, Sren. First Public Beta of SlideWiki.org. Re-
cators and practitioners in the GCC. There is growing trieved 22 February 2013.
12.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 77

[7] OCW: Proposta. Ocw.unicamp.br. Retrieved 2014-01- 12.11 External links

01. Template:Br-pt icon

[8] udem.edu.mx - Acerca de OCW UDEM OpenCourse- OCW Consortium

Ware, 2007-02-20
Educational News of India
[9] , 2010
China - Ocial website of CORE
[10] - Colleges with Massive Open Online Courses
China - Ocial website of China Quality Open-
[11] http://oyc.yale.edu/ CourseWare (Chinese)
[12] Thrun on the Udacity model Japan - Japan OpenCourseWare Consortium
[13] http://www.core.org.cn India - National Programme on Technology En-
hanced Learning (NPTEL)
[14] http://www.core.org.cn/cn/coredes.html Retrieved on
April 11, 2013.

[15] http://www.core.org.cn/en/Chin_Courses/

[16] CORE (2007). 2007 Annual Report. CORE. Retrieved

on December 18, 2008.

[17] Wang, F. (2008). Open Education ResourcesConcept,

Status and Frontier. 22nd Annual Conference of the
Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU). Tian-
jin, China. Retrieved on December 18, 2008.

[18] CORE (2008) Open Education Conference 2008 held in

April in Dalian, China. CORE. Retrieved on December
18, 2008.

[19] " _ _MOE.GOV.CN

(in Chinese). Moe.gov.cn. 2003-04-14. Retrieved 2014-
01-01.

[20] " - - - Home Page (in Chi-

nese). Jingpinke.com. Retrieved 2014-01-01.

[21] http://www.jingpinke.com/ Retrieved on April 11, 2013.

[22] CAJ (2008) Search for across all categories.

China Academic Journals. Retrieved on December 18,
2008.

[23] Kobayashi, T. & Kawafuchi, A. (2006). Japan Open

Course Ware Consortium (JOCW): A Case Study in Open
Educational Resources Production and Use in Higher Ed-
ucation. OECD/CERI Report. Retrieved on December
18, 2008.

[24] Makoshi, N. (2006). TokyoTech OCW WG and Japan

OCW Consortium. Paper given to joint OECD/AIDE
conference. Retrieved on December 19, 2008.

[25] Kobayashi, T. & Kawafuchi, A. (2006). Recent Moves in

Promoting e-Learning in Japanese Higher Education with
a Focus upon OER. Paper presented at European Associ-
ation of Distance Teaching Universities, Tallinn, Estonia.
Retrieved on December 18, 2008

[26] tudelft.nl - TU Delft: 1. About TU Delft OpenCourse-

Ware, read 2012-05-11

[27] UPB OCW

[28] American University of Sharjah. Aus.edu. 2005-04-01.

Retrieved 2014-01-01.
Chapter 13

Virtual learning environment

A virtual learning environment (VLE) is a Web-based Formal assessment functions, such as examinations,
platform for the digital aspects of courses of study, usu- essay submission, or presentation of projects. this
ally within educational institutions. VLEs typically: al- now frequently includes components to support peer
low participants to be organised into cohorts, groups and assessment
roles; present resources, activities and interactions within
a course structure; provide for the dierent stages of as- Support for communications, including e-mail,
sessment; report on participation; and have some level threaded discussions, chat rooms, Twitter and other
of integration with other institutional systems.[1][2] For media, sometimes with the instructor or an assistant
those who edit them VLEs may have a de facto role as acting as moderator. Additional elements include
authoring and design environments.[3] VLEs have been wikis, blogs, RSS and 3D virtual learning spaces.
adopted by almost all higher education institutions in the
anglosphere.[4] Management of access rights for instructors, their
assistants, course support sta, and students

Documentation and statistics as required for institu-

13.1 Major components tional administration and quality control

Authoring tools for creating the necessary docu-

The following are the basic or the main components re-
ments by the instructor, and, usually, submissions
quired for a virtual learning environment or online edu-
by the students
cation curriculum to take place[5]
A VLE may include some or all of the following elements: Provision for the necessary hyperlinks to create a
unied presentation to the students.
The course syllabus
A VLE is normally not designed for a specic course
Administrative information about the course: pre- or subject, but is capable of supporting multiple courses
requisites, credits, registration, payments, physical over the full range of the academic program, giving a
sessions, and contact information for the instructor. consistent interface within the institution andto some
degreewith other institutions using the system. The
A notice board for current information about the on- virtual learning environment supports an exchange of in-
going course formation between a user and the learning institute he or
she is currently enrolled in through digital mediums like
The basic content of some or all of the course; the e-mail, chat rooms, web 2.0 sites or a forum thereby help-
complete course for distance learning applications, ing convey information to any part of the world with just
or some part of it, when used as a portion of a con- a single click.[6]
ventional course. This normally includes material
such as copies of lecture in the form of text, audio, or
video presentations, and the supporting visual pre-
sentations
13.2 Similar terms

Additional resources, either integrated or as links to Computerized learning systems have been referred to
outside resources. This typically consists of supple- as electronic educational technology, e-learning, learn-
mentary reading, or innovative equivalents for it. ing platform or learning management system. The ma-
jor dierence is that a VLE and LMS is an application,
Self-assessment quizzes or analogous devices, nor- whereas the Learning Platform share characteristics with
mally scored automatically an Operating System (or CoursePark Platform) where

78
13.3. PURPOSE 79

dierent educational web based applications can be run 13.3 Purpose

on the platform.
The terms virtual learning environment (VLE) and learn- VLE Learning platforms commonly allow:
ing platform are generically used to describe a range of
integrated web based applications that provide teachers,
Content management creation, storage, access to
learners, parents and others involved in education with and use of learning resources
information, tools and resources to support and enhance
educational delivery and management. These terms are Curriculum mapping and planning lesson plan-
broadly synonymous with 'managed learning environ- ning, assessment and personalisation of the learning
ments (MLEs) and 'managed virtual learning environ- experience
ments (MVLEs).
The applications that form part of these online services Learner engagement and administration managed
can include web pages, email, message boards and discus- access to learner information and resources and
sion forums, text and video conferencing, shared diaries, tracking of progress and achievement
online social areas, as well as assessment, management
and tracking tools.[7][8] Communication and collaboration - emails, notices,
chat, wikis, blogs
The term learning platform refers to a range of tools and
services often described using terms such as educational
extranet, VLE, LMS, ILMS and LCMS providing learn- In principle a learning platform is a safe and secure envi-
ing and content management. The term learning platform ronment that is reliable, available online and accessible to
also includes the personal learning environment (PLE) or a wide user base. A user should be able to move between
personal online learning space (POLS), including tools learning platforms throughout their life with no loss of ac-
and systems that allow the development and management cess to their personal data. The concept of a learning plat-
of eportfolios. form accommodates a continuously evolving description
The specic functionality associated with any implemen- of functionality changing to meet the needs of the user.
tation of a learning platform will vary depending upon Becta publishes Functional Requirements and Technical
the needs of the users and can be achieved by bringing Specications that give a more precise description of how
together a range of features from dierent software so- a learning platform may be constructed.
lutions either commercially available, open source, self
built or available as free to use web services. These tools
are delivered together via a cohesive user environment 13.4 Justication
with a single entry point, through integration achieved by
technical standards.
Institutions of higher and further education use VLEs in
order to:
a Learning Management System (LMS). Related
concepts include Content Management System
Economize on the time of teaching sta, and the
(CMS), which properly refers to the organization
cost of instruction.
of the educational or other content, not the overall
environment; Learning Content Management Sys-
Facilitate the presentation of online learning by in-
tem (LCMS), which is more often used for cor-
structors without web authoring experience.
porate training systems than for systems in educa-
tion institutions; Managed Learning Environment
Provide instruction to students in a exible man-
(MLE), which normally refers to the overall infras-
ner to students with varying time and location con-
tructure in an institution of which the VLE is a
straints.
component, Learning Support System (LSS); On-
line Learning Centre (OLC); or Learning Platform
Provide instruction in a manner familiar to the cur-
(LP), education via computer-mediated communi-
rent web-oriented generation of students.
cation (CMC); or online education. The term Vir-
tual Learning Environment is more commonly used
Facilitate the networking of instruction between dif-
in Europe and Asia, while the synonymous term
ferent campuses or even colleges.
Learning Management System is the more com-
mon usage in North America.
Provide for the reuse of common material among
dierent courses.
The term LMS can also mean Library Management
System (which is now more commonly referred to as Provide automatic integration of the results of stu-
Integrated Library System, or ILS). dent learning into campus information systems.
80 CHAPTER 13. VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

13.5 Standards 13.9 References

Most VLEs support the Shareable Content Object Ref- [1] Britain, Sandy; Liber, Oleg (1999). A Framework
erence Model (SCORM) as a standard, but there are no for Pedagogical Evaluation of Virtual Learning Environ-
commonly used standards that dene how the learners ments. JISC Technology Applications Programme (Re-
performance within a course can be transferred from one port 41). Retrieved 1 February 2015.
VLE to another. [2] Weller, Martin (2007). Virtual learning environments: us-
There are also standards for sharing content such as those ing, choosing and developing your VLE. London: Rout-
dened by the IMS Global Consortium. Local bodies ledge. pp. 45. ISBN 9780415414302.
such as in the schools sector in the UK the DCSF via
[3] Masterman, Liz (2013). The challenge of teachers de-
Becta have additionally dened a learning platform con-
sign practice. Written at London. In Beetham, Helen;
formance framework to encourage interoperability. Sharpe, Rhona. Rethinking pedagogy in a digital age. Ox-
Virtual Learning Environments are not limited only to ford: Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-415-53997-5.
students and learners in university level studies. There
[4] LMS Data The First Year Update. Edutechnica. 23
are many virtual learning environments for students in
September 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
grades K-12. These systems are also particularly suited
for the needs of independent educational programs, char- [5] http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/
ter schools and home-based education. virtual-learning-environment-VLE-or-managed-learning-environment-MLE

[6] http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:
603927/FULLTEXT01.pdf
13.6 Assessment
[7] Brieng Paper 1: MLEs and VLEs Explained. JISC.
Educators need benchmark tools to assess a virtual learn- 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
ing environment as a viable means of education.
[8] JISC. (2002). Inform1. Retrieved 28 August 2007,
Walker developed a survey instrument known as the from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/publications/
Distance Education Learning Environment Survey (DE- pub_inform1.aspx.
LES), which is accessible to students anywhere.[9] DE-
LES examines instructor support, student interaction and [9] Walker, S (2003), Development and Validation of an In-
collaboration, personal relevance, authentic learning, ac- strument for Assessing Distance Education Learning En-
tive learning, and student autonomy. vironments in Higher Education: The Distance Educa-
tion Learning Environments Survey (DELES) (unpublished
Harnish and Reeves provide a systematic criteria ap- doctoral thesis), Western Australia: Curtin University of
proach based on training, implementation, system usage, Technology.
communication, and support.[10]
[10] Harnish, D; Reeves, P (2000), Issues in the evaluation
of large-scale two-way interactive distance learning sys-
tems, International Journal of Educational Telecommu-
13.7 Systems available nications 6 (3): 26781.

There are many open source and proprietary VLEs avail-

able for use. On-demand elearning services are also a 13.10 External links
popular choice because they can be deployed in minutes
and do not require instructors and institutions to run their
own servers. Traditional Education vs Online Education

Many VLEs are placed on a web server. In a typical VLE Virtual Universities Giving You A Career Boost
there are one or more programs or languages that provides
the user (Teacher-Student) interface, and which interacts The Hassles In Online Education
with a database. For example, a VLE might use PHP as
its web language/program, with MySQL as a database.
13.11 Further reading
13.8 See also Morgan, G. (2003), Faculty Use of Course Manage-
ment Systems 2, retrieved November 27, 2005.
Online communication between school and home
Paulsen, M. F. (2003), Online Education and Learn-
Virtual world#Education
ing Management Systems Global Elearning in a
University of the People Scandinavian Perspective, Oslo: NKI Forlaget.
13.11. FURTHER READING 81

Kris Popat (2007), Virtually There: Learning Plat-

forms, Scunthorpe: Yorkshire and Humber Grid for
Learning, ISBN 9780955600609

Weller, M. (2007), Virtual Learning Environments:

Using, choosing and developing your VLE, London:
Routledge.
Moult, R. R. (2005), Learning to listen: Using ICT
to capture pupils perceptions and help the teacher to
respond (PDF), p. 19.

Seale, J (2009), A Research Brieng by the Technol-

ogy Enhanced Learning Phase of the Teaching and
Learning Research Programme (PDF).
Chapter 14

Learning management system

A learning management system (LMS) is a software tional content, identies and assesses individual and orga-
application for the administration, documentation, track- nizational learning or training goals, tracks the progress
ing, reporting and delivery of electronic educational tech-towards meeting those goals, and collects and presents
nology (also called e-learning) education courses or train-data for supervising the learning process of the organi-
ing programs.[1] zation as a whole.[4] A Learning Management System
LMSs range from systems for managing training and ed- delivers content but also handles registering for courses,
course administration, skills gap analysis, tracking, and
ucational records to software for distributing online or [5]
blended/hybrid college courses over the Internet with fea- reporting.
tures for online collaboration. Colleges and universi- Most LMSs are web-based to facilitate access to learning
ties use LMSs to deliver online courses and augment content and administration. They are also used by ed-
on-campus courses. Corporate training departments use ucational institutions to enhance and support classroom
LMSs to deliver online training, as well as to automate teaching and oering courses to a larger population of
record-keeping and employee registration. learners. LMSs are used by regulated industries (e.g. -
nancial services and biopharma) for compliance training.
Student self-service (e.g., self-registration on instructor-
14.1 Characteristics led training), training workow (e.g., user notication,
manager approval, wait-list management), the provision
of on-line learning (e.g., computer-based training, read &
14.1.1 History understand), on-line assessment, management of contin-
uous professional education (CPE), collaborative learn-
The history of the application of computers to education ing (e.g., application sharing, discussion threads), and
is lled with generic terms such as computer-based in- training resource management (e.g., instructors, facili-
struction (CBI), computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and ties, equipment), are all-important dimensions of learn-
computer-assisted learning (CAL), generally describing ing management systems.
drill-and-practice programs, more sophisticated tutorials,
Some LMS providers include performance management
and more individualized instruction, respectively.[2] LMS
systems, which encompass employee appraisals, compe-
has its history in another term, integrated learning sys-
tency management, skills-gap analysis, succession plan-
tem (ILS) which oers additional functionality beyond
ning, and multi-rater assessments (i.e., 360 degree re-
instructional content such as management and tracking,
views). Modern techniques now employ competency-
more personalized instruction, and integration across the
based learning to discover learning gaps and guide train-
system . The term ILS was originally coined by Jostens
ing material selection.
Learning, and LMS was originally used to describe the
management system part of the PLATO K-12 learning For the commercial market, some Learning and Perfor-
system, content-free and separate from the courseware. mance Management Systems include recruitment and re-
The term LMS is currently used to describe a number of ward functionality.
dierent educational computer applications.[3] A robust LMS should be able to do the following:[1]

14.1.2 Purpose centralize and automate administration

use self-service and self-guided services

The key to understanding the dierence between LMS
and other computer education terms is to understand the assemble and deliver learning content rapidly
systemic nature of LMS. LMS is the framework that
handles all aspects of the learning process. An LMS consolidate training initiatives on a scalable web-
is the infrastructure that delivers and manages instruc- based platform

82
14.1. CHARACTERISTICS 83

support portability and standards learning initiatives that require rapid development and
distribution of learning content.
personalize content and enable knowledge reuse
While LMS and LCMS products have dierent strengths
and weaknesses, they generally address the following ar-
14.1.3 LMS and CMS compared eas of functionality:[7]
LMS Functionality
The inappropriate use of LMS in the literature is perhaps
most commonly associated with computer applications Course Content Delivery
which we would identify as Course Management Systems
(CMS). These systems are used primarily for online or Student Registration and Administration
blended learning, supporting the placement of course ma-
Training Event Management (i.e., scheduling, track-
terials online, associating students with courses, tracking
ing)
student performance, storing student submissions, and
mediating communication between the students as well Curriculum and Certication Management
as their instructor. Some of this same functionality can
be seen within LMSs as well, so it is understandable why Skills and Competencies Management
confusion might exist about the dierences between the Skill Gap Analysis
two types of systems. However, the systemic nature of an
LMS does not limit its functionality to that of a CMS.[6] Individual Development Plan (IDP)
Reporting
14.1.4 LMS and LCMS compared Training Record Management

The focus of an LMS is to deliver online courses or train- Courseware Authoring

ing to learners, while managing students and keeping
Resource Management
track of their progress and performance across all types
of training activities. An LMS is not used to create course Virtual Organizations
content.
By contrast, a learning content management system LCMS Functionality
(LCMS) is a related software technology that provides
a multi-user environment where developers, authors, in- Template-driven, Collaborative Content Develop-
structional designers, and subject matter experts may cre- ment
ate, store, reuse, manage, and deliver digital educational Facilitated Content Management (i.e., indexing and
technology (also known as e-learning) content from a cen- reuse)
tral object repository. LCMS focuses on the develop-
ment, management and publishing of the content that will Publishing
typically be delivered via an LMS. Users can both create
Workow Integration
and re-use content and reduce duplicated development
eorts. Automated Interface with an LM
Rather than developing entire courses and adapting them
to multiple audiences, an LCMS provides the ability
14.1.5 LMS as the ubiquitous term
for single course instances to be modied and repub-
lished for various audiences maintaining versions and his- Despite this distinction, the term LMS is often used to re-
tory. The objects stored in the centralized repository can fer to both an LMS and an LCMS, although the LCMS is
be made available to course developers and content ex- actually a complementary solution to an LMS. Either as
perts throughout an organization for potential reuse and separate platforms or as a merged product, LCMSs work
repurpose. This eliminates duplicate development ef- together with LMSs to develop and deliver course con-
forts and allows for the rapid assembly of customized tent to students. Due to lack of industry standardization
content. Some systems have tools to deliver and man- as well as being a young industry, products that combine
age instructor-led synchronous and asynchronous online LCMS and LMS attributes may be referred to as course
training based on learning object methodology. management systems (CMS), learning management sys-
LCMSs provide tools for authoring and reusing or re- tems (LMS) and LMS/LCMS.[8] Blackboard Inc. cur-
purposing content (mutated learning objects, or MLOs) rently refers to their Blackboard Learn platform as an
as well as virtual spaces for student interaction (such LMS (Blackboard Inc., 2013). At this time, LMS rep-
as discussion forums, live chat rooms and live web- resents the ubiquitous term for a product containing at-
conferences). LCMS technology can either be used in tributes of both a LMS and a LCMS, whether for CMS
tandem with an LMS, or as a standalone application for or LMS use.
84 CHAPTER 14. LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

14.2 Technical aspects iterative processes where students experiences and ap-
proaches to learning are evaluated.[13] Considerations in
[7]
Most LMSs are web-based, built using a variety of de- selecting an LMS/LCMS have been reviewed.
velopment platforms, like Java/J2EE, Microsoft .NET or
PHP. They usually employ the use of a database like
MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle as the back- 14.4 See also
end data store. Although most of the systems are com-
mercially developed and have commercial software li- Authoring system
censes there are several systems that have an open-source
license. Corporate LMSs support multilingual content as Competency-based management
services can span across the world. SCORM (Sharable
Competency management system
Content Object Reference Model) support is a de facto
standard for LMS systems.[9] Digital content creation

Intelligent tutoring system

14.3 Learning management indus- Learning objects

try Educational technology (e-learning)

List of learning management systems

In the relatively new LMS market, commercial vendors
for corporate and education applications range from new LAMS - Learning Activity Management System
entrants to those that entered the market in the nineties.
In addition to commercial packages, many open source SCORM - Sharable Content Object Reference
solutions are available. Model
In the higher education market as of fall 2013, Student information system
Blackboard is the leading provider with 41% market
share, with Moodle (23%), Desire2Learn (11%) and Virtual learning environment
Instructure being the next three largest providers.[10] In
the corporate market, the six largest LMS providers
constitute approximately 50% of the market, with 14.5 Further information
SuccessFactors Learning, Saba Software, Voniz Inc and
Sumtotal Systems being the four largest providers. LMS Data - The First Year Update
In addition to the remaining smaller LMS product ven- (2014). Retrieved November 26, 2014,
dors, training outsourcing rms, enterprise resource plan- from http://edutechnica.com/2014/09/23/
ning vendors, and consulting rms all compete for part lms-data-the-first-year-update/
of the learning management market. Approximately 40
percent of US training organizations reported that they Blackboard Academic Suite brochure.
have an LMS installed, a gure that has not changed sig- (2006). Retrieved November 14, 2006, from
nicantly over the past two years. Another service re- http://library.blackboard.com/docs/as/bb_
lated to LMS comes from the standardized test prepara- academic_suite_brochure_single.pdf
tion vendors, where companies such as Princeton Review
or BenchPrep oer online test prep courses. Blackboard Company. (2006). Retrieved November 21,
Most buyers of LMSs utilize an authoring tool to cre- 2006, from http://www.blackboard.com/company/
ate their educational content, which is then hosted on an
LMS. In many cases LMSs include a primitive author- Connolly, P. J. (2001). A standard for suc-
ing tool for basic content manipulation. For advanced cess. InfoWorld, 23(42), 57-58. EDUCAUSE
content creation buyers must choose an authoring soft- Evolving Technologies Committee (2003). Course
ware package that integrates with their LMS in order for Management Systems (CMS). Retrieved April
their content to be hosted. There are authoring tools on 25, 2005, from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/
the market which meet AICC and SCORM standards pdf/DEC0302.pdf
and therefore content created in tools such as these can
be hosted on an AICC or SCORM certied LMS. By A eld guide to learning management systems.
May 2010, ADL had validated 301 SCORM-certied (2005). Retrieved November 12, 2006, from
products[11] while 329 products were compliant.[12] http://www.learningcircuits.org/NR/rdonlyres/
Evaluation of LMSs is a complex task and signicant re- BFEC9F41-66C2-42EFBE9D-E4FA0D3CE1CE/
search supports dierent forms of evaluation, including 7304/LMS_fieldguide1.pdf
14.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 85

Gibbons, A. S., Nelson, J. M., & Richards, R. [5] Gilhooly, Kym (16 July 2001). Making e-learning eec-
(2002). The nature and origin of instructional ob- tive. Computerworld 35 (29): 5253.
jects. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of
[6]
learning
[7] Kerschenbaum, Steven (4 June 2009). LMS Selection
objects: Online version. Retrieved April 5, 2005, from Best Practices (White paper). Adayana Chief Technol-
http://reusability.org/read/chapters/gibbons.doc ogy Ocer. pp. 115. Retrieved 13 February 2013.

[8] LMS/LCMS, BIS Training Solutions

Gilhooly, K. (2001). Making e-learning eective.
[9] Learning management system, stratbeans consulting
Computerworld, 35(29), 52-53.
[10] A Prole of the LMS Market (page 23), CampusComput-
Greenberg, L. (2002). LMS and LCMS: Whats the ing, 2013.
Dierence?. Learning Circuits from http://www.
[11] Certied products, ADL.
learningcircuits.org/2002/dec2002/greenberg.htm.
[12] SCORM adopters, ADL.
Hodgins, H. W. (2002). The future of learning ob- [13] Ellis, R.; Calvo, R.A. (2007), Minimum indicators
jects. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of to quality assure blended learning supported by learn-
learning objects: Online version. Retrieved March ing management systems (PDF), Journal of Educational
13, 2005, Technology and Society

from http://reusability.org/read/chapters/hodgins.doc
Introduction: why we need AMG, rst version, and 14.7 Bibliography
redesign. (2006). Retrieved November 20, 2006, 2006,
from http://ariadne.cs.kuleuven.be/amg/Intro.jsp Expertus; TrainingOutsourcing (August 30, 2006),
Survey 1: Channel Partner Training, Training Chal-
Wiley, D. (2002). Connecting learning objects lenges Survey Series, conducted by Expertus and
to instructional design theory: A denition, a TrainingOutsourcing.com
metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.),
The instructional use of Levensaler, Leighanne; Laurano, Madeline (2009),
Talent Management Systems 2010, Bersin & Asso-
learning objects: Online version. Retrieved March 13, ciates
2005, from http://reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.
doc
14.8 External links
14.6 References Free Software Directory: Education (Free Software
Foundation)
[1] Ellis, Ryann K. (2009), Field Guide to Learning Manage-
ment Systems, ASTD Learning Circuits World Wide Scientic Educational Library

[2] Parr, J.M.; Fung, I (September 28, 2004). Top Learning Management System Software
exid=6920&indexparentid=1024 A Review of the
Literature on Computer-Assisted Learning, particularly
Integrated Learning Systems, and Outcomes with Respect
to Literacy and Numeracy.. New Zealand Ministry of
Education. Retrieved April 2, 2005.

[3] Watson, William R. (2007). An Argument for Clarity:

What are Learning Management Systems, What are They
Not, and What Should They Become?". TechTrends 51
(2): 2834. Retrieved 13 February 2013.

[4] Szabo, Micheal; Flesher, K. (2002). CMI Theory and

Practice: Historical Roots of Learning Management Sys-
tems. Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning
in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Ed-
ucation 2002 (White Paper) (Montreal, Canada: In M.
Driscoll & T. Reeves (Eds.)): pp. 929936. ISBN 1-
880094-46-0.
Chapter 15

History of virtual learning environments

Main article: Virtual learning environment

A virtual learning environment (VLE) is a system that

creates an environment designed to facilitate teachers
management of educational courses for their students,
especially a system using computer hardware and soft-
ware, which involves distance learning. In North Amer-
ica, a virtual learning environment is often referred to as
a "learning management system" (LMS).

15.1 Terminology
The terminology for systems which integrate and man-
age computer-based learning has changed over the years.
Terms which are useful in understanding and searching
for earlier materials include:
Pressey Testing Machine (exterior)
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

Computer Based Training (CBT)

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

Course Management System (CMS)

Integrated Learning Systems (ILS)

Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI)

Learning Management System (LMS)

Massive open online course (MOOC)

On Demand Training (ODT) Pressey Testing Machine (interior)

Technology Based Learning (TBL)

15.2 Pre-1940s
Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL)
1728: March 20, Boston Gazette contains an ad-
Web Based Training (WBT) vertisement from Caleb Phillipps, Teacher of the
New Method of Short Hand, advising that any
Media Psychology Persons in the Country desirous to Learn this Art,

86
15.4. 1950S 87

may by having the several Lessons sent weekly to Norbert Wiener writes about human-machine com-
them, be as perfectly instructed as those that live in munications in his landmark book "Cybernetics or
Boston.[1] Control and Communication in the Animal and the
Machine (MIT Press, 1948).
1840: Isaac Pitman begins teaching shorthand, us-
ing Great Britain's Penny Post.[1]

1874: Institutionally sponsored distance education 15.4 1950s

began in the United States in 1874 at the Illinois
Wesleyan University.[1] 15.4.1 1953
1890: International Correspondence Schools (ICS)
is launched by newspaperman Thomas J. Foster in The University of Houston oers the rst televised
Scranton, Pennsylvania and becomes the worlds college credit classes via KUHT, the rst public tele-
largest study-at-home school. vision station in the United States. The live telecasts
ran from 13 to 15 hours each week, making up about
1883: The Correspondence University of Ithaca, 38% of the program schedule. Most courses aired
New York (a correspondence school) was founded at night so that students who worked during the day
in 1883.[1] could watch them. By the mid-1960s, with about
one-third of the stations programming devoted to
1892: The term distance education was rst used education, more than 100,000 semester hours had
in a University of WisconsinMadison catalog for been taught on KUHT.[9]
the 1892 school year.[2]

19067: The University of WisconsinExtension[3]

15.4.2 19531956
was founded, the rst true distance learning
institution.[4]
B. F. Skinner develops programmed instruction
1909: The Machine Stops a short story by E. M. [B.F. Skinner Foundation Better Behavioral Sci-
Forster, which describes an audio/visual communi- ence for a More Humane World] and an updated
cation network being used to deliver a lecture on teaching machine.[10][11]
Australian music to a remote audience.[5]

1920s: Sidney Pressey, an educational psychology 15.4.3 1956

professor at Ohio State University, develops the rst
teaching machine.[6] This device oered drill and Gordon Pask and Robin McKinnon-Wood develop
practice exercises, and multiple choice questions. SAKI, the rst adaptive teaching system to go into
commercial production. SAKI taught keyboard
1929: M.E. LaZerte, Director of the School of Ed- skills and it optimized the rate by which a trainee
ucation, University of Alberta, developed a set of keyboard operator learned by making the diculty
instructional devices for teaching and learning. For level of the tasks contingent on the learners perfor-
example, he developed several devices and meth- mance. As the learners performance improved the
ods to minimize instructor/testor involvement, so rate of teaching increased and instructional support
as to increase the likelihood of gathering data in a was delayed.[12]
consistent manner. One mechanical device that he
developed was the problem cylinder which could
present a problem to a student and check whether 15.4.4 19561958
the steps to a solution given by the student were
correct.[7] Harvey White, a physics professor at U.C. Berke-
ley, produced 163 high school physics lessons at
Pittsburghs PBS station WQED that were broad-
15.3 1940s cast into public schools in the area. Each 30 minute
lesson was also lmed and subsequently distributed
to dozens of educational/public television stations.
1945
In the academic year 19571958, Whites television
physics course was used in many thousands of pub-
Vannevar Bush describes a hypertext-like device lic school classrooms across the nation in which over
called the "memex" in his article As we may think[8] 100,000 students were enrolled. This course already
in The Atlantic. made evident two important characteristics of dis-
tance education that carry over to contemporary on-
1948 line instruction: enormous economies of scale and
88 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

higher labor productivity of the classroom based TMI marketed Min-Max (a teaching machine) with
teacher/tutor/facilitator.[13] machine programs and programmed text books.[19]

15.4.5 1957 15.5.2 1962

Frank Rosenblatt invented the "perceptron" in 1957 Douglas Engelbart publishes his seminal work,
at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in an at- Augmenting Human Intellect: a conceptual
tempt to understand human memory, learning, and framework.[20] In this paper, he proposes using
cognitive processes.[14] This was the beginning of computers to augment training. With his colleagues
machine learning. at the Stanford Research Institute, Engelbart started
to develop a computer system to augment human
abilities, including learning. The system was simply
15.4.6 1958
called the oNLine System (NLS), and it debuted in
Charles Bourne and Douglas Engelbart publish an 1968.
article in DATAMATION magazine that outlines
The initial concept of a global information network
the requirements of and a proposal for a National
should be given to J.C.R. Licklider in his series of
Technical Information Service for the USA.[15]
memos entitled On-Line Man Computer Commu-
nication, written in August 1962. However, the ac-
15.4.7 1959 tual development of the internet must be given to
Lawrence G. Roberts of MIT.[21]
Rath, Anderson, and Brainerd reported a project
using an IBM 650 to teach binary arithmetic to
students.[16] 15.5.3 1963
The University of Chicago rst produces Sunrise Ivan Sutherland develops Sketchpad, the rst graph-
Semester, a series of courses delivered via broadcast ical user interface for a computer, and publishes a
television.[17] description of it in his PhD. dissertation at MIT.[22]

The rst computer for instruction is installed at

15.5 1960s Orange Coast College, California. The OCC pro-
gram leads the way. Bernard Luskin serves as di-
rector of the rst teacher education program funded
15.5.1 1960 by the Federal Government under the Educational
Professions Development Act to train develop the
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teach-
national curriculum for data processing and train the
ing Operations) system developed at the University
rst 100 teachers.
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. One of the pri-
mary developers was Donald Bitzer. The rights to A chapter in the Daily Express Science Annual, en-
PLATO are now owned by PLATO Learning, which titled Teaching Machines and Programmed Learn-
delivers managed course content over the Internet. ing, describes interactive teaching machines and
The PLATO system featured multiple roles, includ- shows photos of a number of systems including The
ing students, who could study assigned lessons and Grundy Tutor,[23] The Auto Tutor and the Empirical
communicate with teachers through on-line notes, Tutor.[24] These electronic devices present frames
instructors, who could examine student progress of information followed by questions, and branch to
data, as well as communicate and take lessons them- other frames depending on the button pressed by the
selves, and authors, who could do all of the above, learner. The article states that the Auto Tutor was
plus create new lessons. There was also a fourth type designed by Norman Crowder, an American psy-
of user, called a multiple, which was used for demon- chologist. It describes a British machine, the Em-
strations of the PLATO system.[18] pirical Tutor thus: In addition to the printed pro-
Project Xanadu, the rst known attempt at imple- gramme it can use lm sequences, slide projectors,
menting a hypertext system, founded by Ted Nelson. tape recorders or even real apparatus, which the stu-
dent may use to help him to decide how to answer
Teaching Machines Inc, a group of psychologists the question in the frame. The article also refers
produced a series of programmed learning texts. to a language teaching system developed by Profes-
The texts were based on the work of B.F. Skinner, sor Rand Morton of Michigan University. A sci-
breaking complicated tasks to a one-step-at-a-time ence ction story in the same Annual, by Brian Ald-
activity (terminal learning objectives). Grolier and iss, predicts mobile learning, wearable computing,
15.5. 1960S 89

braincomputer interfaces, the development of per- manager, and student, and allowed intercommunica-
sonal computing in the nineteen-seventies, and con- tion among them. Stanford University participated
cern over global warming.[25][26] in the research and development that predated the
IBM 1500s release.
Douglas Engelbart invents the computer mouse, and
a prototype is constructed by Bill English.[27] Engel- Ted Nelson uses the terms "hypertext" and
bart was awarded a patent in 1970 for an improved "hypermedia" in his paper Complex information
version of the mouse.[28] processing: a le structure for the complex, the
changing and the indeterminate.[33]

15.5.4 1964 Research in the eld of computer-assisted instruc-

tion began in France at the universities in Paris,
The rst authoring system for developing lessons and Grenoble and Toulouse.[34]
courses on a computer system is produced. The
The Department of Industrial and Vocational Edu-
PLATO compiler allowed the development of var-
cation at the University of Alberta purchased a Fab-
ious forms of teaching logic for elds varying from
ritek transistorized training computer to teach stu-
mathematics to the behavioral sciences.[29]
dents in electronics courses.[7]
The Computer Assisted Instruction Laboratory is
established at Pennsylvania State University, Col-
lege of Education.[30] 15.5.6 1967

The Altoona Area School District in Pennsylvania The Division of Educational Research Services was
began to use computers to instruct students.[30] formed at the University of Alberta, and this unit
immediately acquired an electronic optical exami-
nation scoring machine, and an IBM magnetic tape
15.5.5 1965 typewriter. It shared an IBM 360/67 computer with
the rest of the university, and used it mostly for sta-
A ve-year study of the impact of the PLATO sys- tistical analysis.[7]
tem is published.[29] Here are some highlights: The
results of exploratory queuing studies show that the The CAN (Completely Arbitrary Name) authoring
system could teach as many as a thousand students language is developed by sta at the Ontario Insti-
simultaneously, while still allowing each student to tute for Studies in Education (OISE). The initial de-
proceed through the material independently. The sign goal was to provide a lesson authoring language
PLATO system had two dierent ways to teach which could be used by classroom instructors with
tutorial logic where the system presented facts and limited knowledge of computing.[35]
examples, and then asked questions on the materi- The rst CAI application is written in APL for the
als presented, and inquiry logic where the student Faculty of Education at the University of Alberta. It
could request and organize appropriate information consisted of an arithmetic drill program that auto-
from the computer. The presentation of materials matically adjusted its level of diculty as a function
(slide selector) was called an electronic book. The of the students rate of success.[7]
store of information in the system was called an elec-
tronic blackboard. PLATO had a sophisticated help
system, whereby dierent types of wrong answers 15.5.7 1968
resulted in the student being sent dierent help se-
quences. A rudimentary spell checker was included Telesecundaria a system based on satellite TV for
in the system. A comment page allowed the student secondary students in rural areas, was set up by the
to comment on the lessons at any time. An instructor Mexican Government. Initially, over 6,500 students
page allowed the instructor to communicate with the were served in 304 classrooms, each one equipped
student. A perfect workbook recorded student re- with a satellite dish and a black-and-white TV set.
sponses to questions, as well as kept a record of each The system is still in use, but now reaches over a
button the student pushed and the time at which he million students in 16,000 rural facilities in Mexico
or she pushed it. These records were stored on mag- and several Central American countries.
netic tape for later statistical analysis.
An IBM 1500 system was installed at the Univer-
IBM, via its subsidiary Science Research Associates, sity of Alberta, where on-line courses included car-
Inc., introduces COURSEWRITER[31] for the IBM diology training for the Universitys medical school.
1500,[32] an online interactive CAI system in the This system was nally taken out of service on April
1960s. The system included course management 10, 1980, after twelve years of operation. Univer-
features and roles for the users such as instructor, sitys medical school. This system was nally taken
90 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

out of service on April 10, 1980, after twelve years of going solo was that the student was in charge
of operation. Over 20,000 people had used the sys- of his or her own learning. However, the limita-
tem in that interval, and programming was available tions of the approach were also recognized, and the
for 17 university courses. The instructional operat- group ended up proposing a Community of Learn-
ing system of the IBM 1500 had a registration sys- ing model in 1976.[45]
tem, bookmarking, authoring, and progress reports
all built-in.[7] The Merit Computer Network interconnects the
mainframe computers at three large universities
Alan Kay, a graduate student at the University of University of Michigan, Michigan State University,
UTAH, proposes the FLEX language. The FLEX and Wayne State University. The Merit Network
Machine, a computer running the FLEX language is facilitated instructional uses of computing facilities
the rst attempt to develop an object-oriented pro- among the three institutions.[46][47]
gramming-based personal computer.[36]
Douglas Engelbart and 17 of his colleagues demon-
strate the new oNLine System (NLS) at the Fall Joint 15.6 1970s
Computer Conference held at the Convention Cen-
ter in San Francisco.[37] 15.6.1 1970
The MITRE Corporations begins development The Havering Computer Managed Learning System
of their Time-shared, Interactive, Computer- was developed in London, England. By 1980 it had
Controlled, Information Television (TICCIT) been used by over 10,000 students and 100 teachers
system. It is described as a computer based sys- in applications that included science technology, re-
tem of instruction that is low-cost, high quality medial mathematics, career guidance, and industrial
education that is completely individualized.[38] training.[48]
Flanagan reports on Project Plan, where comput-
15.5.8 1969 ers were used for learning management, though a
student-centric model that integrated information on
The US Department of Defense commissions students past achievement, interests, etc. to develop
ARPANET (and thus the Internet as we know it).[39] an individualized plan of study which served to
Stanford University broadcasts 12 Stanford engi- guide the learner through a series of Teacher Learn-
neering courses on two channels via the Stanford In- ing Units. This was implemented though a medium-
structional Television Network (SITN).[40] sized computer and terminals in the schools.[49]

The rst Associate Committee on Instructional Bernard Luskin received his PhD. in 1970. The ti-
Technology is formed at the National Research tle of his doctoral dissertation was An Identication
Council of Canada.[41] and Examination of Obstacles to the Development of
Computer Assisted Instruction, U.C.L.A. Luskin was
Karl L. Zinn published a report entitled Compara- an important pioneer and advocate for computers
tive study of languages for programming interactive in higher education in California in the 1970s and
use of computers in instruction EDUCOM Re- 1980s.[50]
search Memorandum RM-1469.[42]
California funded a two-year project to determine
R. Allan Avner and Paul Tenczar publish a manual the potential needs of distance education in the fu-
for TUTOR, the authoring language of the PLATO ture. Under the direction of Dr. Bernard Luskin,
system.[43] this consortium of all community and state colleges
in California developed a broad plan of action, one
The Language Information Network and Clearing- that predicted many of the technological innovations
house System (LINCS) Project of the Center for we use today.[51]
Linguistics at the National Science Foundation in
Washington, DC was developed as a computerized Computers rst used in elementary schools in
information management system to facilitate the Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.[52]
transfer of scientic information within the language
science community.[44] National Science Foundation (NSF) funded three
initial projects for the study of Natural Language
Beginning of a seven-year project called Project Processing. These projects included the University
Solo or Soloworks in Pittsburgh, USA. The group of California, Irvine Physics Computer Develop-
put out 33 newsletters over the course of the project. ment Project, headed by Alfred Bork and Research
This is an early example of student controlled, indi- Assistant, Richard L. Ballard. The Mitre Ticcit
vidualized use of computers in education. The idea Project conducted at the University of Texas, later
15.6. 1970S 91

moved to Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, Reference Services to Educators-at-Large

and its sister project called the PLATO Project, was who can be listed in a directory giving the ad-
conducted at the University of Illinois, Champaign. dresses and self-descriptions of professionals,
Over 140 natural language dialog programs were paraprofessionals, and free-lancers, along with
created between 1970 and 1978. UCIs Physics conditions of access to their services.
Computer Development Project conducted approx-
imately 55 educational programs and spearheaded
development throughout the UC system. Initial 15.6.3 1972
projects were conducted on Teletype model 33, pa-
per tape punch machine that operated at a 110 baud Patrick Suppes, professor at Stanford University, de-
rate.[53] veloped computer-based courses in Logic and Set
Theory that were oered to Stanford undergradu-
ates from 1972 to 1992.[58]
15.6.2 1971
The Learning Research Group is formed at Xerox
The MITRE Corporation begins a year-long demon- PARC in Palo Alto, California. It is led by Alan
stration of the TICCIT system among Reston, Vir- Kay, who advanced the idea of a graphical user in-
ginia cable television subscribers. Interactive televi- terface (GUI) by inventing icons for folders, menus,
sion services included informational and educational and overlapping windows. Kay and his group
demonstrations using a touch-tone telephone. The envisioned a computer for teaching and learning
National Science Foundation refunds the PLATO that they called the "KiddiKomputer", to be pro-
project and funds MITREs proposal to modify its grammed using the Smalltalk language they had de-
TICCIT technology as a computer-assisted instruc- veloped. While Kay could see many educational
tion (CAI) system to support English and algebra at uses for this computer, he had four initial projects in
community colleges. MITRE subcontracts instruc- mind: 1) Teaching thinking skills, 2) Teaching mod-
tional design and courseware authoring tasks to the eling through the simulation of systems, 3) Teach-
University of Texas at Austin and Brigham Young ing interface skills, and 4) Tracking what children
University. would do with the computer outside school hours,
when left to their own devices. Second level projects
Project EXTEND was set up in Michigan as a for teaching children with a computer included 1)
small college consulting service for instructional Computer evaluation, 2) Iconic programming, espe-
computing.[54] It oered programming support and cially for children under 8. Kay and his colleagues
faculty development to those university instructors started teaching programming to children and adults
who wanted to get involved with computer-based in 1973.
instruction.[55]
First Canadian Symposium on Instructional Tech-
University of Delaware forms Project DELTA
nology held in Calgary, Alberta.[41]
(Delaware Total Approach to Education). The
project provides Computer Aided Instruction to The Project Outreach Report is issued by the Cal-
high school students throughout Delaware utilizing ifornia Higher Education Commission. This re-
instructional material served from a central DEC port leads the way to legislation where public funds
PDP-11/70.[56] may be used for non-classroom based instruction
and provides funds to produce the model tele-
Ivan Illich describes computer-based learning
course, Contemporary California Issues, that is the
webs in his book Deschooling Society.[57] Among
course that serves as the model for modern distance
the features of his proposed system are
learning programs. Project Outreach director was
Reference Services to Educational Objects Bernard Luskin, Vice Chancellor, Coast Commu-
which facilitate access to things or processes nity Colleges.
used for formal learning.
Skill Exchanges which permit persons to
15.6.4 1973
list their skills, the conditions under which they
are willing to serve as models for others who
The National Development Program in Computer As-
want to learn these skills, and the addresses at
sisted Learning was set up in the UK in January,
which they can be reached.
1973.[59]
Peer-Matching a communications network
which permits persons to describe the learning A report written for the University of Michigan de-
activity in which they wish to engage, in the scribed the educational uses of computers at the
hope of nding a partner for the inquiry. university. These included drill, skills practice,
92 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

programmed and dialog tutorials, testing and di- computers in Italy and the United States made it pos-
agnosis, simulation, gaming, information process- sible to demonstrate a variety of existing CAI sys-
ing, computation, problem solving, model construc- tems. Papers describing the use of CAI in ve sets
tion, graphic display, the management of instruc- of educational institutions were presented.[63]
tional resources, and the presentation and display of
materials.[60]
15.6.6 1975
An integrated student information system at Trinity
University in Texas maintained data on about 1,500 The NSF-funded TICCIT Project begins testing En-
variables. These included all student academic and glish and algebra courseware at Northern Virginia
personal data, all faculty data that dealt with courses Community College in Alexandria, Virginia, and
and teaching, all course data in regards to student, at Phoenix College, part of the Maricopa County
faculty and class meeting times and days, enroll- Community College District system in Phoenix,
ments, buildings, and the college calendar and cata- Arizona. The modied TICCIT system supports
log. There was also an interaction course manage- 128 student terminals made of modied television
ment system.[61] sets providing text and graphics in seven colors,
digital audio, and a video switching device to em-
As a post-doc at Carnegie-Mellon University, Jay bed video into the computer generated instruction.
Warner needed to teach undergraduate metallurgy A specialized keyboard allows students to control
students how to use new software that would cal- their own progress through the courseware, which
culate phase diagrams (graphical representations of includes both tutorials, drills, and testing.[64] What
metal states/phases as a function of composition and is interesting about TICCIT is that it was based on a
temperature) based on thermodynamic properties. learner controlled command language that allowed
He wrote a CAI (Computer-Assisted Instruction) the user to manipulate his or her own sequencing
module that, however crudely, used some of the and development of learning strategies.[65]
principles discussed in this article. A frame, or para-
COMIT was a sophisticated system of computer-
graph of information, was presented, and the ma-
assisted instruction developed jointly by IBM and
chine branched to dierent follow-up frames and
the University of Waterloo in Canada. It empha-
questions depending on the response to the embed-
sized unique audiovisual capabilities of the tele-
ded questions. The whole thing was written in FOR-
vision set and light pens. The project ran until
TRAN IV. It proved useful; students could then use
1978.[66]
the software without close attendance by the instruc-
tor. This work was in no way as dramatic as the other The Michigan Terminal System (MTS), a com-
accomplishments of the day, however it does show puter time-sharing operating system developed at
that by this time CAL was not restricted to studies the University of Michigan, included a program
of learning methods. called CONFER developed by Robert Parnes that
gave it the capabilities of computer conferencing.[67]

15.6.5 1974
15.6.7 1976
Murray Turo founded the Computerized Confer-
encing and Communications Center at New Jersey Edutech Project of Encinitas California (now Digi-
Institute of Technology (NJIT) and over the next 15 tal ChoreoGraphics of Newport Beach, CA) devel-
years conducts an immense amount of research on ops DOTTIE, a TV Set-Top device linking the home
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) with TV to online services such as CompuServ and The
Starr Roxanne Hiltz. Much of this is on its appli- Source via a common household telephone.
cability to the Virtual Classroom, including eld
Development of the language Pop11 (derived from
trials in the 1980s. The specications for EIES 2
the Edinburgh AI language Pop2) and its teaching
are particularly seminal note in particular the ma-
tools starts at the University of Sussex. This later
terial on roles, resources and hypertext.[62]
evolved into Poplog.[68]
Launched in June 1974, Creative Computing was Development of the KOM computer conferencing
the rst computer magazine for general readers and system begins at Stockholm University. See Jacob
hobbyists. The JanFeb 1976 issue had an article on Palmes history of KOM
Learning with Computer Games.
First experimental developments at the Open Uni-
An international school was held in a remote Ital- versity of what became the Cyclops system then
ian resort to explore the state of the art of computer- called a telewriting or audio-graphic system but
assisted instruction (CAI). Direct connections with nowadays would be called a whiteboard system
15.6. 1970S 93

under two separate teams in the Faculties of Mathe- 15.6.9 1978

matics (Read and Bacsich) and Technology (Pinches
and Liddell) the rst team focusing on storage on Pathlore (as part of Legent Corp.) started devel-
cassette tape of digital data to drive VDUs, the sec- oping CBT solutions. In 1995 it became divested
ond focusing on transmission of handwriting over from Legent. Its PHOENIX software delivered vir-
telephone lines. There were similar developments tual classrooms to many corporate networks.[76]
[69] Pathlore was acquired by SumTotal Systems in
under way in the US and France.
2005.[77]
Coastline Community College, having no physical
campus, became the rst Virtual College in the The National Science Foundation releases its evalu-
United States. Distance learning pioneer Bernard ation of the MITRE TICCIT project demonstration,
Luskin is founding president.[70] giving a mixed review of the success of using the
computer-television system as the primary source of
Second Canadian Symposium on Instructional instruction for English and algebra.
Technology held in Quebec City, Quebec.[41]
The Defense Research Institute in Sweden released
Open University in the UK sets up the CICERO the KOM computer conferencing system which (at
project with three courses taught online.[71] its peak) had a thousand users[78]
A report by Karl L. Zinn at the University of
Michigan describes computer-based conferencing, 15.6.10 1979
computer-based seminars, computer-assisted cur-
riculum development, computer-based committees, Prestel, claimed by BT as the worlds rst pub-
and computer-based proposal preparation.[72] lic viewdata service, was opened in London in
September, running on a cluster of minicomputers.
Coastline Community College is launched as a col-
It had been conceived in the early 1970s by Samuel
lege beyond walls. This is the rst community
Fedida of the Post Oce Research Laboratories at
college to be launched with no campus, centering
Dollis Hill, London. Similar developments were un-
on telecourses and community facilities. Found-
der way in France (Teletel) and Canada (Telidon).
ing president Bernard Luskin coins the slogan, The
Only those active at the time will remember the
community is the campus, the citizens are the stu-
sense of euphoria and opening of possibilities in
dents.
what would now be called the e-business and e-
learning worlds. (Sadly, the concept was premature,
15.6.8 1977 although in France it had most success.) A num-
ber of mainframe, minicomputer and even micro-
With the Canadian federal Department of Com- computer based systems and services were later de-
munications, TVOntario (TVO) pioneered the use veloped in educational circles of which perhaps the
of satellites for educational teleconferencing and best known were OPTEL, Communitel, ECCTIS
direct-to-home transmission through the Hermes and NERIS.[79]
project. The experiment allowed students in
In Canada, groups including TVOntario, Athabasca
California and Toronto to interact via electronic
University, the University of Victoria, and the
classrooms.[73]
University of Waterloo participated in Telidon ex-
The Communications Research Center of the Cana- periments during the late 70s and early 80s. Telidon,
dian federal governments Department of Commu- an alphageometric videotex information system
nications developed Telidon, a second generation used set-top boxes with TV sets, or subsequently
videotext system that was used in eld trials in sev- software decoders running on PCs (Apple II, MAC,
eral educational settings.[74] and PC decoders were available) to display text and
graphics. The intent was to demonstrate and develop
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) provides educational applications for videotex and teletext
Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) tutorials for its systems. This work continued until 1983, when the
BASIC programming language on DEC PDP com- Telidon coding structure became a North American
puters. standard ANSI T500 NAPLPS (North Ameri-
can Presentation Layer Protocol Syntax).
At the UK Open University, the software and hard-
ware teams developing telewriting systems merged The Athabasca University educational Telidon
to form the Cyclops project and gained funding, ini- project used a Unix path structure which allowed the
tially internally, later from UK government sources. storage of information pages in the le system tree.
There is little trace of Cyclops now on the Open Uni- This is now the universal storage method for pages
versity web site.[75] on the internet. As described, the system had the
94 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

ability to create separate user groups with dierent structured activities, and places for training and ob-
access privileges, and to implement action scripts servation. Evaluation activities were also available
to access system functions, including email and dy- in the system.[82]
namic content generation. The AU system was de-
scribed in Abell, R.A. Implementation of a Telidon The University of Montreal oered CAF, a com-
System Using UNIX File Structures in Godfrey, D. puter system that taught written French. Graduated
and Chang, E. (eds) The Telidon Book, Reston Pub- groups of questions were generated according to in-
lishing Company, Reston, VA, 1981) dividual indicators. Students went through the sys-
tem at their own pace.[83]
An article by Karl L. Zinn in Educational Tech-
nology describes the uses of microcomputers at the TLM (The Learning Manager) was released in 1980
University of Michigan. Uses included word pro- and included distinct roles for students, instructors,
cessing, extending laboratory experience, simula- educational assistants, and administrators. The sys-
tion, games, tutorial uses, and building skills in tem could be accessed remotely by dial-up as a
computing.[80] student or an instructor using a terminal emulator.
The system had a sophisticated test bank capabil-
ity and generated tests and practice activities based
on a learning objective data structure. Instructors
15.7 1980s and students could communicate through the termi-
nal. Instructors could lock out students or post mes-
15.7.1 1980 sages. Originally called LMS (Learning Manage-
ment System), TLM was used extensively at SAIT
Successmaker is a K12 learning management sys- (Southern Alberta Institute of Technology) and Bow
tem with an emphasis on reading, spelling and nu- Valley College, both located in Calgary, Alberta,
meracy. According to the Pearson Digital Learning Canada.[84]
website, the South Colonie Central School District
in Albany, New York has been using SuccessMaker
since 1980, and in 1997 the district upgraded the
15.7.2 1981
software to SuccessMaker version 5.5.
School of Management and Strategic Studies at the
The Open University begins a pilot trial of a view- Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in La Jolla,
data (videotex) system OPTEL, on a DEC-20 main- California starts an online program.[85]
frame. This had been conceived by Peter Zorkoczy
University of Sussex, UK, implements Poplog, an
even before the launch of the national Prestel sys-
interactive learning environment for AI and comput-
tem in 1979 and was locally specied and coded
ing students. It includes hyperlinked teaching ma-
(in COBOL) by Peter Frogbrook (RIP) and Gyan
terials, an extensible text editor, multiple program-
Mathur. One of the main motivations was its ap-
ming languages and interactive demonstrations of
plicability to online learning. It was available via
AI programs.[86]
dial-up from home, and later in the 1980s via tel-
net(!) on the X.25 and internet networks. There
were individual user codes and passwords, giving
dierent access rights; the one generic access code
was regularly attacked by hackers even in these far-
o days, as URLs still on the web attest. The system
is overviewed in Viewdata-Style Delivery Mecha-
nisms for CAL, CAL Research Group Technical
Report No. 11.

Seymour Papert at MIT publishes Mindstorms:

children, computers, and powerful ideas. (New
York: Basic Books). This book inspired a num-
ber of books and dissertations on microworlds and
their impact on learning.[81]
Cyclops telewriting system, tutors station
The idea of managing teaching resources using a
computer is described in a paper by J.M. Leclerc
and S. Normand from the University of Montreal. Field trials begin of the Cyclops whiteboard system
Their system was programmed in BASIC, and used in the East Midlands Region of the Open University
a computer to track documents, human resources, and run for two years. The evaluation was funded by
15.7. 1980S 95

a grant from British Telecom and allowed the evalu- 15.7.3 1982
ation Director Tony Bates to employ Mike Sharples
and David McConnell as research fellows. Audio- The Computer Assisted Learning Center (CALC)
visual material for Cyclops was produced on the Cy- founded as a small, oine computer-based, adult
clops Studio , a multimedia editing system coded in learning center. Origins of CALCampus
UCSD Pascal by a software team led by Paul Bacsich
Edutech Project of Encinitas California (now Digi-
and including Mark Woodman. Cyclops was later
tal ChoreoGraphics of Newport Beach, CA) imple-
awarded a BCS prize for innovation and systems in-
ments PIES, an interactive online educational de-
stalled in Indonesia. There are only passing refer-
velopment and delivery system for the PILOT au-
ences now to Cyclops on the open Web (see under
thor language, using a client-server paradigm for
names cited) the best source of specications and
online delivery of personalized courseware to stu-
chronology is the article "Cyclops:shared-screen
dents via popular video-game consoles and micro-
teleconferencing in The Role of Technology in Dis-
computers. The system was used by Pepperdine
tance Education, edited Tony Bates, Croom Helm,
University, Georgia Tech, San Diego County De-
1984.[87]
partment of Education, and Alaska Department of
Over this period the Open University was also de- Education for distance learning.
veloping its own viewdata (videotex) system, called CET (later NCET and now Becta) publishes Video-
OPTEL, for use in education. This had in fact tex in Education: A new technology brieng, a 54-
started about the same time as Cyclops in yet an- page booklet written by Vincent Thompson, Mike
other team at the OU. The project ran until about Brown and Chris Knowles. This is out of print and
1985 when it faded away, as did videotex generally few copies are now available. (ISBN 0-86184-072-
across the world (except the Minitel in France). In 0)
addition to OPTEL, several other systems were im-
plemented including VOS (Videotex Operating Sys- Hermann Maurer invents MUPID, an innovative
tem) which allowed the display and manipulation videotex device later used widely in Austria. This
of text les via videotex. VOS was further devel- starts a strand of development leading on to Hyper-
oped into a telesoftware, transactional (gateway) and G and a range of other developments.[90] See also
email system and then used in a commercial devel- the of Hyper-G.
opment for IMS, the media research company (using Carnegie Mellon University and IBM create the
a very early precursor of Web/CGI development). Information Technology Center which begins the
These were coded in Pascal and COBOL on the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon. One of the pri-
DEC-20 mainframe. Some of the ideas of OPTEL mary goals of the project is to provide a platform
were taken over into the ECCTIS project delivering for computer-aided instruction using a distributed
course data via viewdata from a Unisys mainframe workstation computing environment, authenticated
indeed one of the former OPTEL sta joined EC- access to both personal and public le spaces in a
CTIS as Director. Systems were also specied to distributed le system (AFS), authoring tools for
deliver Computer-Assisted Learning see in par- computer-based lessons, and collaboration tools in-
ticular the article Viewdata systems in The Role cluding bulletin boards and electronic messaging.[91]
of Technology in Distance Education.[87] There are
only fragmentary references now to OPTEL on the Peter Smith of the UK Open University completes
open Web. his PhD thesis (157 pp) on Radiotext: an appli-
cation of computer and communication systems in
Allen Communication in Salt Lake City, Utah, distance teaching. (Only one reference online.) It
introduced the rst commercial interactive is believed that the work started in the late 1970s
videodisc.[88] under the supervision of Peter Zorkcoczy, who also
conceived the OPTEL viewdata system. Radiotext
BITNET, founded by a consortium of US and Cana- denoted the transmission of data over radio signals,
dian universities, allowed universities to connect just as it can be sent over telephone lines. It may
with each other for educational communications and seem normal now, as in the Radio Data System
e-mail. At its peak in 1991, it had over 500 organi- (RDS) in these days of digital radio, but in the 1970s
zations as members and over 3000 nodes. Its use the concept was novel and complex for their col-
declined as the World Wide Web grew. leagues to grasp.
Alfred Bork wrote an article entitled Informa-
tion Retrieval in Education, in which he identi- 15.7.4 1983
ed the ways computer-based techniques can be
used for course management, direct learning, and McConnell, D. and Sharples, M. (1983). Distance
research.[89] teaching by Cyclops: an educational evaluation of
96 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

the Open Universitys telewriting system. British Students and faculty at the University of Waterloo
Journal of Educational Technology, 14(2), pp. 109 use IBM PCs networked together to do their work
126. Paper describes the CYCLOPS system, de- and to develop applications (a JANET). One PC
veloped at the Open University UK in the early acts as a server for les in the network.
1980s, which provides multi-site tutoring through
a shared whiteboard system providing voice con- The OECD organized a conference in Paris, France
ferencing combined with synchronous handwriting on Education and the New Information Technol-
and real-time annotation of downloaded graphics. ogy.
A more comprehensive set of six short papers de- Antic (magazine) publishes a review of a cartridge
scribing Cyclops was published in Media in Educa- for Atari home computers allowing Atari users to
tion and Development vol. 16 no. 2, June 1983, pp. access courseware on the CDC PLATO system via
5874. modem.
Aregon International rewrote the Cyclops content Computer Teaching Corporation (CTC) launched
authoring system as the Excom 100 Studio and cre- TenCORE which was the leading authoring lan-
ated and produced the Excom 100 terminal, a com- guage in the late 1980s. It was MS-DOS based.
mercial version of the Cyclops terminal incorporat- CTC also produced a network-based Computer
ing lightpen, graphics tablet, and keyboard as input Managed Instruction System which allowed users
devices. Excom 100 was awarded the BCS IT award to take on the roles of author, student and admin-
in the Application category for 1983. 03:20, 13 istrator and to create and participate in a plurality
November 2010 (UTC) of courses.[95]
MIT announces a 5 year, Institute wide experiment
The Intercultural Learning Network created at UC,
to explore innovative uses of computers for teaching.
San Diego linked schools in Japan, Israel, Mexico,
This initiative is known as Project Athena.
and California and Alaska in the U.S. in the rst on-
Fourth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Tech- line Learning Circle. This eort was funded by an
nology held in Winnipeg in October 1983.[92] Apple wheels for the MInd grant.

ComSubLant adopts an elearning program for use

15.7.5 1984 on all U.S. submarines to train crewmen at sea. It
was developed by FTG1 Doner Caldwell at Sub-
Asymetrix founded by Paul Allen (a colleague of marine Group Six and ran on the Tektronix 4052A
Bill Gates). Asymetrix created ToolBook. Later it computer. The program utilized a lesson / test bank
became Click2Learn and then merged with Docent covering all submarine sonar publications on large
to become SumTotal Systems which oers a com- format tape cartridge.
plete Learning Management solution.[93]
The Annenberg/CPB project (funded by the 15.7.6 1985
Annenberg Foundation) publishes Electronic text
and higher education: a summary of research In 1985, the Graduate School of Computer and In-
ndings and eld experiences, Report number 1 in formation Sciences, at Nova Southeastern Univer-
their Electronic Text Report Series. This reviews sity, pioneers accredited graduate degrees through
videotex and teletext experiences relevant to edu- online courses,[96] awarding their rst doctorate.
cation in the US, UK and Canada. This document
may help to counteract received wisdom that prior In 1985, Patrick Suppes, professor at Stanford Uni-
to the Web, US agencies did not undertake studies versity, received a grant from the National Sci-
of the relevance of online systems to education. [94] ence Foundation to develop a rst-year calculus
course on computer. After several years of devel-
In the Faculty Authoring Development Program and opment and testing in summer camps, computer-
Courseware Authoring Tools Project at Stanford based courses in Beginning Algebra, Intermediate
University (19841990s) several dozen teaching Algebra, and Precalculus were created and tested
applications were created, including tutorials in during the 199192 academic year. In Fall 1992,
economics, drama simulations, thermodynamics after porting the software to the Windows operat-
lessons, and historical and anthropological role- ing system, the Education Program for Gifted Youth
playing games. (EPGY) was formally launched at Stanford Uni-
versity, making these courses available to qualied
Article on Computing at Carnegie-Mellon Univer- students.[97]
sity describes the benets to students and faculty of
a new project using networked personal computers Project Athena at MIT, on the potential uses of
set up by IBM and the university. advanced computer technology in the university
15.7. 1980S 97

curriculum, has been underway for two years by First version of CSILE installed on a small net-
this time, and about 60 educational development work of Cemcorp ICON computers at an elemen-
projects are in progress.[98] tary school in Toronto, Canada. CSILE included
text and graphical notes authored by several kinds
Daniel V. Klein develops UOLT, a Unix-based On of users (students, teachers, others) with attributes
Line aid to Training. This system features presen- such as comments and thinking types which reect
tation of on-line courses and individualized test- the role of the note in the authors thinking. Think-
ing and grading. Later renamed and published as ing types included my theory, new information,
UBOAT A Unix Based On-Line Aid to Tutori- and I need to understand. CSILE later evolved
als, in the Proceedings of the European Unix Users into Knowledge Forum.
Group, Dublin IRELAND, September 1987.[99]
Intersystem Concepts, Inc., founded by Steven
The SuperBook Project started at Bell Communica- Okonski and Gary Dickelman, introduces the Sum-
tions Research, Morristown, USA. The purpose of mit Authoring System which includes student track-
the project was to nd new ways of navigating online ing and bookmarks plus instructor course manage-
books.[100] Jacob Nielsen commented online that In ment features. It is the rst to bring streaming media
1990, Bell Communications Researchs SuperBook to a virtual learning environment.
project proved the benets of integrating search re-
sults with navigation menus and other information Research Report 24, September 1986, published
space overviews. from the Computerized Conferencing and Commu-
nications Center, New Jersey Institute of Technol-
The decision is taken (at the CALITE 85 confer- ogy: 'The Virtual Classroom: Building the Foun-
ence) to found ASCILITE, the Australian Society dations Starr Roxanne Hiltz, Project Director, Re-
of Computers In Learning In Tertiary Education. (It search Report for the 1985-86 Academic Year,
took two more years for all details to be nalised.) Tools for the Enhancement and evaluation of a Vir-
See the history of ASCILITE. ASCILITE is the co- tual Classroom' includes chapters on research, soft-
publisher of the Australasian Journal of Educational ware development, implementation issues, evalua-
Technology (AJET). tion methods, student participation and outcomes,
with brief descriptions of online courses oered at
NJIT, Upsala College and The New School for So-
15.7.7 1986 cial Research.

Tony Bates publishes Computer Assisted Learn- Bernard Luskin becomes founding president of
ing or Communications: Which Way for Informa- Philips Interactive Media, the rst large scale inter-
tion Technology in Distance Education?", Journal active media company making breakthroughs in dig-
of Distance Education/ Revue de l'enseignement a ital CD.
distance, reecting (in 1986!) on ways forward
for e-learning, based on 15 years of operational
use of computer networks at the Open Univer- 15.7.8 1987
sity and nine years of systematic R&D on CAL,
viewdata/videotex, audio-graphic teleconferencing In 1987, NKI Distance Education in Norway starts
and computer conferencing. Many of the systems its rst online distance education courses. The
specication issues discussed later are rehearsed courses were provided through EKKO, NKIs self-
here.[101] developed Learning Management System(LMS).
The experiences are described in the article NKI
Edward Barrett comes to MIT in the Program in Fjernundervisning: Two Decades of Online Sustain-
Writing and Humanistic Studies. He becomes co- ability in Morten Flate Paulsens book Online Ed-
director of a group working on a distance learning ucation and Learning Management Systems which
project called the Networked Educational Online is available from the author via Campus NooA hb-
System (NEOS), a suite of programs for teaching jhgfkug;yucvlju,fvg;/.vguj.b;'
writing and other subjects in specially designed elec-
From this year until 1991 several UK groups of
tronic seminar rooms.[102]
researchers associated in one way or another with
First version of LISTSERV is written by Eric the Open University, the UK Department for In-
Thomas, an engineering student in Paris, France. It dustry (especially the Alvey programme, the trans-
was rst used in the BITNET network for electronic puter team and the Information Technology Con-
mailing lists among universities.[103] sultancy Unit) and the emerging European Com-
mission DELTA programme, carry out a mass
Fifth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Tech- of specication and prototyping work on educa-
nology held May 57 in Ottawa.[104] tional environments. Projects include the Thought
98 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Box; the Learning Systems Reference Model; see Chapter 9 of Mindweave Internet Archive
Portable Educational Tools Environment (joint OU, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul
Harlequin and Chorus Systmes); and Transputer-
Based Communications-oriented Learning System. Edward Barrett and James Paradis publish a chap-
Among the non-OU co-workers were Chris Webb, ter entitled The Online Environment and In-House
Bill Olivier and Oleg Liber, all still active in e- Training in Edward Barrett (Ed.) Text, ConText,
learning. (No useful material left on the current pub- and HyperText (1988-MIT Press), that describes
lic Web.) Project Athena as an Educational On-Line System
(EOS).[107]
Authorware Inc. is formed in Minneapolis/St.
Question Mark (see QuestionMark) introduces a
Paul. From initial prototypes developed on both
DOS-based Assessment Management System. A
mainframe and very early personal computers, a
Windows based version was introduced in 1993, and
Macintosh-based authoring system called Course
an internet version was introduced in 1995. See
of Action is introduced; later a PC version is de-
Questionmarks website.
veloped. Shortly after its introduction, the title of
the authoring system is changed to match the name Utilizing colleague Stephen Wolframs Mathematica
of the company. Authorware went on to become the computer algebra system, mathematics professors
rst and most widely used industry-standard devel- at the University of Illinois, Jerry Uhl and Horacio
opment tool. Porta along with Professor Bill Davis of The Ohio
State University, develop Calculus&Mathematica
The Athena Writing Project at MIT publishes and oer calculus courses at UIUC and OSU in
Electronic Classroom: Specication for a user computer labs.
interface[105]
Peter Copen launches the New York State/Moscow
1987, Glenn Jones of Jones Intercable in Denver, Schools Telecommunications Project, linking 12
Colorado believed he saw a potential goldmine when schools in New York State with 12 in Moscow in
he created a new system, called Mind Extension the former Soviet Union to demonstrate that stu-
University in 1987. Jones created a system where dents can learn better through direct interaction on-
telecourses could be provided across a network to line and will become global citizens. This was the
various colleges and at the same time, students could pilot project for what later became iEARN (Inter-
interact with the instructors and each other, by us- national Education and Resource Network).
ing email, sent over the internet. Jones then began
to beam the courses by satellite, so anyone with a Online Learning Circles (developed from the Inter-
satellite dish could watch the classes and if they had cultural Learning Network, UCSD as one of the rst
a computer and a phone line they could interact with networks that connected classrooms from around the
the class.[106] world in groups of 810 classrooms around themes)
was oered on the AT&T Learning Network .
A group of companies in Alberta, working with
Alberta Government Telephones, create a pre-
internet whiteboard-like audiographic teleconfer- 15.7.10 1989
encing system. Using PCs, specialized NAPLPS-
based software, and audioconferencing bridges, Tim Berners-Lee, then a young British engineer
the system shares graphics, text, and voice, working at CERN in Switzerland, circulated a pro-
for synchronous multipoint instructor/student stu- posal for an in-house online document sharing sys-
dent/student communication. The system was used tem which he described as a web of notes with
by the Commonwealth of Learning in several loca- links. After the proposal was grudgingly approved
tions around the globe, and was also used by Arctic by his superiors, he called the new system the World
College in Alaska for distance education. In some Wide Web.[108]
implementations, the students uploaded assignments Chris Moore, Chief Technology Ocer at THINQ
to instructors for marking. Learning Solutions for many years, pioneered the
TrainingServer learning management system for
Syscom, Inc. Syscom was acquired by THINQ in
15.7.9 1988 2000. THINQ was by Saba in 2005. Chris Moore
has recently founded Zeroed-In Technologies.
Probably the rst large-scale use of computer con-
ferencing in distance teaching when the Open Uni- Lancaster University (UK) launches the MSc in
versity UK launched DT200 Introduction to Infor- Information Technology and Learning: now the
mation Technology with 1000 students per year. The worlds longest continually running Masters pro-
ur-evaluation by Robin Mason is a good description gramme taught using virtual learning methods (see
15.7. 1980S 99

Goodyear, P (2005) The emergence of a networked The thought box: A computer-based communica-
learning community: lessons learned from research tion system to support distance learning. Although
and practice, in Kearsley, G. (ed) Online learning, the specication is couched in terms of a hardware
Englewood Clis NJ: Educational Technology Pub- device linked to a remote mail/resources server the
lications, 113127.) article also describes the prototype work being done
in HyperCard, and it could be argued that this soft-
The Calculus&Mathematica support team at the ware prototype had many of the features of a mod-
University of Illinois begin oering computerized ern Personal Learning Environment. In fact, over the
calculus courses utilizing Mathematica over the in- next few years, the HyperCard route was the way by
ternet to High School students in rural Illinois. which the ideas were advanced, eventually appear-
ing in the XT001 online course in the early 1990s
John S. Quarterman published a 700+ page book, and in several other Open University courses.[110]
The Matrix: Computer Networks and Conferenc-
ing Systems Worldwide (Digital Press, 1989). This The Athena Writing Project at MIT produces this
book provided detailed addressing protocols on how publication: N. Hagan Heller, Designing a User In-
dierent computer networks could connect with terface for the Educational On-line System, Mas-
each other for the purpose of exchanging informa- sachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA,
tion and holding discussions, and network maps of May 1989.
the developing Internet.
Education 2010 is published. This 83-page booklet
Networked Educational Online System (NEOS) de- (published by Newman Software, ISBN 0-948048-
veloped and deployed at MIT. The system provided 04-2) arose out of an invitational conference at Ban-
coursework exchange between dierent roles allow- gor in July, 1989, with a brief to examine the possi-
ing for grading, annotating, and public discussions. ble role of IT in Education in the year 2010. With
Nick Williams, William Cattey, The Educational a few notable exceptions such as Stephen Heppell,
On-Line System, Proceedings of the EUUG Spring few of the conference delegates are active now in
Conference, EUUG, (April 1990) e-learning but it makes interesting reading.

Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., McLean, R. S., Swal- ECCTIS Limited was formed when it successfully
low, J., & Woodru, E. (1989). Computer sup- completed in a closed tendering exercise for the EC-
ported intentional learning environments. Journal CTIS online (viewdata) courses information service
of Educational Computing Research, 5, 5168. Pa- earlier run by the UK Open University. ECCTIS
per discusses CSILE project and related software. is one of the few names from the viewdata era of
the 1980s to carry on till this day, even if somewhat
The rst release of Lotus Notes 1.0 is shipped. Re- changed. ECCTIS has a useful history page.
lease 1.0 includes functionality which is revolution-
ary for the time, including allowing system/server Dr. John Sperling and Terri Hedegaard Bishop be-
administrators to create a user mailbox, user records gin the University of Phoenix Online campus, based
in a Name and Address database, and to notarize the in San Francisco, California. It was the rst pri-
users ID le through dialog boxes. Also includes an vate university venture to deliver complete academic
electronic mail system with return receipt and no- degree programs (Masters and Bachelors degrees)
tication features, and on-line help, a feature not and services to a mass audience, via asynchronous
oered in many products at this time. Ocial his- online technologies. This early success is later docu-
tory of Lotus Notes mented in a paper written by Hedegaard-Bishop and
Howard Garten (Professor at University of Dayton,
Publication of the book Mindweave: Communi- Dayton, Ohio), The Rise of Computer Conferenc-
cation, Computers and Distance Education, edited ing Courses and Online Education: Challenges for
by Robin Mason and Anthony Kaye (published by Accreditation and Assessment and published in a
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 273p). This was a hugely collection of Papers on Self-Study and Institutional
inuential book on computer conferencing on which Improvement by the North Central Association of
many of the leading experts of the time collabo- Colleges and Schools, (1993) 137145.
rated. In addition to descriptions of applications,
there were several chapters describing or specifying F.C. Prasse and B.T. Hackett present at the 1989
systems, in particular the Thought Box. The book Technology and Innovations in Training and Educa-
is available second-hand (e.g. via Amazon) but the tion (TITE) Conference on an operational distance
full text (no images) is on the web.[109] education prototype elded in 1987 using o-the-
shelf RBBS software and featuring messaging, cur-
The rst public article specifying the Thought Box rent issues, a multi-topic asynchronous threaded dis-
appears as Chapter 7 of Mindweave, written by cussion format, as well as a searchable online refer-
Gary Alexander and Ches Lincoln. It is entitled ence database. Prasse, F.C. & Hackett, B.T. (1989).
100 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Continuing education and problem solving using re- 15.8.3 1994

mote data terminals. In L. Wiekorst (Ed.), Proceed-
ings of the 1989 Conference on Technology and In- TeleEducation NB, a provincial distance learn-
novations in Training and Education, pp. 237246. ing network in the Canadian province of New
Atlanta, GA: American Defense Preparedness As- Brunswick implemented a primitive DOS-based
sociation. learning management system designed by Rory
McGreal.[113]

15.8 1990s 15.8.4 1995

Main article: History of virtual learning environments in Arnold Pizer and Michael Gage at the University
the 1990s of Rochester Department of Mathematics develop
WeBWorK (a free Perl-based system for delivering
individualized homework problems over the web)
for use in mathematics instruction.[114]
15.8.1 1991
Steve Molyneux at University of Wolverhampton in
In datacloud|Datacloud: Toward a New Theory of the UK develops WOLF (Wolverhampton Online
Online Work, Johndan Johnson-Eilola describes a Learning Framework) one of the rst e-Learning en-
specic computer-supported collaboriation space: vironments in the UK.[115]
The Smart Board, which was introduced in 1991.
According to Johnson-Eilola, a Smart Board sys- In 1995 Murray Goldberg at University of British
tem provides a 72-inch, rear projection, touch- Columbia began looking at the application of web-
screen, intelligent whiteboard surface for work based systems to education and developed WebCT
(79). In datacloud|Datacloud, Johnson-Eilola as- in early 1996.[116]
serts that [w]e are attempting to understand how
users move within information spaces, how users In 1995 The University of Auckland Business
can exist within information spaces rather than School launched CECIL (computer supported learn-
merely gaze at them, and how information spaces ing or CSL) with students enrolled in February
must be shared with others rather than being pri- 1996. Its the University of Aucklands LMS & still
vate, lived within rather than simply visited (82). operating.Cecil websiteCecil: The First Web-based
He explains how the Smart Board system oers an LMS
information space that allows his students to en-
gage in active collaboration. He makes three dis- Jerrold Maddox, at Penn State University, taught a
tinct claims regarding the functionality of the tech- course, Commentary on Art, on the web starting in
nology: 1) The Smart Board allows users to work January 1995. It was the rst course taught at a dis-
with large amounts of information, 2) It oers an tance using the web.
information space that invites active collaboration,
3) The work produced is often dynamic and con- Neville Gordon-Carroll and Vaughn Taylor at Mi-
tingent (82).[111] crosoft launched MOLI - Microsoft Online Insti-
tute - an online learning proof of concept built as
Johnson-Eilola further explains that with the Smart a result of an intensive research project into the fu-
Board information work becom[es] a bodied ture of technology based learning. The desired out-
experience (81). Users have the opportunity to come was a platform for self-directed learning at any
engage withinhabitthe technology by direct time, from anywhere with content that was dynami-
manipulation. Moreover, this space allows for cally updated and immediately relevant. MOLI was
more than one user; essentially, it invites multiple initially developed by Microsoft on the MSN pro-
users.[111] prietary platform then rapidly migrated to the in-
ternet as Microsoft embraced the internet in mid
1995. Microsoft Online Institute was a simple
15.8.2 1992 hosted learning platform that was made available to
private and public learning institutions to conduct
Philips Interactive Media, led by CEO Bernard and experiment with their own classrooms, con-
Luskin, and Paramount Pictures, led by Eric Doc- tent and instruction model. During this time Mi-
torow pioneer full motion video movies on CD. The crosoft actively evangelized internet based learning
rst full motion video MPEG compression methods to higher education institutions, learning content de-
are developed and full motion video becomes avail- velopers and traditional education companies. De-
able for all manner of digital programs.[112] spite initial resistance to this new learning model
15.9. 2000S 101

several companies and institutions used MOLI as an Coursepackets.com, founded by entrepreneur, and
experimental platform before launching their own then UT student, Alan Blake, launches in the fall
oerings. semester at the University of Texas at Austin. The
company was the rst to provide scanned, online
versions of course-packets for students. Coursep-
15.8.5 1996 ackets.com changed its name to CourseNotes.com
when it began oering expanded services in early
Glenn Jones, Chairman, and Bernard Luskin, 2000.
founding chancellor of Jones International Univer-
sity launch Jones International University which
becomes the rst accredited fully web based 15.8.8 1999
university.[117]
John Baker (entrepreneur) a student at the
15.8.6 1997 University of Waterloo creates version one of
Desire2Learn learning system for faculty in
In February 1997, Steven Narmontas, introduced a engineering.
small group of faculty members of Western New
England College to a software system he had worked Bernard Luskin pilots rst course in media psychol-
on as a spare time project. Dubbed The Manhattan ogy at Fielding Graduate University leading to the
Project, because it was largely developed in secret, rst PhD program in media psychology.
the software enabled teachers to post les to a web
site for their students to read. The earliest version of
Manhattan also supported a few discussion groups 15.9 2000s
and private messaging. Latter it will be the LMS
The Manhattan Virtual Classroom[118]
15.9.1 2000
Neal Sample and Mark Arnold present JavaScript
for Simulation Education at the NAU/web.97 con- January, 2000: CourseNotes.com, founded by en-
ference (Flagsta, Arizona, 1215 June 1997). trepreneur, and then UT student, Alan Blake,
Their paper presents earlier work (pre-1997) on ex- launches in early 2000, with dozens of classes at
periences presenting coursework over the Internet. the University of Texas at Austin. The service was
At the same conference, other academics presented marketed since the summer of 1999, and provides
their work in the eld of e-learning. A copy of the comprehensive professor web sites, including virtu-
Sample/Arnold paper can be found here:[119] ally all features oered by Blackboard (i.e., course
documents, calendaring, grades, quizzes & surveys,
CourseInfo LLC founded by Dan Cane
announcements, etc.). The company was later re-
and Stephen Gilfus at Cornell University.
named ClassMap and operational until early 2001.
http://www.news.cornell.edu/chronicle/97/10.
16.97/Web_company.html January 2000: Lamp and Goodwin of Deakin Uni-
versity publish Using Computer Mediated Com-
Develops the Interactive Learning Network ILN 1.5, munications to Enhance the Teaching of Team
and installs it at several academic institutions including Based Project Management (conference presenta-
Cornell University, Yale Medical School and University tion copyright 1999), an evaluation of a trial of
of Pittsburgh. The ILN was the rst e-learning system FirstClass to teach project management at Deakin
of its kind to leverage an install on top of a relational in 199899. It contains the memorable observa-
database MySqL. tion There were some comments about features
which students believed that FirstClass didn't have
Blackboard Inc founded by Michael Chasen and (eg email, chat sessions on demand) when, in fact,
Matt Pitinsky in Washington, DC.[120] they were available facilities...University Note also
that there are several specications of pre-2000 ver-
sions of FirstClass available (usually as PDF les at
15.8.7 1998
university sites) on the web.
Ian D. Thompson at the University of Strathclyde
January 2000: [ILIAS], which has been developed
creates version one of the SPIDER VLE system for
at University of Cologne since 1997, has become
the School of Pharmacy.
open source software under the GPL (rst release:
Ian Reid at the University of South Australia creates ILIAS 1.6). Together with developers from other
version one of UniSAnet, its in-house virtual learn- universities in Northrhine-Westfalia the ILIAS team
ing environment.[121] founded the CampusSource initiative to promote the
102 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

development of open source LMS and other soft- The Political Economy of Online Education
ware for teaching at universities. (Onrain Kyouiku no Seijikeizaigaku) by Kimura
Tadamasa was published in May, with the rubric
April 2000: ePath Learning, established in 1999, this book examines the role of secondary educa-
launches the rst online LMS, ePath Learning tion in the new information society, from a variety of
ASAP, making it aordable for businesses to cre- perspectivies sociology, psychology, and human
ate and manage online learning and training. Their resource management using concrete examples
vision is to make online learning accessible to ev- of online education in educational environments.
eryone. (http://www.epathlearning.com/index.php/ ISBN 4-7571-4017-7. NTT publishing. Tokyo.
epath-about-us/history.html). (Japanese).
May, 2000: ArsDigita, a Boston Massachusetts The MIT Sloan School of Management launches the
based start-up who developed the Arsdigita Com- rst production version of ACES 3.4 with a pilot of
munity System since their inception in 1997 deploys 8 Fall 2000 classes.
Caltech Portals at my.caltech.edu
Northern Virginia Community Colleges Extended
Learning Institute begins using Blackboard after
Later that year in October 2000, deploy the ArsDigita having previously used a variety of other prod-
Community Education System (ACES) at MIT Sloan ucts for Internet-based course delivery, including
School. The system is called Sloanspace.[122] The Ars- Lotus Notes (1995), FirstClass (19961999), Serf
Digita Community System as well as ACES in the next (19971999), and Allaire Forums (1999.) for
few years grow to OpenACS and .LRN its engineering degree program and other courses
; NVCC also used WebBoard (1999) and Web
May 1, 2000: Randy Graebners masters thesis Course in a Box (1998), prior to beginning its use
from MIT is published, Online Education Through of Blackboard.[124]
Shared Resources.
In fall 2000 the open source LMS OLAT developed
Mid June, Reda Athanasios, President of Convene at University of Zurich won the MeDiDa-Prix for its
International leaves the company to form Learning paedagogical concept. It was optimized to support a
Technology Partners (which later buys Convene). blended learning concept.
Now that the Virtual classroom idea is well es-
In May 2000, HEFCE, the Higher Education Fund-
tablished, what is needed next is to build all the
ing Council for (universities in) England, commis-
other supporting technologies to turn the Virtual
sions a comparative analysis of the main VLEs, as
Classroom to a Virtual Campus with SMS and e-
part of a series of studies for the imminent UK e-
commerce support, he claims. Learning Technol-
University. Over 40 specially created vendor sub-
ogy Partners seeks to build technologies to support
missions mostly delivered by 17 June 2000 are anal-
the Virtual Classroom.
ysed by a team led by Paul Bacsich. A compan-
June 30, 2000: Blackboard Inc. le a patent appli- ion study analsyed what were then called Learn-
cation relating to Internet-based education support ing Administration Systems, in a team comprising
systems and methods. An international patent ap- Christopher Dean, Oleg Liber, Sandy Britain and
plication (WO application 0101372) is led on the Bill Olivier. Final reports were delivered in Septem-
same date. The applications claim priority from a ber 2000.
provisional patent application led June 30, 1999. A Webster & Associates / Infosentials Ltd launches
US patent is granted in 2006 (See below) and patent learningfast.com in rst half of year. Complete
applications in Europe, Canada, Mexico and Aus- course based assessment, with separate user and ad-
tralia are also pursued from the WO application. ministrator logins. Users, on login, are provided
with a list of courses that matches their subscription
Blackboard Inc. acquires MadDuck Technologies
level. Subsequently sold to Monash University.
LLC, developers of Web Course in a Box.[123]
In July, 2000, CyberLearning Labs, Inc. is founded.
ETUDES 2.5 is demonstrated in March at TechEd Its primary product, the ANGEL Learning Man-
2000 in Palm Springs, California. At or prior to agement System (LMS) evolved from research at
this release, ETUDES included a number of fea- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis
tures of VLEs, including course and role based ac- (IUPUI). The company will later change its name
cess via login, electronic assignment submission, on- to ANGEL Learning, Inc.[125]
line assessment, and synchronous and asynchronous
communications. The system is in use by a num- A Manual for Students in Web-Based Courses:
ber of community colleges in California, including What do you do now that they have gone to the
Foothill, Miracosta, and Las Positas. Web? was published online by Kent Norman at the
15.9. 2000S 103

University of Maryland, College Park, Laboratory The MIT Sloan School of Management adopts
for Automation Psychology. ACES 3.4 (internally named SloanSpace) as their
course management system.
The Claroline project was initiated in 2000 at
the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium) by Brandon Hall publishes an article in ASTDs Learn-
Thomas De Praetere and was nancially supported ing Circuits, entitled LMS 2001. It lists 59 learning
by the Louvain Foundation. Developed from teach- management systems available that year.
ers to teachers, Claroline is built over sound paeda- Thinking Cap, the rst XML LMS / LCMS
gogical principles allowing a large variety of paed- launched. Separation of content from presentation
agogical setup including widening of traditional allows for single source creation of training content.
classroom and online collaborative learning.
ILIAS 2.0 released in August.[127]

15.9.2 2001 PTT launches the rst commercial version of its

Trainee Records Management System (TRMS).
Technological Fluency Institute releases CAT1 August 2001: the Pedagogy Group of the UK e-
(Computer Assessment and Tutorial) which assesses University (UKeU) started work on development
a persons technical abilities and oers help tutorials of what eventually became (in 2003) the UKeU
for participants. learning environment. An e-University Functional
Model was created in October 2001 but specica-
CourseWork.Version I (CW), a full-featured course tion work continued well into 2002. See the UKeU
management system, was developed at Stanford Overview, especially Section 3, for a description of
University's Academic Computing. CW supported the early days of UKeU.
multiple courses allowing multiple roles for users.
CWs consisted of a set of tools for authoring December 2001: The open-source course manage-
and distributing course websites that incluced: a ment system spotter is released.
course homepage, announcements, syllabus, sched-
ule, course materials, assignments (based on a 1998
version of CW), gradebook and assync discussion. 15.9.3 2002
This version was initially developed as part of the
Open Knowledge Initiative, partially funded by the Microsoft release Class Server 3.0 on June 6 Press
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. release
ATutor rst public open source release in December
Microsoft releases Microsoft Encarta Class Server
ATutor Release News[128]
(See Press Release)
Moodle version 1.0 is released in August[129]
The Bodington system released as open source by
the University of Leeds, UK Fle3 version 1.0 released in February the rst open
source version of FLE software
Moodle is published via CVS by Martin Dougiamas
to early testers The announcement is here. The MIT Sloan School of Management migrates
ACES to OpenACS 4.0, thereby creating the rst
LON-CAPA is rst used in courses at Michigan instance of .LRN (1.0).[130]
State University.[126]
The Centre for Applied Research in Educational
version 2.0 of COSE is launched after further fund- Technologies at the University of Cambridge de-
ing from the Jisc ploys CamCommunities, an open-source commu-
nity system (OpenACS) based on .LRN, for use
Murray Goldberg (founder of WebCT) and others on campus.Sakai VRE for Education Research, a
start a company called Silicon Chalk.[116] Silicon project funded by the JISCs.[131]
Chalk builds software for the classroom to be used in In July, Reda Athanasios of Learning Technology
laptop learning environments. Examples of features Partners buys his old company Convene and in-
include presentation and audio beaming to student stantly gains two data centers and IZIO the Learning
laptops, student note taking, student polling, student Platform developed in Stanford and purchased later
questions, control of student applications, recording by Convene.
of entire lecture experience for archiving, searching
and later replay, etc. Silicon Chalk gains a dedicated Start of the OLAT rebuilt project. The goal of the
usership of approximately 70 institutions but never project was to rebuild the LAMP-based LMS on a
achieves protability. It is sold to Horizon Wimba scalable, safe and fast Java EE-based architecture
in 2005. that supports campus-wide e-learning.[132]
104 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

The rst PhD program in Media Psychology University of South Africa (Unisa) and Technikon
is launched at Fielding Graduate University by South Africa (TSA) merged on 1 January 2004. The
Bernard Luskin. This major step brings atten- functionality of their two in-house developed CMSs
tion and expertise to the growing realization that a (Unisa SOL and TSA COOL) was combined into
greater understanding of human behavior is neces- a new system called "myUnisa" . myUnisa is built
sary for improved learning systems in the future. within the Sakai framework. The new myUnisa in-
frastructure was launched on 9 January 2006. By
ILIAS open source team starts to redesign the sys- August 2006 myUnisa was one of the largest installs
tem and to develop ILIAS 3. of Sakai with more than 110 000 students.
November 2002: OpenText announce the acquisi-
October: Murray Goldberg, the inventor of WebCT,
tion of Centrinity, the then owners of FirstClass
and still an adjunct professor at the University of
see the
British Columbia, wins this years EnCana Prin-
December 2002: ACODE, the Australasian Council cipal Award from the Ernest C. Manning Awards
on Open, Distance and E-Learning, continues under Foundation.[116] The award, with a cash prize of
a new name the work of a series of earlier organi- $100,000, is given each year to a Canadian innova-
sations originating with NCODE in 1993. See the tor. The press release perhaps comes closest to be-
history of ACODE. ing a brief ocial history of WebCT from the Uni-
versity point of view.[137] * Roger Boshier releases an
Bernard Luskin launches rst PhD program in me- irreverent history of e-learning in British Columbia,
dia psychology at Fielding Graduate University. covering WebCT and many lesser-known develop-
ments. The le date is 2004 but the chronology
stops just before 2000. See A Chronology of Tech-
15.9.4 2003 nological Triumph, Zealotry and Utopianism in B.C.
Education. An earlier (1999) version of this with
LON-CAPA version 1.0 released in August (in use
the title addition of Leaping Fords and Conquering
at 12 universities, 2 community colleges and 8 high
Mountains is also available.
schools)
The American National Standards Institute, Inter-
December 2003: Serco Group acquires Teknical,
national Committee for Information Technology
the VLE company spun out of the University of Lin-
Standards (ANSI/INCITS) adopts the Sandhu, Fer-
coln.
raiolo, Kuhn RBAC (Role-Based Access Control)
Early in the year WebCT announces over 6 million NIST unied model proposal as an industry con-
students users and 40,000 instructor users teaching sensus standard (INCITS 359:2004). A page is pre-
150,000 courses per year at 1,350 institutions in 55 pared (date uncertain) detailing the history of Role-
countries.[133] Based Access Control from the Ferrailo and Kuhn
paper in 1992 up to the date of the standard.
LogiCampus released its rst open source edition in
November 2003 on sourceforge.net. LogiCampus eLML started as a spin-o from the Gitta
news release archive project.[138]

15.9.5 2004 15.9.6 2005

The Sakai Project founded, promising to develop an Microsoft release Microsoft Class Server 4.0 on 27
open source Collaboration and Learning Environ- January (See Press release).
ment for the needs of higher education.[134]
OLAT 4.0 was introduced with many new features
Public release of Dokeos open-source VLE, which like the integration of XMPP, RSS, SCORM and
is a fork of Claroline.[135] an extension framework that allows adding code by
conguration and without the need to patch the orig-
OLAT 3.0 released. This is the rst OLAT re-
inal code set.
lease that is entirely written in Java as a result of the
OLAT rebuild project initiated in 2002. January 2005: EADTU the European Association
First stable ILIAS 3 release published in June.. of Distance Teaching Universities launches the E-
xcellence project, with the support of the eLearn-
In July ILIAS is certied ocially by ADL CO-Lab ing Programme of the European Commission (DG
as SCORM 1.2 compliant. ILIAS is the rst free Education and Culture), to set a standard for quality
software LMS that reaches the maximum confor- in e-learning. The project is a cooperation between
mance level LMS-RTE3.[136] 13 signicant partners in the European scene of
15.9. 2000S 105

higher education e-learning together with quality as- administration skills. This enterprise is the rst full-
sessment and accreditation.[139] scale eort to expand the use of the useractive con-
structivist model of learning on the internet.
March 2005: The New Zealand Ministry of Edu-
cation authorises release of a report describing (in NACON Consulting, LLC. pioneers its distance ed-
anonymised terms) the benchmarking of e-learning, ucation system, "VirtualOnDemand", designed to
covering most university-level institutions in the train users on real software using virtual machines,
country. The Report on the E-Learning Maturity with the only user component needed being a web
Model Evaluation of the New Zealand Tertiary Sec- browser. The Army initiates a pilot program and
tor weighs in at a hefty 12 MB. uses this system to train IT support personnel in var-
ious network security software. NACON also re-
April 28, 2005: Blackboard are granted AU leases a stand-alone virtual training appliance.
780938B based on their international patent appli-
cation led in 2000. The granted claims are similar Boston University launches the rst online doctoral
to the claims later granted in the US (See below). program in music education, which within two years
admits nearly 350 students.[141]
June 2005: Janice Smith (Jan Smith) publishes
From owers to palms: 40 years of policy for online KEWL.nextgen started up in PHP.
learning [in the UK], ALT-J, Research in Learning
Technology, vol. 13 no. 2 pp. 93108 with a par-
ticularly useful chronology on page 95. As the ALT- 15.9.7 2006
J editor Jane Seale notes, the purpose of the review
is to make sense of the current position in which the The Virtual Learning Environment SCOLAS-
eld nds itself, and to highlight lessons that can be TANCE is now available in its English version VLE
learned from the implementation of previous poli- Scolastance
cies.
17 January 2006: Blackboard is granted US
July 2005: Dorian James Rutter nishes a long- 6988138 relating to Internet-based education sup-
awaited PhD thesis From Diversity to Convergence: port systems claiming priority from its provisional
British Computer Networks and the Internet, 1970- patent application of 30 June 1999 (among oth-
1995 (prelims+464 pages). This covers in particu- ers). The claims require that a series of educational
lar the early history of viewdata and online services courses stored on a server be accessible by dier-
with a whole chapter on Prestel. (http://eprints.dcs. ent users from dierent computers. Users can ac-
warwick.ac.uk/1692) cess multiple courses and can have dierent access
privileges for les relating to each course based on
July 2005: The European Foundation for Quality in course-specic roles of student, instructor, and/or
eLearning is launched, initially funded by the EU administrator.
Triangle project.[140]
14 February 2006: Indiana University awarded
September 2005: The Higher Education Academy the service mark Oncourse from the United
announced the UK Higher Education e-Learning States Patent and Trademark Oce (Reg. No.
Benchmarking Exercise and Pathnder Programme 3,058,558). FOR: EDUCATIONAL SERVICES,
during a joint Academy/Jisc session at ALT-C 2005. NAMELY, PROVIDING AN ONLINE COURSE
The initial announcement was followed by a call MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR TEACHERS
to the sector for Expressions of Interest to partic- AND STUDENTS, IN CLASS 41 (U.S. CLS. 100,
ipate in the e-learning benchmarking exercise (e- 101, AND 107). FIRST USE: 1-3-1998; IN COM-
benchmarking). A consultative Town Meeting was MERCE 1-3-1998.
also held at the Academy, York in November 2005.
(The pilot phase of the e-Learning Benchmarking 28 February 2006: Merger of WebCT into the
Exercise commenced in January 2006.) Blackboard company. Both WebCT and Black-
board VLEs continue to exist as separate software.
October 13, 2005: Blackboard les patent (See press release)
#7,493,396, requiring that a single user be allowed
to have multiple roles, and that the list of course 26 July 2006: Blackboard les a complaint for
links provided after login vary depending on the patent infringement against Desire2Learn under its
users role for each course. US patent. Blackboard tells the Chronicle of Higher
Ed. that it will not go after Moodle and Sakai.
O'Reilly Mediapurchases Useractive, inc. and starts
O'Reilly Learning (which eventually become The August: WBTSystems, which has been an inde-
O'Reilly School of Technology), which creates on- pendent VLE developer in Ireland since 1994, is
line learning courses in programming and system acquired by
106 CHAPTER 15. HISTORY OF VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

October: OLAT 5.0 has been released which brings with Stellar as its course management system and
a comprehensive full text search service to the sys- Microsoft SharePoint to manage administrative
tems core. The addition of a calendar and wiki com- content.[144] At the 2007 MIT Sloan Talent Show,
ponent stresses the emphasis of a collaborative envi- an MBA student protests SloanSpace with a song ti-
ronment. AJAX and web 2.0 technologies are con- tled I Can't Find It In SloanSpace to the tune of
trollable by users. Garth Brooks Friends in Low Places.

On August 9, 2006, a complaint was led against September: xTrain LLP.[145] launches rst of its
Blackboard by Portaschool of Atlanta, GA in the kind, (ODT) On Demand Training on the Inter-
United States District Court of the Northern Dis- net. Users have access to high quality video training
trict of Georgia for deceptive business practices, and with social network communities, leading experts
knowingly and willingly misrepresenting themselves and portfolio reviews and certications.
in a patent application.
September: Epignosis[146] releases its web2.0 virtual
learning environment (eFront) as Open-Source soft-
15.9.8 2007 ware.
On January 7, Microsoft released the Sharepoint October 18: Controlearning s.a. and ocitel s.a.
Learning Kit. The software is SCORM 2004 certi- designed and developed Campus VirtualOnline,
ed and is used in conjunction with Microsoft Oce (CVO), a platform where mixed e-learning content,
Sharepoint Server to provide LMS functionality. e-books, e-money, e-docs, e-talents is found in a sin-
gle place.
On January 25, it was announced that the Software
Freedom Law Center was successful in its request
that the United States Patent and Trademark Oce
re-examine the e-learning patent owned by Black- 15.9.9 2010
board Inc. The request was led in November
2006 on the behalf of Sakai, Moodle, and ATutor. January 18, 2010: Public release of Chamilo open-
The Patent Oce found that prior art cited in source VLE, which is a fork of Dokeos.[147]
SFLCs request raises a substantial new question
September 28, 2010: Public major release of OLAT
of patentability regarding all 44 claims of Black-
7. New features are the implementation of impor-
boards patent. Groklaw, a website that tracks le-
tant standards like REST API, IMS Global Basic
gal issues generally related to Open Source software,
LTI, IMS QTI 2.1[148]
has the press release: Groklaw.org

February 1, Blackboard announced via press release Large LMS providers start to dive into the talent
The Blackboard Patent Pledge. In this pledge management systems market, possibly starting a
to the open source and do-it-yourself course man- global tendency to do more with the information
agement community, the company vows to for- about LMS users
ever refrain from asserting its patent rights against
open-source developers, except where it is deemed September 2010: SumTotal acquires
necessary.[142] Softscape
September 2010: Taleo acquires Learn.com
February: Technological Fluency Institute releases
a Windows XP version of its online prescriptive di-
agnostic performance based CAT1 program. 15.9.10 2011
March 7: The OLAT team releases OLAT 5.1
which has an emphasis on consolidation of features Comcept Pvt Ltd Releases Teletaleem a Live Class-
and bugxing. Besides this a new glossary function room service
has been added and accessibility has been improved.

July: Michigan Virtual University launches a learn-

ing management system from Meridian Knowledge
15.10 See also
Solutions to deliver training to 150,000 Michigan
public-school teachers and administrators and foster E-Learning
collaboration among these learners via online col-
laboration spaces.[143] History of automated adaptive instruction in com-
puter applications
August: The MIT Sloan School of Manage-
ment replaces ACES (internally named SloanSpace) History of personal learning environments
15.11. REFERENCES 107

15.11 References [19] Ad for the MINMAX Machine. The Milwaukee Jour-
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[121] Dr. Ian reid. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 15.12 Further reading
[122] Internet Archive Arsdigita.com
Online Learning History from moodle.org
[123] Networked Learning Environment THE BLACK-
BOARD LEARNING SYSTEM and Blackboard His- Course Management System comparison from Edu-
tory. Retrieved 18 July 2012. Tools.info
[124] Sener, J. (2001). education: Learning Eectiveness, Fac- Visual history of company consolidation in the LMS
ulty Satisfaction, and Cost Eectiveness. Needham, MA. space
pp. 730.
Jensen, Bob, History and Future of Course Author-
[125] Angel Learning. Retrieved 18 July 2012. ing Technologies, Trinity University
[126] The LearningOnline Network with CAPA Initiative. trinity.edu U.S. and International training and edu-
Retrieved 18 July 2012. cation alternatives
[127] History Ilias Open Source. Retrieved 18 July 2012. trinity.edu Bob Jensens Other History and Learning
Technology Documents and Links
[128] Evaluation Report. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
A Personal History of CMC (Computer Conferenc-
[129] Releases. Retrieved 18 July 2012. ing) from 1972 to 1998 by Jacob Palme
[130] The Development of the OpenACS. Retrieved 18 July The evolution of an LMS: Cecil fteen years on
2012.
Chapter 16

Moodle

Moodle is a highly exible, free software, open source Glossary, list of denitions [14]
learning platform.[3][4] With comprehensive, customiz-
able and secure learning management features, it can Survey, for gathering data from students[15]
be used to create a private website for dynamic online
courses. Moodle (acronym for modular object-oriented
Online quiz[16]
dynamic learning environment), (stylized in lower-case as
moodle) is a also known as a learning management sys-
tem, or virtual learning environment. The platform can Wiki module[17]
be used for e-learning projects in University, Corporate
training, School and Other sectors. Gamication[18]
Moodle was originally developed by Martin Dougiamas
to help educators create online courses with a focus on
interaction and collaborative construction of content, and 16.1.2 Plugins
is in continual evolution. The rst version of Moodle
was released on 20 August 2002. Nowadays Moodle is Plugins are a exible tool set, allowing Moodle users to
built by the Moodle project which is led and coordinated extend the features of the site. There are hundreds of
by Moodle HQ, an Australian company of 30 developers plugins for Moodle, extending the features of Moodles
which is nancially supported by a network of 60 Moodle core functionality. Each plugin is maintained in the Moo-
Partner service companies worldwide. dle plugins directory.[19] Moodles infrastructure supports
many types of plug-ins. Many freely available third-
party Moodle plugins make use of this infrastructure.[20]
16.1 Overview Moodle users can use PHP to write and contribute new
modules. Moodles development has been assisted by
the work of open source programmers.[21] This has con-
Moodle is a learning platform that enhances the existing
tributed towards its rapid development and rapid bug
learning environment.[5] As an E-learning tool, Moodle
xes. By default Moodle includes the TCPDF library that
has a wide range of standard and innovative features such
allows the generation of PDF documents from pages.
as calendar and Gradebook. Moodle is a leading Virtual
learning environment [6] and can be used in many types
of environments such as education, training and develop-
ment and business settings.[7][8] 16.1.3 Themes

Graphical themes for Moodle can be installed to change

16.1.1 Activities the look and functionality of a Moodle site or individual
course. Many Moodle themes are available directly from
These are groups of features within Moodle, usually com- Moodle downloads site,[22] ranging from BigBlueButton
pleted by a student to interact with other students, or with to Attendance.
the teacher.[9]

Assignment submission[10] 16.1.4 Translations

Forum for discussion [11]
Moodle has been translated in over 100 languages, avail-
Chat for instant messages [12] able for any site administrator to install.[23] Each language
pack is maintained and contributed by people all over the
Database as a bank of record entries [13] globe.[24]

111
112 CHAPTER 16. MOODLE

16.1.5 Mobile supported. Pre-built combinations of Moodle with a Web

server and database are available for Microsoft Windows
Many Moodle themes are based on Responsive web de- and Macintosh. Other automated installation approaches
sign and allow Moodle to be used easily on Mobile de- exist, such as installing a Debian package, deploying a
vices. A Moodle Mobile app is available in Google ready-to-use TurnKey Moodle appliance,[33] using the
Play,[25] App Store (iOS),[26] and the Windows Phone Bitnami installer, or using a one-click install service
Store [27] such as Installatron.[34]
Some free Moodle hosting providers allow educators to
create Moodle-based online classes without installation
16.2 Elearning standards compli- or server knowledge. Certied Moodle Partners[35] pro-
ance vide other Moodle services, including hosting, training,
customization and content development. This network
of providers support development of the Moodle project
Moodle has adopted a number of elearning standards.
through royalties.[36]
Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is
a collection of elearning standards and specications that
dene communications between client side content and 16.4 Interoperability
a server side learning management system, as well as
how externally authored content should be packaged in
Moodle runs without modication on Unix, Linux,
order to integrate with the LMS eectively. There are
FreeBSD, Windows, Mac OS X, NetWare and any other
two versions: SCORM 1.2 and SCORM 2004. Moo-
systems that support PHP and a database, including most
dle is SCORM 1.2 compliant, and passes all the tests in
webhost providers.
the ADL Conformance test suite 1.2.7 for SCORM 1.2.
SCORM 2004 is not supported in Moodle, however Rus- Data goes in a single database. Moodle version 1.6
tici Software have a Moodle plugin which can turn any could use MySQL or PostgreSQL. Version 1.7, released
Moodle site into a fully compliant SCORM 2004 LMS. November 2006, makes full use of database abstrac-
[28] tion so that installers can choose one from many types
of database servers such as Oracle and Microsoft SQL
The AICC HACP standard for CMI was developed by the
Server.
Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee
(AICC) and is used to call externally authored content Electronic e-learning systems can have many dimensions
and assessment packages. AICC content packages are of interoperability. Moodles interoperability features in-
supported in Moodle 2.1 and later versions. clude:
Experience API, also known as xAPI and previously re-
authentication, using LDAP, Shibboleth, or various
ferred to as Tin Can API, was nalised in 2014 as a suc-
other standard methods (e.g. IMAP)
cessor to SCORM. Moodle is an early adopter of the
xAPI standard via community-built plugins for launch- enrollment, using IMS Enterprise among other stan-
ing xAPI activities from a Moodle course [29] and export- dard methods, or by direct interaction with an exter-
ing quiz results as xAPI statements. There is an ongoing nal database
community discussion about whether xAPI compliance
should be built into Moodle core. quizzes and quiz questions, allowing import/export
in a number of formats: GIFT (moodles own for-
IMS Content Packages can also be imported into Moodle. mat), IMS QTI, XML and XHTML (NB although
In addition, Moodle Book activities can be exported as export works very well, import is currently not com-
IMS Content Packages. [30] plete). Moodle provides various types of questions:
Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI) is a standard way calculated, description, essay, matching, embedded
of integrating rich learning applications (often remotely answers, multiple choice, short answer, numerical,
hosted and provided through third-party services) with random short answer matching, true/false.
educational platforms. Moodle uses the External Tool ac- resources, using IMS Content Packaging, SCORM,
tivity to act as an 'LTI consumer' as standard, and will act AICC (CBT), LAMS
as an 'LTI provider' using a plugin. [31]
integration with other Content Management Sys-
tems such as Drupal, Joomla or Postnuke (via third-
16.3 Deployment party extensions)
syndication, using RSS or Atom newsfeeds; external
Users can download[32] and install Moodle on a Web newsfeeds can be displayed in a course, and forums,
server, such as Apache HTTP Server, and a number of blogs, and other features can be made available to
database management systems, such as PostgreSQL, are others as newsfeeds.
16.6. MOODLE STATISTICS AND MARKET SHARE 113

Moodle also has import features for use with other spe- vertise any Moodle-related services such as hosting, cus-
cic systems, such as importing quizzes or entire courses tomization, training and so on.
from Blackboard or WebCT. However, these import tools
are not perfect. As of February 2010, Moodle will not
import Blackboard courses, apparently due to changes in 16.6 Moodle statistics and market
php code-releases. Some available utilities help convert
Blackboard courses to a Moodle-friendly format.[37] share
In March 2012 Blackboard acquired two compa-
By 31 August 2011:
nies based on Moodles software including Baltimore-
based Moodlerooms Inc. and NetSpot of Adelaide,
Moodle had a user-base of 55,110 registered sites
Australia.[38] The Red Hat site, Opensource.com, reports
with 44,966,541 users in 4,763,446 courses in 214
that Moodle will always be an open source project, with
[39] countries and in more than 75 languages.[47]
clear delineation between Blackboard and Moodle
The site with the most users, moodle.org, has 66
courses and 1,090,234 users. Following a 5 million
investment in 2005, The Open University, UK is the
16.5 Background second-largest Moodle deployment by user-base,
with 714,310 users and 6,093 courses. A compre-
16.5.1 Origins hensive list of the top ten Moodle sites (by courses
and by users) is maintained at moodle.org.[48]
Martin Dougiamas, who has graduate degrees in
computer science and education, wrote the rst version By 31 August 2014:
of Moodle. Dougiamas started a Ph.D. to examine the
use of open source software to support a social con- Moodle had a user-base of 88,070 registered sites
structionist epistemology of teaching and learning within with 76,675,352 users in 8,324,096 courses in 241
Internet-based communities of reective inquiry. Al- countries.[47]
though how exactly social constructionism makes Moo-
dle dierent from other eLearning platforms is dicult You can nd the updated statistics at: https://moodle.net/
to show, it has been cited as an important factor by Moo- stats/
dle adopters.[40][41] Other Moodle adopters, such as the
Open University in the UK, have pointed out that Learn-
ing Management Systems can equally be seen as rela- 16.7 Development
tively pedagogy-neutral.[42]
Moodle has continued to evolve since 1999 (since 2001
with the current architecture). Major improvements in
16.5.2 Pedagogical approach accessibility and display exibility were developed in 1.5.
The current version can be seen at the top of the table of
The stated philosophy of Moodle[43] includes a releases, below. It has been translated into 82 dierent
constructivist and social constructionist approach to languages and is accessible in many countries worldwide.
education, emphasizing that learners (and not just
Not having to pay license fees or to limit growth, an in-
teachers) can contribute to the educational experience.
stitution can add as many Moodle servers as needed. The
Using these pedagogical principles, Moodle provides a
Open University of the UK currently uses a Moodle in-
exible environment for learning communities.[44]
stallation for their 200,000 users [49] while the UK gov-
ernment uses a Moodle installation for their Civil Service
Learning platform serving half a million employees.
16.5.3 Origin of name
It is often known for individual departments of institu-
The acronym Moodle stands for modular object-oriented tions to use the unlimited feature, such as the maths de-
dynamic learning environment. (In the early years the m partment of the University of York.
stood for Martins, named after Martin Dougiamas, the The development of Moodle continues as a free software
original developer). As well as being an acronym, the project supported by a team of programmers and an in-
name was chosen because of the dictionary denition ternational user community, drawing upon contributions
of Moodle[45] and to correspond to an available domain posted to the online Moodle Community website that en-
name.[46] courages debate and invites criticism.
Moodle is a trademark in many countries around the Users can freely distribute and modify the software under
world registered to Martin Dougiamas. Only certied the terms of the GNU General Public License version 3
Moodle Partners may legally use the trademark to ad- or any later version.[2]
114 CHAPTER 16. MOODLE

Because Moodle is an open source software, it can be cus- 16.12 References

tomized to t the needs of e-learning projects for Univer-
sity, Corporate training, School and Other sectors. [1] Releases. Moodle. Retrieved 16 June 2014.

[2] Moodle License.

16.8 Services Providers [3] TFD Encyclopedia - Moodle.

[4] The Encyclopedia of Distance Learning, Vol1.

There are many vendors that oers Moodle services.
[5] Technology that puts the classroom in students laptops.
A complete list of Moodle Certied Service Providers
Adam Stanley, The Globle and Mail.
(Moodle Partners) can be found at http://www.moodle.
com. [6] 2014 Survey of Technology Enhanced Learning for higer
education in the UK. UCISA Richard Walker, Julie
Voce, Joe Nicholls, Elaine Swift, Jebar Ahmed, Sarah
Horrigan and Phil Vincent.
16.8.1 Releases
[7] E-learning. http://www.cpce-polyu.edu.hk/itu/new/:
Information Technology Unit (itu). Retrieved 2011-03-
16.9 Certication 01. Moodle is a well-known e-learning platform in tertiary
institutions. Many universities and colleges use Moodle
Since 2006 there has been an ocial certication avail- as the online learning system in their daily teaching and
able for teachers using Moodle. Initially called the Moo- learning. Moodle is a free open source software it means
dle Teacher Certicate (MTC), this was renamed in developer can make modication based on their needs.
2008 to the Moodle Course Creator Certicate (MCCC). CPCE decides to use Moodle as a e-learning platform
for HKCC and SPEED from 2009/10 academic year on-
MCCC is available only through Moodle Partners, and
wards.
through Central Certication Services. Discussion is on-
going regarding an ocial Moodle Administrators Cer- [8] E-Learning Features. http://www.cpce-polyu.edu.hk/
ticate. itu/new/: Information Technology Unit (itu). Retrieved
2011-03-01. Moodle serves as an online e-learning plat-
form to facilitate the communications between teachers
and students. Some typical features provided by Moodle
16.10 Moodle conferences are listed below.

[9] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities.

A MoodleMoot is a conference for Moodle community
member, held to learn about Moodle, share experiences [10] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Assignment
of the learning platform, discuss research in related edu- module.
cational technologies and contribute ideas to future Moo- [11] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Assignment
dle development.[51] Held around the world, Moodle- module.
Moots are organised by a university, Moodle Partner,
Moodle associations and Moodle HQ.[52] [12] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Assignment
module.
Moodle Calendar[53] has announcements of Moodle-
Moots. [13] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Database mod-
ule.

[14] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Glossary mod-

16.11 See also ule.

[15] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Survey mod-

Educational technology ule.

[16] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Quiz module.

Student Information System
[17] Managing a Moodle Course - Activities - Quiz module.
Learning management system
[18] How to Gamify Moodle in 20 Minutes. Frederic Nev-
ers.
List of applications with iCalendar support
[19] Moodle Plugins.
Online learning community
[20] Modules and Plugins. Moodle.org.

List of free and open-source software packages [21] About Moodle. Moodle.org Documentation.
16.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 115

[22] Moodle Themes. 16.13 External links

[23] Moodle Translations.
16.13.1 Moodle
[24] Language pack maintainers and contributors.

[25] Moodle Mobile app on Google Play. Ocial website

[26] Moodle Mobile app on iTunes App Store. Moodle chapter in The Architecture of Open Source
Applications
[27] Moodle Mobile app on Windows Phone Store.

[28] SCORM Cloud Moodle Integration. scorm.com.

16.13.2 Other
[29] Launch externally Tin Can API activities from Moodle
and track on any LRS.. Andrew Downes on Moodle.org Moodle news
Forums.
Free learning/teaching moodle community -
[30] Using Book. MoodleSocial
[31] External Tool. Moodle on WikEd
[32] Moodle Downloads. Moodle. Ocial teacher certication - the Moodle
[33] Moodle Appliance. TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Free Course for teachers about Moodle - Spanish
Library.
Free course content available for download on
[34] http://www.installatron.com/moodle
MoodleShare
[35] List of Moodle Partners. Moodle.

[36] How do the Moodle Partners work?". Moodle.

[37] Blackboard migration. moodle.org.

[38] Blackboard makes Moodle acquisitions. bizjour-

nals.com.

[39] Moodle will always be an open source project. open-

source.com.

[40] Weller, M. (2006). VLE 2.0 and future directions in

learning environments. Proceedings of the rst LAMS
Conference, Sydney.

[41] McMulli & Munroe (2004). VMoodle at DCU.

[42] Sclater, Neil (2008). A Large-scale Open Source

eLearning Systems at the Open University. Educase.

[43] Moodle Philosophy

[44] Open-Source Learning Management System. Moodle-

rooms.

[45] Moodle denition. All Words.

[46] The chicken or the egg. Moodle.org Lounge.

[47] Current Moodle Statistics

[48] Moodle Statistics

[49] Case study in Linux Pro magazine

[50] Marsden, Dan (2 April 2012). Moodle 1.9 Long Term

support. Moodle. Retrieved 27 May 2013.

[51] MoodleMoot at moodle.org

[52] MoodleMoot hosted by Moodle HQ.

[53] The Conference Center at moodle.org

Chapter 17

Blackboard Learning System

The Blackboard Learning System is a virtual learning Discussions: This feature allows students and pro-
environment and course management system developed fessors to create a discussion thread and reply to ones
by Blackboard Inc. It is a Web-based server software already created.
which features course management, customizable open
architecture, and scalable design that allows integration Mail: Blackboard mail allows students and teachers
with student information systems and authentication pro- to send mail to one another. This feature supports
tocols. It may be installed on local servers or hosted by mass emailing to students in a course.
Blackboard ASP Solutions. Its main purposes are to add
online elements to courses traditionally delivered face-to- Content
face and to develop completely online courses with few or
no face-to-face meetings. Course content: This feature allows teachers to post
articles, assignments, videos etc.

17.1 History Calendar: Teachers can use this function to post due
dates for assignments and tests.
On Jan 21 1997, Stephen Gilfus and Dan Cane started Learning modules: This feature is often used for
a company called CourseInfo LLC and were develop- strictly online classes. It allows professors to post
ing a software product that would power online educa- dierent lessons for students to access.
tion and be scalable for wider institutional application.[1]
At the same time, Matthew Pittinsky and Michael Chasen Assessments: This tab allows teachers to post
formed Blackboard LLC and were contracted to help lead quizzes and exams and allows students to access
the formation of the Educause IMS standards group for them via the internet
online education technology. The two groups merged to
Assignments: This features allows assignments to be
form Blackboard Inc., which then developed the Black-
posted and students to submit assignments online
board Learning System.[2]
On October 17, 2012 Michael Chasen, CEO and co- Grade Book: Teachers and professors may post
founder of Blackboard, announced that he was leaving grades on Blackboard for students to view.
the company he founded 15 years earlier.[3]
Media Library: Videos and other media may be
posted under this function.[4]

17.2 Functions
17.3 Criticism
The Blackboard Learning System provides users with a
platform for communication and sharing content.
See also: Blackboard_Inc. Blackboard_legal_issues
Communication
Blackboard Inc has had several legal issues, including
Announcements: Professors and teachers may post
faulty patent rights claims.[5] In addition, a number of
announcements for students to read. These can be
educational institutions,[6][7][8] teachers,[9][10][11][12] and
found under the announcement tab, or can be made
students[13][14][15][16][17] have expressed concerns about
to pop-up when a student accesses Blackboard.
the reliability of Blackboard. McMaster University in
Chat: This function allows those students who are Hamilton, Ontario, Canada has replaced their Black-
online to chat in real time with other students in their board system after multiple problems during one year of
class section. use.[18] Citing numerous glitches and high costs, many

116
17.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 117

universities are turning to the cheaper, open source alter- [13] Glitches in new Blackboard system a hassle
native Moodle, including Montana State University,[19]
[14] The 'Ocial' I Hate Blackboard Group
Vassar College,[20] California State University, Long
Beach,[21] and many other schools.[22] Rensselaer Poly- [15] Blackboard 9: Enough is Enough
technic Institute's implementation of the system notably
suered sporadic outages in the Grade Book section dur- [16] "'Ocial' I Freaking Hate Blackboard thread
ing the nals of the Fall 2014 semester. [23] [17] Holmes, Pat (September 19, 2010). Cost-cutting Black-
Stephanie J. Coopman has published an in-depth analysis board update 'hilariously bad' for some users. The Post,
of the pros and cons of the Blackboard system. She nds Baker University Center. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
the hierarchical power structure implicit to the system [18] McMaster University Daily News A new learning man-
to be troubling.[24] The system has also been criticized for agement system
having poor Linux compatibility and support.[25]
[19] Rabil, Lily. Blackboard no match for Moodle. Montana
Kaimin. Retrieved 19 September 2010.

17.4 Product development and [20] Vassar to switch from Blackboard to Moodle. April 22,
2009. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
competition
[21] BlackBoard to be replaced by new system. Daily 49er.
The Blackboard Learning System has undergone several September 13, 2010. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
iterations, and new uses have arisen as some educational [22] Trotter, Andrew (June 13, 2008). Blackboard vs. Moo-
institutions move from augmentation of traditional class- dle: Competition in course-management market grows.
room learning to supporting full online and virtual cam- Education Week. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
pus education.
[23] RPILMS Service restored. RPI DotCIO. December 11,
From the late 2000s, the product has also faced compe- 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
tition from free and/or open source competitors such as
Edvelop[26] or Moodle.[27] [24] "A critical examination of Blackboards elearning envi-
ronment" by Stephanie J. Coopman. First Monday, Vol-
ume 14, Number 61 June 2009

17.5 See also [25] Blackboard - No Linux for Online Education. Thoughts
on Technology (blog). Retrieved 19 September 2010.
CourseInfo LLC - the precursor to Blackboard Inc. [26] http://www.microsoft.com/casestudies/
ServeFileResource.aspx?4000035549

[27] Trotter, Andrew (June 13, 2008). Blackboard vs. Moo-

17.6 References dle: Competition in course-management market grows.
Education Week. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
[1] , The Blackboard Learning System.

[2] The Blackboard Learning System.

17.7 External links
[3] Blackboard founder and CEO resigns - What it means for
the LMS industry. Zdnet. 2012-10-17. Ocial website
[4] THE BLACKBOARD LEARNING SYSTEM. The
Journal of Educational Technology Systems. 2007.

[5] Blackboard: Bully or Misunderstood?". Inside Higher

Ed. August 18, 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2010.

[6] Florida State University Blackboard Blackout

[7] CUNY Blackboard Blackout

[8] Blackboard catastrophic system crash in Utah

[9] Great Blackboard Crash of 2009

[10] Protesting Blackboard 8.0

[11] WTF University Meets Blackboard

[12] Oh, Blackboard, Wherefore Do I Hate Thee?"

Chapter 18

Learning object

A learning object is a collection of content items, prac- British inter-university Learning Objects Center, denes
tice items, and assessment items that are combined based reusable learning objects as web-based interactive
on a single learning objective.[1] The term is credited chunks of e-learning designed to explain a stand-alone
to Wayne Hodgins when he created a working group learning objective.[7] Daniel Rehak and Robin Mason
in 1994 bearing the name[2] though the concept was dene it as a digitized entity which can be used, reused
rst described by Gerard in 1967.[3] Learning objects or referenced during technology supported learning.[8]
go by many names, including content objects, chunks,
Adapting a denition from the Wisconsin Online Re-
educational objects, information objects, intelligent ob- source Center, Robert J. Beck suggests that learning ob-
jects, knowledge bits, knowledge objects, learning com-
jects have the following key characteristics:
ponents, media objects, reusable curriculum components,
nuggets, reusable information objects, reusable learn-
ing objects, testable reusable units of cognition, training Learning objects are a new way of thinking about
components, and units of learning. learning content. Traditionally, content comes in
a several hour chunk. Learning objects are much
Learning objects oer a new conceptualization of the smaller units of learning, typically ranging from 2
learning process: rather than the traditional several hour minutes to 15 minutes.
chunk, they provide smaller, self-contained, re-usable
units of learning.[4] Are self-contained each learning object can be
They will typically have a number of dierent compo- taken independently
nents, which range from descriptive data to information
Are reusable a single learning object may be used
about rights and educational level. At their core, however,
in multiple contexts for multiple purposes
will be instructional content, practice, and assessment. A
key issue is the use of metadata. Can be aggregated learning objects can be grouped
Learning object design raises issues of portability, and of into larger collections of content, including tradi-
the objects relation to a broader learning management tional course structures
system.
Are tagged with metadata every learning object
has descriptive information allowing it to be easily
found by a search[4]
18.1 Denitions
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 18.2 Components
(IEEE) denes a learning object as any entity, digital or
non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or The following is a list of some of the types of information
training.[5] that may be included in a learning object and its metadata:
Chiappe dened Learning Objects as: A digital self-
contained and reusable entity, with a clear educational General Course Descriptive Data, including: course
purpose, with at least three internal and editable compo- identiers, language of content (English, Spanish,
nents: content, learning activities and elements of con- etc.), subject area (Maths, Reading, etc.), descrip-
text. The learning objects must have an external struc- tive text, descriptive keywords
ture of information to facilitate their identication, stor-
age and retrieval: the metadata.[6] Life Cycle, including: version, status

The following denitions focus on the relation be- Instructional Content, including: text, web pages,
tween learning object and digital media. RLO-CETL, a images, sound, video

118
18.5. PORTABILITY 119

Glossary of Terms, including: terms, denition, 18.5 Portability

acronyms
Before any institution invests a great deal of time and en-
Quizzes and Assessments, including: questions, an-
ergy into building high-quality e-learning content (which
swers
can cost over $10,000 per classroom hour),[11] it needs
Rights, including: cost, copyrights, restrictions on to consider how this content can be easily loaded into a
Use Learning Management System. It is possible for exam-
ple, to package learning objects with SCORM specica-
Relationships to Other Courses, including prerequi- tion and load it in Moodle Learning Management System
site courses or Desire2Learn Learning Environment.
If all of the properties of a course can be precisely de-
Educational Level, including: grade level, age ned in a common format, the content can be serial-
range, typical learning time, and diculty. [IEEE ized into a standard format such as XML and loaded
1484.12.1:2002] into other systems. When it is considered that some
e-learning courses need to include video, mathemati-
Typology as dened by Churchill (2007): presenta-
cal equations using MathML, chemistry equations using
tion, practice, simulation, conceptual models, infor-
CML and other complex structures, the issues become
mation, and contextual representation [9]
very complex, especially if the systems needs to under-
stand and validate each structure and then place it cor-
rectly in a database.
18.3 Metadata
One of the key issues in using learning objects is their 18.6 Criticism
identication by search engines or content management
systems. This is usually facilitated by assigning descrip-
In 2001, David Wiley criticized learning object theory in
tive learning object metadata. Just as a book in a library
his paper, The Reusability Paradox which is summarized
has a record in the card catalog, learning objects must
by D'Arcy Norman as, If a learning object is useful in a
also be tagged with metadata. The most important pieces
particular context, by denition it is not reusable in a dif-
of metadata typically associated with a learning object
ferent context. If a learning object is reusable in many
include:
contexts, it isnt particularly useful in any. In Three Ob-
jections to Learning Objects and E-learning Standards,
1. objective: The educational objective the learning Norm Friesen, Canada Research Chair in E-Learning
object is instructing Practices at Thompson Rivers University, points out that
the word neutrality in itself implies a state or position that
2. prerequisites: The list of skills (typically repre- is antithetical ... to pedagogy and teaching.
sented as objectives) which the learner must know
before viewing the learning object

3. topic: Typically represented in a taxonomy, the 18.7 See also

topic the learning object is instructing
Intelligent tutoring system
4. interactivity: The Interaction Model of the learning
object. North Carolina Learning Object Repository
(NCLOR)
5. technology requirements: The required system re-
quirements to view the learning object. Serious games

18.4 Mutability 18.8 References

A mutated learning object is, according to Michael Shaw, [1] Cisco Systems, Reusable information object strategy
a learning object that has been re-purposed and/or re-
[2] Gerard, R.W. (1967), Shaping the mind: Computers in
engineered, changed or simply re-used in some way dif-
education, In N. A. Sciences, Applied Science and Tech-
ferent from its original intended design. Shaw also intro- nological Progress
duces the term contextual learning object, to describe
a learning object that has been designed to have specic [3] Polsani, P. (2003), Use and abuse of reusable learning
meaning and purpose to an intended learner.[10] objects,
120 CHAPTER 18. LEARNING OBJECT

[4] Beck, Robert J., What Are Learning Objects?", Learning Hunt, John P.; Bernard, Robert (2005), An XML-
Objects, Center for International Education, University of based information architecture for learning content,
Wisconsin-Milwaukee, retrieved 2008-04-29 IBM developerWorks,, retrieved 2005-08-05.
[5] Learning Technology Standards Committee 2002, p. 45 Churchill, D. (2007). Towards a useful classica-
[6] Chiappe, Segovia & Rincon 2007, p. 8. tion of learning objects. Educational Technology
Research & Development, 55(5), 479-497.
[7] Learning Objects, RLO-CETL: Reusable Learning Ob-
jects, retrieved 2008-04-29.
Innayah: Creating An Audio Script with Learning Object,
[8] Rehak & Mason 2003, p. ?? unpublished, 2013.
[9] Churchill, D. (2007). Towards a useful classication of
learning objects. Educational Technology Research & De-
velopment, 55(5), 479-497. 18.10 External links
[10] Shaw 2003
The Learning Objects at Milwaukees Center for In-
[11] Rumble, Greville. 2001. The Cost and Costing of Net- ternational Education.
worked Learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
Networks, Volume 5, Issue 2.

18.9 Further reading

Beck, Robert J. (2009), What Are Learning Ob-
jects?", Learning Objects, Center for International
Education, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,, re-
trieved 2009-10-23.
Learning Technology Standards Committee (2002),
Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata. IEEE
Standard 1484.12.1 (PDF), New York: Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, retrieved
2008-04-29.
Rehak, Daniel R.; Mason, Robin (2003), Engag-
ing with the Learning Object Economy, in Little-
john, Allison, Reusing Online Resources: A Sustain-
able Approach to E-Learning, London: Kogan Page,
pp. 2230, ISBN 978-0-7494-3949-1.
Shaw, Michael (October 2003), "(Contextual and
Mutated) Learning Objects in the Context of De-
sign, Learning and (Re)Use, Teaching and Learn-
ing with Technology, retrieved 2008-04-29
Laverde, Andrs Chiappe; Cifuentes, Yasb-
ley Segovia; Rodrguez, Helda Yadira Rincn
(2007), Toward an instructional design model
based on learning objects, in Boston, Springer,
Educational Technology Research and Develop-
ment 55 (6), Boston: Springer US, pp. 67181,
doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9059-0, ISSN 1042-
1629, (Print) ISSN 1556-6501 (Online), retrieved
2008-08-21

Spanish Draf: Blog de Andrs Chiappe - Objetos de

Aprendizaje.

Northrup, Pamela (2007), Learning Objects for In-

struction: Design and Evaluation (Book), USA: In-
formation Science Publishing.
Chapter 19

Learning object metadata

LOMv1.0 schema

class of objects to which LOM metadata might usefully

Resource
Description [0..*]: Langstring
0..1
be associated rather than to give an instructional or ped-
7. Relation
Kind [0..1]: State
0..* 0..*
9. Classication
Purpose [0..1]: State
Description [0..1]: Langstring

agogic denition of a learning object. IEEE 1484.12.1

0..* Keyword [0..*]: Langstring
8. Annotation
0..*
Entity [0..1]: CharacterString 0..*
TaxonPath Taxon
Date [0..1]: DateTime
Description [0..1]: Langstring Source [0..1]: Langstring Id [0..1]: CharacterString
Entry [0..1]: Langstring

0..1
is the rst part of a multipart standard, and describes the
0..1 0..1 0..* 0..1
1. General
Title [0..1]: Langstring
Language [0..*]: CharacterString
Description [0..*]: Langstring
LOM data model. The LOM data model species which
2. Lifecycle
Version [0..1]: Langstring
Status [0..1]: State
4. Technical
Format [0..*]: CharacterString
Size [0..1]: CharacterString
Location [0..*]: CharacterString
5. Educational
InteractivityType [0..1]: State
LearningResourceType [0..*]: State
InteractivityLevel [0..1]: Enumerated
Cost [0..1]: State
6. Rights

Copyright and other restrictions [0..1]: State

Description [0..1]: Langstring
Keyword [0..*]: Langstring InstallationRemarks [0..*]: Langstring SemanticDensity [0..1]: Enumerated
Coverage [0..*]: Langstring
Structure [1]: State
Aggregation Level [1]: Enumerated aspects of a learning object should be described and what
OtherPlatform Requirements [0..*]: Langstring
Duration [0..1]: Duration
IntendedEndUserRole [0..*]: State
Context [0..*]: State
TypicaIAgeRange [0..*]: Langstring
Diculty [0..1]: Enumerated
TypicalLearningTime [0..1]: Duration

vocabularies may be used for these descriptions; it also

0..* 0..* Description [0..*]: Langstring
3. Meta-Metadata Requirement Language [0..*]: CharacterString
MetadataSchema [0..1]: CharacterString

0..*
0..*
denes how this data model can be amended by addi-
0..* 0..*
Contribute
Type [0..1]: State
Name [0..1]: State
0..*
OrComposite

tions or constraints. Other parts of the standard are be-

Identier Role [0..1]: State MinimumVersion [0..1]: CharacterString
Catalog [0..1]: Langstring Entity [0..*]: CharacterString MaximumVersion [0..1]: CharacterString
Entry [0..1]: Langstring Date [0..1]: DateTime

ing drafted to dene bindings of the LOM data model,

A schematic representation of the hierarchy of elements in the i.e. dene how LOM records should be represented in
LOM data model XML and RDF (IEEE 1484.12.3 and IEEE 1484.12.4 re-
spectively). This article focuses on the LOM data model
Learning Object Metadata is a data model, usually en- rather than issues relating to XML or other bindings.
coded in XML, used to describe a learning object and
IMS Global Learning Consortium is an international con-
similar digital resources used to support learning. The
sortium that contributed to the drafting of the IEEE
purpose of learning object metadata is to support the
Learning Object Metadata (together with the ARIADNE
reusability of learning objects, to aid discoverability, and
Foundation) and endorsed early drafts of the data model
to facilitate their interoperability, usually in the context
as part of the IMS Learning Resource Meta-data speci-
of online learning management systems (LMS).
cation (IMS LRM, versions 1.0 1.2.2). Feedback and
The IEEE 1484.12.1 2002 Standard for Learning Ob- suggestions from the implementers of IMS LRM fed into
ject Metadata is an internationally recognised open stan- the further development of the LOM, resulting in some
dard (published by the Institute of Electrical and Elec- drift between version 1.2 of the IMS LRM specication
tronics Engineers Standards Association, New York) for and what was nally published at the LOM standard. Ver-
the description of learning objects. Relevant attributes sion 1.3 of the IMS LRM specication realigns the IMS
of learning objects to be described include: type of ob- LRM data model with the IEEE LOM data model and
ject; author; owner; terms of distribution; format; and species that the IEEE XML binding should be used.
pedagogical attributes, such as teaching or interaction Thus, we can now use the term 'LOM' in referring to both
style. the IEEE standard and version 1.3 of the IMS specica-
tion. The IMS LRM specication also provides an exten-
sive Best Practice and Implementation Guide, and an XSL
19.1 IEEE 1484.12.1 2002 Stan- transform that can be used to migrate metadata instances
from the older versions of the IMS LRM XML binding
dard for Learning Object to the IEEE LOM XML binding.
Metadata

19.1.1 In brief 19.2 Technical details

The IEEE working group that developed the standard de- 19.2.1 How the data model works
ned learning objects, for the purposes of the standard, as
being any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used The LOM comprises a hierarchy of elements. At the
for learning, education or training. This denition has rst level, there are nine categories, each of which con-
struck many commentators as being rather broad in its tains sub-elements; these sub-elements may be simple el-
scope, but the denition was intended to provide a broad ements that hold data, or may themselves be aggregate

121
122 CHAPTER 19. LEARNING OBJECT METADATA

elements, which contain further sub-elements. The se- 19.2.2 Requirements

mantics of an element are determined by its context: they
are aected by the parent or container element in the hi- The key requirements for exploiting the LOM as a data
erarchy and by other elements in the same container. For or service provider are to:
example, the various Description elements (1.4, 5.10, 6.3,
7.2.2, 8.3 and 9.3) each derive their context from their Understand user/community needs and to express
parent element. In addition, description element 9.3 also these as an application prole
takes its context from the value of element 9.1 Purpose in
the same instance of Classication. Have a strategy for creating high quality metadata
The data model species that some elements may be re- Store this metadata in a form which can be exported
peated either individually or as a group; for example, al- as LOM records
though the elements 9.2 (Description) and 9.1 (Purpose)
can only occur once within each instance of the Classi- Agree a binding for LOM instances when they are
cation container element, the Classication element may exchanged
be repeated - thus allowing many descriptions for dier- Be able to exchange records with other systems ei-
ent purposes. ther as single instances or en masse.
The data model also species the value space and
datatype for each of the simple data elements. The value
space denes the restrictions, if any, on the data that can 19.2.3 Related specications
be entered for that element. For many elements, the value
space allows any string of Unicode character to be en- There are many metadata specications; of particular in-
tered, whereas other elements entries must be drawn fromterest is the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (com-
monly known as Simple Dublin Core, standardised as
a declared list (i.e. a controlled vocabulary) or must be in
a specied format (e.g. date and language codes). Some ANSI/NISO Z39.85 2001), which provides a simpler,
element datatypes simply allow a string of characters tomore loosely-dened set of elements with some overlap
be entered, and others comprise two parts, as described with the LOM, and which is useful for sharing metadata
below: across a wide range of disparate services. The Dublin
Core Metadata Initiative is also working on a set of terms
which allow the Dublin Core Element Set to be used with
LangString items contain Language and String greater semantic precision (Qualied Dublin Core). The
parts, allowing the same information to be recorded Dublin Education Working Group aims to provide rene-
in multiple languages ments of Dublin Core for the specic needs of the edu-
cation community.
Many other education-related specications allow for LO
Vocabulary items are constrained in such a way that metadata to be embedded within XML instances, such
their entries have to be chosen from a controlled list as: describing the resources in an IMS Content Package
of terms - composed of Source-Value pairs - with or Resource List; describing the vocabularies and terms
the Source containing the name of the list of terms in an IMS VDEX (Vocabulary Denition and Exchange)
being used and the Value containing the chosen term le; and describing the question items in an IMS QTI
(Question and Test Interoperability) le.
DateTime and Duration items contain one part that The IMS Vocabulary Denition and Exchange (VDEX)
allows the date or duration to be given in a machine specication has a double relation with the LOM, since
readable format, and a second that allows a descrip- not only can the LOM provide metadata on the vocab-
tion of the date or duration (for example mid sum- ularies in a VDEX instance, but VDEX can be used to
mer, 1968). describe the controlled vocabularies which are the value
space for many LOM elements.
LOM records can be transported between systems using a
When implementing the LOM as a data or service variety of protocols, perhaps the most widely used being
provider, it is not necessary to support all the elements in OAI-PMH.
the data model, nor need the LOM data model limit the
information which may be provided. The creation of an
application prole allows a community of users to specify 19.2.4 Application proles
which elements and vocabularies they will use. Elements
from the LOM may be dropped and elements from other UK LOM Core
metadata schemas may be brought in; likewise, the vo-
cabularies in the LOM may be supplemented with values For UK Further and Higher Education, the most relevant
appropriate to that community. family of application proles are those based around the
19.3. SEE ALSO 123

UK LOM Core.[1] The UK LOM Core is currently a draft SWE-LOM

schema researched by a community of practitioners to
identify common UK practice in learning object content, SWE-LOM is the Swedish LOM prole that is managed
by comparing 12 metadata schemas. UK LOM is cur- by IML at Ume University as a part of the work with the
rently legacy work, it is not in active development. national standardization group TK450 at Swedish Stan-
dards Institute.

CanCore TWLOM

CanCore provides detailed guidance for the interpretation TWLOM is the Taiwanese LOM prole that is managed
and implementation of each data element in the LOM by Industrial Development and Promotion of Archives
standard.[2] These guidelines (2004) constitute a 250- and e-Learning Project
page document, and have been developed over three years
under the leadership of Norm Friesen, and through con-
sultation with experts across Canada and throughout the LOM-FR
world. These guidelines are also available at no charge
from the CanCore Website. LOM-FR is a metadata prole developed for the educa-
tion sector in France. This application prole was rst
published in 2006.
ANZ-LOM
NL LOM
ANZ-LOM is a metadata prole developed for the ed-
ucation sector in Australia and New Zealand. The pro- NL LOM is the Dutch metadata prole for educational
le provides interpretations of metadata structures and il- resources in the Netherlands. This application prole was
lustrates how to apply controlled vocabularies, especially the result of merging the Dutch higher education LOM
using the classication element. It is supported by de- prole with the one used in primary and secondary Dutch
tailed examples of learning resource metadata, including education. The nal version was released in 2011.
regional vocabularies. The ANZ-LOM prole was rst
published by The Le@rning Federation (TLF) in January,
2008. LOM-CH

LOM-CH is a metadata prole developed for the edu-

cation sector in Switzerland. It is currently available in
Vetadata French and German. This application prole was pub-
lished in July 2014.
The Australian Vocational Training and Education (VET)
sector uses an application prole of the IEEE LOM called
Vetadata. The prole contains ve mandatory elements, LOM-ES
and makes use of a number of vocabularies specic to the
Australian VET sector. This application prole was rst LOM-ES is a metadata prole developed for the educa-
published in 2005. The Vetadata and ANZ-LOM proles tion sector in Spain. It is available in Spanish.
are closely aligned.
Others

NORLOM Other application proles are those developed by the Cel-

ebrate project[3] and the metadata prole that is part of
NORLOM is the Norwegian LOM prole. The prole is the SCORM reference model.[4]
managed by NSSL (The Norwegian Secretariat for Stan-
dardization of Learning Technologies)
19.3 See also
ISRACore Application prole

ISRACORE is the Israeli LOM prole. The Israel Inter- Content package
net Association (ISOC-IL) and Inter University Compu- Dublin Core
tational Center (IUCC) have teamed up to manage and
establish an e-learning objects database. IMS Global
124 CHAPTER 19. LEARNING OBJECT METADATA

Learning object

Metadata
Metadata Standards

OAI-PMH
SCORM

XML
m:Learning Object Metadata

19.4 References
[1] http://zope.cetis.ac.uk/profiles/uklomcore/

[2] Norm Friesen et al. (2003-01-20). CanCore Guidelines:

Introduction. Athabasca University. Retrieved 2009-02-
23.

[3] European Schoolnet, CELEBRATE Application Prole

(2003).

[4] ADL, SCORM.

19.5 External links

cancore.athabascau.ca is a thorough element-by-
element guide to implementing the IEEE LOM.

www.imsglobal.org: IMS Global Learning Consor-

tium Learning resource meta-data specication.

ltsc.ieee.org: XML Binding Specication.

www.intrallect.com: A mapping between the IEEE
LOM and IMS Learning Resource Metadata
www.ontopia.net: Metadata? Thesauri? Tax-
onomies? Topic Maps! Making sense of it all, 2004.
Chapter 20

Intelligent tutoring system

An intelligent tutoring system (ITS) is a computer sys-

tem that aims to provide immediate and customized in-
struction or feedback to learners,[1] usually without in-
tervention from a human teacher. ITSs have the com-
mon goal of enabling learning in a meaningful and eec-
tive manner by using a variety of computing technolo-
gies. There are many examples of ITSs being used in
both formal education and professional settings in which
they have demonstrated their capabilities and limitations.
There is a close relationship between intelligent tutoring,
cognitive learning theories and design; and there is ongo-
ing research to improve the eectiveness of ITS. An ITS
aims to solve the problem of over-dependency of students
over teachers for quality education. It aims to provide ac-
cess to high quality education to each and every student,
thus reforming the entire education system.

20.1 History of ITS

20.1.1 Early mechanical systems

The possibility of intelligent machines have been dis-

cussed for centuries. Blaise Pascal created the rst calcu-
lating machine capable of mathematical functions in the Skinner teaching machine 08
17th century simply called Pascals Calculator. At this
time the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wil-
helm Leibniz envisioned machines capable of reasoning and early 20th centuries. Thorndike posited laws for
and applying rules of logic to settle disputes (Buchanan, maximizing learning. Thorndikes laws included the law
2006).[2] These early works contributed to the develop- of eect, the law of exercise, and the law of recency.
ment of the computer and future applications. Following later standards, Presseys teaching and testing
machine would not considered intelligent as it was me-
The concept of intelligent machines for instructional use chanically run and was based on one question and an-
date back as early as 1924, when Sidney Pressey of swer at a time,[5] but it set an early precedent for future
Ohio State University created a mechanical teaching ma- projects. By the 1950s and 1960s, new perspectives on
chine to instruct students without a human teacher.[3][4] learning were emerging. Burrhus Frederic B.F. Skin-
His machine resembled closely a typewriter with several ner at Harvard University did not agree with Thorndikes
keys and a window that provided the learner with ques- learning theory of connectionism or Presseys teaching
tions. The Pressey Machine allowed user input and pro- machine. Rather, Skinner was a behaviourist who be-
vided immediate feedback by recording their score on a lieved that learners should construct their answers and
counter.[5] not rely on recognition.[4] He too, constructed a teach-
Pressey himself was inuenced by Edward L. Thorndike, ing machine structured using an incremental mechanical
a learning theorist and educational psychologist at the system that would reward students for correct responses
Columbia University Teacher College of the late 19th to questions.[4]

125
126 CHAPTER 20. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM

20.1.2 Early electronic systems

In the period following the second world war, mechan-

ical binary systems gave way to binary based electronic
machines. These machines were considered intelligent
when compared to their mechanical counterparts as they
had the capacity to make logical decisions. However, the
study of dening and recognizing a machine intelligence
was still in its infancy.
Alan Turing, a mathematician, logician and computer
scientist, linked computing systems to thinking. One of
his most notable papers outlined a hypothetical test to
assess the intelligence of a machine which came to be
known as the Turing test. Essentially, the test would
have a person communicate with two other agents, a hu-
man and a computer asking questions to both recipients.
The computer passes the test if it can respond in such
a way that the human posing the questions cannot dif-
ferentiate between the other human and the computer.
The Turing test has been used in its essence for more
than two decades as a model for current ITS develop-
ment. The main ideal for ITS systems is to eectively
communicate.[5] As early as the 1950s programs were
emerging displaying intelligent features. Turings work as The PLATO V CAI terminal in 1981
well as later projects by researchers such as Allen Newell,
Cliord Shaw, and Herb Simon showed programs capa-
ble of creating logical proofs and theorems. Their pro-
gram, The Logic Theorist exhibited complex symbol ma- At the same time that CAI was gaining interest, Jaime
nipulation and even generation of new information with- Carbonell suggested that computers could act as a teacher
out direct human control and is considered by some to be rather than just a tool (Carbonell, 1970). A new perspec-
the rst AI program. Such breakthroughs would inspire tive would emerge that focused on the use of comput-
the new eld of Articial Intelligence ocially named in ers to intelligently coach students called Intelligent Com-
1956 by John McCarthy in 1956 at the Dartmouth Con- puter Assisted Instruction or Intelligent Tutoring Systems
ference.[2] This conference was the rst of its kind that (ITS). Where CAI used a behaviourist perspective on
was devoted to scientists and research in the eld of AI. learning based on Skinners theories (Dede & Swigger,
The latter part of the 1960s and 1970s saw many new 1988),[7] ITS drew from work in cognitive psychology,
CAI (Computer-Assisted instruction) projects that built computer science, and especially articial intelligence.[7]
on advances in computer science. The creation of the There was a shift in AI research at this time as sys-
ALGOL programming language in 1958 enabled many tems moved from the logic focus of the previous decade
schools and universities to begin developing Computer to knowledge based systemssystems could make in-
Assisted Instruction (CAI) programs. Major computer telligent decisions based on prior knowledge (Buchanan,
vendors and federal agencies in the US such as IBM, HP, 2006).[2] Such a program was created by Seymour Pa-
and the National Science Foundation funded the develop- pert and Ira Goldstein who created Dendral, a system
ment of these projects.[6] Early implementations in edu- that predicted possible chemical structures from existing
cation focused on programmed instruction (PI), a struc- data. Further work began to showcase analogical reason-
ture based on a computerized input - output system. Al- ing and language processing. These changes with a fo-
though many supported this form of instruction, there was cus on knowledge had big implications for how computers
limited evidence supporting its eectiveness.[5] The pro- could be used in instruction. The technical requirements
gramming language LOGO was created in 1967 by Wally of ITS, however, proved to be higher and more complex
Feurzeig and Seymour Papert as a language streamlined than CAI systems and ITS systems would nd limited suc-
for education. PLATO, an educational terminal featuring cess at this time.[6]
displays, animations, and touch controls that could store Towards the latter part of the 70s interest in CAI tech-
and deliver large amounts of course material, was devel- nologies began to wane.[6][8] Computers were still expen-
oped by Donald Bitzer in the University of Illinois in the sive and not as available as expected. Developers and
early 1970s. Along with these, many other CAI projects instructors were reacting negatively to the high cost of
were initiated in many countries including the US, the developing CAI programs, the inadequate provision for
UK, and Canada.[6] instructor training, and the lack of resources.[8]
20.2. STRUCTURE 127

20.1.3 Microcomputers and intelligent 20.1.4 Modern ITS

systems
After the implementation of initial ITS, more researchers
created a number of ITS for dierent students. In the
late 20th century, Intelligent Tutoring Tools (ITTs) was
developed by the Byzantium project, which involved six
universities. The ITTs were general purpose tutoring sys-
tem builders and many institutions had positive feedbacks
The microcomputer revolution in the late 1970s and early
while using them. (Kinshuk, 1996)[12] This builder, ITT,
80s helped to revive CAI development and jumpstart de-
would produce an Intelligent Tutoring Applet (ITA) for
velopment of ITS systems. Personal computers such as
dierent subject areas. Dierent teachers created the
the Apple 2, Commodore PET, and TRS-80 reduced
ITAs and built up a large inventory of knowledge that
the resources required to own computers and by 1981,
was accessible by others through the Internet. Once an
50% of US schools were using computers (Chambers &
ITS was created, teachers could copy it and modify it for
Sprecher, 1983).[6] Several CAI projects utilized the Ap-
future use. This system was ecient and exible. How-
ple 2 as a system to deliver CAI programs in high schools
ever, Kinshuk and Patel believed that the ITS was not de-
and universities including the British Columbia Project
signed from an educational point of view and was not de-
and California State University Project in 1981.[6]
veloped based on the actual needs of students and teach-
The early 80s would also see Intelligent Computer- ers. (Kinshuk and Patel, 1997).[13] Modern day ITS try
Assisted Instruction (ICAI) and ITS goals diverge from to replicate the role of a teacher, a teaching assistant and
their roots in CAI. As CAI became increasingly focused involves problem generation, intelligent automatic feed-
on deeper interactions with content created for a specic back generation with a high recall value.
area of interest, ITS sought to create systems that focused
There were three ITS projects that functioned based on
on knowledge of the task and the ability to generalize
conversational dialogue: AutoTutor, Atlas (Freedman,
that knowledge in non-specic ways (Larkin & Chabay,
1999),[14] and Why2. The idea behind these projects
1992).[7] The key goals set out for ITS were to be able to
was that since students learn best by constructing knowl-
teach a task as well as perform it, adapting dynamically to
edge themselves, the programs would begin with leading
its situation. In the transition from CAI to ICAI systems,
questions for the students and would give out answers as
the computer would have to distinguish not only between
a last resort. AutoTutors students focused on answer-
the correct and incorrect response but the type of incor-
ing questions about computer technology, Atlass students
rect response to adjust the type of instruction. Research
focused on solving quantitative problems, and Why2s
in Articial Intelligence and Cognitive Psychology fueled
students focused on explaining physical systems qualita-
the new principles of ITS. Psychologists considered how
tively. (Graesser, VanLehn, and others, 2001)[15] Other
a computer could solve problems and perform 'intelli-
similar tutoring systems such as Andes (Gertner, Conati,
gent' activities. An ITS programme would have to be
and VanLehn, 1998)[16] tend to provide hints and imme-
able to represent, store and retrieve knowledge and even
diate feedbacks for students when students have trouble
search its own database to derive its own new knowledge
answering the questions. They could guess their answers
to respond to learners questions. Basically, early speci-
and have correct answers without deep understanding of
cations for ITS or (ICAI) require it to diagnose errors
the concepts. Research was done with a small group of
and tailor remediation based on the diagnosis (Shute &
students using Atlas and Andes respectively. The results
Psotka, 1994, p. 9).[5] The idea of diagnosis and remedi-
showed that students using Atlas made signicant im-
ation is still in use today when programming ITS.
provements compared with students who used Andes.[17]
A key breakthrough in ITS research was the creation However, since the above systems require analysis of stu-
of LISPITS, a program that implemented ITS princi- dents dialogues, improvement is yet to be made so that
ples in a practical way and showed promising eects more complicated dialogues can be managed.
increasing student performance. LISPITS was devel-
The current architectures which dominate the eld are the
oped and researched in 1983 as an ITS system for teach-
AutoTutor, Cognitive Tutor, and the Generalized Intelli-
ing students the LISP programming language (Corbett
gent Framework for Tutoring
& Anderson, 1992).[9] LISPITS could identify mistakes
and provide constructive feedback to students while they
were performing the exercise. The system was found
to decrease the time required to complete the exercises
while improving student test scores (Corbett & Ander-
20.2 Structure
[9]
son, 1992). Other ITS systems beginning to develop
around this time include TUTOR created by Logica in Intelligent tutoring systems consist of four basic compo-
1984 as a general instructional tool[10] and PARNASSUS nents based on a general consensus amongst researchers
created in Carnegie Mellon University in 1989 for lan- (Nwana,1990;[18] Freedman, 2000;[19] Nkambou et al.,
guage instruction.[11] 2010[20] ):
128 CHAPTER 20. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM

1. The Domain model content; and knowledge needed for communicating in-
tent (Padayachee, 2002, p. 3).[23]
2. The Student model
Nkambou et al. (2010) make mention of Nwanas
3. The Tutoring model, and (1990)[18] review of dierent architectures underlining
4. The User interface model a strong link between architecture and paradigm (or phi-
losophy). Nwana (1990) declares, "[I]t is almost a rarity
to nd two ITSs based on the same architecture [which]
The domain model (also known as the cognitive model or
results from the experimental nature of the work in the
expert knowledge model) is built on ACT-R theory which
area (p. 258). He further explains that diering tutor-
tries to take into account all the possible steps required
ing philosophies emphasize dierent components of the
to solve a problem. More specically, this model con-
learning process (i.e., domain, student or tutor). The ar-
tains the concepts, rules, and problem-solving strategies
chitectural design of an ITS reects this emphasis, and
of the domain to be learned. It can fulll several roles:
this leads to a variety of architectures, none of which,
as a source of expert knowledge, a standard for evaluat-
individually, can support all tutoring strategies (Nwana,
ing the students performance or for detecting errors, etc.
1990, as cited in Nkambou et al., 2010). Moreover, ITS
(Nkambou et al., 2010, p. 4).[20]
projects may vary according to the relative level of intelli-
The student model can be thought of as an overlay on the gence of the components. As an example, a project high-
domain model. It is considered as the core component of lighting intelligence in the domain model may generate
an ITS paying special attention to students cognitive and solutions to complex and novel problems so that students
aective states and their evolution as the learning process can always have new problems to work on, but it might
advances. As the student works step-by-step through their only have simple methods for teaching those problems,
problem solving process the system engages in a process while a system that concentrates on multiple or novel ways
called model tracing. Anytime the student model deviates of teaching a particular topic might nd a less sophisti-
from the domain model the system identies, or ags, that cated representation of that content sucient.[19]
an error has occurred.
The tutor model accepts information from the domain and
student models and makes choices about tutoring strate-
gies and actions. At any point in the problem-solving pro-
20.3 Design and development
cess the learner may request guidance on what to do next, methods
relative to their current location in the model. In addition,
the system recognizes when the learner has deviated from Apart from the discrepancy amongst ITS architectures
the production rules of the model and provides timely each emphasizing dierent elements, the development of
feedback for the learner, resulting in a shorter period of an ITS is much the same as any instructional design pro-
time to reach prociency with the targeted skills.[21] The cess. Corbett et al. (1997) summarized ITS design and
tutor model may contain several hundred production rules development as consisting of four iterative stages: (1)
that can be said to exist in one of two states, learned or needs assessment, (2) cognitive task analysis, (3) initial
unlearned. Every time a student successfully applies a
tutor implementation and (4) evaluation.[24]
rule to a problem, the system updates a probability esti-
mate that the student has learned the rule. The system The rst stage known as needs assessment, is common
continues to drill students on exercises that require eec- to any instructional design process, especially software
tive application of a rule until the probability that the rule development. This involves a learner analysis, consul-
has been learned reaches at least 95% probability.[22] tation with subject matter experts and/or the instruc-
tor(s). This rst step is part of the development of the
Knowledge tracing tracks the learners progress from expert/knowledge and student domain. The goal is to
problem to problem and builds a prole of strengths and specify learning goals and to outline a general plan for the
weaknesses relative to the production rules. The cognitive curriculum; it is imperative not to computerize traditional
tutoring system developed by John Anderson at Carnegie concepts but develop a new curriculum structure by den-
Mellon University presents information from knowledge ing the task in general and understanding learners possi-
tracing as a skillometer, a visual graph of the learners suc- ble behaviours dealing with the task and to a lesser degree
cess in each of the monitored skills related to solving alge- the tutors behavior. In doing so, three crucial dimen-
bra problems. When a learner requests a hint, or an error sions need to be dealt with: (1) the probability a student
is agged, the knowledge tracing data and the skillometer is able to solve problems; (2) the time it takes to reach this
are updated in real-time. performance level and (3) the probability the student will
The user interface component integrates three types of actively use this knowledge in the future. Another impor-
information that are needed in carrying out a dialogue: tant aspect that requires analysis is cost eectiveness of
knowledge about patterns of interpretation (to understand the interface. Moreover, teachers and student entry char-
a speaker) and action (to generate utterances) within di- acteristics such as prior knowledge must be assessed since
alogues; domain knowledge needed for communicating both groups are going to be system users.[24]
20.4. USE IN PRACTICE 129

The second stage, cognitive task analysis, is a detailed ap- 20.4 Use in practice
proach to expert systems programming with the goal of
developing a valid computational model of the required All this is a substantial amount of work, even if authoring
problem solving knowledge. Chief methods for develop- tools have become available to ease the task.[27] This
ing a domain model include: (1) interviewing domain ex- means that building an ITS is an option only in situa-
perts, (2) conducting think aloud protocol studies with tions in which they, in spite of their relatively high de-
domain experts,(3) conducting think aloud studies with velopment costs, still reduce the overall costs through
novices and (4) observation of teaching and learning be- reducing the need for human instructors or suciently
havior. Although the rst method is most commonly boosting overall productivity. Such situations occur when
used, experts are usually incapable of reporting cognitive large groups need to be tutored simultaneously or many
components. The think aloud methods, in which the replicated tutoring eorts are needed. Cases in point
experts is asked to report aloud what s/he is thinking when are technical training situations such as training of mil-
solving typical problems, can avoid this problem.[24] Ob- itary recruits and high school mathematics. One specic
servation of actual online interactions between tutors and type of intelligent tutoring system, the Cognitive Tutor,
students provides information related to the processes has been incorporated into mathematics curricula in a
used in problem-solving, which is useful for building di- substantial number of United States high schools, pro-
alogue or interactivity into tutoring systems.[25] ducing improved student learning outcomes on nal ex-
The third stage, initial tutor implementation, involves set- ams and standardized tests.[28] Intelligent tutoring sys-
ting up a problem solving environment to enable and sup- tems have been constructed to help students learn geogra-
port an authentic learning process. This stage is followed phy, circuits, medical diagnosis, computer programming,
by a series of evaluation activities as the nal stage which mathematics, physics, genetics, chemistry, etc. Intelli-
is again similar to any software development project.[24] gent Language Tutoring Systems (ILTS), e.g. this[29] one,
teach natural language to rst or second language learn-
The fourth stage, evaluation includes (1) pilot studies to
ers. ILTS requires specialized natural language process-
conrm basic usability and educational impact; (2) for-
ing tools such as large dictionaries and morphological and
mative evaluations of the system under development, in-
grammatical analyzers with acceptable coverage.
cluding (3) parametric studies that examine the eective-
ness of system features and nally, (4) summative evalu-
ations of the nal tutors eect: learning rate and asymp-
totic achievement levels.[24]
20.5 Applications
Eight principles of ITS design and development
Anderson et al. (1987)[26] outlined eight principles for During the rapid expansion of the web boom, new
intelligent tutor design and Corbett et al. (1997)[24] computer-aided instruction paradigms, such as e-learning
later elaborated on those principles highlighting an all- and distributed learning, provided an excellent platform
embracing principle which they believed governed intel- for ITS ideas. Areas that have used ITS include natural
ligent tutor design, they referred to this principle as: language processing, machine learning, planning, multi-
Principle 0: An intelligent tutor system should enable the agent systems, ontologies, semantic Web, and social and
student to work to the successful conclusion of problem emotional computing. In addition, other technologies
solving. such as multimedia, object-oriented systems, modeling,
simulation, and statistics have also been connected to or
combined with ITS. Historically non-technological areas
1. Represent student competence as a production set. such as the educational sciences and psychology have also
been inuenced by the success of ITS.[30]
2. Communicate the goal structure underlying the
problem solving. In recent years, ITS has begun to move away from
the search-based to include a range of practical
3. Provide instruction in the problem solving context. applications.[31] ITS have expanded across many critical
and complex cognitive domains, and the results have been
4. Promote an abstract understanding of the problem- far reaching. ITS systems have cemented a place within
solving knowledge. formal education and these systems have found homes in
the sphere of corporate training and organizational learn-
5. Minimize working memory load. ing. ITS oers learners several aordances such as indi-
vidualized learning, just in time feedback, and exibility
6. Provide immediate feedback on errors. in time and space.
7. Adjust the grain size of instruction with learning.While Intelligent tutoring systems evolved from research
in cognitive psychology and articial intelligence, there
8. Facilitate successive approximations to the target are now many applications found in education and in or-
skill.[24] ganizations. Intelligent tutoring systems can be found in
130 CHAPTER 20. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM

online environments or in a traditional classroom com- REALP REALP was designed to help students enhance
puter lab, and are used in K-12 classrooms as well as in their reading comprehension by providing reader-specic
universities. There are a number of programs that target lexical practice and oering personalized practice with
mathematics but applications can be found in health sci- useful, authentic reading materials gathered from the
ences, language acquisition, and other areas of formalized Web. The system automatically build a user model ac-
learning. cording to students performance. After reading, the stu-
Reports of improvement in student comprehension, en- dent is given a series of exercises[36]
based on the target vo-
gagement, attitude, motivation, and academic results cabulary found in reading.
have all contributed to the ongoing interest in the invest- CIRCSlM-Tutor CIRCSIM_Tutor is an intelligent tutor-
ment in and research of theses systems. The personalized ing system that is used with rst year medical students
nature of the intelligent tutoring systems aords educa- at the Illinois Institute of Technology. It uses natural
tors the opportunity to create individualized programs. dialogue based, Socratic language to help students learn
Within education there are a plethora of intelligent tutor- about regulating blood pressure.[37]
ing systems, an exhaustive list does not exist but several Why2-Atlas Why2-Atlas is an ITS that analyses students
of the more inuential programs are listed below. explanations of physics principles. The students input
their work in paragraph form and the program converts
their words into a proof by making assumptions of student
20.5.1 Examples in education beliefs that are based on their explanations. In doing this,
misconceptions and incomplete explanations are high-
lighted. The system then addresses these issues through a
Algebra Tutor PAT (PUMP Algebra Tutor or Practical
dialogue with the student and asks the student to correct
Algebra Tutor) developed by the Pittsburgh Advanced
their essay. A number of iterations may take place before
Cognitive Tutor Center at Carnegie Mellon University,
the process is complete.[38]
engages students in anchored learning problems and uses
modern algebraic tools in order to engage students in SmartTutor The University of Hong Kong (HKU) devel-
problem solving and in sharing of their results. The aim oped a SmartTutor to support the needs of continuing ed-
of PAT is to tap into a students prior knowledge and ucation students. Personalized learning was identied as a
everyday experiences with mathematics in order to pro- key need within adult education at HKU and SmartTutor
mote growth. The success of PAT is well documented aims to ll that need. SmartTutor provides support for
(ex. Miami-Dade County Public Schools Oce of Eval- students by combining Internet technology, educational
uation and Research) from both a statistical (student re- research and articial intelligence.[39]
sults) and emotional (student and instructor feedback) AutoTutor AutoTutor assists college students in learn-
perspective.[32] ing about computer hardware, operating systems and the
Mathematics Tutor The Mathematics Tutor (Beal, Beck Internet in an introductory computer literacy course by
& Woolf, 1998) helps students solve word problems using simulating the discourse patterns and pedagogical strate-
fractions, decimals and percentages. The tutor records gies of a human tutor. AutoTutor attempts to under-
the success rates while a student is working on problems stand learners input from the keyboard and then formu-
while providing subsequent, lever-appropriate problems late dialog moves with feedback, prompts, correction and
for the student to work on. The subsequent problems that hints.[40]
are selected are based on student ability and a desirable ActiveMath ActiveMath is a web-based, adaptive learn-
time in is estimated in which the student is to solve the ing environment for mathematics. This system strives for
problem.[33] improving long-distance learning, for complementing tra-
eTeacher eTeacher (Schiano et al., 2008) is an intel- ditional classroom teaching, and for supporting individual
ligent agent that supports personalized e-learning assis- and lifelong learning.[41]
tance. It builds student proles while observing student ESC101-ITS The Indian Institute of Technology, Kan-
performance in online courses. eTeacher then uses the pur, India developed the ESC101-ITS, an intelligent tu-
information from the students performance to suggest toring system for introductory programming problems.
a personalized courses of action designed to assist their
learning process.[34]
ZOSMAT ZOSMAT was designed to address all the 20.5.2 Examples in corporate training and
needs of a real classroom. It follows and guides a stu- industry
dent in dierent stages of their learning process. This is a
student-centered ITS does this by recording the progress SHERLOCK SHERLOCK is used to train Air Force
in a students learning and the student program changes technicians to diagnose problems in the electrical systems
based on the students eort. ZOSMAT can be used for of F-15 jets. The ITS creates faulty schematic diagrams
either individual learning or in a real classroom environ- of systems for the trainee to locate and diagnose. The
ment alongside the guidance of a human tutor.[35] ITS provides diagnostic readings allowing the trainee to
20.7. LIMITATIONS 131

decide whether the fault lies in the circuit being tested learning.[49][52]
or if it lies elsewhere in the system. Feedback and guid-
ance are provided by the system and help is available if
requested.[42] 20.7 Limitations
Cardiac Tutor The Cardiac Tutors aim is to support ad-
vanced cardiac support techniques to medical personnel. Intelligent tutoring systems are expensive both to develop
The tutor presents cardiac problems and, using a variety and implement. The research phase paves the way for
of steps, students must select various interventions. Car- the development of systems that are commercially vi-
diac Tutor provides clues, verbal advice, and feedback able. However, the research phase is often expensive; it
in order to personalize and optimize the learning. Each requires the cooperation and input of subject matter ex-
simulation, regardless of whether the students were suc- perts, the cooperation and support of individuals across
cessfully able to help their patients, results in a detailed both organizations and organizational levels. Another
report which students then review.[43] limitation in the development phase is the conceptualiza-
CODES Cooperative Music Prototype Design is a Web- tion and the development of software within both budget
based environment for cooperative music prototyping. It and time constraints. There are also factors that limit the
was designed to support users, especially those who are incorporation of intelligent tutors into the real world, in-
not specialists in music, in creating musical pieces in a cluding the long timeframe required for development and
prototyping manner. The musical examples (prototypes) the high cost of the creation of the system components. A
can be repeatedly tested, played and modied. One of the high portion of that cost is a result of content component
main aspects of CODES is interaction and cooperation building.[20] For instance, surveys revealed that encoding
between the music creators and their partners.[44] an hour of online instruction time took 300 hours of de-
velopment time for touring content.[53] Similarly, build-
ing the Cognitive Tutor took a ratio of development time
to instruction time of at least 200:1 hours.[46] The high
20.6 Eectiveness cost of development often eclipses replicating the eorts
for real world application.[54] Intelligent tutoring systems
Assessing the eectiveness of ITS programs is problem- are not, in general, commercially feasible for real-world
atic. ITS vary greatly in design, implementation, and ed- applications.[54]
ucational focus. When ITS are used in a classroom, the A criticism of Intelligent Tutoring Systems currently in
system is not only used by students, but by teachers as use, is the pedagogy of immediate feedback and hint se-
well. This usage can create barriers to eective evalua- quences that are built in to make the system intelligent.
tion for a number of reasons; most notably due to teacher This pedagogy is criticized for its failure to develop deep
intervention in student learning. Teachers often have the learning in students. When students are given control over
capability to enter new problems into the system, adjust- the ability to receive hints, the learning response created
ing the curriculum and creating interactions with the stu- is negative. Some students immediately turn to the hints
dents as they learn. All of these variables make evaluation before attempting to solve the problem or complete the
of an ITS complex.[45]
task. When it is possible to do so, some students bottom
Despite the inherent complexities, numerous studies have out the hints - receiving as many hints as possible as fast
attempted to measure the overall eectiveness of ITS, of- as possible - in order to complete the task faster. If stu-
ten by comparisons of ITS to human tutors.[46][47][48][49] dents fail to reect on the tutoring systems feedback or
Reviews of early ITS systems (1995) showed an eect hints, and instead increase guessing until positive feed-
size of d = 1.0 in comparison to no tutoring, where as hu- back is garnered, the student is, in eect, learning to do
man tutors were given an eect size of d = 2.0.[46] Kurt the right thing for the wrong reasons. Tutoring systems
VanLehns much more recent overview (2011) of modern are unable to detect shallow learning and therefore, the
ITS found that there was no statistical dierence in eect learning for some users is not optimal.[55]
size between expert one-on-one human tutors and step-Another criticism of intelligent tutoring systems is the
based ITS.[49] Some individual ITS have been evaluated
failure of the system to ask questions of the students to
more positively than others. Studies of the Algebra Cog-
explain their actions. If the student is not learning the
nitive Tutor found that the ITS students outperformeddomain language than it becomes more dicult to gain a
students taught by a classroom teacher on standardized
deeper understanding, to work collaboratively in groups,
test problems and real-world problem solving tasks.[50]
and to transfer the domain language to writing. For ex-
Subsequent studies found that these results were particu-
ample, if the student is not talking science than it is
larly pronounced in students from special education, non-
argued that they are not being immersed in the culture of
native English, and low-income backgrounds.[51] science, making it dicult to undertake scientic writing
Some recognized strengths of ITS are their abil- or participate in collaborative team eorts. Intelligent tu-
ity to provide immediate yes/no feedback, individual toring systems have been criticized for being too instruc-
task selection, on-demand hints, and support mastery tivist and removing intrinsic motivation, social learning
132 CHAPTER 20. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM

contexts, and context realism from learning.[56] to ITS.[61]

Practical concerns, in terms of the inclination of the spon- Emotional Aect
sors/authorities and the users to adapt intelligent tutoring
There is a growing body of work that is considering the
systems, should be taken into account.[54] First, someone role of aect on learning and trying to develop intelligent
must have a willingness to implement the ITS.[54] Addi-
tutoring systems that will be able to interpret and adapt to
tionally an authority must recognize the necessity to inte- the dierent emotional states.[62][63] Humans do not just
grate an intelligent tutoring software into current curricu-
use cognitive processes in learning but the aective pro-
lum and nally, the sponsor or authority must oer the cesses they go through also plays an important role. For
needed support through the stages of the system develop- example, learners learn better when they have a certain
ment until it is completed and implemented.[54] level of disequilibrium (frustration), but not enough to
Evaluation of an intelligent tutoring system is an impor- make the learner feel completely overwhelmed.[62] This
tant phase; however, it is often dicult, costly, and time has motivated aective computing to begin to produce
consuming.[54] Even though there are various evaluation and research creating intelligent tutoring systems that can
techniques presented in the literature, there are no guid- interpret the aective process of an individual.[62] An ITS
ing principles for the selection of appropriate evaluation can be developed to read an individuals expressions and
method(s) to be used in a particular context.[57][58] Care- other signs of aect in an attempt to nd and tutor to
ful inspection should be undertaken to ensure that a com- the optimal aective state for learning. There are many
plex system does what it claims to do. This assessment complications in doing this since aect is not expressed
may occur during the design and early development of the in just one way but in multiple ways so that for an ITS to
system to identify problems and to guide modications be eective in interpreting aective states it may require
(i.e. formative evaluation).[59] In contrast, the evaluation a multimodal approach (tone, facial expression, etc...).[62]
may occur after the completion of the system to support These ideas have created a new eld within ITS, that of
formal claims about the construction, behaviour of, or Aective Tutoring Systems (ATS).[63] One example of
outcomes associated with a completed system (i.e. sum- an ITS that addresses aect is Gaze Tutor which was de-
mative evaluation).[59] The great challenge introduced by veloped to track students eye movements and determine
the lack of evaluation standards resulted in neglecting the whether they are bored or distracted and then the system
evaluation stage in several existing ITS'.[57][58][59] attempts to reengage the student.[64]

20.8 Current and Future direc- 20.9 ITS conference

tions The Intelligent Tutoring Systems conference was cre-
ated in 1988 by Claude Frasson (Canada) and is typ-
Some aspects that human tutors can do that intelligent ically held every other year, opposite the International
tutoring systems are still limited by are in the areas of Conference on Articial Intelligence in Education.[65]
dialogue and feedback. One reason for these limitations It was hosted in Montreal (Canada) by Claude Fras-
are that human tutors are able to interpret the aective son and Gilles Gauthier, in 1988, 1992, 1996 and
state of the student. Current research has been focusing 2000; in San Antonio (US) by Carol Redeld and Va-
on how to improve on these areas of ITS to make it more lerie Shute in 1998; in Biarritz (France) and San Se-
eective. bastian (Spain) by Guy Gouardres and Stefano Cerri
in 2002; in Maceio (Brazil) by Rosa Maria Vicari and
Dialogue Fbio Paraguau in 2004; in Jhongli (Taiwan) by Tak-
Human tutors have the ability to understand a persons Wai Chan in 2006. The conference was back in Mon-
tone and inection within a dialogue and interpret this to treal in 2008 (for its 20th anniversary) and hosted by
provide continual feedback through an ongoing dialogue. Roger Nkambou and Susanne Lajoie. ITS 2010 was
Intelligent tutoring systems are now being developed to held in Pittsburgh (US), hosted by Jack Mostow, Judy
attempt to simulate natural conversations. To get the full Kay, and Vincent Aleven. ITS 2012 (http://its2012.
experience of dialogue there are many dierent areas in its-conferences.com) was held in Chania (Crete), hosted
which a computer must be programmed; including being by George Papadourakis, Stefano Cerri and William
able to understand tone, inection, body language, and Clancey. ITS 2014 (http://its2014.its-conferences.com)
facial expression and then to respond to these. Dialogue was held in Honolulu(Hawaii), hosted by Martha Crosby,
in an ITS can be used to ask specic questions to help Stefan Trausan-Matu and Kristy Elizabeth Boyer. The
guide students and elicit information while allowing stu- International Articial Intelligence in Education (AIED)
dents to construct their own knowledge.[60] The develop- Society publishes The International Journal of Articial
ment of more sophisticated dialogue within an ITS has Intelligence in Education (IJAIED) and produces the In-
been a focus in some current research partially to address ternational Conference on Articial Intelligence in Ed-
the limitations and create a more constructivist approach ucation (http://iaied.org/conf/1/) every odd numbered
20.12. REFERENCES 133

year. The American Association of Articial Intelligence 20.11.2 Papers

(AAAI) will sometimes have symposia and papers re-
lated to intelligent tutoring systems. A number of books Intelligent Tutoring Systems: An Historic Review in
have been written on ITS including three published by the Context of the Development of Articial Intel-
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ligence and Educational Psychology

Intelligent Tutoring Systems: The What and the

How
20.10 See also
Freedman, Reva (2000). What is an Intelligent
Tutoring System?". Intelligence 11 (3): 1516.
Educational technology
doi:10.1145/350752.350756.
Instructional technology
Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Using AI to Improve
Training Performance and ROI
Learning objects
A Framework for Model-Based Adaptive Training
Serious games
A Conceptual Framework for Internet based Intelli-
Educational data mining gent Tutoring Systems

Intelligent Tutoring Systems with Converersational

Dialogue
20.11 Bibliography
ELM-ART: An intelligent tutoring system on world
20.11.1 Books wide web

The dening characteristics of intelligent tutoring

Nkambou, Roger; Bourdeau, Jacqueline; Mi- systems research: ITSs care, precisely
zoguchi, Riichiro, eds. (2010). Advances in In-
telligent Tutoring Systems. Springer. ISBN 3-642- Authoring Intelligent Tutoring Systems: An analysis
14362-8. of the state of the art

Woolf, Beverly Park (2009). Building Intelligent In- Cognitive modeling and intelligent tutoring
teractive Tutors. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-
12-373594-2. Intelligent Tutoring Goes To School in the Big City

Adaptive Hypermedia: From Intelligent Tutoring

Evens, Martha; Michael, Joel (2005). One-on-one
Systems to Web-Based Education
Tutoring by Humans and Computers. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-8058-4360-6.

Polson, Martha C.; Richardson, J. Jerey, eds. 20.12 References

(1988). Foundations of Intelligent Tutoring Systems.
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Wenger, Etienne (1987). Articial Intelligence and
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[34] Schiano, S., Garcia, P., & Amandi, A. (2008).
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[39] Cheung, B., Hui, L., Zhang, J., & Yiu, S. M. (2003). [52] Koedinger, Kenneth; Alven, Vincent (2007). Ex-
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of Research on Computing in Education 29: 325338. (2005). AutoTutor: An intelligent tutoring system with
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[48] Fletcher, J. D. (2003). Evidence for learning from
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Perez (Eds.), Technology applications in education: A ics of aective states during complex learn-
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doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.001.
[49] VanLehn, K. The relative eectiveness of human tu-
toring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring [63] Sarrafzadeh, A., Alexander, S., Dadgostar, F., Fan, C., &
systems. Educational Psychologist 46 (4): 197221. Bigdeli, A. (2008). How do you know that I don't under-
doi:10.1080/00461520.2011.611369. stand?" A look at the future of intelligent tutoring systems.
[50] Koedinger, K. R.; Anderson, J. R.; Hadley, W. H.; Mark, Computers in Human Behavior, 24(4), 1342-1363
M. A. (1997). Intelligent tutoring goes to school in the
big city. International Journal of Articial Intelligence in [64] D'Mello, S., Olney, A., Williams, C., & Hays, P. (2012).
Education 8: 3043. Gaze tutor: A gaze-reactive intelligent tutoring system.
International Journal of Human - Computer Studies,
[51] Plano, G. S. (2004). The Eects of the Cognitive Tu- 70(5), 377-398.
tor Algebra on student attitudes and achievement in a 9th
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Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ. conference rankings. Retrieved 2009-10-31
136 CHAPTER 20. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM

20.13 External links

Intelligent Tutoring Systems in the AI topics website
of the Association for the Advancement of Articial
Intelligence

The 11th International Conference on Intelligent

Tutoring Systems - Co-adaptation in Learning -
Chania (2012)

The 10th International Conference on Intelligent

Tutoring Systems - Bridges to Learning - Pittsburgh
(2010)
The 9th International Conference on Intelligent Tu-
toring Systems - Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Past
and Future - Montreal (2008)

The 8th International Conference on Intelligent Tu-

toring Systems (2006)

The 2007 Articial Intelligence in Education con-

ference.

MERLOT - Multimedia Educational Resource for

Learning and Online Teaching
Chapter 21

Serious game

A serious game or applied game is a game designed explicit and carefully thought-out educational
for a primary purpose other than pure entertainment. purpose and are not intended to be played pri-
The serious adjective is generally prepended to refer to marily for amusement.
products used by industries like defense, education, sci-
entic exploration, health care, emergency management, It is not a new idea. Military ocers have been using war
city planning, engineering, and politics. games in order to train strategic skills for a long time. One
early example of a serious game is a 19th-century Prus-
sian military training game called Kriegsspiel, the German
21.1 Denition and scope name for wargame.
Mike Zyda provided an update and a logical approach to
Serious games are simulations of real-world events or pro- the term in his 2005 article in IEEE Computer entitled,
cesses designed for the purpose of solving a problem. Al- From Visual Simulation to Virtual Reality to Games.
though serious games can be entertaining, their main pur- Zydas denition begins with game and proceeds from
pose is to train or educate users, though it may have other there:
purposes, such as marketing or advertisement. Serious
game will sometimes deliberately sacrice fun and en- Game: a physical or mental contest, played accord-
tertainment in order to achieve a desired progress by the ing to specic rules, with the goal of amusing or re-
player. Serious games are not a game genre but a cat- warding the participant.
egory of games with dierent purposes. This category
includes some educational games and advergames, politi- Video Game: a mental contest, played with a
cal games, or evangelical games.[1] Serious games are pri- computer according to certain rules for amusement,
marily focused on an audience outside of primary or sec- recreation, or winning a stake.
ondary education.
Serious Game: a mental contest, played with a
computer in accordance with specic rules that uses
entertainment to further government or corporate
21.2 Overview training, education, health, public policy, and strate-
gic communication objectives.
The term serious game has been used long before the
introduction of computer and electronic devices into en- Long before the term serious game came into wide use
tertainment. Clark Abt discussed the idea and used the with the Serious Games Initiative in 2002, games were
term in his 1970 book Serious Games,[2] published by being made for non-entertainment purposes. The contin-
Viking Press. In that book, his references were primarily ued failure of the edutainment space to prove protable,
to the use of board and card games. But he gave a useful plus the growing technical abilities of games to provide
general denition which is still considered applicable in realistic settings, led to a re-examination of the concept
the computer age: of serious games in the late 1990s. During this time, a
number of scholars began to examine the utility of games
Reduced to its formal essence, a game is for other purposes, contributed to the growing interest in
an activity among two or more independent applying games to new purposes. Additionally, the abil-
decision-makers seeking to achieve their ob- ity of games to contribute to training expanded at the
jectives in some limiting context. A more con- same time with the development of multi-player gaming.
ventional denition would say that a game is a In 2002, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
context with rules among adversaries trying to Scholars in Washington D.C. launched a "Serious Games
win objectives. We are concerned with serious Initiative" to encourage the development of games that
games in the sense that these games have an address policy and management issues. More focused

137
138 CHAPTER 21. SERIOUS GAME

sub-groups began to appear in 2004, including Games for player with new kinds of learning, and instead provided a
Change which focuses on social issues and social change, slightly easier-to-swallow version of drill-and-practice
and Games for Health which addresses health care appli- learning.[5]
cations. In the 1990s, newer games such as The Incredible Ma-
Other authors, though, (as Jeery R. Young) consider chine and the Dr. Brain series were introduced to chal-
that Serious Games didn't obtain the success that was ex- lenge kids to think in new ways, apply their current skills,
pected, and new theories, like Smart Gaming have ap- and learn new ones, but these games were unpopular
peared to replace it. among teachers because it was dicult to map these
There is no single denition of serious games, though newer games to their curriculum, especially in a high
they are generally held to be games used for training, ad- school setting where in-class time is at a premium. The
vertising, simulation, or education. Alternate denitions 1990s also saw the Internet being introduced to schools,
include the application of games concepts, technologies which with limited computer resources took precedence
and ideas to non-entertainment applications. This can over playing games.[5]
also include specic hardware for video games, such as The early 2000s saw a surge in dierent types of educa-
exergaming. tional games, especially those designed for the younger
Serious games are aimed for a large variety of audiences, learner. Many of these games were not computer-
including primary or secondary education, professionals based but took on the model of other traditional gam-
and consumers. Serious games can be of any genre, use ing system both in the console and hand-held format.
any game technology, and be developed for any platform. In 1999, LeapFrog Enterprises introduced the LeapPad,
Some may consider them a kind of edutainment; how- which combined an interactive book with a cartridge
ever, the mainstay of the community are resistant to this and allowed kids to play games and interact with a
paper-based book. Based on the popularity of tradi-
term.
tional hand-held gaming systems like Nintendos Game
A serious game is not a simulation alone. It may be a Boy, they also introduced their hand-held gaming system
simulation combined with elements of game-play, specif- called the Leapster in 2003. This system was cartridge-
ically a chance to win. All have the look and feel based and integrated arcadestyle games with educational
of a game, a chance to win, but correspond to non- content.[6]
game events or processes from the real world, including
business operations and military operations (even though In 2001, Henry Jenkins, Director of Comparative Me-
many popular entertainment games depicted business and dia Studies and Randy Hinrichs, Group Research Man-
military operations). The games are made to provide an ager for Learning Science and Technology group were
engaging, self-reinforcing context in which to motivate, co-principal investigators working on a project known
educate and train the players. Other purposes for such as Games-to-Teach. Games-to-Teach inspired the seri-
games include marketing and advertisement. The largest ous gaming initiatives that followed. The partnership be-
users (unsubstantiated by business intelligence) of seri- tween MIT and Microsoft developed conceptual proto-
ous games appear to be the US government and medical types for interactive serious gaming, with Kurt Squire,
professionals. Other commercial sectors are actively pur- now professor at University of Wisconsin as principal
suing development of these types of tools as well. PhD candidate working on the project. The MIT iCam-
pus project lasted for six years. During this time, seri-
ous games were created with several faculty members us-
ing role playing techniques, mobile technologies, physics
21.3 History based racing games to teach physics, and other experi-
ences. Topics included media in science, engineering ed-
Gaming has been used in educational circles since at ucation, education in media, complex system dynamics,
least the 1900s. Use of paper-based educational games and collaboration. Hephaestus was a massively multi-
became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, but waned player Xbox online mechanical engineering game. En-
under the Back to Basics teaching movement.[3] (The vironmental detectives used handheld PCs to investigate
Back to Basics teaching movement is a change in teach- health problems in the city of Boston. Biohazard was
ing style that started in the 1970s when students were codeveloped with Carnegie Mellon University, MIT and
scoring poorly on standardized tests and exploring too Microsoft Research. Players worked collaboratively with
many electives. This movement wanted to focus stu- rst responders to a chemical attack in a subway. This was
dents on reading, writing and arithmetic and intensify the a multiplayer RPG designed for the PC/Xbox in which
curriculum.[4] ) With the proliferation of computers in the sources of epidemic outbreaks were investigated to de-
1980s, the use of educational games in the classroom be- termine how to control crowds and deliver decontamina-
came popular with titles that included Oregon Trail, Math tion treatments and manage resources eciently. Hin-
Blaster, and Number Munchers. Though these games richs began the award winning company 2b3d.net to build
were popular among teachers and students, they were also serious games in health, business, education and created
criticized due to the fact that they did not provide the the rst Certicate in Virtual Worlds at the University of
21.5. RESEARCH AND EDUCATION 139

Washington to build curriculum around how to engage lars not only to develop, but also to deploy, and gen-
avatars in serious game environments. Henry Jenkins erally require the procurement of specialized hard-
joined USC as Professor of Communication, Journalism, ware. The costs of media for serious games is very
Cinematic Arts and Education. Jenkins has played a sig- low. Instead of volumes of media or computers for
nicant role in demonstrating the importance of new me- high-end simulators, SGs require nothing more than
dia technologies in educational settings. a DVD or even a single CD-ROM, exactly like tra-
In 2002 another movement had started outside of formal ditional computer and video games require. De-
educational sector that was coined as the serious game ploying these to the eld requires nothing more than
dropping them in the mail or accessing a dedicated
movement, which originated from the Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, where David Rejecsk web site.
and Ben Sawyer started the initiative. The primary con-
sumer and producer of serious games is the United States While SGs are meant to train or otherwise educate
Military, which needs to prepare their personnel for en- users, they often hope to be engaging. Game de-
ter a variety of environments, cultures, and situations. velopers are experienced at making games fun and
They need to understand their surroundings, be able to engaging as their livelihood depends on it. In the
communicate, use new technologies and quickly make course of simulating events and processes, develop-
decisions.[5] The rst serious game is often considered to ers automatically inject entertainment and playabil-
be Army Battlezone, an abortive project headed by Atari ity in their applications.
in 1980, designed to use the Battlezone tank game for mil-
itary training.[7] Two other well known serious games that
were commissioned by the Army are Americas Army 21.5 Research and education
(2002) and Full Spectrum Warrior (2004).
Outside of the government, there is substantial inter- Health education is a particular area where results have
est in serious games for formal education, professional been observed by the use of serious games Video games,
training, healthcare, advertising, public policy and social enhanced by behavior-change technology and motivating
change. For example, games from websites such as News- story lines, oer promise for promoting diet and physi-
gaming.com are very political games groups made out- cal activity change for diabetes and obesity prevention in
side the corporate game system that are raising issues youth. (Thompson).
through media but using the distinct properties of games
Intrinsic motivation is another feature provided by serious
to engage people from a fresh perspective, says Henry
games that facilitates education. To produce motivation
Jenkins, the director of MITs comparative media stud-
four characteristics are provided by serious games chal-
ies program. Such games, he said, constitute a radical
lenge, curiosity, control and the imagination / imaginary
ctional work.1
(fantasy)" (Mouaheb). These four characteristics create a
particular advantage in an educational context the game
is likely to make the learning process interesting in itself
21.4 Development to obtain the greatest motivation in the learner (Moua-
heb).
In recent years, the US government and military have
The dynamic nature of virtual environments also causes
periodically looked towards game developers to create
active participation by the player (Mouaheb). Active
low-cost simulations that are both accurate and engaging.
participation leads to a fertile ground for the generation
Game developers experience with gameplay and game
of real cognitive conicts ensuring a personal and solid
design made them prime candidates for developing these
build of knowledge (Mouaheb). Another researcher
types of simulations which cost millions of dollars less
conrms this view computer games are more engag-
than traditional simulations, which often require special
ing, motivating and interesting by virtue of their inter-
hardware or complete facilities to use.
action, rich universes, challenges and safety (Egenfeldt-
Advantages to this include: Nielsen).
The combination of all these factors leads to signicant
Video and computer game developers are accus-
benets retention increases when using computer games
tomed to developing games quickly and are adept at
compared to other teaching (Egenfeldt-Nielsen). The
creating games that simulateto varying degrees
use of reward in a behavioral sense is also a powerful
functional entities such as radar and combat vehi-
tool in serious games the video game will ask a ques-
cles. Using existing infrastructure, game developers
tion and the player will answer. When students link the
can create games that simulate battles, processes and
question and the answer enough times, reinforced by a
events at a fraction of the cost of traditional govern-
reward, learning will occur (Egenfeldt-Nielsen).
ment contractors.
Limited studies have been performed to compare the ef-
Traditional simulators usually cost millions of dol- fectiveness of serious games to other learning formats.
140 CHAPTER 21. SERIOUS GAME

One such study comparing games to an educational video Organizational-dynamic games Teach and reect the
found that The children playing the video game ex- dynamics of organizations
pressed more enjoyment and learned the same as those
watching the television program (Egenfeldt-Nielsen). Games for Health Such as games for psychological
Studies have shown that games can have a strong eect therapy, cognitive training, emotional training[10]
on day-to-day health management. In one study, children or physical rehabilitation uses.[11] Technology and
who played a game about healthy living principles had a mental health issues can use Serious Games to make
77 percent drop in visits to urgent care and medical vis- therapy accessible to adolescents who would other-
its in the experimental group compared with the control wise would not nd a psychotherapist approachable.
group (Egenfeldt-Nielsen). Exergaming Games that are used as a form of exercise.

Art Games Games used to express artistic ideas or art

21.6 Classication produced through the medium of video games

Productivity game Games which reward points for ac-

The classication of serious games is something that is complished real-world tasks using to-do lists.
yet to solidify, there are however a number of terms in
reasonably common use for inclusion here. Training See Gamication.

Games with a purpose Try to solve various tasks that

Advergames The use of games for advertising. The ap-
require common sense or human experience in an
proach can include numerous dierent ways of ad-
entertaining setting.
vertising more or less well-known from other media.
You can have product placement, banners in-game
or just trac triggers. Additionally Julian Alvarez and Olivier Rampnoux (from
the European Center for Childrens Products, University
Edutainment A combination of education and enter- of Poitiers) have attempted to classify serious games in 5
tainment. main categories: Advergaming, Edutainment, Edumarket
game, Diverted game and Simulation game.[12]
Games-Based Learning or "Game Learning" These
games have dened learning outcomes. Generally
they are designed in order to balance the subject
matter with the gameplay and the ability of the 21.7 Examples
player to retain and apply said subject matter to the
real world.[8] For example, in soft skills training A Force More Powerful (Windows) The video game
like Merchants and Triskelion is designed to teach the waging of conict using
nonviolent methods. Intended for use by activists
Edumarket Games When a serious game combines and leaders of nonviolent resistance and opposition
several aspects (such as advergaming and edutain- movements.
ment aspects or persuasive and news aspects), the
application is an Edumarket game. For example, Amnesty the game (Facebook and internet) a game
Food Force combines news, persuasive and edutain- that supports Amnesty International eorts to
ment goals. worldwide abolish the death penalty.
Newsgames Journalistic games that report on recent Beer distribution game (oine as well as online) a
events or deliver an editorial comment. Examples simulation game created by a group of professors
include September 12th[9] of MIT in the early 1960s aimed at illustrating im-
portant supply chain management principles, such as
Simulations or Simulation Games Games used for
the bullwhip eect.
the acquisition or exercise of dierent skills, to
teach eective behavior in the context of simulated Close Combat: Marines: the rst version of the
conditions or situations. In practice, are widely Close Combat universe made specically for mili-
used simulation driving dierent vehicles (cars, tary training purposes. Forces consist of USMC and
trains, airplanes; e.g. FlightGear), simulation of OpFor troops.
management of specic industries (e.g. Transport
Tycoon), and universal business simulation, de- CyberCIEGE (Microsoft Windows): Computer net-
veloping strategic thinking and teaching users the work security sim game developed by the Naval
basics of macro-and microeconomics, the basics of Postgraduate School. Players protect assets while
business administration (e.g. Virtonomics). enabling users to achieve their goals.

Persuasive Games Games used as persuasion technol- Darfur is Dying (Internet) An online game by mtvU
ogy that simulates life in a Darfur refugee camp.
21.7. EXAMPLES 141

DARWARS Ambush! Convoy Simulator developed educational game designed to teach high school stu-
as part of DARPA's DARWARS project, designed dents and general interest groups about the his-
to create low-cost experiential training systems tory of biology covering topics such as early micro-
scopes, classication, taxonomy, heredity, genetics,
Democracy A political strategy game, that simulates and evolution.
the process of government through simulated poli-
cies, laws voters and other variables. Used by a num- Houtho Buruma The Game: serious game for re-
ber of US / European schools and other institutions. cruitment purposes, developed by Dutch law rm
Houtho Buruma.
EteRNA, (Internet) a game in which players attempt
IBM CityOne (Internet): designed by IBM as part of
to design RNA sequences that fold into a given con-
the IBM Smarter Planet initiative. The game is de-
guration. Designs are evaluated to improve com-
signed to educate the player of the complex systems
puter models predicting RNA folding, included se-
and how they connect in a modern city.
lected designs actually synthesized to evaluate RNA
folding dynamics against computer predictions. IntelliGym (Mac/Windows/Linux): A series of com-
puter based cognitive simulators that trains athletes
FloodSim (Internet) A ood prevention simula- and designed to enhance brain skills associated with
tion/strategy game designed to inform the people of sports-related performance.
the United Kingdom about the dangers of ooding
as well as to help gather public opinion on the prob- Merchants: A video game designed by Gamelearn to
lem that ooding presents to the UK. The player learn and train negotiation skills.
takes control of the UKs ood policies for three Microsoft Flight Simulator (Microsoft Windows) de-
years and attempts to protect the people and the veloped as a comprehensive simulation of civil avia-
economy of the United Kingdom from damage due tion. Notably one of the few ight simulation games
to oods. that does not concentrate on simulation of aerial
Foldit (Windows, Linux, Mac) Protein folding, puz- warfare.
zle game where results can be used in real science. NanoMission (Microsoft Windows): A series cre-
ated for the non-prot group Cientica in order to
Food Force (Mac/Windows) Humanitarian video teach about nanomedicine, nanotechnology and as-
game. The UNs World Food Programme designed sociated concepts through a series of action games.
this virtual world of food airdrops over crisis zones
and trucks struggling up dicult roads under rebel Novicraft HRD game (Microsoft Windows): Novi-
threat with emergency food supplies. Craft is a serious game for supporting business cus-
tomers in social excellence, in learning to construct
Freedom: The Underground Railroad A co- shared understanding together with dierent people
operative strategy board game that has players work- in changing contexts.
ing together as Abolitionists to help bring an end to
slavery in the United States. Peacemaker (Mac/PC) A commercial game sim-
ulation of the Israeli-Palestinian conict designed
Genomics Digital Lab (Mac/Windows) A series of to promote dialog and understanding among Is-
interactive science games where users learn about raelis, Palestinians and interested people around the
the importance of plants and their contribution to world.
energy and the environment.
Phylo (Internet): A game that invites players to give
Global Conict: Palestine (Mac/Windows): A 3D- in to their addictive gaming impulses while con-
adventure/rpg-game. You are given the role of a re- tributing to the greater good by trying to decode the
porter in Jerusalem, and have to write articles for code for genetic diseases.[13]
your paper. Re-Mission (Microsoft Windows): 3-D Shooter to
help improve the lives of young persons living with
HabitRPG (Internet) A habit building program that
cancer.
treats your life like a Role Playing Game.
Ship Simulator (Microsoft Windows): a simulator
Harpoon (Mac/Windows): Entertainment version which simulates maneuvering various ships in dif-
was dual use from 1989 forward. Professional ver- ferent environments, although without the eects of
sion Harpoon 3 Professional created in 2002 with wind and current.
help from Australian Defense Department, updated
in 2006. SimPort (Mac/Windows): A simulation game in
which players learn about the intricacies involved in
History of Biology game (Mac/Windows): History construction large infrastructural projects, like a ma-
of Biology is a browser based scavenger hunt style jor sea port.
142 CHAPTER 21. SERIOUS GAME

SimulTrain (Mac/Windows/Online): A project 21.9 References

management simulation of the planning and execu-
tion phases of a medium-sized project for a team of [1] Ernest Adams (2009-07-09). Sorting Out the Genre
four people. Muddle. Gamasutra. Retrieved 2009-05-23.

Steel Beasts Professional (Microsoft Windows): [2] Abt Associates Inc. History, 1970-1974. Abt Asso-
Tank simulator, developed by eSim Games, and ciates Inc. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
used by several armies around the world.
[3] Rice, J. W. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in
Triskelion: A video game designed by Gamelearn to video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher Educa-
learn and train time management skills. tion, 15(1), 87.

VBS1 & VBS2 Training tool for the British Military [4] Education Update"; Back To Basics; Dr. Carole G. Han-
and the USMC and other military forces around the kin and Randi T. Sachs; 2002
world. Developed by BIA, and based on the game
[5] Klopfer E. Augmented Learning : Research and Design of
engine used in Operation Flashpoint and Armed As-
Mobile Educational Games [e-book]. MIT Press; 2008.
sault.
Available from: eBook Collection, Ipswich, MA. Ac-
cessed July 26, 2011.
X-Plane (Linux/Mac/Windows): a comprehensive
civil aviation simulator. An FAA approved version [6] Gray, J. H., Bulat, J., Jaynes, C., & Cunningham, A.
exists which enables low cost ight training. (2009). LeapFrog learning. Mobile Technology for Chil-
dren: Designing for Interaction and Learning, , 171.

21.8 See also [7] Macedonia, M. (2001). Games, simulation, and the mil-
itary education dilemma. Internet and the University, ,
157-167.
Educational video game
[8] The book 'Digital Game-Based Learning' by Marc Pren-
Edutainment sky was the rst major publication to dene the term, The
Ocial Site of the book 'Digital Game-Based Learning'
Business game by Marc Prensky
Business simulation game [9] Gonzalo Frasca of newsgaming.com which denounces the
use of violence to resolve the problem of terrorism.
Brain tness
[10] Rizzo A., John B., Sheeld B., Newman B., Williams J.,
Games for Change Hartholt A., Lethin C., Buckwalter J.G., Virtual Reality as
a Tool for Delivering PTSD Exposure Therapy and Stress
Game with a purpose
Resilience Training, In Military Behavioral Health, vol-
Gamication ume 1, 2012.

Gamication of learning [11] Rego, P., Moreira, P.M., Reis, L.P., Serious games for re-
habilitation: A survey and a classication towards a taxon-
Global warming game omy,In Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI),
2010 5th Iberian Conference on , pp.1,6, 16-19, 2010.
Innovation game
[12] Alvarez J., Rampnoux O., Serious Game: Just a ques-
Intelligent tutoring system tion of posture?, in Articial & Ambient Intelligence,
AISB'07, Newcastle, UK, April 2007, p.420 to 423
International Simulation and Gaming Association
[13] Lisa Grossman (2010-11-30). Computer Game Makes
Learning objects You a Genetic Scientist. Wired.com. Retrieved 2012-
10-24.
Serious Games Showcase and Challenge

State of Play (conference series)

21.10 Further reading
Technology and mental health issues

Transreality gaming Abt, C. (1970). Serious Games. New York: The

Viking Press.
g-learning
Zyda, M. (September 2005). From visual simula-
Gamelearn tion to virtual reality to games. IEEE Computer.
21.10. FURTHER READING 143

Baranowski T, Buday R, Thompson DI, Baranowski The International Journal on Serious Games, a sci-
J. Playing for real: video games and stories for entic Open Access Journal, rst issue January
health-related behavior change. Am J Prev Med. 2014.
2008 Jan;34(1):74-82.
"Winners & Learners: Classroom Discourse Sur-
Digitalarti Mag #0 (2009). Serious Game. pp. 24 rounding Educational Games" by Kristen Shanahan
25.
Aldrich, Clark (2009). The Complete Guide to Sim-
ulations and Serious Games. Pfeier. p. 576. ISBN
0-470-46273-6.
Reeves, Byron; Reed, J. Leighton (2009). Total
Engagement: Using Games and Virtual Worlds to
Change the Way People Work and Businesses Com-
pete. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Lang, F., Pueschel, T. and Neumann, D. (2009).
Serious Gaming for the Evaluation of Market
Mechanisms, Proceedings of the International
Conference on Information Systems (ICIS)2009.
Thompson D, Baranowski T, Buday R et al. Serious
Video Games for Health: How Behavioral Science
Guided the Development of a Serious Video Game.
Simulation Gaming August 2010 vol. 41 no. 4 587-
606.
Houda Mouaheb, Ahmed Fahli, Mohammed Mous-
setad, Said Eljamali. The Serious Game: What Ed-
ucational Benets? http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S187704281202201X. Sep 6,
2012
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon. The basic
learning approach behind Serious Games.
http://media.seriousgames.dk/downloads/the_
basic_learning_approach.pdf April 2005
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon. Overview of research on
the educational use of video games. http://media.
seriousgames.dk/downloads/game-overview.pdf
March 2006
M. Graaand, J. M. Schraagen, M. P. Schijven.
Systematic review of serious games for medi-
cal education and surgical skills training. http://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bjs.8819/pdf
M.B. Jalink, J. Goris, E. Heineman, J.P. Pierie,
H.O. ten Cate Hoedemaker. The eects of
video games on laparoscopic simulator skills..
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0002961014001421
Anderson, E. F.; McLoughlin, L.; Liarokapis, F.;
Peters, C.; Petridis, P.; de Freitas, S. (2009),
Serious Games in Cultural Heritage, VAST-
STAR, Short and Project Proceedings, 10th VAST
International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Ar-
chaeology and Cultural Heritage (Eurographics
VAST '09), Faculty of ICT, University of Malta, pp.
2948 Missing or empty |title= (help)
Chapter 22

Sharable Content Object Reference Model

Sharable Content Object Reference Model 22.1.3 SCORM 2004

(SCORM) is a collection of standards and speci-
cations for web-based electronic educational technology
This is the current version. It is based on new standards
(also called e-learning). It denes communications for API and content object-to-runtime environment com-
between client side content and a host system (called the
munication, with many ambiguities of previous versions
run-time environment), which is commonly supported resolved. Includes ability to specify adaptive sequencing
by a learning management system. SCORM also denes of activities that use the content objects. Includes abil-
how content may be packaged into a transferable ZIP le
ity to share and use information about the success status
called Package Interchange Format.[1] for multiple learning objectives or competencies across
SCORM is a specication of the Advanced Distributed content objects and across courses for the same learner
Learning (ADL) Initiative from the Oce of the United within the same learning management system. A more
States Secretary of Defense. robust test suite helps ensure good interoperability.

SCORM 2004 introduced a complex idea called sequenc-

ing, which is a set of rules that species the order in
SCORM 2004 editions
which a learner may experience content objects. In sim-
ple terms, they constrain a learner to a xed set of paths
through the training material, permit the learner to book- 3rd Edition (October 2005) clarication of var-
mark their progress when taking breaks, and assure the ious conformance requirements and of the interac-
acceptability of test scores achieved by the learner. The tion between content objects and the runtime envi-
standard uses XML, and it is based on the results of work ronment for sequencing; some new conformance re-
done by AICC, IMS Global, IEEE, and Ariadne. quirements to improve interoperability.

4th Edition Released (March 31, 2009) more

stringent interoperability requirements, more exi-
ble data persistence.[2]
22.1 SCORM versions
SCORM 2004 specication books
22.1.1 SCORM 1.1
Overview introduces SCORM and describes how
SCORM 1.1 is the rst production version. It used a the other books relate
Course Structure Format XML le based on the AICC
specications to describe content structure, but lacked
a robust packaging manifest and support for metadata. Run-Time Environment describes runtime API
Quickly abandoned in favor of SCORM 1.2. and data model used for communication between
content objects and learning management systems

Sequencing and Navigation describes how se-

quencing between learning activities is dened and
22.1.2 SCORM 1.2 interpreted

This was the rst version that was widely used. It is still Compliance Requirements detailed list of the
widely used and is supported by most Learning Manage- conformance requirements that are veried by the
ment Systems. ADL SCORM conformance test suite.

144
22.3. SEE ALSO 145

22.1.4 Experience API (Tin Can API) June 2012 .9 version of the Tin Can API is re-
leased.
The Experience API (also known as xAPI or Tin Can
API) was nalized to version 1.0 in April 2013. The Ex- August 2012 .95 version of the Tin Can API is
perience API solves many of the problems inherent with released.
older versions of SCORM.[3] Just like SCORM, ADL April 2013 1.0.0 version is released, project
is the steward of the Experience API. AICC with their name was changed to Experience API or xAPI,
CMI-5 planned to use xAPI as their transport standard, but many still refer to it as the Tin Can API.
but AICC membership decided to dissolve the organiza-
tion and transferred CMI-5 to ADL.[4]
The Experience API (Tin Can API) is a web service that 22.3 See also
allows software clients to read and write experiential data
in the form of statement objects. In their simplest form, ADL Registry
statements are in the form of I did this, or more gener-
ally actor verb object. More complex statement forms Authoring tool
can be used. There is also a built-in query API to help
lter recorded statements, and a state API that allows for Computer aided instruction
a sort of scratch space for consuming applications. Ex- Educational technology
perience API statements are stored in a data store called
a Learning Record Store, which can exist on its own or Educational technology (electronic educational
within a Learning Management System.[5] technology is also called e-learning)
LETSI

22.2 SCORM timeline SLOOP Project

Experience API
January 1999 Executive Order 13111 signed
tasking the DoD to develop common specications
and standards for e-learning across both federal and
private sectors 22.4 External links
January 2000 SCORM Version 1.0 Ocial website

January 2001 SCORM Version 1.1

October 2001 SCORM Version 1.2 22.5 References

January 2004 SCORM 2004 (1st Edition) [1] Technical. SCORM. Retrieved 2014-12-22.

July 2004 SCORM 2004 (2nd Edition) [2] SCORM 2004 4th Edition Version 1.1 Overview

June 2006 Department of Defense Instruction [3] SCORM Project Tin Can: Phase 3 Capabilities.
SCORM Project Tin Can: Phase 3 Capabilities. Rus-
(DoDI) 1322.26 Requiring DoD Use of SCORM
tici Sotware. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
October 2006 SCORM 2004 (3rd Edition) [4] AICC dissolves, transfers CMI-5 to ADL
March 2009 SCORM 2004 (4th Edition) [5] Tech Overview - Tin Can API. Tech Overview - Tin Can
API. Rustici Software. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
2009 The rst three specication books
were adopted as technical reports by ISO/IEC
JTC1/SC36, standard number ISO/IEC TR 29163.

October 2010 ADL awards a Broad Agency An-

nouncement to Rustici Software to conduct research
and community interviews in an eort to begin the
creation of the next generation of SCORM. This is
called Project Tin Can.

September 2011 The initial draft of the next gen-

eration of SCORM (named the Tin Can API) is re-
leased.
Chapter 23

E-learning

For the use of all types of technology, including elec- The origin or etymology of e-learning is contested, with
tronic technologies, in learning and education, see the e- part not necessarily meaning electronic as per e-
Educational technology. For a list of articles on learning mail or e-commerce. Coined between 1997 and 1999,
theory, see Learning theory (disambiguation). e-learning became rst attached to either a distance learn-
ing service[5] or it was used for the rst time at the CBT
[6]
E-learning (or eLearning) is the use of electronic systems seminar. Since then the term has been used ex-
tensively to describe the use of online, personalised, in-
educational technology in learning and teaching.
teractive or virtual education.
information and communication technology (ICT) in ed-
ucation, EdTech, learning technology, multimedia learn- Bernard Luskin, an educational technology pioneer, ad-
ing, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), computer- vocated that the e of e-learning should be interpreted
based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, to mean exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, ex-
computer-based training (CBT), computer-assisted in- tended, excellent,
[3]
and educational in addition to elec-
struction or computer-aided instruction (CAI), internet- tronic. Parks suggested that the e should refer to
based training (IBT), exible learning, web-based train- everything, everyone, engaging, easy.[4] These broad
ing (WBT), online education, virtual education, virtual interpretations focus on new applications and develop-
learning environments (VLE) (which are also called ments, as well as learning theory and media psychology.
learning platforms), m-learning, and digital education.[1] Moore et al found signicant variation in the under-
In usage, all of these terms appear in articles and reviews; standing and usage of terms used in this eld and pointed
the term e-learning is used frequently, but is variously to implications for the referencing, sharing and collabo-
and imprecisely dened and applied.[2][3][4] ration of results.[2] In usage, e-learning is an extremely
These alternative terms are all linguistically more restric- signicant (but incomplete) subset of educational tech-
nology. As such, various aspects of e-learning are dis-
tive than "educational technology" in that they refer to
the use of modern tools, such as computers, digital tech- cussed in that article.
nology, electronic media, networked digital devices and
associated software and courseware with learning sce-
narios, worksheets and interactive exercises that facilitate 23.2 References
learning. However, these alternative names individually
emphasize a particular digitization approach, component [1] Educational technology entry at Wikidata
or delivery method. Accordingly, each conates to the
[2] Moore, J. L.; Dickson-Deane, C.; Galyen, K. (2011).
broad domain of educational technology. For example, e-Learning, online learning, and distance learn-
m-learning emphasizes mobility, but is otherwise indis- ing environments: Are they the same?". The
tinguishable in principle from educational technology. Internet and Higher Education 14 (2): 129135.
doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.10.001.

[3] Bernard Luskin. Think Exciting": E-Learning and the

Big E"".
23.1 History, theory, types of me-
dia and information and com- [4] Eric Parks. Whats the e in e-Learning?". Askinterna-
tional.com.
munication technologies, and
[5] http://web.archive.org/web/20130518215954/http:
usage settings //connectedplanetonline.com/mag/telecom_bright_
future_distance
Main article: Educational technology [6] http://www.talentlms.com/elearning/history_of_
elearning

146
23.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 147

23.3 External links

UNESCO Guide To Measuring Information And
Communication Technologies (ICT) In Education
European Foundation for Quality in eLearning
(EFQUEL)

eLearning wiki: table of contents

Chapter 24

M-learning

m-learning or mobile learning is dened as learning

across multiple contexts, through social and content in-
teractions, using personal electronic devices.[1]:page 4 A
form of e-learning distance education, m-learners can use
mobile device educational technology in many locations
at their time convenience.[2]
M-learning technologies include handheld computers,
MP3 players, notebooks, mobile phones and tablets. M-
learning focuses on the mobility of the learner, interacting
with portable technologies. Using mobile tools for creat-
ing learning aids and materials becomes an important part
of informal learning.[3]
M-learning is convenient in that it is accessible from vir-
tually anywhere. Sharing is almost instantaneous among
everyone using the same content, which leads to the re-
ception of instant feedback and tips. This highly active
process has proven to increase exam scores from the fti-
eth to the seventieth percentile, and cut the dropout rate
in technical elds by 22 percent.[4] M-learning also brings
strong portability by replacing books and notes with small
devices, lled with tailored learning contents.

24.1 Background
The use of mobile learning in the military is becoming increas-
ingly common due to low cost and high portability.
Mobile learning is the delivery of learning, education or
learning support on mobile phones, PDAs or tablets.
New mobile technology, such as hand-held based devices,
24.2 Approaches
is playing a large role in redening how we receive infor-
mation. The recent advances in mobile technology are 24.2.1 Classroom
changing the primary purpose of mobile devices from
making or receiving calls to retrieving the latest informa- Classroom applications combine the use of handheld
tion on any subject. Numerous agencies including the computers, PDAs, smartphones or handheld voting
Department of Defense (DoD), Department of Home- systems (such as clickers) with traditional resources.
land Security (DHS), Intelligence community, and law (Tremblay 2010).
enforcement are utilizing mobile technology for informa-
tion management. [5] Class management

148
24.2. APPROACHES 149

Mobile devices(such as a Pocket PC) in the classroom can higher exam results than those who attend the lecture
be used to enhance group collaboration among students in person (only in cases in which students take notes)
through communication applications, interactive displays, (Callaway & Ewen 2009).
and video features.[6] Podcasts may be delivered using syndication, although
this method of delivery is not always easily adopted (Lee,
Existing mobile technology can replace cumber- Miller & Newnham 2009).
some resources such as textbooks, visual aids, and
presentation technology.[7]
24.2.2 At work
Interactive and multi-mode technology allows stu-
dents to engage and manipulate information.
M-learning in a workplace can be very dierent from a
Mobile Device features with WIFI capabilities allow schools context. Although employees do occasionally at-
for on-demand access to information.[7] tend face to face training events, the majority of work-
based learning happens on the job, often at the moment
Access to classroom activities and information on of need. Because of this, m-learning is being used in a
mobile devices provides a continuum for learning wider range of modes:
inside and outside the classroom.[8]
On the job training for someone who accesses train-
In a literature review conducted by FutureLab, re- ing on a mobile device.
searchers found that increased communication, collabo-
ration, and understanding of concepts was a result of mo- Just in time training to solve a problem or gain an
bile technology applications.[8] update.

Class management Performance support. Immediate access to tools to

streamline a work-task
Mobile devices can be used in brick-and-mortar or online Reference guides and ebooks
settings to enhance learning experiences.[9]
Checklists
The mobile phone (through text SMS notices) can
be used especially for distance education or with stu- Due to the very diverse training needs across a large or-
dents whose courses require them to be highly mo- ganisation, self-serve learning is more common than is
bile and in particular to communicate information found at the school, or college level. Mobile is seen as
regarding availability of assignment results, venue an eective way to reach a large number of employees
changes and cancellations, etc. It can also be of easier and more eectively.[10]
value to business people, e.g. sales representatives
who do not wish to waste time away from their busy
schedules to attend formal training events. 24.2.3 Lifelong learning and self-learning
Mobile devices facilitate online interaction between Mobile technologies and approaches, i.e. Mobile As-
instructor and student, and student to student. sisted Language Learning (MALL), are also used to assist
in language learning. For instance handheld computers,
Blended learning takes the classroom out of a tra-
cell phones, and podcasting (Horko Kayes2008) have
ditional brick-and-mortar setting. Students become
been used to help people acquire and develop language
part of virtual communities used for collaboration.
skills.
Blended learning transitions away from a traditional
teaching environment to a customized and interac-
tive web platform for the user [8] 24.2.4 Other
Podcasting Improving levels of literacy, numeracy, and partici-
pation in education amongst young adults.
Podcasting consists of listening to audio recordings of
lectures. It can be used to review live lectures (Clark & Using the communication features of a mobile
Westcott 2007) and to provide opportunities for students phone as part of a larger learning activity, e.g.: send-
to rehearse oral presentations. Podcasts may also provide ing media or texts into a central portfolio, or ex-
supplemental information to enhance traditional lectures porting audio les from a learning platform to your
(McGarr 2009) (Steven & Teasley 2009). phone.

Psychological research suggests that university students Developing workforce skills and readiness among
who download podcast lectures achieve substantially youth and young adults.[11]
150 CHAPTER 24. M-LEARNING

24.3 Analysis Reworking existing E-Learning materials for mobile

platforms
24.3.1 Value Limited memory[16]

The value of mobile learning[12] Tutors who have Risk of sudden obsolescence [17]
used m-learning programs and techniques have made the
following value statements in favor of m-learning. Social and educational challenges include

It is important to bring new technology into the Accessibility and cost barriers for end users: Digital
classroom. divide.
Devices used are more lightweight than books and How to assess learning outside the classroom
PCs.
How to support learning across many contexts[18]
Mobile learning can be used to diversify the types of
learning activities students partake in (or a blended Contents security or pirating issues
learning approach).
Frequent changes in device mod-
Mobile learning supports the learning process rather els/technologies/functionality etc.
than being integral to it.
Developing an appropriate theory of learning for the
Mobile learning can be a useful add-on tool for stu- mobile age
dents with special needs. However, for SMS and
MMS this might be dependent on the students spe- Conceptual dierences between e-learning and m-
cic disabilities or diculties involved. learning

Mobile learning can be used as a hook to re-engage Design of technology to support a lifetime of
disaected youth. learning[19][20]

Tracking of results and proper use of this informa-

Benets [2][13][14]
tion

Relatively inexpensive opportunities, as the cost of No restriction on learning timetable

mobile devices are signicantly less than PCs and
laptops Personal and private information and content

Multimedia content delivery and creation options No demographic boundary

Continuous and situated learning support Disruption of students personal and academic
lives[21]
Decrease in training costs
Access to and use of the technology in developing
Potentially a more rewarding learning experience countries[22]

Risk of distraction [2]

24.3.2 Challenges
Technical challenges include 24.3.3 Growth

Connectivity and battery life Over the past ten years mobile learning has grown from
a minor research interest to a set of signicant projects
Screen size and key size[15] in schools, workplaces, museums, cities and rural areas
around the world. The m-learning community is still frag-
Meeting required bandwidth for nonstop/fast
mented, with dierent national perspectives, dierences
streaming
between academia and industry, and between the school,
Number of le/asset formats supported by a specic higher education and lifelong learning sectors.[23]
device Current areas of growth include:
Content security or copyright issue from authoring
group Testing, surveys, job aids and just-in-time (J.I.T.)
learning
Multiple standards, multiple screen sizes, multiple
operating systems Location-based and contextual learning
24.5. REFERENCES 151

Social-networked mobile learning [8] Naismith, Laura; Lonsdale, Peter; Vavoula, Giasemi;
Sharples, Mike (2004). Literature Review in Mobile
Mobile educational gaming Technologies and Learning. FutureLab Series (11).

Delivering m-Learning to cellular phones using two [9] Robinson, R. & Reinhart, J. (2014). Digital Thinking and
way SMS messaging and voice-based CellCasting Mobile Teaching: Communicating, Collaborating, and
(podcasting to phones with interactive assessments) Constructing in an Access Age. Denmark: Bookboon.
[23]
[10] Kahle-Piasecki, Lisa; Miao, Chao; Ariss, Sonny (2012).
Cloud computer le storage [13] Managers and the Mobile Device: m-learning and m-
business - Implications for the United States and China.
Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness 6
(1): 5668.
24.4 See also
[11] Youth Unemployment: Can Mobile Technology Improve
Employability?". Global Development Professionals Net-
E-learning
work. The Guardian. February 26, 2013. Retrieved Au-
Instructional simulation gust 4, 2013.

mHealth [12] Mobile learning in Practice: Piloting a Mobile Learning

Teachers Toolkit in Further Education Colleges. C. Savil-
Oine mobile learning Smith et al. (2006), p. 8

Smartphone [13] Elias, Tanya (February 2011). Universal Instructional

Design Principles for Mobile Learning. International Re-
view of Research in Open and Distance Learning 12 (2):
143156.
24.5 References
[14] Using Mobile Devices to Integrate Economics Simula-
[1] Crompton, H. (2013). A historical overview of mobile tions in Teaching Approaches Based on Direct Instruc-
learning: Toward learner-centered education. In Z. L. tion on: International Teacher Education Conference 2014
Berge & L. Y. Muilenburg (Eds.), Handbook of mobile 01.10.2014.
learning (pp. 314). Florence, KY: Routledge.
[15] Maniar, N.; Bennett, E., Hand, S. & Allan, G (2008).
[2] Crescente, Mary Louise; Lee, Doris (March 2011). The eect of mobile phone screen size on video
Critical issues of m-learning: design models, adop- based learning. Journal of Software 3 (4): 5161.
tion processes, and future trends. Journal of the Chi- doi:10.4304/jsw.3.4.51-61.
nese Institute of Industrial Engineers 28 (2): 111123.
doi:10.1080/10170669.2010.548856. [16] Elias, Tanya (February 2011). Universal Instructional
Design Principles for Mobile Learning. International Re-
[3] Trentin G. & Repetto M. (Eds) (2013). Using Net- view of Research in Open and Distance Learning 12 (2).
work and Mobile Technology to Bridge Formal and
Informal Learning, Woodhead/Chandos Publishing [17] Crescente, Mary Louise; Lee, Doris (March 2011). Crit-
Limited, Cambridge, UK, ISBN 978-1-84334-699-9. ical issues of m-learning: design models, adoption pro-
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235929936_ cesses, and future trends. Journal of the Chinese Institute
Using_Network_and_Mobile_Technology_to_Bridge_ of Industrial Engineers 28 (2).
Formal_and_Informal_Learning/
[18] Whats Holding Back Mobile Phones for Education?".
[4] Saylor, Michael (2012). The Mobile Wave: How Stanford Social Innovation Review Blog. Standford Social
Mobile Intelligence Will Change Everything. Perseus Innovation Review. February 11, 2013. Retrieved August
Books/Vanguard Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1593157203. 4, 2013.

[5] Chet Hosmer, Carlton Jecoat, Matthew Davis, Thomas [19] Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mo-
McGibbon Use of Mobile Technology for Information bile technologies for lifelong learning. Computers &
Collection and Dissemination, Data & Analysis Center Education 34 (3-4): 177193. doi:10.1016/S0360-
for Software, March 2011 1315(99)00044-5.

[6] Murray, Orrin; Nicole Olcese (NovemberDecember [20] Moore, J. (2009). Proceedings of IADIS International
2011). Teaching and Learning with iPads, Ready or Conference Mobile Learning. Barcelona, Spain. |chap-
Not?". TechTrends 55 (6). doi:10.1007/s11528-011- ter= ignored (help)
0540-6.
[21] Masters, K.; Ng'ambi D. (2007). Proceedings of IADIS
[7] 7 THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT MOBILE International Conference Mobile Learning. Lisbon, Por-
APPS FOR LEARNING. EDUCAUSE Learning Initia- tugal. pp. 171175. ISBN 978-972-8924-36-2. |chap-
tive. May 4, 2010. ter= ignored (help)
152 CHAPTER 24. M-LEARNING

[22] Masters, K. (2005). Seeing, Understanding, Learning in

the Mobile Age. Budapest, Hungary, April 2005. |chap-
ter= ignored (help)

[23] Singh, Mandeep (2010). M-learning: A New Approach

to Learn Better. International Journal of Education and
Allied Sciences 2 (2): 6572.
Chapter 25

Oine mobile learning

Oine mobile learning refers to the ability to access from educational facilities, and do not have the infrastruc-
learning materials on a mobile device without requiring ture to support access.
an Internet connection.
Most developing countries do not have an extensive in-
Generally, web-based applications functionalities are de- frastructure to support M-Learning, and this makes it
pendent on ability to access to the Web. While there are more complicated to implement it in these countries.
many practical reasons why the application require an ac- However, these developing worlds still maintain similar
cess to the data on server, every feature of an application needs for M-Learning as developed countries do. Ken
may not necessarily need to have such real-time access Masters (2004) proposes that the lack of infrastructure
and therefore it may be possible to enhance the user expe- should be no reason for developing countries to delay
rience and wider applicability of application by providing implementing M-Learning. It is essential, that if the
oine access to certain features. need exists, institutions within these developing countries
Before choosing which features to support locally (of- should establish and commence mobile learning eorts as
ine) and when to connect to the server, simply list all soon as possible.
the features of your application as in Table 1 below and Users in developing countries have the same need for M-
identify the need. Learning to be mobile, accessible and aordable, as those
Table 1: List of features of web application and identify- in developed countries do. The very signicance of M-
ing need of connectivity. Learning is its ability to make learning mobile, away from
the classroom or workplace. These Wireless and mo-
Tasks that require a single service request are well suited to bile technologies enable learning opportunities to learners
oine scenarios. Such tasks follow a compose and for- who do not have direct access to learning in these places.
ward model, where the user species all of the required Many learners in developing countries have trouble ac-
data for the service request, which is then forwarded to the cessing the internet, or experience diculty in aording
actual service when the client reconnects. Examples of this technology that enables learning in an E-Learning envi-
type of task are: composing an e-mail, composing a meet- ronment. Mobile devices are a cheaper alternative com-
ing request, and entering order information. All of these pared to traditional E-Learning equipment such as PCs
tasks are discrete items that the user can complete oine and Laptops.
and that result in a single service request.[1]
However, to fully utilize this potential it is imperative to
explore the factors that determine mobile telecommuni-
cations development in the developing world[3] Deliver-
25.1 Mobile Learning: Developing ing mobile services on open hardware and open software
Countries not just practically make sense but can also lower the cost
and thus increase the possibility of oering sustainable
services in the future. While the benets of open-source
The developed worlds emphasis on highly sophisticated software are proven, it is important to conduct a broader
technological devices is a futuristic dream for most devel- study to investigate the potential role of relatively new copy-
oping countries.[2] Nevertheless, these countries realise left approach for custom hardware, as supporting mobile
that M-Learning is more than just using a mobile device learners in their own socio-cultural contexts of developing
for E-Learning, and that it requires an entirely dierent countries is a signicant challenge. [4]
approach. In order to utilize M-Learning eciently in
these developing countries, there is a need to understand
this approach, as technology becomes available.
These mobile technologies have successfully enabled
learning opportunities and support to those learners in
developing countries who are situated far distances away

153
154 CHAPTER 25. OFFLINE MOBILE LEARNING

25.2 Technologies 25.6 References

A range of devices exist from mobile phones to single- [1] MSDN Smart Client Oine Application Block. Re-
trieved on 08/01/2010.
purpose devices such as E-book readers. Current web
technologies provide limited support for oine access to [2] Masters, K. (2004). Low-key m-learning: a realstic in-
content and therefore web applications are generally de- troduction of m-learning to developing countries.
signed for online interactions with server and require In-
ternet connection to work. But mobile device is often [3] Ping, G. & Adnan, R., 2009. Analysing the Mobile
Telecommunications Market in a Developing Country: A
disconnected by nature and wireless network connection
Socio-Technical Perspective on Pakistan, Centre for De-
is not available all the time. Device needs to store data lo-
velopment Informatics, Instituate for development policy
cally in a fully searchable database and application should and management, SED.
allow continuous interaction regardless of availability of
Internet. Application should also be device and platform [4] Shrestha, S., Moore, J., Abdelnour-Nocera, J. Low-cost
independent. hardware for ICT4D: whats right and whats left?". IIEEE
Multidisciplinary Engineering Education Magazine, Vol
6, No 1 (2011).

[5] Google Google Gears API Architecture. Retrieved on

25.3 Challenges 08/01/2010.

[6] Qi Hardware Qi Hardware: Freedom Redened. Re-

Some modern mobile devices have the capability to store
trieved on 12/02/2010.
thousands of documents and therefore have the potential
to be used as powerful oine learning tools. The tradi-
tional graphical le browser does not scale well on phys-
ically constrained devices. In addition, documents ob- 25.7 External links
tained from random sources on the Internet may contain
ambiguous names and therefore may be dicult to relo- Math4Mobile - Free oine mobile applications
cate on the device.
Fusion Mobile | Nigerias Mobile m-Learning Plat-
Typically, the optimal solution is to use the local store as form
much as possible, since its usually faster than a remote
connection. However, the more work an application does
locally, the more code you need to write to implement the
feature locally and to synchronize the corresponding data.
There is a cost/benet tradeo to consider, and some fea-
tures may not be worthwhile to support locally.[5]

25.4 Specic Devices

WikiReader

The Ben NanoNote from Qi Hardware is copyleft

hardware. Copyleft hardware is hardware where all
information needed for its production is free. You
are left with physical goods on one side, and free
information on the other side. The Qi Hardware
project builds the most advanced copyleft hardware
in the world.[6]

25.5 See also

Fusion Mobile Nigeria Limited

mLearning
Chapter 26

E-assessment

In its broadest sense, e-assessment is the use of Nets to create a sophisticated model of student cognition,
information technology for any assessment-related ac- and a set of activities or problems that students work on
tivity. This denition embraces a wide range of stu- that allow the system to estimate the individuals under-
dent activity ranging from the use of a word processor standing of the particular domain.
to on-screen testing. Due to its obvious similarity to e-
learning, the term e-assessment is becoming widely used
as a generic term to describe the use of computers within 26.2 Advantages
the assessment process. Specic types of e-assessment
include computerized adaptive testing and computerized
E-assessment is becoming widely used. It has many ad-
classication testing.
vantages over traditional (paper-based) assessment. The
E-assessment can be used not only to assess cognitive advantages include:
and practical abilities but anxiety disorders, such as social
anxiety disorder, i.e. SPAI-B. Cognitive abilities are as- 1. lower long-term costs
sessed using e-testing software, while practical abilities
are assessed using e-portfolios or simulation software. 2. instant feedback to students

3. greater exibility with respect to location and timing

4. improved reliability (machine marking is much

26.1 Components more reliable than human marking)

An e-testing system designed to focus on lower level as- 5. improved impartiality (machine marking does not
sociations comprises two components: (1) an assessment 'know' the students so does not favour nor make al-
engine; and (2) an item bank. An assessment engine com- lowances for minor errors)
prises the hardware and software required to create and
6. greater storage eciency - tens of thousands of an-
deliver a test. Most e-testing engines run on standard
swer scripts can be stored on a server compared to
hardware so the key characteristic is the softwares func-
the physical space required for paper scripts
tionality. There is a wide range of software packages.
The software does not include the questions themselves; 7. enhanced question styles which incorporate interac-
these are provided by an item bank. Once created, the tivity and multimedia.
engine uses the item bank to generate a test. Traditional
paper-and-pencil testing is similar, but the test is pulled There are also disadvantages. E-assessment systems are
from the bank at only one time, when it is sent to publish- expensive to establish and not suitable for every type of
ing. assessment (such as extended response questions). The
The creation of the item bank is more costly and time main expense is not technical; it is the cost of produc-
consuming than the installation and conguration of the ing high quality assessment items - although that cost is
assessment engine. This is due to the fact that assessment identical when using paper-based assessment.
engines can be bought o the shelf, whereas an item The best examples follow a Formative Assessment struc-
bank must be developed for each specic application. ture and are called Online Formative Assessment. This
An e-assessment system designed to focus on more so- involves making an initial formative assessment by sift-
phisticated forms of knowledge requires some sort of in- ing out the incorrect answers. The author/teacher will
teractive activity and a system for inviting students to rea- then explain what the pupil should have done with each
son or solve problems around that activity. One inuential question. It will then give the pupil at least one practice
program of research is known as Evidence Centered De- at each slight variation of sifted out questions. This is
sign, or ECD. ECD involves the use of Bayesian Inference the formative learning stage. The next stage is to make

155
156 CHAPTER 26. E-ASSESSMENT

a Summative Assessment by a new set of questions only be performed on an equivalent electronic device such as
covering the topics previously taught. Some will take this a cell phone or PDA. CBA systems enable educators and
even further and repeat the cycle such as BOFA Online trainers to author, schedule, deliver, and report on sur-
11 plus papers which is aimed at the eleven plus exam set veys, quizzes, tests and exams.[2] They may be a stand-
alone system or a part of a virtual learning environment,
possibly accessed via the World Wide Web.
26.3 E-assessment standards Online assessment refers to assessment activity which re-
quires the use of the internet. In reality, few high stakes
In order to create a mechanism for the sharing of high assessment sessions are actually conducted online in real-
quality assessment items, global standards have emerged. time, but the transfer of data prior to and after the as-
The IMS Question and Test Interoperability specication sessment session is conducted via the internet. There are
(QTI) provides a common format for describing and dis- many examples of practice and diagnostic tests being run
tributing question items across disparate systems. real time over the internet.

26.4 Hand-held student response 26.6 History

systems See also: PLATO (computer system)

An area of E-assessment that has seen extensive growth

in recent years is the use of hand held student response E-assessment dates to the PLATO system (1960) from
devices (often referred to as clickers or voting devices). the University of Illinois. This was commercialized by
These allow a teacher to carry out whole-group assess- Control Data Corporation (then owner of PLATO) in the
ments, polls and surveys quickly and easily.[1] They use 1970s, starting with an online testing system for National
either radio or infra red to communicate with a central Association of Securities Dealers (now the Financial In-
hub that is usually attached to a computer. In many school dustry Regulatory Authority), a private-sector regulator
classrooms these devices may also be used in combination of the US securities markets. The system was developed
with an interactive whiteboard. by Michael Stein, E. Clarke Porter and PLATO veteran
Jim Ghesquiere, in cooperation with NASD executive
Frank McAulie. The testing business grew slowly and
was ultimately spun o from CDC as Drake Training and
26.5 Note on terminology Technologies (today Thomson Prometric) in 1990.
This was then transitioned o of mainframes to a LAN-
Various terms are used to describe the use of a computer based client-server architecture (with Novell), and the
for assessment purposes. These include: 1. Computer- testing business exploded in the 1990s with increased
Assisted Assessment or Computer-Aided Assessment networks, together with IT certications and testing cen-
(CAA) 2. Computer-Mediated Assessment (CMA) ters from various companies, including Novell and Mi-
3. Computer-Based Assessment (CBA) 4. Computer- crosoft. Further expansion was occasioned by Pearson
Aided Assessment 5. Online assessment VUE, founded by PLATO/Prometric veterans E. Clarke
Although these terms are commonly used interchange- Porter, Steve Nordberg and Kirk Lundeen in 1994, who
ably, they have distinct meanings. were one of the rst to use the internet, and developed
self-service test registration.
Computer Assisted/Mediated Assessment refers to any
application of computers within the assessment process; The computer-based testing industry has continued to
the role of the computer may be extrinsic or intrinsic. grow, adding professional licensure and educational test-
It is, therefore, a synonym for e-assessment which also ing as important business segments.
describes a wide range of computer-related activities.
Within this denition the computer often plays no part in
the actual assessment of responses but merely facilitates 26.7 See also
the capture and transfer of responses between candidate
and human assessor. Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated
Computer-Based Assessment refers to assessment which Battery
is built around the use of a computer; the use of a com- Computer-adaptive test
puter is always intrinsic to this type of assessment. This
can relate to assessment of IT practical skills or more Computerized classication test
commonly the on screen presentation of knowledge tests.
E-learning
The dening factor is that the computer is marking or as-
sessing the responses provided from candidates. It can CDR Computerized Assessment System
26.11. SOFTWARE 157

26.8 References 26.11 Software

[1] http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/12132/1/Using_technology_to_ BeAXi E-Assessment E-Assessment suite
prevent_plagiarism_Draft_submission.pdf
Examination Online Online E-Assessment Solution
[2] TCExam

Asuni, Nicola. TCExam :: Computer-Based As-

sessment. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Gomersall, Bob (2005-12-10). Practical imple-
mentation of e-testing on a large scale, and implica-
tions for future eassessment and e-learning. Ship-
ley, West Yorkshire, UK. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
Scheuermann, Friedrich; ngela Guimares Pereira
(2008-04-01). Towards A Research Agenda On
Computer-Based Assessment. Luxembourg, Lux-
embourg. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Scheuermann, Friedrich; Julius Bjrnsson (2008-
04-01). The Transition to Computer-Based As-
sessment - New Approaches to Skills Assessment
and Implications for Large-scale Testing. Luxem-
bourg, Luxembourg. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
Scottish Qualications Authority (2008). SOLAR
White Paper. Glasgow, UK. Retrieved 2008-02-
15.

26.9 Further Reading

Laumer, S., Stetten, A. & Eckhardt, A. (2009) E-
Assessment. Business & Information Systems En-
gineering, 1 (3), 263265. doi: 10.1007/s12599-
009-0051-6.

26.10 External links

The e-Assessment Association is a professional
body for e-Assessment.
International Annual Conference on e-Assessment.
Transforming Assessment has a rage of examples of
e-assessment in web 2.0 and virtual world learning
environments (Based at the University of Adelaide,
Australia)
e-assessment section at JISC, UK.
CAA Centre still oers the most to-the-point treat-
ment of Computer-Based testing for use in Higher
Education.
eAssessment at the Open University, UK shows how
to use an opensource computer-assisted assessment
(CAA) system called OpenMark designed to mark
less structured questions.
158 CHAPTER 26. E-ASSESSMENT

26.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

26.12.1 Text
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alectric, Grafen, MBSaddoris, Emijrp, Qero, ChemGardener, SmackBot, Espresso Addict, McGeddon, Unyoyega, C.Fred, Hedronist,
Edgar181, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Bdoin, Oli Filth, JonHarder, Wes!, Radagast83, Mion, Caravaca, JzG, Lakinekaki, Bengurion, Ck-
atz, Cre, Yzerfontein, JoeBot, Chris53516, Courcelles, Willhelm tell, WeisheitSuchen, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Odie5533, Ameliorate!,
Marek69, Smile a While, Nick Number, Niladmirari, Spacefarer, Nsamuel, Educationsoftware, JAnDbot, Slstg, MER-C, Arch dude,
Biopreparat, Rberkey, Monkeymagic66, Geniac, Tedy.nurcahyo.w, Jfriedberg, JNW, Justin M, Cander0000, Jim.henderson, Genghiskhan-
viet, Jacquesjj, Courseware, Uncle Dick, Zkaradag, Krishnachandranvn, VolkovBot, Wxidea, Wolfnix, Johnluxford, Anna Lincoln, Aylo,
Martin451, Bearian, Jamelan, SieBot, Waldstein, Jsteelbeam, Dscc, Nopetro, PerryLowell, Nancy, Seema.shah, Dlrohrer2003, Nthiery,
AWiersch, Resoru, A3camero, Elizium23, TobBac00, Vj.style08, SF007, DumZiBoT, Koolabsol, Salam32, Addbot, SIWC, Oryxgazella,
Slstewart48, Fieldday-sunday, Bsalajan, MrOllie, Mafussen, Evalunet, W0071177, , Asdjkljasd, Fountain Posters, Them-
fromspace, Dude8888en, AnomieBOT, Paulthomas2, Galoubet, Materialscientist, Micahcool2, Tanahmerah1, Iknowletters, Aaditya 7,
FrescoBot, Maturker, Serberimor, Chalkiewiki, LexiaLearning, DanHite, Kritikajoshi2, Jreiss186, Mean as custard, Nopaniers, Wik-
itanvirBot, Knowledgenotebook, Zollerriia, Rex644, Wikipelli, Entj1963, DarenPickering, ZroBot, Susfele, F, Reeeeet, Fscalone,
Athyuttamre, Wayne Slam, Ztelona, Adrianvm, Ponduraisingh, Rangoon11, Sigma0 1, Pavangayakwad, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, Kirill
Borisenko, Nadimaccute, Movses-bot, In actu, Wbm1058, Sayle28, SChick7, Acuna007, Mathu75, Khazar2, Profesoratecnologia, Gord-
john, SFK2, Cindymcdonald, ScotXW, Dvorakson, Katarzyna20141984, Mhanski, Sultanshakeel, KH-1, InternetWebmaster, CalliW,
Sajjad2u and Anonymous: 146
E-learning (theory) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning%20(theory)?oldid=640346867 Contributors: Freechild, Robbot,
Rchandra, Rjwilmsi, Stephenb, Welsh, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, George100, WeisheitSuchen, AndrewHowse, DekuDeku-
plex, DOSGuy, David Eppstein, Neezes, Martarius, Niceguyedc, SoxBot, Dlewis3, Dthomsen8, Addbot, DOI bot, Tassedethe, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Citation bot, Citation bot 1, TreXiaNos, Rangoon11, FeatherPluma, PrimeraExpedicion, Helpful Pixie Bot, Edumation, SFK2,
Anc123, Mumbui, Elizabeth sunny, Lizia7, Monkbot, Megwass, Joeyusb and Anonymous: 19
Instructional design Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional%20design?oldid=643476245 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
Hirzel, DennisDaniels, Michael Hardy, Kabads, Ronz, INyar, Thseamon, Bloodshedder, Seglea, Rdclark, Everdred, Tbuckner, Btphelps,
Andycjp, Bhuck, Robin klein, Rculatta, Violetriga, Aranel, Jon the Geek, Bobo192, Bookandcoee, Geosauer, Sylvain Mielot, DrMel,
Actionhamster, MaxSteppenwolf, Marudubshinki, Rjwilmsi, Jivecat, Brendano, ElKevbo, AJackl, FlaBot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Doug Alford, Freerick, Leuliett, Nesbit, Dialectric, Rbrinkle, Rajgo, Closedmouth, Rurik, SmackBot, PaulWay, Alan Pascoe, McGed-
don, Deb Weiss, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Rorybowman, Kasyapa, Abmac, MadCow257, FlyHigh, Demetri, Beetstra, Dicklyon,
Katekennedy79, Edwardotis, JForget, CmdrObot, GargoyleMT, Requestion, WeisheitSuchen, Mraxehandle, Pascal.Tesson, DumbBOT,
Daven200520, Dimotika, Oldiowl, Pilgrimhawk, RnS, Ispi, Maberry, PeterNordgren, SiobhanHansa, Schepop, EagleFan, Torchiest, David
Eppstein, Oicumayberight, Kctucker, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Gbin2000, Dgwaltney, Bonadea, JohnDoe0007, Dlewis123, Jaeger48917, Chim-
pex, Itphd19, Milktoast, Mohit.sachdeva, Kusyadi, Sapphic, AlleborgoBot, CutOTies, PbBot, Fratrep, OKBot, Biehnb, Michaelsshaw,
AusTerrapin, Arjunaraoc, Tchgreene, Alexbot, ComputerGeezer, Arjayay, Dlewis3, Weevie833, DumZiBoT, MJMK, Truppell, Addbot,
DOI bot, Strykerhorse, Snasta, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Oncetwice, Yobot, Harsh.vijh, Gongshow, Michaeljolson, KamikazeBot, He-
lencalhoun, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, KB0407, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Krissys group, Teachprasad, Expooz, Capricorn42, Ma-
groo444222, Crzer07, GrouchoBot, SassoBot, Esnc, Gordonrox24, Aaron Kauppi, FrescoBot, Dpenrose, Cmattiske, Citation bot 1,
DEureka, George.joeckel, Lamia313, Lysander89, RjwilmsiBot, Slon02, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Werieth, ZroBot,
Bongoramsey, Shadaddy23, Johnwmcc, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, Widr, Joltman1, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dr Guigui, BG19bot, Clifton-
roberts, Nkiplinger, Joelleegardner, Aisteco, Vicki009, Fylbecatulous, Instructionaldesigner, DoctorKubla, Ringring91, Jil810, Kas307,
Fav203, Cmlee211, Agulyas, Cocowind123, Trekkerrc, Magnolia677, Rushanziatdinov, Antrocent, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, B Wild 66,
Tribute2PanterA, Rs9981 and Anonymous: 165
Synchronous learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous%20learning?oldid=610957880 Contributors: Dina, Discospin-
ster, Y0u, Malcolma, Syrthiss, Blowdart, SmackBot, Cataniaj, Amalas, Jwray1, MarshBot, Andy Dingley, JL-Bot, Sitush, Unbuttered
Parsnip, Wgraziadei, Yobot, TribeCarnival, Erik9bot, Roycekimmons, SrNance, Nawalnader, JordoCo, LibrarianAnnie, Suebethgf, Eda-
cus, KimberlyMoore32, Monkbot and Anonymous: 4
Asynchronous learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous%20learning?oldid=644928077 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Fvw, RJHall, Reinyday, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Open2universe, Chris the speller, Tawkerbot4, AntiVandalBot, Dekimasu, Peter Chastain,
VolkovBot, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Thomascain01, FrescoBot, Haeinous, DrilBot, Katherine, Roycekimmons,
Kentsalus, LWG, Janetpwiki, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, JordoCo, Loriendrew, Numbermaniac, LibrarianAnnie, D2lrocks, Monkbot,
Tracy Last and Anonymous: 18
Computer-supported collaborative learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-supported%20collaborative%20learning?
oldid=634774890 Contributors: Edward, Ronz, Gandalf61, SlimVirgin, BillC, Rjwilmsi, Jemcneill, Mark Elliott, RayaruB, Otto567,
Whitejay251, SmackBot, Chris the speller, LinguistAtLarge, Dr. Chuck, Nabeth, GerryStahl, Sarahmonicamarni, WeisheitSuchen, Cyde-
bot, Ebyabe, Gioto, Ahefner, Arifsaha, Jheiv, Autumnholy, Chs8084, Gwendamian, Zkaradag, JossBuckle Swami, ShahChirag, Aphilo, Re-
aldewey, Briansun, Trivialist, Sun Creator, Tdslk, XLinkBot, Sjgknight, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Socrates24, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Demo-
craticLuntz, Lead2learning, Tomin, ChildofMidnight, MiShe11e38, FrescoBot, A.Buitenhuis, Panchoh, AlisonElmer, Tisane, Borja Moll
XAL 2010, FeatherPluma, Emaradiegue, ClueBot NG, Kootron, MerlIwBot, Jhyldtoft, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Csclhighered, Pratyya
Ghosh, LibrarianAnnie, Sunjizu, Antrocent, Msidt2014, Recoveringacademic and Anonymous: 20
Electronic portfolio Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20portfolio?oldid=645896394 Contributors: Little guru, Infrogma-
tion, Ronz, Angela, Francois Dongier, Daniel Quinlan, Andrewman327, Secretlondon, Finlay McWalter, Serge, LGagnon, DocWatson42,
Saaga, Neale Monks, Imroy, HPHubbard, Stesmo, Smalljim, Robearsn, Hoary, RainbowOfLight, Waiting4beckett, Tckma, Plrk, Jclemens,
ElKevbo, Eric.dane, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Goldbanjo, Picorna, NawlinWiki, Arichnad, Thiseye, Nick, Nils peterson, Jules.LT, Grayum,
CIreland, YSChengMetz, Mach10, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Drc, Gilliam, Amatulic, TastyPoutine, RichardF, Gigidev, Dgibson, Weck,
160 CHAPTER 26. E-ASSESSMENT

Steven Forth, Steeleb, DumbBOT, Alaibot, Doctor Moley, Thijs!bot, Cmurray71, Yboord028, Marek69, X201, Tafkam, EdJohnston,
Corio, AntiVandalBot, Maberry, Spencer, Christopher bailey dal, Reazon, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Clivestaples, Brian Fenton, Dhar-
madhyaksha, DerHexer, Edward321, Axlq, William.lethal, Nono64, Mary catherine russell, Ryanbrooks, Ramkot, Robert.Chmielewski,
IWhisky, BabyBoomer51, TXiKiBoT, Filmhawk, UnitedStatesian, PennyLeach, Lex van der Sluijs, SIMKathy, Monty845, Pwasko123,
Asimong, Lmanner, Davidbnd, LiseAgerbaek, Oxymoron83, Aboluay, Awillmore, Makeybussines, MarcVanCoillie, ShelleyAdams, Clue-
Bot, Maximise, Desireblue, Dickpenn, Ruth Cox, Susannah diamond, Muro Bot, XLinkBot, Bcottri, Judith Buendgens-Kosten, Cygnuz,
Sajuvy, Therond7, MrOllie, Snissn, Download, EmoryWalden, SpBot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Robborocks, Dcapitald, Prof898, Nowrep-
resent, Petzi53, Sgoggins, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Manfre87, Qqawestry, OlYeller21, LynetteOlson, Ozrural, Livetext, FrescoBot,
MrHighway, Reconsider the static, Mr. Quickling, Kabalin, Reaper Eternal, Suusion of Yellow, Alexmar983, Wikipelli, John Cline,
Matt186, RobinHex, Ajay.KV, Tot12, ClueBot NG, Tcarrucan, Stickyngers2010, Wiki838, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, JohnPasquet,
Faliden, Wouterens, Calabe1992, Zvido, Skhair1, JamsterR700, Edtech2012, Pneuser01, Prljunkmail, Cmvreuter, Mark viking, Killer-
payday, Emily seelio, Sach chaudhari, Drchriswilliams, Rmainva, Jciri034, SChapters, ROMB-Inst, Sskerr, Honrice, Ekl418, Danmc31,
Immiked and Anonymous: 238
Distance education Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance%20education?oldid=646607780 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig,
Clasqm, Hannes Hirzel, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Haakon, Ronz, BigFatBuddha, David Thrale, Tschild, Itai, Bevo,
Slawojarek, Chocolateboy, Texture, Timrollpickering, Wikilibrarian, Bnn, Pne, Golbez, SonicAD, MSTCrow, Manuel Anastcio, Kuku-
man, Quadell, Piotrus, Mahmood, Amesville, Huaiwei, Fintor, CohenTheBavarian, Abdull, Grin147, Grunt, Grstain, Monkeyman, Dis-
cospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, MajorB, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Dcabrilo, Violetriga, Glenlarson, Orlady, Spinboy, Deathawk,
Stesmo, BrokenSegue, Kjkolb, Tresoldi, Samaritan, Cdc, Knowledge Seeker, Instantnood, Leomanfredotti, Johntex, Dismas, Woohookitty,
RHaworth, Barrylb, Benbest, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, AnmaFinotera, Doriangriths, Graham87, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Twrist, Jivecat, Red
King, Colin Hill, A J Luxton, ElKevbo, Kalogeropoulos, Afterwriting, The wub, MRacer, Oliverkeenan, Kbigdawg1, JeremyMcCracken,
Tequendamia, John Maynard Friedman, Alphachimp, K1v1n, Utahredrock, Peasea, DVdm, Simesa, Whoever, Roboto de Ajvol, Yurik-
Bot, Wavelength, Freerick, Elapsed, Ansell, Jaycasper, Gaius Cornelius, Nowa, Bruguiea, Rjensen, Retired username, PrologFan, RFBai-
ley, Mheumann, Zwobot, Supten, DeadEyeArrow, Denz42, Blowdart, Andrew Cooper, Zzuuzz, Arcbarklite, Donald Albury, GraemeL,
JoanneB, Chriswaterguy, Dblackhall, Rolen, Allens, Hathaldir, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Enlil Ninlil, Impaciente, Reedy, Royalguard11,
McGeddon, Roberto Cruz, Rahuagra502, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Kevinhs, Rhoeg, Oli Filth, Groman, Neo-Jay, Kitty1983, Colonies Chris,
A. B., Jpslone, Ww2censor, Azumanga1, Mr.Z-man, Ghiraddje, Master Scott Hall, MichaelBillington, Localzuk, Jomis, TechPurism,
Lpgeen, Desmond71, Deepred6502, Murph78, Valfontis, Kuru, Books fan, Dharmamann, Phd by publication, Jaywubba1887, Arbus-
too, IronGargoyle, DanielLemire, Vinney, Piercetp, Metao, Michael Greiner, Celtkin, H, Xionbox, Dl2000, Hu12, DabMachine, Type-
lighter, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Cryptic C62, AbsolutDan, Dmacasaet, RegentInternational, Jwjwj,
ScottW, Grapeman, CmdrObot, Bb6268, Jonas Hanway, LDiracDelta, Gifting, Benwildeboer, Davnor, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Clovis San-
grail, DumbBOT, DBaba, Dinnerbone, Toolingu, Carmen1975es, Iss246, Mattisse, Epbr123, Superslacker87, JamieL, AntiVandalBot,
Seaphoto, Uttam215, Thomasdawsonhamilton, Darklilac, CaliEd, Barek, MER-C, Nickvet419, SiobhanHansa, Ramurf, 22m, Bongwar-
rior, Xb2u7Zjzc32, DavidN2, Mbc362, Faizhaider, Tramage, Balloonguy, CosmicPenguin, Breckket, Mysteryquest, Terguy, B. Wolterding,
Jbillings, Jdbaker, MartinBot, Tomdeighan, STBot, Sjjupadhyay, Tvoz, Jim.henderson, Smilingsuzy, Dougsymington, Ibrain, Hairchrm,
FelipeVargasRigo, Tgeairn, Matt57, J.delanoy, Darxrex, AstroHurricane001, Consejero, Tevaprapas, Mlearning, Zkaradag, Cmarshali-
hets, Shanak, Jeremy Sheel, Molly-in-md, Moshimoshi52, Navneet kul, Doctoroxenbriery, Darkfrog24, Ja 62, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot,
Copis, Lwalt, Deor, VolkovBot, Extrawise, Lesb246, Je G., WheelCipher, TXiKiBoT, OliverWS, ^demonBot2, Andy Dingley, Yolanda
Gayol, Erwin1990, Waldanoble, Runewiki777, Arturo zuniga, StAnselm, Carl142, Miketedting, Flyer22, Liondor, Andrea macleod, PbBot,
Apletters, StaticGull, Dodger67, Jayras, Sitush, ClueBot, Gnyc, Fadesga, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Mariya Oktyabrskaya, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Mhjackson, Gizen, Eurovictor, Parkwells, Southcampus, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Jtrusler, Iner22, Atharhaq, Ke57Qiang, Sjmclean, Kikos,
Gwandoya, John.engelhart.uni, MrBiggs2, Jmkim dot com, Addbot, H20rose, Teacher46, Preethivalar, DustyRain, Paul82588, Morkerqiop,
MrOllie, Yankeerudy, Muproject, Thi, BenGeorge, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, TribeCarnival, Cyanoa Crylate, Hamacleod,
Callaslily, Spud12, Alqurantutor, Therebyhere, AnomieBOT, Mbrownz, Mkoole, Piano non troppo, Bluerasberry, Aidancian, Citation bot,
LilHelpa, Xqbot, Noviroz, Erud, Erikj09, 4twenty42o, Euqueria, Makeswell, Addbc, Fortcarson, Kang1164, Wikiknol, Tfeliz, Boskhouse,
Wezloyd, Thehelpfulbot, Terrygibbons, FrescoBot, Amiemarieak, Ozhu, SidMuralidhar, AU Biamonte, Novaseminary, Michael Branni-
gan, Raed abu farha, Ctam1979, DrilBot, Pier440, Janislee1212, Mrsahiwal, Galapagos999, Geniussis, RandomStringOfCharacters, Sgar-
rigan, AnonymousNKY, Msileinad, Trappist the monk, DixonDBot, Gabber123, Mabeenot, Angers roams, Rmy3260, Mean as custard,
Jondron, RjwilmsiBot, Schoolsonline, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Dagan2009, WikitanvirBot, Eurosuisse, RA0808, Immaletunish, Audit-
guy, Mgmwiki, Wikipelli, Kkm010, CRedit 1234, Ericmuki, Bernardo.bb, Bemanna, Erianna, Jlhayman, Demiurge1000, UP Webmaster,
Noodleki, Sazaja, RayneVanDunem, MVuongNguyen, FeatherPluma, 28bot, Melanierdesilva, ClueBot NG, Bboothby77, Chazthecoolper-
son, Mes0228, Dtrussell, Brainmeasures, Bped1985, D.moorex47, Shdoty, Vlateresa, Mooreb87, Kasirbot, Widr, JordoCo, Ciamsaard,
Juliamartin, Omkar1234, Xiceman7000x, Lsmyda, Skelly001, Jar338, MrDelp, Twars, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Snaevar-bot,
Dlfeschool, George Ponderevo, Zimzuza, MusikAnimal, Livelingua, Frze, Sammrud, Mark Arsten, Yasha 7, Fig-edu, Maahmaah, Amies-
tudy, Autologin, Szentko, Avaks, 544Cayw, Smurph888, MarcusBelben, BattyBot, Educate111, ChrisGualtieri, PROF.S.K.DAS, Khazar2,
KinseyFree, RBrounstein, MMiller010, Pcm130, Kmcguire25, Cayre001, Krefosco, Courtneyorio, Andralearner, Mogism, Sreeraj.n1,
Doorroom2007, Lakisan97, Billsilver1984, EtanaLF, Faizan, George Urbaszek, Lemnaminor, LibrarianAnnie, Lee Shapiro, Vandanach-
habra, AlmostRutger, Rushanziatdinov, Eva Learie, Aires1987, HartantoNo, Ravi K Mahajan, Francesdyer, Mchl18, Ggcail, Babitaarora,
Haminoon, Jmellohawk, 1JooJoo, KimberlyMoore32, Jjedorczyk, Patikikay, Kurt.valcorza, Ann Medina, Nazaa, N.musngi, JesseLubert,
RichardBarrett1, Wenjun99, Michael steinmann, Blovelan, Monkbot, Henryjanssen, Eashanwali, Prashantamte, Jboerio, Vpaweczyk001,
Tshivakumar1979, Leatb, Shahbaz2747, Manyatanwar, KeynoteBakers, Demagur and Anonymous: 430
OpenCourseWare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCourseWare?oldid=646602821 Contributors: Ronz, Mike Linksvayer,
Masao, Zj, Naufana, Houshuang, Discospinster, Billymac00, Gary, Wiki-uk, Ringbang, OwenX, Mindmatrix, SchuminWeb, Tedder, Bg-
white, Arichnad, Eugrus, Tachs, Dawhiteld, SmackBot, Rahuagra502, MartinPoulter, Rogerhc, Rrburke, Mion, Kuru, Beetstra, Hu12,
Lucid, HelloAnnyong, Denysmonroe81, MaxEnt, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Candeo gauisus, Electron9, JAnDbot, Dsp13, Hamsterlopithecus,
Steven Walling, User A1, DGG, Gwern, Bcartolo, Funandtrvl, Soeren1611, Devlinb, Alsalamahm, Greg.grossmeier, Alexbr82, Nopetro,
Atgrauer, MattKeegan, Linzij, Drmies, Editor2020, XLinkBot, Addbot, HATA A. K., MrOllie, Download, EconoPhysicist, Tech licensing,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Felipe P, Mbailey33, Kathy Tam, 16x9, Nasa-verve, Virustm, Ivan Shmakov, Celuici, FrescoBot, Monget, Zx1986,
Kenfyre, HRoestBot, WoolyPig, Anonymousfreak, Jonkerz, Bagafact, Hkloepper, Mean as custard, Likestolearn, OpenEducation4all, Im-
provingWiki, Zollerriia, Clavenke, Rither, Bemanna, David.manseld, SBaker43, Delusion23, Reify-tech, CasualVisitor, Kinotshi, Wfvan-
valkenburg, Avinkarri, Yash raina, Tbobo05, Globedit, Liu275, LidaChina, Zoe Bertrand, Sprout2112, VtheBear, Tbirdcymru, Lucienean-
tunes, ReconditeRodent, Pasternaker, JulianaAlvim, Monkbot, KH-1, Imayankkr and Anonymous: 55
Virtual learning environment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20learning%20environment?oldid=645273175 Contribu-
26.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 161

tors: Hirzel, Jose Icaza, Edward, Boud, Michael Hardy, Roan, Eric119, Haakon, Ronz, EdH, Charles Matthews, Andrevan, SEWilco,
Buridan, Pigsonthewing, Altenmann, Seglea, Davidds, Dina, Dominick, ShaunMacPherson, Orangemike, Jonathan O'Donnell, Troja, Gad-
um, Utcursch, Bodnotbod, Jeremykemp, Cynical, Rolandg, Monkeyman, Rich Farmbrough, Gloucks, Orlady, Bobo192, Vdm, Flammifer,
Minghong, Mdd, Cormaggio, Jtalledo, SteinbDJ, Stuartyeates, Woohookitty, Paultraf, Sega381, Philbarker, Mandarax, Jannetta, Gra-
ham87, BD2412, Mattclare, Lugnad, ElKevbo, DouglasGreen, Dmccreary, RobertG, Ysangkok, Jonathan Kovaciny, Jcrooke, AndriuZ,
Mjeaves, Eriklord, Butros, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Daverocks, RussBot, Gardar Rurak, DanMS, Nesbit, RadioFan, Rsrikanth05,
Artlader, Jempage, Bruguiea, Catamorphism, Ggsands, Insomnianiac, Djm1279, Jpbowen, Brucevdk, DeadEyeArrow, Zzuuzz, Arthur
Rubin, GraemeL, Nelson50, Samuel Blanning, SmackBot, C.Fred, Matthudsonau, Pks, Jtneill, Eskimbot, Ewolfram, SmartGuy Old,
Ohnoitsjamie, Bluebot, Morte, Oli Filth, Hmcnally, Ajbuntine, CSWarren, Colonies Chris, A. B., Cmcqueen, JonHarder, Balix, Papagel,
Radagast83, Abmac, Mion, Ifranzen, Heyjohngreen, Scientizzle, JHunterJ, Dicklyon, Nabeth, Sifaka, P tasso, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2,
AbsolutDan, Shamil, JiriK, Rcollman, Patrick Berry, Skng8, Pru.mitchell, Goatchurch, Avillia, ONUnicorn, Robertcathles, Ryber, Steel,
Meno25, DJKay, Johnkoetsier, Betacommand2, Thijs!bot, MinnaL, N5iln, SGGH, Vinaymr, Yasmagic, Lsonne, Tsoron, Dawnseeker2000,
Mfeldstein, Alphachimpbot, Spacefarer, Russell hadd, Davidsavill, Reazon, Ilakast, Hut 8.5, Acroterion, Xororaz, VoABot II, Jpcohen,
MastCell, Squidge, Indon, Gwledig, Breckket, IT Psychologist, KRich, Oicumayberight, DGG, Ywarnier, Ynsingh, Speck-Made, JmG,
Dabrowa, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Mange01, Miss Amanda, Athaenara, Fabelectronics, Ryanbrooks, Jamesdtownsend, Aisano, Douglasrofes,
Darkfrog24, Wxidea, Technopat, Odestiny, Slipmatt959, Olly150, Anna Lincoln, Auberon, Tbergonz, Jfrance2, Phillip.cowley, Dmeglio,
Andy Dingley, Mmutilva, T1ger1977, Jph98, Elusive Pete, Runewiki777, PeterCanthropus, Rpadoilla, Minz303, Sacboy, GlassCobra,
Gabrusha, Oodooh, Oxymoron83, Bobsnail, Varezzi, TubularWorld, Sitush, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Dipaq, Iuppiter, EoGuy, Tall-
Magic, Gizen, Adtlau001, Simonholdings, Marcussundgren, Account9000, Petercoooper, Thingg, Sjmclean, Jedhallam, Flibbermewidget,
Galzigler, Interkrok, Addbot, Edhart67, DustyRain, Leszek Jaczuk, MrOllie, Download, Favonian, Allardstrijker, Dianna m, Ymia, Tide
rolls, 55, SalvageTheSauce, Yobot, Bman32, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Lifelearning, Quebec99, Informetica,
Zackade, Danleighton, Gilo1969, Ariadnestar, Contraverse, Smithterryk, Livetext, FrescoBot, Dwellings, SidMuralidhar, HJ Mitchell, Hel-
gehannisdal, Erik Wannee, 21cngl, Etech Group, Siukwan38, Pinethicket, Elforce ts, Geniussis, Kritikajoshi2, Rentzepopoulos, Walkstx,
Diannaa, Pupil123, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Historianalpha, Dewritech, Caroline Warhurst, Wikipelli, DarenPickering, Pxtreme75,
Mylearningltd, Greatbigmassive, Instructureinnovates, Intellidemia, W163, Quntilian, EdBreaux, FeatherPluma, Hhutchens, Petrb, ClueBot
NG, Adeluca, Chermariewagner, Nolamay, Sharayray, Sn gloria, Cntras, Skjreilly, Mooreb87, Transib, Solbu, Vibhijain, Jorgenev, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Fmhf87, Sderum, Ckrochak, Supersandy, Cnewell12, Lauriewro1, Maria Hosein, Elizabethpodolak, Jdlindner15, 10eonreal-
ity, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Rm1271, Joroman2k, Jagernyken, Courageous Apprentice, Mrjahn, Shannon116, Dvahren, Tammi Barney,
Fedupinpgh, Jacklee2013, Tagi3d, Lavkarbo, Wisegirl76, Huggans.sean, Ikatesha, Scientic Alan 2, Evaccaro81, LCerch2, Kwilliams006,
Hvotoole, AEC520, Majilis, Jrmrbr, Lugia2453, GabeIglesia, LibrarianAnnie, NeelieOltonbey, KamalBouskri, Drchriswilliams, Ivtue,
Stevetaylor620, The42project, TheTrabiMechanic, Leatb and Anonymous: 409
Learning management system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20management%20system?oldid=646602438 Contrib-
utors: Antiochus, Jose Icaza, Boud, Bondgrrl, Kku, Haakon, Ronz, Glenn, Andrevan, Faran, SEWilco, Toreau, Cobaltbluetony, Or-
angemike, Uzume, Edcolins, Quarl, Leolucas, Udzu, Rculatta, Qui1che, Monkeyman, Discospinster, Cnyborg, S.K., Shanafme, Srippon,
Geschichte, Vijairaj, Calton, Stuartyeates, RHaworth, Tabletop, Sega381, Mandarax, Pdelong, Stardust8212, ElKevbo, AJackl, Ysangkok,
Mindme, Jonathan Kovaciny, Tarmo, YurikBot, Cjvezeau, Freerick, Akamad, NawlinWiki, Cleared as led, Irishguy, PM Poon, .marc.,
Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, GraemeL, Nelson50, Farm, Asterion, ChemGardener, Veinor, SmackBot, McGeddon, C.Fred, SmartGuy Old,
Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Oli Filth, Sadads, KieferSkunk, Nixeagle, JonHarder, Akshyin, Papagel, MrRadio-
Guy, Radagast83, Bernardwillis, TechPurism, Weregerbil, Quakerfriend, Mion, Vuttaa, Heyjohngreen, Harryboyles, Kompere, Bitamois,
Dicklyon, RichardF, Nabeth, Dreftymac, Zero sharp, AbsolutDan, OS2Warp, ScottW, CmdrObot, Rcollman, Craigolson, Neo assyrian,
J S Pannu, Pungu, DJKay, Johnkoetsier, Fisler, Bob Little, Gmadey, Betacommand2, Jessemonroy650, Epbr123, Supriyoc, Vinaymr,
Vkdwivedi, Jonny-mt, Lsonne, Sherbrooke, Anomrabbit, Behnam Ghiaseddin, JEH, Alphachimpbot, Spacefarer, JAnDbot, Davidsavill,
Leuko, Ajaque, MER-C, Joaquimoly, Seanashbrook, Twsx, Gwledig, Dorte Nielsen, Marconeli, Oicumayberight, Ywarnier, Darinphillips,
Ynsingh, Cputrdoc, R'n'B, Greyhound4334, Deben Dave, Keynesian, Athaenara, Sylligardakis, ProfJ, Ctina2 99, Claudioerba, Jbersin,
AntiSpamBot, Ssadler, Redrocket, Shariq81, Wbpro, Eswaronline, Fo, Cholula94, Gremchild, Kwcrisman, Simplylearn, Marcosae-
dro, Zeetha, LeaveSleaves, Wempen, Theacademy.com, Svoy, Gfusco, Ashokpundit, Jason m butler, GothWalker, Pedroliska, Kg anish,
Hhenry, Shaddyz, Mylearningspace, C45207, Apecrazy, Chris George 1977, Abc123uandme, SieBot, Halloranc, Rpadoilla, Dawn Bard,
Jbmurray, S.T. Rock, JerseyBoy1, Rlewer, Robbbingham, Angelaleer, Gabrusha, Cgarland, Tblogs, Simplydigi, Andy1green, OKBot,
Nschmutz, Randomocity2, Chety, Apienczy, Susanborton, Jdstein89, 101i, Varezzi, JL-Bot, Eomerr, Michaelsshaw, Bsx, Ldcjim, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Sissdesk, Mehmet2006, Doabarrelroll, Niccoled, Magnos, Skipsmith521, Rumkeswani, DragonBot, Justaper-
sona, Jworoner, Ltedstone, Vishucht, Rudolph.cm, Tnxman307, Chorpita, Rockjock810, Account9000, Dekisugi, Sjacob, Tonyd49, Peter-
coooper, Thingg, DumZiBoT, Jedhallam, Kiran gurumukhi, Sudhakar srr, Hotlavasoftware, Flibbermewidget, Sammorgan101, Pjurisic,
Wise12day, Atheyja, Interkrok, Addbot, Lakewood66, AlexAnderson478, DustyRain, Open.herzen, Fieldday-sunday, Leszek Jaczuk,
Cst17, MrOllie, Terrillja, Mariam-t, Santhonys, Zorrobot, SalvageTheSauce, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cprabhakar, Ptbotgourou, Dcapitald,
Morganfosstveit, AnomieBOT, Tccarmichael, Lmxonline, Jjungmann, Piano non troppo, Instrdesign, Materialscientist, Mediclazarus,
Lifelearning, Roux-HG, Robertjcollins, LilHelpa, Surgisphere, Cleach, Informetica, Erud, Melmann, Parevest, Stratbeans, RibotBOT,
Gromar, Skipalong, Hjohnsondesign, MuedThud, Figaronline, Wbstaord, Gthollingsworth, Edtechguy46, FrescoBot, Krwt, Inc ru, Re-
cognizance, Fagome, T@Di, Cf44, Taweetham, TabithaFournier, Ezoom, Sc2000goto, Scapesoft, ChristineNTS, Jonesey95, Competen-
tum, Skyerise, ECBAPR, Ranoushranoush, Reader74, Ashwinkumariyer, Antiochus21, Pavel.nps, Rosehope, Kritikajoshi2, Swanny101,
Lambertson1150, Vivekdodd, Elearningfan, Lotje, Zisser, 777sms, Prasantasahoo2009, Jreiss186, Dharward, Diannaa, Rhwang, Mean as
custard, DexDor, Elishkiya, Venakis, Vpolavia, Donnelly1111, RadBikken, EmausBot, Eremit1977, Jgilley9, Werieth, Pxtreme75, Instruc-
tureinnovates, Bencarstens, Abksharma, Brian.whitmer, Bemanna, OnePt618, Priyankgupta86, Bianca.pizza, , Udaynagella, Beautyand-
light, Ashunigam, Olemsa, ChuispastonBot, Maximilianklein, Paduch, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, Dru of Id, LearningPool55, Widr,
Andiec1123, SummerForever, AvocatoBot, Linlovesu, Avinash.royyuru, Amin2013, Stephnrmn, BattyBot, Zachball, Mdann52, RecCoo,
KScherer, Gordjohn, Stickycookiethief, LibrarianAnnie, Es137Custom, Jodosma, Tomprentice, Amtojsingh12, Mmskirby, Ugog Nizdast,
Bisswajit, Caliandson, Sameerpp, Rupli88, Momochdk, Virenkapadia, Monkbot, Ostroumov, Btgrimes, U2fanboi, Archie Skye, Gartners,
MonicaWSpence, SJBEditor, Sharma.ashoks, Norbhere and Anonymous: 443
History of virtual learning environments Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20virtual%20learning%
20environments?oldid=643356918 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Edward, Delirium, Haakon, Andrevan, Stone,
Earthsound, Phil Boswell, Wilfred com, Softcafe, Davidds, Edcolins, Andycjp, Alexf, Jeremykemp, Greg544, Ppa, JoeSmack, Violetriga,
Bobo192, Bustter, Giraedata, Kaganer, Davidjennings, Henry W. Schmitt, Stuartyeates, Firsfron, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, Philbarker,
Mamling, Rjwilmsi, Jivecat, Messenjer, Meisenstadt, Brendano, ElKevbo, Ttwaring, Naraht, Straycat, Intgr, K1v1n, Bgwhite, RussBot,
Chaser, Gaius Cornelius, ChrisBrown, Rat144, ONEder Boy, Emersoni, Nils peterson, Avraham, WAS 4.250, Frederik.Questier, Rurik,
162 CHAPTER 26. E-ASSESSMENT

Sambauers, SmackBot, Stie, Mcld, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Emufarmers, Klnorman, Henry1776, Korte, Salamurai, Sschmoller,
Harryboyles, BillFlis, Fuzzy510, Martinp23, Dicklyon, Dcyer, Ryulong, Nabeth, Iridescent, Dreftymac, GDallimore, JForget, Cm-
drObot, Argon233, Outriggr, Womble bee, Cydebot, Khatru2, Fisler, Neustradamus, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, SamHathaway,
Rufus843, Mfeldstein, Dsp13, Arch dude, AZPR, Salbrigh, Nils Peterson, Magioladitis, PrimroseGuy, Berryma5, Benrobb, Lfernandez,
Brad.wheeler, CiscoAdvocate, Sharplem, FlammableChicken, AaronSloman, Bynn, JYeidel, Ariconsul, Schmoller, Pbacsich, Jsener,
Knowledgep, Gwoodill, Lancespeelmon, Gomer Bolstrood, Stat Man, Sfrielick, Paul.mckey, Bobbankspadley, Hrichman, Arianwen55,
Timbarker, Jpwynn, Sehrmann, Joelms, Markvanharmelen, Rabell, Mriel, Jodi.a.schneider, Terguy, Gwern, Albertel, Bwatwood,
Ywarnier, Zip123, Dxthom, Olak Ksirrin, Daveesl, R'n'B, Sgilfus, E.deckert@infostance.com, Courseware, Thaurisil, Kernsc, Mtnman79,
Dispenser, Jamesontai, Dorftrottel, Funandtrvl, Spolyson, Lee.Sailer, Computerhag, Pup137, Jpalme, Madhero88, JayWarner, Brenont,
Zelchenko, PeterGoodyear, InterfaceHistorian, ImageRemovalBot, OxAO, SallyForth123, JeremyCumoletti, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Mainmre, Chumbi, Docdave, Mild Bill Hiccup, Lame Name, Eeekster, Account9000, Egragert, Igloo32, Addbot, Lakewood66,
Glane23, Roux, Sumtotalsystems, Drpickem, Yobot, Dcapitald, Peter Flass, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Edtechguy46,
FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, TabithaFournier, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje, Jlo08c, John of Reading, Sumsum2010, GoingBatty,
Slightsmile, Lrebjobson, Wikipelli, H3llBot, Dvapol, W163, Intintolo, Markiewp, Arkanoidx, ClueBot NG, Juanpadonoso, BattyBot,
Wrrsimone, Khazar2, Mactaylor01, Mogism, Notxn85, Nevcar, Tinayag, Monkbot, Unician and Anonymous: 234
Moodle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodle?oldid=646461044 Contributors: Ellmist, Hirzel, Ewen, Roan, Haakon, Den fjt-
trade ankan, Mxn, INyar, Emperorbma, Dysprosia, Doradus, Wik, Haukurth, SEWilco, Flambergius, Mdchachi, Joy, Mackensen, Jni,
Craig Stuntz, Kizor, Peak, Dittaeva, Davidds, Hadal, Smoge, Msm, Everyking, Dougiamas, D2s, Bobblewik, Gadum, Utcursch, Be-
land, Oneiros, Sam Hocevar, Howardjp, Jh51681, RevRagnarok, Mike Rosoft, Rolandg, Slady, Discospinster, MiddleOfNowhere, Rich
Farmbrough, Oska, Xezbeth, Ascnder, Gronky, Stereotek, Violetriga, Elwikipedista, CanisRufus, Chalst, The bellman, Barcex, Net-
Bot, Mike Schwartz, Cwolfsheep, Raja99, Poli, Polarscribe, Free Bear, YPavan, ProductBox, Here, Jensverner, Zntrip, Stuartyeates,
Arky, Deeahbz, Davidkazuhiro, Taatparya, KaurJmeb, Male1979, Watcanz, Liface, Mandarax, Grammarbot, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tawker,
Kalogeropoulos, MoederDao, Sbeattie, Tbaker, FlaBot, Latka, Gary Cziko, Alexjohnc3, DiamondDave, Wavelength, Borgx, Mattgib-
son, Kaydell, Mithridates, David Woodward, Bovineone, Artlader, Rmackenzie, Saidkassem, MrMac, Samir, Matroidus, DeadEyeArrow,
Lucky number 49, Erpingham, Phgao, Zzuuzz, Lkdasa, Frederik.Questier, Sean Whitton, GraemeL, Rurik, Kieek, Libro, Ehogberg,
SmackBot, Colinstu, JoshDuMan, C.Fred, Jtneill, Delldot, Eskimbot, Rlorenzo, Mcld, Ignacioerrico, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Turadg,
Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Slingshotsean, Pasado, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, Toughpigs, JGXenite, Sct72, Wild girl, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Eliyahu S, Papagel, Blake-, Nils Simon, Mcochran, Wizardman, Sturm, Facugaich, Where, Deiz, Kukini, Thomaspaine, SashatoBot,
Heyjohngreen, Trobb, IronGargoyle, Slasher-fun, Julthep, Dr.K., RichardF, Jon Westfall, Martin Vgeli, Jpag87a, Pramette, SamuliK,
Woodshed, Esposimi, Jose Armando Jeronymo, Pudeo, Chris55, AbsolutDan, Dia^, JossDude, Dgw, FlyingToaster, WeisheitSuchen,
Bingomzan, Cydebot, Wikien2009, J S Pannu, MrSuber13, Olz06, Dancter, Tacman1123, Lbertybell, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Maberdour,
Oldiowl, Etm157, Renap, Dfrg.msc, AgentPeppermint, Wallydallas, Edalton, Leesonma, Mentisto, Somaroy, Brycethornton, Isilanes,
Ephery, Billselak, Can-Dutch, MER-C, Jamesohagan, Nicolaasuni, Magioladitis, Mmn100, CTF83!, BotheredByBees, Froid, Jbvetter,
Catgut, Johnbibby, Dorte Nielsen, Aishisheep, Adrian J. Hunter, Ragimiri, Pleft, IT Psychologist, Calltech, Max de Mendizbal, Hdt83,
Ywarnier, Ynsingh, Speck-Made, Olak Ksirrin, J.delanoy, Trusilver, P1000, Saasmath, Ginsengbomb, Anakus, Nalumc, Ryanbrooks, Jd-
junkie, Bonadea, Tonytypoon, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, AlastairIrvine, Soliloquial, PNG crusade bot, Ann Stouter, Someguy1221,
1959T-120, Subux, Bennerg, Pierre1209, Andy Dingley, Falcon8765, Alcmaeonid, Spitre8520, LittleBenW, Paulo.moreira, OsamaK,
SieBot, PeterCanthropus, Jbmurray, Chandrahas9, Angelaleer, Flyer22, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83, Hello71, Lightmouse, Denisarona,
Jsopher, ImageRemovalBot, SlackerMom, Martarius, ClueBot, Stuartrmealor, Yagibear, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kl4m-AWB,
Drmies, Jbmonville, Gu1dry, Mspraveen, Rrborjaplus, Hrallis, Alexbot, He7d3r, Kumargaurav.in, Nuiloa, Lartoven, NuclearWarfare, Bre-
merenator, JamieS93, Jackiwatson, Take2k3, ClintGoss, Berean Hunter, SoxBot III, Max613, SF007, LakanDavidDInocencio, Lena18,
BarretB, Heitah, Libcub, Avoided, Skarebo, ItsRED, Teslaton, Dubeerforme, Good Olfactory, Interkrok, Addbot, Jocharles, Ronhjones,
D0762, CandaceID, MrOllie, Vaidasb, Sangam Mulmi, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, SalvageTheSauce, Korbr, Angrysockhop, Cles, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, KamikazeBot, Dcapitald, RhodryKorb, AnomieBOT, Thinkgnu, AGiampani, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Lifelearning, Arthur-
Bot, Leftlax, LilHelpa, Deeptext, Donpayette, Sko5000, 16x9, Abce2, Godvad, Lohdeepak, Cisprof, Dan6hell66, FrescoBot, Dwellings,
Teleteacher, FGrose, Sae1962, Jameselder, Fou1994, Tetraedycal, Citation bot 1, Bug24, Winterst, Skyerise, RedBot, Mohitbansal1234,
Mallen8, , Latios, And v, Zabuch, Kritikajoshi2, DixonDBot, Elearningfan, Haaninjo, Wakelamp, Panuwatt.b, Vrenator, Sugarysweet-
owerchildxoxo, Amercer09, Ewperry3328, Leastdoors, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dmjohnsonnz, Marcjacobs1978, Vpolavia, Slon02, Skame-
crazy123, Weathereye, Depaulaross, Jennysmith323, Wikipelli, K6ka, Asarone, Lucas Thoms, John Cline, F, Pavankumarkaushik1993,
Oneoclock, Borja Moll XAL 2010, Pxtreme75, Brian.whitmer, One Leaf Knows Autumn, Harpermd, Seattle, Mark.drechsler, Tim J Hunt,
Meka5121, ChuispastonBot, TallHenry, FeatherPluma, DemonicPartyHat, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Elearning.addict, Sharayray,
Nrberens, Thebriankpowell, Anika70, BG19bot, Cowsinmybathtub, Ngigiwaithaka, Jonla, BronwynvanVugt, Geniusprograms, Jagerny-
ken, Shabash23, Sinnotj3, Klilidiplomus, Yopotatoes, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Simonhabtemariam, Pl894, J3e011, Lugia2453, Martin-
Michlmayr, Nickd5150, WNayes, Metheglyn, Payton.mueller, Epicgenius, Daktylosoph, FrigidNinja, Tentinator, Captain Conundrum,
Mridula Pradhan, Tara Zieminek, Fvandenh, Amsfaithsoftware, Nick Mitchell 98, Jbarrishcap, VladimirAus, Vieque, Mcleary8633,
Naveenkaushik43, Theshrekoning, Gartners, 4anth1013, CFW97, CFW420, CFW98 and Anonymous: 534
Blackboard Learning System Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackboard%20Learning%20System?oldid=638873428 Contribu-
tors: Robbot, Micru, Enric Naval, Srippon, Danski14, Woohookitty, Koavf, ONEder Boy, Moe Epsilon, Grapkoski, Goetz, Smack-
Bot, Wegesrand, Fogster, JHP, SuziT9, Mojo Hand, Ericsil24, Magioladitis, Nyttend, DGG, Sigmundg, Speck-Made, Athaenara, Heero
Kirashami, X!, Someguy1221, Ngch89, Monty845, Logan, Jbmurray, FlamingSilmaril, Sveinunglarsen, Alexbot, Ericwilliammarshall,
Aprock, Stackboard, Berean Hunter, Nrigores, IXavier, Zorrobot, Yobot, Victoriaearle, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Charles nelson reilly,
Iwearshoess, Thorenn, Marksml, Jreiss186, Usuvb3, Epopescue, Rwqerqwrerqw, Vrixxedu, Alph Bot, Instructureinnovates, ClueBot
NG, Elearning.addict, Widr, MerlIwBot, Jtwall12, BG19bot, BattyBot, Khazar2, Rachelrenren, Gracemanman, Happyday1, Monde17,
Bl26ehre, K21hask, Bl03cook, YiFeiBot, Blacksahaeta and Anonymous: 51
Learning object Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20object?oldid=644812706 Contributors: Derek Ross, Mav, The
Anome, Hirzel, Jose Icaza, Lexor, Kabads, Ixfd64, Ronz, Angela, EdH, Saltine, Jamesday, Micru, AlistairMcMillan, Guanabot, LeeHunter,
Lkmorlan, Danielcarvalho, BWatkins, Philbarker, TheRingess, Dmccreary, FlaBot, Chobot, Leighblackall, Zwobot, CQ, KennethUrban,
SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, ARK, Korte, Mr.Z-man, Mion, MHV, Robosh, DanielLemire, Makyen, Ryulong, Ericblazek, JiriK, CmdrObot,
Thijs!bot, Miss Dark, Mbell, Nf1234, Mmorrey, Seanashbrook, Steven Walling, DGG, Tom CLO, Josepant, Pierfranco, Thelearningfedera-
tion, Hmcti, Mbonetti, Eubulides, Rjgodoy, AS, Asgara, Jbmurray, Kaychitwood, Yerpo, Michaelsshaw, Justin W Smith, Cdnchameleongirl,
Manco Capac, Petercoooper, DumZiBoT, EjsBot, Leszek Jaczuk, Damiens.rf, Stu 22, Download, Numbo3-bot, Redlandrain, OlEnglish,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, Ashishtanwer, Arifjinha, Meadowsa, Chunkthechunk, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Ever.anon,
FeatherPluma, Dr.Helfrich, Helpful Pixie Bot, Johnp2hunt, BattyBot, Kurlands2, Reatlas, D Wiley BYU and Anonymous: 54
26.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 163

Learning object metadata Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20object%20metadata?oldid=630082448 Contributors: Na-

davkav, Ary29, Joyous!, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Stesmo, Downes, Danhash, Brianwc, Marasmusine, RHaworth, Philbarker,
FlaBot, Chobot, Nesbit, Gaius Cornelius, Lusanaherandraton, Thiseye, PM Poon, CQ, H@r@ld, Meegs, SmackBot, Stevage, Dual Freq,
Abmac, SunAdmin111, Hu12, J Di, Loxlie, CmdrObot, Osoneill, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, BackwardsBoy, Vitello, Nf1234, Goldenrowley, Ger-
manX, Frepa, Anton Khorev, VolkovBot, Rjgodoy, Asimong, Brezenbene, Carriearchdale, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Slismann, Ettrig,
Yobot, O Wise 1, Mcanabalb, Ssalonso, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, FrescoBot, Ipseity, Local contributor, Jsweetin, DrilBot, Jan.pawlowski,
Sallyrenee, Wimmuskee, MichaelaBrighella3, DalbS, ScotXW, D.nyenegger and Anonymous: 39
Intelligent tutoring system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent%20tutoring%20system?oldid=643544726 Contributors:
Dreamyshade, Wwheeler, Pbsloep, Giraedata, Bobrayner, Rjwilmsi, Nesbit, Ohnoitsjamie, Turadg, Bluebot, John, Nabeth, CmdrObot,
Nick Number, Spacefarer, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, Boob, Gwern, Pleasantville, Koedinger, Synthebot, Macdonald-ross, Antonio Lopez,
JL-Bot, Machina.sapiens, Heureka!, Mhjackson, Sun Creator, Mfolkerson, M.boli, WikHead, Addbot, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pt-
botgourou, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Nkambou, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Aleven, SpookyFM, Zab-
barob, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, SunTzuWarmaster, Cmaclell, Helpful Pixie Bot, SeanBCVancouver, Bink, Yuting1031, Bckay,
MacSD36, IDGCL, Awsfueduc, Jamiesonj, Farimahsalimi, Sonwol, EDUC892 G4, Sethtee, Helyue, FionaGraham5, Simspire, 4tomz0110,
Kevin12xd, Rajnakr, NEOANALYSIS, Antrocent, Monkbot, Dsprc, Mudgal.aayush and Anonymous: 56
Serious game Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serious%20game?oldid=646182744 Contributors: Mrwojo, Frecklefoot, Edward,
Gabbe, Ixfd64, Ronz, Julesd, Andrewman327, Stewartadcock, Alan Liefting, Gracefool, Alan Au, Andycjp, Mike Rosoft, Roger.smith,
MeltBanana, Femto, Cretog8, Cmdrjameson, 99of9, Jason One, CyberSkull, Goodoldpolonius2, Sciurin, Frescard, Marasmusine, Re-
memberMe, Toussaint, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Lordsatri, Kibeth, TheDJ, Alvin-cs, SteveBaker, Wavelength, Ismail, Yamara, Eleassar, Ic-
thyos, Kvn8907, Manuelhp42, Wknight94, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, E Wing, Amren, Veinor, SmackBot, Pintman, Het-
hatishere, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Darklock, Mloundermon, Darth Panda, Phantom brave, Uncleharpoon, Addshore, Mwtoews, Scientizzle,
Waftybuzz, Robosh, Nabeth, Hu12, Larry Baum, Dreftymac, Hiogui, WikiMarshall, Fvasconcellos, Lamoxlamae, CmdrObot, Wafulz,
Meparry, Schalliol, Mika1h, ZsinjBot, Drinibot, Lijakaca, HalJor, Cydebot, Gizmo2511, Jhumbug, Nxain, Underpants, NMChico24, Mat-
tisse, Bobblehead, Playgen, X900BattleGrape, Acerview54, Vendettax, Zchris87v, Niladmirari, Dreaded Walrus, Ioeth, Leuko, Itzaferg,
Genuiben, Parcemihi, Jfriedberg, Jdrumgoole, Blepp, JNW, JamesBWatson, Stavanger, Elianealhade, Kalleo, PIrish, Tltuser, Thibbs,
Jodi.a.schneider, DGG, Gwern, TheMultinational, DrDavidSchwartz, Bobsterling, Nickpunt, Angelojohn, Gobion, Ddankner, Richiekim,
Andaxp, SCB '92, SharkD, D3sqie, SolotaireDeaton, Travcoey, Matthew.kahl, Kwarner04, Rjclaudio, Lauer, Dendritelady, Overcow,
Graemeduncan, Fredrick day, Portalguy, Akimboo, Maxweinberg, J18wiki, Samsw12, GL1zdA, Schiec, Natg 19, Redknightlearning,
PjotrAtVSTEP, AlleborgoBot, Rhart sg, JeremiahAlexander, Water79, Wuhwuzdat, JL-Bot, Canglesea, Caspian1, Martarius, Abacus11,
Rjhinrichs, Alina917, Julian Alvarez, Trivialist, Mlcblj, Evilnumber27, Bren34, Rhododendrites, Plastic Fish, VictorLy, Kesterel, Appari-
tion11, Malone70, XLinkBot, Miguel Pereira, Jwarmerdam, GameLegend, Ost316, NathanLands, Addbot, EricKuhnen, Fyrael, Dov Ja-
cobson, Mistertoes, Looie496, MrOllie, Robert The Rebuilder, Lightbot, Jarble, Michal 113, Mps, Mr.Yahoo!, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1,
TheMelMonster, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, Ditman, WaaghMan, Samfrado, Swings and roundabouts, TheMonsterMel, Kokcharov,
Rtodainnity, Colt .55, Flavsgirl46, FrescoBot, XXXamsterdam, Wexxxx, Demian Sepp, Emscharf, Daisyblue, Aaron-GSN, Callanecc,
Spacecat4, Phaedra1122, Nerekop, Superzusgw, RjwilmsiBot, Kleyson, DrJHoward, Mathias Fuchs, EmausBot, Sergomen1, Uevans, Ol-
heinz, Ciatile, Hue GS, Your Lord and Master, Mmvd, Antonangelo, A.groot, Fdm20cgsiegel, Jontesta, Makecat, Wayne Slam, Erianna,
NoJoker, Egenfeldt, Suapatela, Nghafouri, ClueBot NG, Thoisy, Larux, Maksimlekler, Delusion23, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Djhani,
Mark Arsten, Stevekling80, Reuxziekte, F.bellotti, BattyBot, Darylgolden, Youssefgamil, Cumminkm, Mogism, MoniStreit, EikeFA,
Blacknight87, AgnesLP, NickZangus, Advancis, Atibbetts, JoshLemer, Sightestrp, Neenu86, AntonieWiedemann, RobertTKS, Rwtks,
Brianmayer00, Htr1234, Hgy1990 and Anonymous: 265
Sharable Content Object Reference Model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharable%20Content%20Object%20Reference%
20Model?oldid=643534135 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Hirzel, Kabads, Ronz, EdH, Rashack, R3m0t,
Securiger, Ryanrs, Nadavkav, AlistairMcMillan, D2s, Jerith, Utcursch, Beland, Grstain, Monkeyman, LeeHunter, Elwikipedista, Jon the
Geek, Remuel, Postrach, Woohookitty, Jannex, Nuggetboy, Schzmo, Kbdank71, Xos, Jehochman, Utuado, FlaBot, Gurch, BillAlbing,
Imnotminkus, Korg, YurikBot, Matthai, Romanc19s, Dialectric, Malcolma, Gujamin, Novasource, Zzuuzz, Knowlengr, Parham, Albert
ip, Teryx, KnightRider, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, IEdML, Eskimbot, Ohnoitsjamie, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, Weregerbil, Mr Stephen, Dick-
lyon, Waggers, RichardF, Nabeth, Norm mit, Iridescent, P tasso, Annaswims, CmdrObot, Cydebot, DJKay, Innito, Claude Ostyn, Volde-
mortuet, Thijs!bot, Beardedone, Begs, Supriyoc, Ghassan.geara, Jjmarks, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Steveprutz, VoABot II, BennyBeta,
BrianCaudill, Speck-Made, Bitmapped, Mauroj, Bektur, Vahcic, Martial75, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Perohanych, SueHay, ^demonBot2,
Chuck Sirloin, Markdask, Permacultura, ClueBot, Hutcher, Sabbe, Mehmet2006, Excirial, Alexbot, Cybersparc, Petercoooper, Rusticmb,
DumZiBoT, Ost316, Avoided, Jmkim dot com, Atheyja, Addbot, Jadeivy, Codey, Dianna m, Yobot, CaveatScriptor, AnomieBOT, Law,
Instrdesign, Camarta, Setede, MrScruy04, Backipdoll, Steveaddison, Pxtreme75, Pjguay, HupHollandHup, FeatherPluma, Icomrox,
Widr, Pszmyt, ChrisGualtieri, Ikatesha, Mikegerwitz, JereHorne, Hi.prabhat, JimmyDonnellan and Anonymous: 160
E-learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning?oldid=646950689 Contributors: Derek Ross, Zundark, The Anome, Berek,
Tommy, Antiochus, Hirzel, KF, Mrwojo, DennisDaniels, Edward, Michael Hardy, Roan, Llywrch, Fred Bauder, David Martland, Kabads,
Sannse, Ellywa, Haakon, Ronz, Angela, Ericross, Glenn, Smack, Andrevan, Maximus Rex, R3m0t, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann,
Romanm, Seglea, Hemanshu, Alain Caraco, DHN, Davidds, Wikibot, Xanzzibar, Dina, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, Orangemike,
0x6D667061, Niteowlneils, Troja, AlistairMcMillan, Adamfranco, Khalid hassani, D2s, Just Another Dan, Golbez, Gadum, Andycjp,
CryptoDerk, Piotrus, Bodnotbod, Jeremykemp, Howardjp, Neutrality, Rculatta, Netspy, Shiftchange, Rolandg, D6, Monkeyman, Dis-
cospinster, MiddleOfNowhere, Notinasnaid, R.123, LeeHunter, Paul August, Bender235, Andrejj, S.K., Loren36, Fenice, Elwikipedista,
Pcool, Just zis Guy, you know?, Orlady, Coolcaesar, Adambro, Shonbayer, Stesmo, Billymac00, Malcolmd83, Kjkolb, Rajah, Minghong,
Wolspo, Conny, Espoo, Anthony Appleyard, SnowFire, Cormaggio, Verdlanco, Minority Report, JoaoRicardo, Riana, Sligocki, Velella,
ReyBrujo, Dominic, Johntex, Stephen, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Uncle G, Jonathanbishop, WelshAspie, Benbest, Ruud Koot, Wikiklrsc,
Actionhamster, Philbarker, Toussaint, Emilianodelau, Gettingtoit, Jwoodger, SqueakBox, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mommy, Messenjer, Lug-
nad, NeonMerlin, ElKevbo, Yug, Aapo Laitinen, AJackl, Cherubino, Alexxx1, GillianAnn, Kmalyshev, TeaDrinker, Cmadler, Eriklord,
Windharp, Agil, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, Wingchi, Wiserd911, YurikBot, Wavelength, Freerick, Rowan Moore, Bhny, Anders.Warga,
Nesbit, Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, Bruguiea, Aeusoes1, Welsh, Iamchmod, ONEder Boy, Daniel Mietchen, William Graham, Supten,
Syrthiss, BOT-Superzerocool, Blowdart, Driesenga, Zzuuzz, Rajgo, Vivekp79, Stephan Mosel, Denisutku, Arthur Rubin, Donald Albury,
GraemeL, Kevin, DoriSmith, Rolen, Jajimelo, Bluezy, Katieh5584, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Leandro.navarro, Tarret,
Prodego, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Jtneill, Madhusudan, TDWolsey, WookieInHeat, Mmeri, HalfShadow, JocelynW, Mcld, Gilliam, Ohnoit-
sjamie, Aastrup, Chris the speller, Reza1615, Don Jon Hunt, Manishsahajwani, Oli Filth, SchftyThree, Nbarth, Pasado, DHN-bot, A. B.,
Mainak, MisterHand, Onorem, JonHarder, VMS Mosaic, Papagel, Master Scott Hall, Jwy, Nitin Parmar, Tuoermin, Bosky101, Lpgeen,
164 CHAPTER 26. E-ASSESSMENT

Trbdavies, Larlin, Derek R Bullamore, Stefano85, Kukini, Elearners, Chinazjj, Bigtoga, SashatoBot, Lambiam, JzG, Grey32, CPMcE,
Arbustoo, IronGargoyle, Philoguy, Beetstra, Optimale, Davecormier, Dicklyon, Doczilla, TastyPoutine, RichardF, Punkrider, Nabeth,
Caiaa, Felavid, JohnMayer, Tsr21, CapitalR, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Whatasite, AbsolutDan, Emeadows, CmdrObot, Beyond-
sunny, Patrick Berry, Rambam rashi, Willhelm tell, Nunquam Dormio, THF, Hali01, Pmerson, ONUnicorn, WeisheitSuchen, Rosali,
Cydebot, Mblumber, Birkenkrahe, Slp1, J S Pannu, E-learning, Gogo Dodo, DJKay, Bazzargh, Eurokc98, Futureobservatory, Trident13,
SymlynX, DumbBOT, Apolaine, Hcgtv, Fisler, Toolingu, Neftuli, Daven200520, Lark11uk, Thijs!bot, Btball, DavidBeoulve, Oldiowl,
Cyberion, Phil reagan, Supriyoc, Frank, Vinaymr, Dawnseeker2000, Dantheman531, Cammybean, AntiVandalBot, Java Kingpin, Err229,
Fayenatic london, Spacefarer, Kuteni, Peteyeomans, JAnDbot, Leuko, Barek, MER-C, Wellocast, Ikanreed, Gavia immer, SiobhanHansa,
Acroterion, Wasell, AtifRasheed, Skwark, Brucechoward1, Magioladitis, VoABot II, CiscoAdvocate, Cic, Brusegadi, Sherwani, Snowded,
Indon, Gwledig, Mrbobmac, Cgun006, Shamblesguru, Cpl Syx, ArmadilloFromHell, M1shra, Breckket, Elearners2006, WLU, Jobobby,
FisherQueen, PaulLev, Chuckpollington, Sjjupadhyay, BetBot, Ywarnier, Anaxial, Hddguru, R'n'B, FelipeVargasRigo, WissenVeredeln,
Sproinky, Matthewrlee, Greyhound4334, J.delanoy, Mange01, Yinyang042, Dbiel, Ginsengbomb, Mlearning, Zkaradag, Vanished user
342562, Ripdog2121, Screen111, Ncmvocalist, Machi4velli, Burleyc1, Claudioerba, Jgmz, Jbersin, Peteurden, Plasticup, Kwontemtek,
Pandaplodder, Kekkone, Mathsgenius, Cometstyles, Navneet kul, DorganBot, SuW, Bonadea, Darkfrog24, TinJack, Slapshot01j, Lisaneal,
VolkovBot, Ksalokranjan, Wxidea, WheelCipher, Pszufe, Guleed, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, Liza Hausman, Tanbark813, Krush2007,
Vipinhari, Technopat, Soeren1611, Odestiny, Itsmeluke, 455class, Wheeler777, Ferengi, Leafyplant, Zeetha, JimmyAPO1, Auberon, ^de-
monBot2, J18wiki, Vera.Dvoinos, Zondi, Wempen, BotKung, Harayda, Waycool27, Gfusco, Phillip.cowley, Lerdthenerd, Andy Dingley,
Sathiska, Pnr kumar, XU07, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Sapphic, WatermelonPotion, Skarz, Jcattanach, Dtit, Teacherjames.com, Eladvolpin,
Sdeane, Kwonyh66, Chuck Sirloin, Timmonster, Deconstructhis, Chill Factor Five, SieBot, WaterfallandRailCycler, Winchelsea, Dawn
Bard, Jbmurray, Triwbe, Smsarmad, JerseyBoy1, Pierquinto, Wreid, Sapined, Dataneger, Masgatotkaca, Oda Mari, Oodooh, CutOTies,
Targeman, Aspects, Lightmouse, Tmasssfd, Btcgroup, InterfaceHistorian, NBS, Lzanini, Chety, Anakin101, Shayanshalileh, Videmus
Omnia, Ehuetutor, Lrogan, Cardinalofthekremlin, Thatotherdude, Zhaoxinyou, Soulattack, Michaelsshaw, ImageRemovalBot, Ocdcntx,
Gloss, Baboxx, Rolandtanaka, Avinashk914, Bilgikurdu, Martarius, Magonagal, 123docmedical, ClueBot, RFID-pro, Hutcher, Learning
dave, Aaronshavit, Stephen0928, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mehmet2006, Oscarlim, Reinspruch, Ohriddance, Ndenison, TallMagic,
Anilr72, Boing! said Zebedee, Diapm, Joneskarenl, Ironearth396, Gizen, Althafbasha, Epsilon60198, Tthompson3, Sdellava, Lwg9q,
Ebackpack, Fcujino, Excirial, Pumpmeup, Makriria, Jtrusler, LauraFarina, Northernhenge, Noelstubbs, Arjayay, Weheh, Karpoke, Chor-
pita, Dekisugi, Gundersen53, SchreiberBike, Sjacob, Petercoooper, Nlounds, Teach27, Silviavukovic, MelonBot, SoxBot III, Apparition11,
MaxSem on AWB wheels, Finalnight, Katertomater, Mashupciti, XLinkBot, Melindapedia, Quick20silver, John.engelhart.uni, Skarebo,
Ronchet, 300user, Sammorgan101, J18.andrew, Good Olfactory, Atheyja, Addbot, H20rose, Khanb, Youngnelson, Winton.Smith, Lake-
wood66, Tharmonaxia, NouraRaslan, Captain-tucker, Kiranbluechip, DustyRain, Jareme, Annielogue, OttRider, VCHunter, Zatarain21,
Iamays, Ronhjones, Djtabb00, Moosehadley, Fluernutter, Dranorter, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, Glane23, Aquadraik, IrishHR, Patrici-
aSierra, Tassedethe, Ironiclogic, Numbo3-bot, Mariam-t, Bwrs, Muproject, Dianna m, Wgraziadei, Jarble, 1creature, Legobot, Catspyja-
masnz, Luckas-bot, Abby1001, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Anandvfan, Sandybremer, MarcoAurelio, Robert.b.cavanagh, THEN WHO WAS
PHONE?, Vincentvangolf, Cabbys, PlanetBOFA, AmericanHumanist, AnomieBOT, Tccarmichael, Ciphers, Mariza1, Rubinbot, Jim1138,
Looneyloo, Kingpin13, AGiampani, Materialscientist, Tanmoyp, Prashantkandwal, LilHelpa, Carnationstreet, Xqbot, Erud, Emilyiris, The-
learnedman, Capricorn42, Jerey Mall, Jzlcdh, Harvey the rabbit, Euqueria, Anna Frodesiak, Msteacher, Jxtps, Srich32977, GrouchoBot,
WeAreSwans, Yassens, Kang1164, Omnipaedista, Amaury, Transmissionelement, Psychohug, Smallman12q, RCraig09, Shadowjams,
Thehelpfulbot, Rajeevku, Livetext, FrescoBot, Apriljt, Voxii, Ame0401, Cchrysos, Pmdunn, Talacharn, Learnnext-cbse, Alnovas, JMS
Old Al, SidMuralidhar, Endofskull, Allayneb, Varsitynext, Lukeclimber, Learnguru, Pier440, Jonesey95, Jusses2, BRUTE, RedBot, Masti-
Bot, Reader74, Teemnam, Secondlifelanguageeducator, ZaLuu, Ashwinkumariyer, Magdallia, Purelam, George.joeckel, AnonymousNKY,
Mx96, Gryllida, PACSNL, Itbela, Vivekdodd, Yunshui, Lotje, Lokmankhan, Vrenator, Rentzepopoulos, Dumitrud, Diannaa, Tarabelle524,
Weedwhacker128, Nytektchr, Lysander89, ITsanja, Pupil123, Ihuck, Drtonybates, Mean as custard, Aa42john, RjwilmsiBot, Jlo08c, Na-
tobee, Larry.europe, Olivierwm, Medra42, Vpolavia, Beaumra, Donnelly1111, Setiawanhandoyo, MeS2135, DASHBot, J36miles, Emaus-
Bot, Msjacob, Disaacs1, Salyinparadise, Zollerriia, Mjdtjm, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, GuillermoMc, KiKiUnEasy, Kativer,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Werieth, Amita2010, John Cline, Jimtak, Josve05a, Nicho3698, Yuanxu4107587, Pxtreme75, Pmoneyx,
Brian.whitmer, Drmathew, Bemanna, Tolly4bolly, Falangl77, Architectsea, L Kensington, HupHollandHup, Notrig, Armenj, Donner60,
Zwily, Kenny Michaels, Bsn26, Ruchisoni22, Samip.sanghvi, MikeStantonBcn, Drummerof13, Art1970, Krushna86, Aewhite623, Feather-
Pluma, 28bot, Mpriestley, Helpsome, Svetsveti, ClueBot NG, Scheerj, ClaretAsh, Triggle123, Jack Greenmaven, Addisonhammer, Elearn-
ing.addict, Mhchuck, Anova1313, Maxandcarrie, Toomanywordstoolittletime, Zg001, Satellizer, SusikMkr, Legslady, SaraBrownResearch,
AlumniBS, Chevassus, Sn gloria, Damiengarber, Shangrula, Delusion23, Cntras, Cnkids, Icomrox, X3Sakura, O.Koslowski, Dimos2k, Mo-
hdmohsin20, Widr, Sangchaud, JordoCo, MerlIwBot, Epbowie, Abchmail, HMSSolent, DBigXray, Mgrim83, CmHayes416, Cnewell12,
Aliwoj, BG19bot, Toladep1, Sivavedash42, Kai Ojima, Drtaylor54, Bakir1977, LisaMLane, Mwilli31, Mark Arsten, Riteshbhanushali,
Atomician, Dipankan001, Kwize1, Bioethicist123, Brandoncowell, Erincaseylawler, Lauramidnight, Avw16, Russ Walker FSU, Sstanle2,
Subbumv, Gregwilkinson11, Garymonk, ALISONOnlineLearning, Filing Flunky, Tagi3d, Robedu653, Abhilash krishnan, Sundarpiron,
BattyBot, Garemoko, Wrrsimone, Hotgardener, ABDUL RAZZAQ QADRI, Mediran, Broker2012, Ikatesha, OlhaMG, O'Connor Class,
Pcm130, Laurenesola, Anye12, Nxb925, Jesslynn1228, Megan.conneen, Ccbooher, Klaudia carcani, Prljunkmail, AugustoCoco, Dandrive,
Mogism, GeibJ, Gordjohn, Razaavi, Xakknakk, Taylormade33, Nadzeya.kalbaska, Hollymer, L Hancock10, Frosty, SFK2, Jamesx12345,
Sourov0000, Hawlkeye1997, Corn cheese, CaseTrains, SanWanLiu, Hnorwoodwiki, EtanaLF, Trekkerrc, Altered Walter, Uophoenix,
Camyoung54, Km2333, LibrarianAnnie, Csepartha, Isjung334, Benutzer41, FrigidNinja, Vannigoc, Charlie130, JamesMoose, Every-
morning, Rushanziatdinov, Ivan087, Naz27me, Mbkyer, DavidLeighEllis, Bahooka, Edacus, Agille6, Austin quach, Banannamal, Rita-
bai, Nirajftw, Serpetuity, Notrouble182, Ejnate, ABudzier, Jgreiner, ReconditeRodent, OhioTechie, WallickTeach, Saunders 1980, Insid-
eContent, Bostonian2, Awadheshpandey.tech, Father Hank Tree, Gmluna13, Abrasax108, Jrksimon, Wesleymwong, RidwanKasibNaser,
StephanosEco, Edelera, CSUglobal, Emilypyne, Erogers001, Meteor sandwich yum, Sanawiki2, Sameerpp, Michael steinmann, OU CLS,
Trovato.eu, Joe885, Ravinakhale, Jbarrishcap, ITdesk-odrazi, Mkrookes, Funk1975, Westonlineeducation, Conradbusch, Veronicamar-
shall22, Monkbot, Ostroumov, Connections8, Gucons, Mhanski, Henryjanssen, Thegentlemencricketer, Saleem007, Albatros.channel,
Ithewanderer, Ovalentin01, RationalBlasphemist, Gadgetmania4u, Simal2011, Ryan Garbin, Momtobudster, Tbianculli001, Recoveringa-
cademic, Khurram1190, Karthi1118, Meenalvarshney, Sbmlecturer, Klwilcoxon, Esaptutor, TUOnline and Anonymous: 1082

M-learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-learning?oldid=641653047 Contributors: Pnm, Ronz, Altenmann, ShaneCavanaugh,

Utcursch, Ja malcolm, Beland, Ot, Howardjp, Monkeyman, Rich Farmbrough, Chrism1128, Stesmo, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Pearle, Gary,
Andrewpmk, Johntex, Woohookitty, KaurJmeb, Ilikeit, Actionhamster, Toussaint, MarcoTolo, Marudubshinki, BD2412, JIP, Rjwilmsi,
Tizio, JubalHarshaw, Seraphimblade, ElKevbo, FlaBot, Prachid, RexNL, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Bovineone, Blowdart, SmackBot,
Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Fuhghettaboutit, Master Scott Hall, Abmac, R2005, Hmbr, Arbustoo, RomanSpa, Ex nihil,
TastyPoutine, Nabeth, Colinjl, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Dgw, ShelfSkewed, WeisheitSuchen, E-learning, Khatru2, Bazzargh, Roberta F.,
26.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 165

Kozuch, Mattisse, Frank, Dutchboyinohio, Xs935, Ludmia Pilecka, Obiwankenobi, Magioladitis, Sharplem, Mobilelearn, DerHexer, Gw-
ern, Sjjupadhyay, Mlearning, Icseaturtles, Nthomas4, Pierfranco, Gruzuk, LeilaniLad, EDUCONS, Marwae t, Jamelan, Wenli, Tom1965,
Devinbhullar, Hmwith, Kmasters0, Malcolmxl5, Wikictad, Ninelocks, Megan.rw1, Jerryobject, PbBot, Sheps999, ClueBot, Frmorri-
son, Mild Bill Hiccup, Gizen, Pumas214, Resoru, PixelBot, Cheshirestu, Lttglobal, Monkeysheep, XLinkBot, Sjgknight, Finikas1911,
Judith Buendgens-Kosten, Learningtech, ZooFari, Sammorgan101, Varadarajan.vidya, TechHerding, Addbot, Yakiv Gluck, AkhtaBot,
MrOllie, Debresser, Tribalctad, Nctplarry, Meisenberger, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Mkoole, Piano non troppo,
, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Rajeevku, FrescoBot, Dabormida, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Morganpeters, Jschnur,
Ranoushranoush, Aiacono, Ammarsammars, DC, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Jptmoore, RjwilmsiBot, Lucyhaagen, John of Reading, Going-
Batty, 41 spitre, AvicBot, Yllam, Yuanxu4107587, Udaynagella, Leonardlow, FeatherPluma, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, 9831236gddshs,
Dparsonsnz, Baseball Watcher, Juan Llama, TJK4114, Subbumv, Rscullin, BattyBot, Hopeandchange123, Gordjohn, Mebner007, Faraday-
Lupin, Crystal.j.l., BucketsGalore, Lemnaminor, LibrarianAnnie, Jiwak, FWMlaura, S.C.VIJAYAKUMAAR, Blogonmusic, Moblrndude,
STEMEd2100, Hcrompton, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Tonysmith2014, Odumz, Franzbergmann and Anonymous: 186
Oine mobile learning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offline%20mobile%20learning?oldid=625592437 Contributors: Ronz,
Shiftchange, MarcoTolo, Malcolma, Jon Phillips, Mild Bill Hiccup, 1ForTheMoney, Frmatt, Yobot, Erud, Kristianpaul, Jptmoore, Sunny-
sujan, Moron, Odumz and Anonymous: 8
E-assessment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-assessment?oldid=644669378 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Ronz, Topbanana,
Xanzzibar, Micru, Guanaco, Bobbyelliott, Quill, Billymac00, Jorunn, Zzuuzz, Ybbor, Andy M. Wang, Bluebot, Nbarth, HoodedMan,
Tjcoppet, Kuru, TastyPoutine, RichardF, Cydebot, Toolingu, Ward3001, Fluxbot, Guitarteach, Qlady, Nicolaasuni, Swpb, R'n'B, Dbiel,
Iulus Ascanius, Kingmarsh, Spinningspark, Brianga, Agentjohnson, W.Peterson, Martarius, JeremyCumoletti, Diapm, Gizen, Tnxman307,
Bjm5757, Dtitch, Jaswal.raj, Addbot, Timburbtl, Vincentvangolf, PlanetBOFA, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Hawam, Shimrodmimir,
Dtaloysius, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Peri1945, Btl group, Jbeck206, Soaring eagle, DixonDBot, AvicBot, Drmathew, Sdraaijer, ClueBot
NG, Widr, Arithmetika, Dark Silver Crow, Hmainsbot1, Lambda Fairy, LibrarianAnnie, PsicoFS, Weinertc, Monkbot and Anonymous:
53

26.12.2 Images
File:03212012Matitec_entrega_dispositivos_santafe083.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/
03212012Matitec_entrega_dispositivos_santafe083.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ITESM Campus Ciudad de Mexico
delivers electronic devices to study math to elementary students in Santa Fe, Mexico City [3] Original artist: Talento Tec
File:19th_century_classroom,_Auckland_-_0795.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/19th_century_
classroom%2C_Auckland_-_0795.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jorge Royan
File:1_MyHomeExample.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/1_MyHomeExample.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://school.demo.moodle.net/ Original artist: Software: Moodle - Lead Developer: Martin Dougiamas Other
Contributors: https://moodle.org/dev/contributions.php Content: Creator: Mary Cooch - Publisher: Mary Cooch - Contributors: Chris-
tian Cooch. All course content can be found and referenced at Moodle.net with all authors, publishers and contributors clearly listed. This
content is made available as Open Education Resources
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cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fav203
File:ARCS_Model_Components_Table.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4f/ARCS_Model_Components_
Table.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Created using pages and converted to jpg using skitch app
Original artist:
Kas307
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Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
File:Bloom_taxonomy.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Bloom_taxonomy.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Xristina la
File:ChineseTap.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/ChineseTap.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Nopaniers
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artist: ?
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License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cuisenaire-Rods-2.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Cuisenaire-Rods-2.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lewis R at en.wikipedia
File:Cyclops_Telewriting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/14/Cyclops_Telewriting.jpg License: CC-BY-2.5
Contributors:
From authors collection. Digitised 35mm transparency.
Original artist:
Mike Sharples
File:Dick_Carey.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Dick_Carey.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Kenbethea
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