Removal of Fluoride from Spent Pot Liner

Leachate Using Ion Exchange

Gurdeep Singh, Bipul Kumar, P.K. Sen, J. Majumdar

ABSTRACT: Spent pot liner (SPL), a hazardous solid waste produced presented in Table 1, which shows that natura] SPL leachates
at cell houses of aluminum smelters, is a potential source of fluoride contained a considerable concentration of fluoride (158 to 575
pollution. Leachates collected from SPL disposal sites were found to mg/L) compared to the permissible limit of 2.0 mg/L. Therefore,
contain fluoride at considerable concentration levels (up to 575 mgIL). environmental compliance with respect to fluoride emissions from
This paper reports a study of selective fluoride removal following
SPL disposal sites is of concern.
laboratory-prepared, ion-exchange treatment. Spent pot liner leachates
were pretreated with lime to bring the fluoride level down to
Fluoride Removal Techniques
approximately 10 mgIL for economic and effective working of the ion
exchanger. The detailed ion-exchange treatment study for removal of Fluoride removal can be achieved with the application of any
fluoride was carried out on synthetic SPL leachates and the optimum one of the following prevailing methods:
treatment thus developed was applied on natural SPL leachates.
I. Alum treatment,
Bench-scale studies were carried out at various flow rates and pHs
2. Chemical precipitation/coagulation using lime and alum, and
and in the presence of other ions commonly available in the SPL
leachates. The prepared exchanger reduced the level of fluoride from 3. Ion exchange/sorption,
approximately 10 mglL to less than I mgIL. Results indicate that the Among these, ion-exchange treatment seems to be economical
extraction was 100% up to 6-mUmin flow rate through the ion
(when fluoride concentrations are below 10 mg/L) and effective
exchanger and it works efficiently in the pH range of 7 to 10. There is
and the same has been practiced in this study.
no effect of the other ions present in leachates on removal of fluoride.
The exchanger has good capacity to exchange and can be recharged by
lon-Exchange Treatment
eluting fluoride sorbed on the exchanger using two molar hydrochloric
acid. Water Environ. Res., 71,36 (1999). Ion exchange is a well-known technique for purification of
wastewater. Ion exchange may be accomplished with ion-ex-
KEYWORDS: leachate treatment, spent pot liners, fluoride removal. ion change resins or synthetic polymeric materials (Bhakuni and Sas-
exchange.
try, 1964; Kunin and McGarvey, 1948; Majumdar, unpublished;
Majumdar and Ray, 1986; and Runaska et a1., 1951). Using ion
exchangers, a selective fluoride removal process can be developed.
Introduction However, the ion-exchange process can only be effective if the
Spent pot liner (SPL) is a hazardous solid waste produced at cell fluoride concentration is less than] 0 mg/L (Kumar, unpublished).
houses of aluminum smelters and is a potential source of fluoride Considerable research has been published concerning the removal
pollution. It contains a high level of fluoride, ranging from 7.6 to of fluoride from wastewater (Apparao and Karthikeyan, 1986;
21.2% (Kumar, unpublished). Fluoride and fluoro complexes are APHA et al., 1992; Arulanantham et a1., 1992; Bahl, 1975; Barbier
highly water soluble and leach out easily from SPL disposal sites. and Mazounie, 1984; Bhakuni and Sastry, ]963; Bulusu, 1984;
Therefore, they have adverse effects on groundwater and fresh Bulusu and Nawlakhe [Eds.], 1992; Bulusu et al., ] 979; Kumar et
water receiving streams if discharged without treatment. Leachates al., 1992; Maclntrite and Hammond, 1938; Meenakshi et aI., 1991;
may have serious health effects on humans, plants, and animals. Rabosky and Miller, 198]; Rubel and Woosley, 1979; Savinelli
Fluoride is beneficial as long as its concentration is 0.8 to 1.0 mg/L and Black, 1958; Schoeman and Botha, 1985; Seethapatirao, 1964;
for calcification of dental enamel, especially for children younger Srinivasan, 1959; and Thergaonkar and Nawlakhe, 1971). How-
than 8 years of age (Khoshoo, 1983) but causes dental fluorosis if ever, little research work has been done on the removal of fluoride
it is present in excess of 1.5 mg/L and skeletal fluorosis when it is from SPL leachates using ion exchangers. The reversed-phase
beyond 3.0 mg/L (Nawlakhe and Bulusu, 1989, and Nawlakhe et extraction chromatographic technique is selective for the extrac-
a1., 1965). Many workers have proven that prolonged intake of tion of ions. In liquid-solid chromatography, a solid substance
fluoride through drinking water and vegetables is responsible for serves as the stationary phase and extraction depends on the
fluorosis (Daver, 1945; Gopalakrishnan et aI., 1991; ICMR, 1975; equilibrium established at the interface between the grains of the
and Kariana, 1987). The maximum allowable concentration of stationary and mobile liquid phases. In reversed-phase chromatog-
fluoride in industrial wastewater discharged to inland surface water raphy, liquid ion exchangers are being impregnated on a solid-
in India is 2 mg/L (MEF, 1986). support-like silica gel (such as charcoal) and the exchanger phase
(liquid) is changed to the solid phase by the impregnation process.
Characteristics of Spent Pot Liner Leachates The present work reports on selective studies on fluoride removal
Characteristics of natural SPL leachates as collected and ana- from synthetic and natural SPL leachates. Natural SPL leachates
lyzed from SPL disposal sites around smelter areas of India are contain high levels of fluoride (up to 575 mg/L).

36 Water Environment Research, Volume 71, Number 1

 Singh et al.

Table 1-Characteristics of SPL leachates collected from SPL disposal site.

SPL leachate sample no.8

General
Parameters 2 3 4 5 6 standardsb

pH 8.8 9.6 8.9 9.2 8.6 8.8 5.5-9.0

Conductivity, u mhos/em 3082 3684 3210 3335 2893 2811
Total dissolved solids, mg/L 1627 1889 1785 1823 492 698 2100
Fluoride, mg/L 575 517 495 523 158 174 2.0
Cyanide, mg/L <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.2
Free ammonia, mg/L <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 5
Sodium, mg/L 590 550 530 510 174 157
Aluminium, mg/L 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.01
Iron, mg/L 1.22 3.31 1.63 1.82 0.58 0.73 3.0

a Note: sample nos. 1 to 4 were stagnant water samples lying in between SPL dumps. Sample nos. 5 and 6 were collected from narrow
flowing streams at the dump site.
b General standards for discharge of effluent in India are per Schedule II and VI Environmental Protection Act, 1986, Rules as per the latest
amendment (MEF, 1986).

The leachate was treated first with lime to bring the fluoride thetic binary and multicomponent systems with the same fluoride
level down to 10 mgIL before ion-exchange treatment. The lime concentration. Concentration of fluoride in the influent and effluent
required for the treatment was approximately 25 kg for I kg of from the column was measured. Study to elute fluoride sorbed on
fluoride. the exchanger was done with a variety of mineral acids and salt
solutions and its optimum concentration in each case was deter-
Preparation of the Ion Exchanger mined. Breakthrough study was also done using simple sodium
Commercially available wood charcoal was ground to between fluoride solution and laboratory-prepared synthetic SPL leachates.
72 and 100 mesh and then rendered hydrophobic by exposing it to
the vapors of dimethyl dichlorosilane in a nitrogen atmosphere. Analysis of Fluoride
The hydrophobic wood charcoal was then impregnated with 4% Fluoride in the samples was analyzed using the SPADNS-
Amberlite LA-2 [Ion Exchange (I) Ltd., Mumbai, Maharashtra, Zirconyl acid method using a Chemito 2500 UV-Vis Spectropho-
India] diluted in benzene in a rotary vacuum evaporator. Coated tometer (Chemito Instruments Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, Maharashtra,
wood charcoal was slurried with water and poured into a glass India) (APHA et a!., 1992).
column of I cm diameter. Excess organic reagent was washed with Effect of Flow Rate on Fluoride Removal. To study the effect
2 M hydrochloric acid. Charcoal, being porous and able to retain of flow rate in each set of experiments, 10 mglL of fluoride was
a considerable amount of exchanger, was found suitable for the passed (with influent concentration of 1 mglL) through the column
support. with different flow rates. The fluoride concentration in the effluent
with the respective flow rate from each column was determined
General Extraction Studies for Removal of Fluoride by and observations are presented in Table 2.
an Ion Exchanger Under Different Conditions One hundred percent extraction of fluoride was achieved up to
An aqueous solution containing 10 f.Lgof fluoride was passed a flow rate of 6 mLimin (Table 2 and Figure 1). Beyond this
through the prepared exchanger column. Experiments were con- efficiency, fluoride removal decreases by increasing the flow rate.
ducted at various flow rates and pHs. The effect of other ions A flow rate of 4 mLimin was found as optimum to carry out the
present in natural SPL leachates was also studied, preparing syn- experiment.

Table 2-Results of fluoride removal using an ion exchanger at different flow rates.s

Flow rate through Flow rate per Concentration of Concentration of

Set the column, volume of resin, fluoride passed, fluoride in Removal of
no. mUmin gpm/cu ft mglL effluent, mglL fluoride, %

I 1 2.8 <0.1 100

II 2 5.6 <0.1 100
III 4 11.2 <0.1 100
IV 6 16.8 <0.1 100
V 8 22.4 0.4 96

a Common parameters include the amount of fluoride passed through the column (10 ..
9) and the amount of ion exchanger used (1 g).

January/February 1999 37
Singh et al.

100 Table 3-Results of fluoride removal using an ion

exchanger at different pHs.
"'"
.~ 96
~
0: Concentration
'0 92
of fluoride
;;
>
o FkJoride loaded on thE' passed through Concentration
E Bll column in E'ac:h case:10ug
cr'" Set the column, of fluoride in Removal of
no. pH mg/L effluent, mg/L fluoride, %

I 7 <0.1 100
II 8 <0.1 100
Flow Rate In ml/minute III 9 <0.1 100
IV 10 <0.1 100
Figure 1-Effect of flow rate on removal of fluoride using
an ion exchanger.

cyanide ions and 100% extraction was achieved in all cases with
Effect of pH on Fluoride Removal. The extraction behavior of the other ions. This study indicates that this ion exchanger can be
fluoride with Amberlite LA-2 was studied at different pH values, used for removal of trace elements and other toxic substances such
keeping fluoride concentration in the influent constant at a flow as cyanides.
rate of 4 mUmin. In each case, pH of the column was first brought
to experimental pH using ammonium chloride-ammonium hy- Removal of Fluoride from Natural Spent Pot Liner
droxide (NH4Cl-NH40H) buffer, then a fluoride solution of the Leachate
respective pH was passed through the column. Concentration of Natural SPL leachate was collected from the SPL dump area of
fluoride in effluent from the column was determined. The extrac- Bharat Aluminum Company (BALCO), Korba (Madhya Pradesh,
tion behavior of fluoride was not affected in the pH range of 7 to India), and was used in this study. The leachate (Table 6) contain-
10 as reflected in the results given in Table 3. ing 175.22 mglL of fluoride was treated by conventional lime
Effect of Other Ions. To study the effect of other ions present treatment and a fluoride concentration of 9.6 mg/L was achieved.
in SPL leachates, experiments were conducted in binary and mul- Two hundred millilitres of the pretreated natural SPL leachate of
ticomponent systems. The other ions were selected based on the pH 9.37 was passed through the column made by I g of the
ions present in natural SPL leachates. To study the effect in a prepared exchanger at a flow rate of 4 mUmin. Results revealed
binary system, five sets of binary solutions were prepared, namely, that 100% of the fluoride was removed in the presence of other
fluoride and ferrous ions, fluoride and ferric ions, fluoride and constituents in the SPL leachate.
calcium ions, fluoride and aluminum ions, and fluoride and cya-
nide ions. Each of the binary solutions was passed through I g of Exchange Capacity
the exchanger. Results of analysis for the binary system are given The exchange capacity of the exchanger was determined by
in Table 4. measuring the number of milligram equivalents of hydroxide ion
To study the effect on removal of fluoride in a multicomponent absorbed per gram of the dry exchanger. One gram exchanger was
system, a solution containing fluoride, iron (consisting of a mixture taken in a standard joint bottle containing 20 mL of 0.5 M sodium
of both ferrous and ferric ions), cyanide, calcium, and aluminum hydroxide. The content of the bottle was shaken for 8 hours. The
ions was passed through I g of the prepared ion exchanger. sorption of hydroxide ion was determined by titrating excess
Concentration of the components in the effluents from the column hydroxide with standard oxalic acid and the ion-exchanged capac-
was determined and the results are presented in Table 5. ity was determined as hydroxide using the formula, exchange
The study indicated that extraction of fluoride (50 mg/L) is not capacity = WIA, where W is total amount of hydroxide exchanged
affected by the presence of ferrous, ferric, calcium, aluminum, and per gram of the exchanger and A is radical weight of hydroxide.

Table 4-Results of fluoride removal using an ion exchanger in presence of foreign ions in a binary system.s

Effluent concentrations,
Concentration of Concentration of mg/L
fluoride passed Foreign ions foreign ions passed
Set through the column, present in the through the column, Fluoride Foreign
no. mg/L binary system mg/L Ions Ions

I 10 Fe2+ 0.3 <0.1 <0.001

II 10 Fe3+ 0.3 <0.1 <0.001
III 10 Ca2+ 10.0 <0.1 <0.01
IV 10 A13+ 0.02 <0.1 <0.01
V 10 CW 0.1 <0.1 <0.01

B Common parameters include the amount of fluoride passed through the column (50 mg/L), flow rate through the column (4 mLlmin), and
amount of exchanger (1 g).

38 Water Environment Research, Volume 71, Number 1

 Singh et al.

Table 5-Results of fluoride removal using an ion 1.0

exchanger in the presence of foreign ions in a
multicomponent system. a

Concentration
0.8
of respective
component Concentration
passed of component
Components of through the in the Removal,
the system column, mg/L effluent, mg/L %
0.6
0
u
F-
Iron
10.0 <0.1 100
"-
u
(Fe2+ and Fe3+) 0.3 <0.001 100
CW 0.1 <0.01 100 0.4
Ca2+ 10.0 <0.01 100
A13+ 0.02 <0.01 100

a Common parameters include flow rate through the column (4

mUmin) and amount of exchanger (1 g). 0.2

Calculated exchange capacity is 2.18 meq/g of exchanger as hy-

droxide, which should be sufficient enough to remove fluoride
below 10 mg/L. o 100 200 300 400 500 600
Cumulativ~
Volum~
of Efflu~nt(mL)-

Breakthrough Capacity Figure 2-Breakthrough curve of simple sodium fluoride

Breakthrough capacity (column capacity) of an ion exchanger solution on wood charcoal coated with Amberlite LA-2.
for a particular ion is an important parameter for a practical
column operation. To study the breakthrough capacity of the ion
exchanger for fluoride, an ion-exchange column was prepared with cycle. Constant extraction was observed after the 24th cycle,
1 g of exchanger. The study was done using a simple sodium which revealed that the ion exchanger had almost completely
fluoride solution and natural SPL leachate. loaded.
Breakthrough Study Using Sodium Fluoride Solution. So- The exchange capacity of the exchanger with respect to fluoride
dium fluoride solution (20 mL) containing 5 mg of fluoride was can be inferred from the breakthrough study. Exchange capacity
passed through the prepared column at a flow rate of 4 mLlmin was calculated using the formula, exchange capacity = W/A,
repeatedly and the concentration of fluoride in the influent (Co) and where W is total amount of fluoride exchanged per gram of the
effluent (C) was measured to determine the exchange capacity. exchanger and A is atomic weight of fluoride
When the concentration of fluoride in the influent and effluent Therefore, exchange capacity =47.96/19 = 2.52 meg of fluo-
became almost the same the breakthrough capacity was achieved. ride/g of the exchanger.
A curve is plotted for ClCo versus cumulative volume of effluent This shows that the exchange capacity of the ion exchanger by
as shown in Figure 2. From the curve and from Table 7, it is clear the sodium hydroxide and breakthrough method is almost the
that up to 15 mg of fluoride was completely sorbed in the ex- same.
changer under experimental conditions and then, subsequently, Breakthrough Study Using Natural Spent Pot Liner
fluoride extraction percentage decreased up to the 23rd operating Leachate. To study the effect of other ions present in the leachate

Table 6-Results of extraction behavior of natural SPL leachate.

Concentration in the
Concentration in the Concentration in the Iime- ion-exchange-
Parameter natural SPL leachate treated SPL leachate treated leachate

pH 8.01 9.37 9.29

Conductivity. umhos/cm 1 170 1 100 1087
AI3+, mg/L 0.05 0.03 <0.01
F", mg/L 175.22 9.60 <0.1
CW, mg/L 0.08 0.03 <0.01
NH3 (free), mg/L <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
Iron, mg/L 0.83 0.21 0.08
Calcium, mg/L 0.06 2.24 0.08
Sodium, mg/L 250 260 243

January/February 1999 39
Singh et al.

Table 7-Results of experiments to determine the Table 8-Results of experiments to determine

breakthrough capacity of the exchanger. breakthrough capacity of the exchanger using Iime-
treated natural SPL leachate.
Concentration
Volume of Concentration of of fluoride in Concentration Concentration
Cycle effluent, fluoride in the the effluent Volume of of fluoride in of fluoride in
no. mL influent, (Co), mg (C), mg effluent, the influent the effluent
Cycle no. mL (Co), mg (C),mg
1 20 5 Nil
2 20 5 Nil 1 200 1.92 Nil
3 20 5 Nil 2 200 1.92 Nil
4 20 5 0.5 3 200 1.92 Nil
5 20 5 0.8 4 200 1.92 Nil
6 20 5 2.5 5 200 1.92 0.11
7 20 5 2.6 6 200 1.92 0.12
8 20 5 3.1 7 200 1.92 0.12
9 20 5 3.15 8 200 1.92 0.48
10 20 5 3.37 9 200 1.92 0.50
11 20 5 3.45 10 200 1.92 0.54
12 20 5 3.65 11 200 1.92 0.59
13 20 5 3.75 12 200 1.92 0.60
14 20 5 3.85 13 200 1.92 0.80
15 20 5 3.90 14 200 1.92 0.81
16 20 5 4.0 15 200 1.92 0.86
17 20 5 4.05 16 200 1.92 0.95
18 20 5 4.20 17 200 1.92 1.00
19 20 5 4.22 18 200 1.92 1.04
20 20 5 4.25 19 200 1.92 1.04
21 20 5 4.35 20 200 1.92 1.09
22 20 5 4.40 21 200 1.92 1.13
23 20 5 4.45 22 200 1.92 1.15
24 20 5 4.50 23 200 1.92 1.18
25 20 5 4.50 24 200 1.92 1.21
26 20 5 4.50 25 200 1.92 1.25
26 200 1.92 1.26
27 200 1.92 1.34
on the ion-exchange capacity of the exchanger, breakthrough study 28 200 1.92 1.38
was also conducted using lime-treated SPL leachate. For this 29 200 1.92 1.44
purpose, 200 mL of the lime-treated leachate with a fluoride 30 200 1.92 1.45
31 200 1.92 1.45
32 200 1.92 1.45
O.S 33 200 1.92 1.45
34 200 1.92 1.45
07

concentration of 9.6 mglL was passed through the prepared ion-

0.6
exchange column. Other experimental conditions were kept as for
the breakthrough study of the simple sodium fluoride solution.
05 Results of the experiment are depicted in Table 8 and Figure 3.
0
Results indicate that up to 7.68 mg of fluoride was completely
~
U
0.4 sorbed on the exchanger under experimental conditions and then,
subsequently, fluoride extraction percentage decreased up to the
0.3 29th operating cycle. Constant extraction was observed after the
30th cycle, which revealed that the ion exchanger was almost
completely loaded. The ion-exchange capacity of the exchanger
0.2
was determined using the above-mentioned formula and was found
to be 1.84 meq of f1uoride/g of the exchanger, which is slightly
01
lower than the value determined using simple sodium fluoride
solution (2.5 meq/g of exchanger).
o
o
Evaluation of Regeneration of the lon-Exchanger by
Cumulative Volume of Effluent (L)
Elution
Figure 3-Breakthrough curve of lime-treated natural SPL To study the regeneration of the ion exchanger by eluting the
leachate on wood charcoal coated with Amberlite LA-2. fluoride sorbed on the exhausted ion-exchanger bed, elution stud-

40 Water Environment Research, Volume 71, Number 1

 Singh et al.

Table 9-Experimental setup for elution studies. Table 10-Experimental setup for elution studies using
hydrochloric acid.
Set Eluant
no. used Common parameters Strength of
Set hydrochloric
NaCI Amount of fluoride sorbed on no. acid used Common parameters
the column to be eluted
(20 mg) 0.25 M Amount of fluoride sorbed on
II Volume of eluant passed the column to be eluted
through the ion exchanger (20 mg)
(50 mL) II 0.50 M Flow rate through the column
III HCI Molarity of the eluant used (4 mUmin)
(2M) III 1.00 M
IV Flow rate through the column IV 2.00M Volume of eluant passed (50
(4 mUmin) mL)
V

Results presented in Table 12 indicate that 100% elution was

ies were made with sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, hydrochloric
possible using 2 M hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid of lower
acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid with a minimum volume of an
molarity, that is, 0.25 M, 0.5 M, and 1.0 M, resulted in 48%, 73%,
eluant and to regenerate the ion exchanger for further removal of
and 86% elution, respectively, which is commensurate to the
fluoride. The experimental setup for the study was as per Table 9.
availability of more chloride ions. Therefore, 2 M hydrochloric
An ion exchanger loaded with 20 mg of fluoride in each case
acid is the most suitable eluting agent.
was eluted with 50 mL of the respective eluant with a common
flow rate of 4 mLimin. Elution studies were further carried out
with different molarities of hydrochloric acid. The concentration of Conclusions
fluoride in the effluents from the column was determined in all On the basis of this study, the following conclusions can be
cases. Conditions for the experiments were as given in Table 10. drawn:
lt has been observed that sodium chloride and sodium nitrate I. Effective removal of fluoride from SPL leachate after lime
failed to elute any fluoride sorbed on the exchanger; therefore, treatment is possible using an in-house-developed ion ex-
these cannot be used for elution. However, mineral acids yielded changer prepared by coating wood charcoal with 4% Amberlite
encouraging results (Table II) and indicated that, amongst the LA-2 in benzene.
three acids, performance of hydrochloric acid was the best, which 2. The prepared ion exchanger decreases the level of fluoride from
eluted 100% of the sorbed fluoride. This is because of the smaller approximately 10 mglL to less than the regulatory limit of 2
size of chloride ions than those of nitrate and sulfate ions. The mg/L.
order of size of the ions is as given below: 3. The optimum flow rate through the exchanger for treatment is
4 mLimin for a column of 1 cm diameter, giving a throughput
CI- < NO)" < SO~-
of 11.2 gpmlcu ft.
The larger the size of the ions, the more they will hinder the 4. There is no effect of the other ions present in the leachate on
exchange process. Therefore, elution decreases as the size in- removal of fluoride and this substance's exchanger offers the
creases. removal of trace elements and toxic substances such as cya-
In the case of nitric and sulfuric acids, elution was 74% and nides.
47%, respectively. Hydrochloric acid performs double action as it 5. This exchanger works efficiently in the pH range of 7 to 10.
elutes fluoride sorbed on the exchanger and regenerates the column 6. The exchanger has good capacity to exchange and can be
for further operation by remaking the chI oro-complex of Amber- regenerated by eluting fluoride sorbed on the exchanger using 2
lite-LA 2. M hydrochloric acid.

Table 11-Results of elution studies.

Concentration of fluoride Concentration of

Set Eluant Strength of sorbed on the column, fluoride in the
no. used the eluant mg effluent, mg Elution, %

I NaCI 2 M 20 a Nil
II NaN03 2 M 20 a Nil
III Hel 2 M 20 20.0 100
IV HN03 2 M 20 14.8 74
V H2SO4 2 M 20 9.4 47

January/February 1999 41
Singh et al.

Table 12-Results of elution studies using hydrochloric acid of different molarity.

Concentration of
Set Eluant Strength of Concentration of fluoride fluoride in the
No. used the eluant sorbed on column, mg effluent, mg Elution, %

I HCI 0.25M 20 9.6 48

II HCI 0.5 M 20 14.6 73
III HCI 1.0 M 20 17.2 86
IV HCI 2.0 M 20 20.00 100

Acknowledgments Khoshoo, T.N. (1983) Integrated Approach Into Fluoride Pollution. Paper
Authors. Gurdeep Singh is a professor at Centre of Mining presented at 13th Conf. Int. Soc. Fluoride Res., AHMS, New Delhi,
Environment, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad - 826 004 (India). India.
Hipul Kumar and J. Majumdar are scientists and P.K. Sen is Kumar, B. (Unpublished) Characterization and Treatment of Spent Pot
Executive Director at Metallurgical and Engineering Consultants Liner for Environmental Compliance. Ph.D. thesis, Indian School of
(India), Ltd., Ranchi - 834 002. Correspondence should be ad- Mines, Dhanbad.
Kumar, 8.; Sen, P.K.; and Singh, G. (1992) Environmental Aspects of
dressed to Prof. Gurdeep Singh, Centre of Mining Environment,
Spent Pot Linings from Aluminum Smelter and its Disposal-An
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad- 826 004.
Appraisal. Ind. J. Environ. Prot., 12, 8, 594.
Submitted for publication August 26, 1996; revised manuscript
Kunin, R., and McGarvey, F. (1948) Fluoride Removal by Strong Base
submitted November 3, 1997; Acceptedfor publication May 12, 1998.
Anion Exchange Resins. Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 1265.
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42 Water Environment Research, Volume 71, Number 1