TOPIC 7 ACTION RESEARCH: DATA COLLECTION METHODS

7.1 Synopsis
This topic is organised to enable students to identify various methods that can be used to
collect data in an action research. Each method has strengths and weaknesses and has to
be used appropriately based on the focus of the study.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

i. Describe the methods of action research
ii. Apply action research in the field of education

7.3 Conceptual Framework

7.3.1 Methods of Data Collection

There are several methods of data collection for an action research as shown in the
conceptual framework.

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7.3.1.1 Observation
Observation is an important research method. This method requires the researcher to have
background knowledge as well as a broad understanding of the real situation before making
an observation.
Typically, observation not only involves examining the situation or event but also being able
to think critically. The researcher, therefore, has to be skilfull in tracing significant events.

7.3.1.1.1 Benefits of conducting observations

(a) Personality aspects can usually be determined more efficiently through observation.
However, for a particular individual behaviour comparison, questionnaire or interview
may be used.
(b) The physical aspects of a building, a student, or a teacher can usually be studied through
checking, measuring, assessing, and comparing with a set criteria via direct observation.
(c) Direct observation is useful to study physical activities such as games, sports, and
practical work.
(d) Classroom observation can be used by the researcher to analyse the effectiveness of
teaching and how to improve it.

7.3.1.1.2 Direct observation

Observations can be done with or without the help of technical equipment such as taking
notes on teachers and students movements or recording observations using instruments
such as observation checklists, electronic devices such as video recorders, cameras or
audio tapes. These supporting resources can be used to analyse the data after the
observations. However, there are several aspects that need to be taken into consideration,
as stated below.

7.3.1.1.3 The focus of observation

Several questions should be considered before making an observation. Among them are:
Who will make the observations?
Who or what would be observed?
Where are the places that observations may be carried out? (It would be better to have
observations in several places and situations in order to obtain diverse information.)
When will the observations be carried out? (Observations held at dissimilar times may yield
different information)
How will the observations be recorded?
What are the procedures that should be followed to ensure that the observations are
reliable and valid?
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 What are the most appropriate techniques that may be used for classroom observation?
(Data collected during the observation must be recorded immediately at least in note form.)

7.3.1.1.4 Guidelines for classroom observation

When carrying out classroom observation, do pay attention to the following:
What is being said by the teacher or the students?
What is being done by the teacher or the students?
What tasks are given to the students and the pages of the textbook that are being referred
to?
Use abbreviations for words often used (for example: S for students, T for teachers).
In this method, observers often use diagrams or specific forms. For example, during a
teaching and learning session, if the observers want to observe the students' attitude, or
teaching methods, then suitable forms must be prepared so that it would be easy for them to
mark what they see during the teaching and learning process.
After the observation, observers should review to correct mistakes or make comments.
Additional notes should be made to express ones feelings, to describe a situation or to
share a new idea. These notes can then be compared to differentiate what actually
happened with the interpretations made on the situation.

7.3.2 Documents
Documents are written materials or films that are already available in certain areas (Noeng,
2000; Nana, 2005; Sudarwan, 2005). Analysis of documents are used to help researchers to
obtain data objectively, and do not require the presence of informants. They also provide
data consistency for all data obtained explicitly and can be used to obtain the validity of an
answer derived from the analysis of a questionnaire (Frankel, 2007). The use of documents
in research is to support and add to evidence from other sources.

There are three benefits of using documents in research: -

a) Assist in checking the data collected
b) Able to add special details to support the use of information from other sources; if the
document evidence contradicts and does not support, researchers have reasons to study
in greater depth the research that is being undertaken
c) Inference can be made from the documents (Robert, 1996)

7.3.3 Interview
Interview is an important method of collecting data in a research because it allows
researchers to explore and probe further when collecting information.
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Often in a study, a lot of information cannot be obtained through observation, documentation
or diary writings. Researchers need to hold face-to-face interaction.
In an action research, the participants interviewed could be:
1. pupils
2. teachers who teach the same subject
3. colleagues or schoolmates from the same school
4. school administrator (e.g. headmaster, senior assistant) and
5. observers who participated in the study.

These participants need to be interviewed to find out their feelings and opinions as well as
their attitude towards the study and action taken. For example, when researchers want to
know the true feelings of the students or explore their ideas, it is important that the
researchers contact the participants for the purpose of having a question and answer
session; to have a chat or discussion related to the issue.

7.3.3.1 Benefits of Conducting Interviews

a. Suitable for respondents who cannot read or who are slow learners
b. Appropriate for those who usually prefer to talk rather than to write
c. Easy for researchers to explain the purpose of a question and to get the expected
response from the respondent
d. A respondents sincerity in answering the questions can be seen from the face to
face discussion
e. Respondents are unable to change their answers given earlier even if the
subsequent question might drive them to do so

7.3.3.2 Planning for an Interview

a. Determine the purpose and the information to be obtained from the respondents
b. Prepare a well organised question framework as well as comments that can stimulate
the respondent to give information
c. Decide how to record the answers

7.3.3.3 Areas of Concern in Conducting Interviews

a. Do secure the cooperation of groups or individuals who are to be interviewed.
Researchers need to develop a good relationship with the respondents. This is an art
that requires skill.
b. Ask interesting questions that can stimulate the respondents to comment and give
explanation.
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c. The tool used to record answers should not distract respondents.

7.3.3.4 Ways of Writing or Recording Interview Responses

a. Use a recording device that can capture the authenticity of the answers of the
respondents such as the tone of a persons voice to determine whether s/he is
emotional or not.
b. Write notes of the interview simultaneously or immediately after. Both ways have
advantages and disadvantages. The former will enable the researcher to take down
complete notes but may interfere with the respondent, while the latter can give the
opposite effect. Either way, the researcher needs some training.
c. Interviewers need not have to record all the answers given by the respondents, but
may instead choose to draw their own conclusions based on salient points gathered
during the interview. In this case, it is good if the evaluation is done after conducting
the interviews or after listening to the recording again.

7.3.3.5 Types of Interview Techniques

There are two types of interview techniques. They are structured interviews and unstructured
interviews.
i. Structured Interview Technique
A structured interview is a conversational activity and questioning technique in which the
form and content of the questions you want to ask is limited to a particular topic or area only.
For example, a series of questions to gather information about how teachers correct
students spelling errors are formulated in advance so that researchers can question the
participants or respondents systematically.
Example:
Do you correct all the spelling errors made by the students?
Have you ever punished students who made spelling errors?
If so, what form of punishment did you use?
Who are the students who always get punished?

ii. Unstructured Interview Technique

An unstructured interview is a conversational activity and questioning technique that
emphasises the exploration of an idea or feeling more than getting certain facts. Questions
asked are open-ended and various answers can be obtained from the participants or
respondents.
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Example:
Is there anything you would like to share with us?
How did you feel at that time?
Why did you feel that way?
What are your views or opinions?
The advantages of unstructured interviews are they give opportunity to the researchers to
explore in depth and give participants the opportunity to take time to think, talk and make
interpretations about their feelings and ideas. Sometimes, participants can ask for
clarification and question the researcher.
Unstructured interviews are normally held in informal situations. At the time of the interview,
the researcher can also make observations about the behaviour of the participants and
provide comments as well as ask questions spontaneously, that is by not using questions
prepared in advance.

7.3.3.6 How to Record Interviews

When the researchers administer interviews, it is important to record the dialogue or
conversation in a particular way.
Researchers can use audio tapes if they do not interfere with the activities or interview
session.
Researchers can also take brief notes of the participants words or answers and if necessary,
a transcript of the interview can be obtained later as support materials for a more thorough
study. All records relating to the date, the situation and the content of the questions and
answers of the interview should be kept in the researchers diaries.
The interview sessions can be carried out individually, that is between the observer and the
student, or in a group consisting of 3 or 4 people to help facilitate the session. It is advisable
to record the interview or the details can just be noted on paper.

7.3.4 Checklist, Survey and Inventory

A checklist is another form of investigation. The checklist contains a list of items to be
scrutinised by the respondents. Here, respondents merely state what they know without
having to give much consideration. This checklist is like a network of answers to questions. A
feasible checklist would be one that is open-ended and less structured. A survey takes the
form of a questionnaire. It is simply a set of questions given to respondents for them to
answer. In a survey, there is a set of questions and choice of answers to choose from. The
inventory is a list of statements about a situation that you may agree with or not. Among the
categories included in it are: strongly agree - agree - not sure - disagree - strongly disagree.

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7.3.4.1 Preparing a Checklist
a. Consider a few checklists that have been designed by past researchers and specify
the details required in the study.
b. Sort items according to the categories that have been classified based on logical or
psychological structure. Relevant details are classified together.
c. Four ways to arrange the details of the checklist are:
List all the items appearing in one. For example:
Mark (^) in the space provided the activities available in the your school: sports,
gardening, theatre, music, debate, and so on.
Ask the respondent to answer Yes / No. For example: "Does your school have a
student union? Yes / No
Ask the respondent to give the sign (^) for the positive remarks. For example:
"Some of the female students in this school are Muslims .... ( )"
Circle or underline the appropriate answer for the given statements. For example:
"The Music Society has meetings: every week, every fortnight, every month, no fix
time."
d. Details with discrimination, for example: "Does your school have a library?"
Improved to: "Does your school have a library that contains at least one book for
each student?"
e. The checklist must be complete and comprehensive.

7.3.5 Video Recording and Transcript

Video recordings are very useful when specific recording of data is required such as details
of the conversation between student/teacher during the teaching and learning session.
Filming a video for action research requires the help of a friend or research partner. Video
filming can detect data related to teacher behaviour, student behaviour or other facts that the
teacher has failed to detect.
Tape recordings are also useful for measuring and evaluating an individual or group in an
activity.
The transcript of students conversation is an effective indicator to assess the students
understanding of a concept. In preparing a transcript you should,
Listen to the complete recording to get an overview.
Listen to the recording for the second time and write short notes. Write down the number
on the tape counter / tape for easy reference.
From the short notes, select the important parts for the research questions and make a
complete transcript.

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7.3.6 Log
A log comprises facts written down briefly in note form on events or activities according to
chronological sequence.

7.3.7 Field notes

These are entries made during an interview or an observation.

7.3.8 Photo
This is the recording of images before, during and after an activity to see the difference.

7.3.9 Portfolio
A collection of materials, including examples and samples of work, that covers the scope of
a programme or an activity.

7.3.10 Anecdotes

An anecdotal record is a record of just one event. It is in the form of short notes about an
important event or behaviour only. It comprises details about where, how, when, what, and
who were objectively related to an event that has taken place. Among the necessary
information that must be recorded in the anecdote are names, date, time, place, events,
reviews, suggestions or teachers actions.
Matters to be considered when writing anecdotes:
a) Make observations of all events taking place including those unplanned
b) Students observed do not need to be predetermined
c) The event is important and significant for students growth and development
Example: the development of language and literacy, patterns of social interaction, problem-
solving skills and so on.

3.7.11 Slides
Slides show the changes that have occurred in a research, such as the development of
learning.

3.7.12 Journal
Journal entries are regular and continuous notes made according to the perception of a
person focussing on a particular issue. The information recorded is not only a description of
important events but also includes all the observations, feelings, reactions, opinions,
interpretations, hypotheses, the result of reflection, analysis and comment.
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3.7.13 Diary Writing
Diary writing is an important way to collect data in an action research. Notes on
observations, feelings, actions, hypotheses and solutions to a situation can be made. We
can use our own ways of writing a diary.
There are two types of diary entries: diary of a teacher and a student. Here is a guide to
writing a diary:

1. Teachers Diary Notes

Diary entries should be made regularly. For example, after teaching using a special
strategy or after the meeting of a problematic class.
In the practice of diary writing, leave a margin to record changes, for additional notes or
references to other parts of the diary.
Each diary entry must have: the date when the event occurred and the date of the
entry/note(s) recorded.
Information about the time, location, respondents, focussed studies and other things
important for the study must be stated.
Diary notes should have main headings and subheadings and important parts underlined
for ease of cross-referencing.
Essential materials such as photographs, copies of documents, students work and others
can be pasted in the diary for reference.
From time to time, diary analysis should be performed to see if the issue can be answered
through the study of data collected and the data that still needs to be collected.
Analysis of records made will assist in the follow-up action plan.
Discussion with a friend about diary entries will allow us to explore the situation / issues
studied.

2. Students Diary Notes

Notes from the students diary is a source of interest for data or information.
The students diary notes will give a different view from the teachers' views although they
are on the same issue.
Notes from the students diary also provide teachers with honest feedback about
classroom environment and students achievement.
However, the students will write about teachers freely if they trust the teacher.

7.4 Conclusion:

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The success of any research not only depends on the progress that has been carefully
thought out, but also depends on a well coordinated and effective supervision of activities.

Task
1. Explain how action research is carried out using the observation method.
2. Discuss the strengths of the observation method.

OLL
Create a graphic organiser to show the strengths and weaknesses of using data collected
through diary entries.

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