Mobile & Service Robotics 02

ROBOTICS
01PEEQW
Basilio Bona
DAUIN Politecnico di Torino
Mobile & Service Robotics Kinematics
Fundamental problems in mobile robotics
Locomotion: how the robot moves in the environment

Perception: how the robot perceives the environment
Mapping: how to build the map of the environment
Localization: where is the robot wrt the map
Representation: how the robot organizes the knowledge
about the environment
Path planning/action planning: what the robot shall do to
go from here to there; what are the actions to be
performed to complete a specified task
Supervision and control: how are the command to
actuators generated to perform simple or complex tasks.
How to generate tasks
Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 3

Kinematics
Locomotion depends on the robot kinematics

Almost all mobile robots are underactuated, i.e., they have
a number of actuators (and the relative control signals)
that is less than the number of degrees of freedom of the
structure
Various wheels arrangements exist
Each one has a different kinematic model
We will study two wheeled structures
Differential drive robots
Bicycle-like robots
A brief introduction to quadcopters
Underactuated robots
A car has two actuators, thrust and steer, and moves in a

2D space (3dof)
A fixed-wing aircraft has four actuators, forward thrust,
ailerons, elevator and rudder) , and moves in a 3D space
(6dof)
A helicopter has four actuators: thrust vector magnitude
and direction from the main rotor, and yaw moment from
the tail rotor, and moves in a 3D space (6dof)
A quadcopter has four actuators, the four rotor thrusts ,
and moves in a 3D space (6dof)
A ship has two propellers on parallel axes and one rudder,
and moves in a 2D space (3dof)
Kinematics
the steering angle(t ) is the angle between the velocity

vector and the steered wheel direction
is equivalent to the angle between the normal to the
velocity vector and the steered wheel rotation axis
we indicate with robot pose the position and the
orientation (with respect to some give inertial axis)
( )
T
p(t ) = x y
c s 0

Rm = s c 0
0

0 0 1

Instantaneous Curvature Centre (ICC)
If an ICC exists, the wheel motion occurs without slippage
ICC

ICC
If an ICC does not exist, the wheel motion occurs with

slippage
wheels slip
Kinematics
jW
RW

W
iW
jr d
Rr v = r
y
r ir
R0
x
Kinematics Fixed wheel
The kinematic model
represents a rover ,
frame with a generic
( )
T
active non-steering d = d cos d sin 0

wheel, located at a
given position, with given constants
a local orientation
( )
T
The kinematic
equations describe
Linear velocity of the wheel
at the contact point with the v = vx vy 0
plane
the relations and
constraints between
( )
T
the wheel angular Angular velocity of the wheel W = Wx Wy 0
velocity and the
angular velocity of
( )
T
the frame Angular velocity of the robot r = 0 0 rz

Kinematic constraints
Constraints:
Hypothesis To avoid slippage the tangential velocity at the wheel
r = contact point, due to the rover rotation around its
center, must be equal to the advance velocity of the
wheel
W =
v = r
In the wheel reference frame we have
( )
T
r = 0 0 1 T
= (0 1 0)
T
v = (1 0 0) r
T

Differential Drive (DD) Rover
Left wheel, active, non steering
Passive support
(castor, omniwheel)
Right wheel, active, non steering

Differential Drive Rover
jr
Left wheel
r
2
kr ir
2
Right wheel

Differential Drive Kinematics
ICC
(t )
v (t )
Rr
v (t )
R0 vr (t )
v (t )
ICC (t )
v (t )
vr (t )
R0
ICC
Consider the generic time instant
Ci
v
i v
vr

vr
v
v
Rr
after
Ci
vr > v Turn left v

v
v > vr Turn right
vr
Rr
before

Ci

t

vk
k
C ik ik jrk
k
k
tk +1
vk
j0 cik
ik jrk k
trk0
R0 i0

C ik
AB = t
k
B
s k
sk
A s rk
k 2


Considering the sampled time equations and assuming

constant values during the time interval
C x sin
xk
ICCk = = k k k
C y + cos
yk k k k
v rk v k s rk s k
k = ; k =

v rk + v k k ( k + / 2) = v rk
vk = k ( k / 2) = v k
2
vk (v rk + v k )
k = =
k 2 (v rk v k )
t t
x (t ) = cos ( )v( ) d; y(t ) = sin ( )v( ) d;

0 0
t
(t ) = ( ) d
0
Approximation when sampling period is small
d
k = kT k +1 k k
dt
x cos( ) sin( ) 0 x C C
k +1 k k k xk xk
y = sin( ) cos( ) 0 y C + C
k +1 k k k yk yk (A)
0 0 1
k +1 k k
EULER APPROXIMATION
x k +1 = x k + vkT cos k
yk +1 = yk + vkT sin k
k +1 = k + kT

RUNGE-KUTTA APPROXIMATION
1
x k +1 = x k + vkT cos k + kT
2
1
yk +1 = yk + vkT sin k + kT
2
k +1 = k + kT

EXACT INTEGRATION
k
x k +1 = x k + (sin k +1 sin k )
vk
k
yk +1 = yk (cos k +1 cos k ) (B)
vk
k +1 = k + kT
(A) and (B) are the same


Path Planning

Path Planning
free space obstacles
final pose final pose
2D
initial pose initial pose

Path Planning
3D

Path Planning
A robot path from pose A to

pose B can always be
decomposed into a series of
arcs of different radii
arcs of zero radius

represent turn-in-place
maneuvers
arcs of infinite radius

represents straight line
maneuvers
Path Planning
Driving a vehicle to a goal (no orientation)
relative to frame RA x f , yf

RA
(0, 0) (0, )

Path Planning
Driving a vehicle to a goal (with orientation)
(0, r2y )R
relative to frame RA B
2
x f 1, y f 1 x f 2, y f 2
RB
1
RA
(0, 0) (0, 1 )

Path Planning

Path Planning

Unicycle
Unicycle is the simplest example of wheeled robot.

It consists of a single actuated steering wheel
is the steering velocity
x cos 0 vr

y = sin v + 0
Rr
0 1

y
states/coordinates
x y
T
R0
x
control commands

Unicycle motion

Unicycle-like robot (polar coordinates)
= x +y
2 2

vr
= atan2(y, x )
Rr = + = atan2(y, x )
x
Bicycle-like robot
x = v cos NON HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINT
y = v sin x sin y cos = 0
= v tan steering angle

L Rr
L v

yf

y
L
orientation
R0
x xf
Bicycle equations 1
1)
2)
1)

Bicycle equations 2

Bicycle equations 3

Bicycle equations 5

Bicycle vs unicycle motion

Quadcopters

Quadcopter model
F4
N3 N1
F3 RB N4 F1
iB
F2 jB
kB
d
N2

Quadcopter equations




Odometry
Odometry is the estimation of the successive robot poses

based on the wheel motion. Wheel angles are measured
and used for pose computation
Odometric errors increase with the distance covered, and
are due to many causes, e.g.
Imperfect knowledge of the wheels geometry
Unknown contact points: in the ideal DD robot there are two
geometric contact points between wheels and ground. In real
robots the wheels are several centimeters wide and the actual
contact points are undefined
Slippage of the wheel wrt the terrain
Errors can be compensated sensing the environment
around the robot and comparing it with known data (maps,
etc.)
Odometry Errors
Estimated path
Desired path based only on odometry
Map

Other important problems that must be addressed
1. Path planning: the definition of an optimal geometric

path in the environment
2. Mapping: how to build environment maps (geometrical

vs semantic)
3. Localization: where am I?
4. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM): build a

map and at the same time localize the robot in the map
while moving

Path Planning
Path planning: it computes which route to take, from the

initial to the final pose, based on the current internal
representation of the terrain and considering a cost
function (minimum time, minimum energy, maximum
comfort, etc)
Complete path generation: this path is created as a
sequence of successive moves from the initial pose
Motion planning: is the execution of this theoretical route,
by translating the plan from the internal representation to
the physical movement of the wheels
Next move selection: at each step, the algorithm must
decide which way to move next. An efficient dynamic
implementation is required
Path Planning
Where am I going? Mission
planning Navigation
Whats the best way there?
Path planning
deliberative
Where have I been? Map
making Carto- Mission
grapher Planner
Where am I? Localization
How am I going to get Behaviors
reactive
Behaviors
there? Behaviors
Behaviors
Introduction to AI Robotics (MIT Press), copyright Robin Murphy

2000

Path Planning
B
Fixed Mobile obstacles
obstacles
Velocity
constraints
Acceleration
constraints

Path Planning
k =N
k =2
k =1
j0
k =0
R0
k0
i0
Which commands shall I give to the rover?

Path Planning
B
Final pose
Path B
Path A
A
Initial pose

Motion Planning
B Move 3:rotation
Final pose
Move 2: go straight
Move 1: rotation
A
Initial pose

Non-holonomic constraints
Non-holonomic constraints limit the possible incremental

movements in the configuration space of the robot
Robots with differential drive move on a circular trajectory
and cannot move sideways
Omni-wheel robots can move sideways

Holonomic vs. Non-Holonomic
Non-holonomic constraints reduce the control space with

respect to the current configuration (e.g., moving sideways is
impossible)
Holonomic constraints reduce the configuration space

Academic year 2010/11 by Prof. Alessandro De Luca




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ROBOTICS

Locomotion: how the robot moves in the environment

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 3

Locomotion depends on the robot kinematics

A car has two actuators, thrust and steer, and moves in a

the steering angle(t ) is the angle between the velocity

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 6

If an ICC exists, the wheel motion occurs without slippage

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 7

If an ICC does not exist, the wheel motion occurs with

active non-steering d = d cos d sin 0

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 10

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 11

Right wheel, active, non steering

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 12

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Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 16

vr > v Turn left v

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Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 20

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 21

Considering the sampled time equations and assuming

x (t ) = cos ( )v( ) d; y(t ) = sin ( )v( ) d;

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 24

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 25

(A) and (B) are the same

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final pose final pose

initial pose initial pose

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A robot path from pose A to

arcs of zero radius

arcs of infinite radius

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Unicycle is the simplest example of wheeled robot.

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 36

Basilio Bona - DAUIN - PoliTo ROBOTICS 01PEEQW 37

x = v cos NON HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINT

y = v sin x sin y cos = 0

= v tan steering angle

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Odometry is the estimation of the successive robot poses