AR 318B

BUILDING UTILITIES 2
RSW MT-01
WIRES AND CABLES & BUILDING WIRING
SYSTEMS,SWITCHES,RECEEPTACLES,CONTACTORS &
RELAYS,LIGHTING FIXTURES AND POWER SAVING DEVICES
DATE ISSUED:SEPTEMBER 13, 2017
DATE DUE: SEPTEMBER 25, 2017

REFERENCE:
http://www.ecmweb.com/basics/transfer-switches-simplified
https://www.scribd.com/doc/184339138/WIRES-AND-CABLES-pdf#
http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/electrical-power-
generation/types-of-switches
https://www.hometips.com/how-it-works/receptacles-120-240-volt.html
www.uen.org/.../downloadFile.cgi?...Lighting_fixtures...pdf...Light
ing_fixtures...pdf
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-
5/contactors/
http://www.lukeelectricseattle.com/Seattle-Electrician/energy-
saving.html

ARCH. CHESTER ALLAN KIAT-ONG PADILLA, STEVEN JOHN G.

INSTRUCTOR BS ARCHITECTURE 03
 Methods of Electrical Wiring Systems w.r.t Taking Connection
Wiring (a process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
suppliers meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances is
known as Electrical Wiring) can be done using two methods which are

Joint box system or Tee system

Loop in system
They are discussed as follows:

Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System

In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints are made
in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts. This method of wiring doesnt
consume too much cables size.
You might think because this method of wiring doesnt require too much cable it is therefore cheaper.
It is of course but the money you saved from buying cables will be used in buying joint boxes, thus
equation is balanced. This method is suitable for temporary installations and it is cheap.

Loop-in or Looping System

This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are connected in
parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually. When a connection is required
at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it directly to the terminal and then
carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed.
The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to another
until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line conductors are looped either in switchboard
or box and neutrals are looped either in switchboard or from light or fan. Line or phase should never
 be looped from light or fan.

Advantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring

It doesnt require joint boxes and so money is saved
In loop in systems, no joint is concealed beneath floors or in roof spaces.
Fault location is made easy as the points are made only at outlets so that they are accessible.
Disadvantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring
Length of wire or cables required is more and voltage drop and copper losses are therefore more
Looping in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.
Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems
The types of internal wiring usually used are

Cleat wiring
Wooden casing and capping wiring
CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
Conduit wiring
There are additional types of conduit wiring according to Pipes installation (Where steel and PVC
pipes are used for wiring connection and installation).

Surface or open Conduit type

Recessed or concealed or underground type Conduit
1. Cleat Wiring
This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires (occasionally, sheathed and
weather proof cable) braided and compounded held on walls or ceilings by means of porcelain
cleats, Plastic or wood.

Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable for domestic premises.
The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays.
 Advantages of Cleat Wiring:
It is simple and cheap wiring system
Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army camping
As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore fault in cablescan be seen and
repair easily.
Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and addition.
Inspection is easy and simple.
Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:
Appearance is not so good.
Cleat wiring cant be use for permanent use because, Sag may be occur after sometime of the usage.
In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air, therefore, oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain,
chemical and acidic effect may damage the cables and wires.

it is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect , risk of fire and wear & tear.
it can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
it cant be used in important and sensitive location and places.
It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.
2. Casing and Capping wiring
Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it is considered
obsolete this days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used in this kind of
wiring were either VIR or PVC or any other approved insulated cables.

The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip of
wood with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to accommodate VIR cables. The grooves were
made to separate opposite polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the wires and
 cables installed and fitted in the casing.

Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping.
Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:
There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
Costly repairing and need more material.
Material cant be found easily in the contemporary
White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.
3. Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used in
this kind of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof, water
proof, steam proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well
seasoned and straight teak wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.
 The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips (buckle clip) already
fixed on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10cm for horizontal runs and 15cm

for vertical runs.

Advantages of Batten Wiring
Wiring installation is simple and easy
cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
Paraphrase is good and beautiful
Repairing is easy
strong and long-lasting
Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
Cant be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
High risk of firs
Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are openly visible
to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
Heavy wires cant be used in batten wiring system.
Only suitable below then 250V.
Need more cables and wires.
4. Lead Sheathed Wiring
The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an outer sheath
of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheath given protection to cables
from mechanical damage, moisture and atmospheric corrosion.
 The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the point of
entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide safety in case the
sheath becomes alive. The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link clips just
as in TRS wiring.

5. Conduit Wiring
There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

1. Surface Conduit Wiring

2. Concealed Conduit Wiring
5.1 Surface Conduit Wiring
If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring method, they
make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then with the help of
rawal plugs.

5.2 Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed conduit
wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or
metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is the most popular, beautiful,
stronger and common electrical wiring system nowadays.

In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of
pipe hooks (surface conduit wiring) or buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are
afterwards drawn by means of a GI wire of size if about 18SWG.
 In Conduit wiring system, The conduits should be electrically continuous and connected to earth at
some suitable points in case of steel conduit. Conduit wiring is a professional way of wiring a
building. Mostly PVC conduits are used in domestic wiring.

The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when rodents bites the cables it
will cause short circuit) that is why circuit breakers are in place though but hey! Prevention is better
than cure. Lead conduits are used in factories or when the building is prone to fire accident. Trunking
is more of like surface conduit wiring. Its gaining popularity too.

It is done by screwing a PVC trunking pipe to a wall then passing the cables through the pipe. The
cables in conduit should not be too tight. Space factor have to be put into consideration.

Types of Conduit
Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit
wiring) which are shown in the above image.

Metallic Conduit
Non-metallic conduit
Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.

There are two types of metallic conduits.

Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)
Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible and easy to
bend.

Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50,
and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in diameter.

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
Repairing and maintenance is easy.
There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas.
No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes).
It is reliable and popular wiring system.
sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.
Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems
It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for metallic pipes Tee(s)
and elbows etc.
Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
installation is not easy and simple.
Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.
TRANSFER SWITCHES SIMPLIFIED

Practical tips for understanding and installing these devices in residential applications

As backup power sources become more common in residential construction (Photo 1), many
homeowners have learned about the needs and benefits of transfer switches. They know in the
event of an electric utility power supply outage it is at the very least desirable to power up selected
circuits in a service entrance panel to provide limited light, heat, and refrigeration. Having the
option of operating a double-throw switch or sitting back and doing nothing while the switch
operates on its own is a very appealing and safe option.

Switch basics

In its most basic form, a transfer switch for a 120/240V single-phase service is simply a double-
pole, double-throw switch of proper ampere rating with a middle off position (Fig. 1). By design, it
is a physical impossibility for both power sources to supply the load simultaneously, unless, of
course, that is the intent. It's also impossible for the two sources to mix or for one source to
backfeed into the other.

in residence for backup power. In the event of an electric utility outage, it starts automatically and comes
online within less than a minute." src="http://ecmweb.com/mag/901ecmTSpic1.jpg" alt="" class="old-inline-
image">
Photo 1. Interior of an 8kW LPG generator installed in residence for backup power. In the event of
an electric utility outage, it starts automatically and comes online within less than a minute.

Installing a transfer switch is a relatively straightforward task. You install the switch upstream of
the service entrance panel, which typically contains the main disconnect. You should locate it next
to the entrance panel. For a retrofit, if the main disconnect is part of the service entrance panel, it's
necessary for you to pull the meter (with electric utility permission) in order to de-energize the
service entrance conductors. Then, reroute them into the transfer switch, wire in the generator,
and refeed the service entrance panel. In all cases, you should use cable or raceway suitable for the
environment and of proper ampacity. Make sure the neutral is run through unswitched, and the
transfer switch enclosure is properly grounded. Where aluminum conductors are used, be sure to
wire-brush the metal, apply corrosion inhibitor, and torque the lugs to the proper value.

For the electrician who has never retrofitted a transfer switch, the job is relatively straightforward,
because it closely resembles the work involved with an ordinary service installation.

Manual versus automatic

A manual transfer switch must be actuated by the homeowner. After having ascertained that the
electric utility outage is more than a momentary loss of power, the homeowner must manually
start the engine, allow it to come up to speed and stabilize, and then throw the lever on the transfer
switch into the generator position.

Fig. 1. A double-pole, double-throw switch is the basic transfer equipment when the
entire load is supplied by either the normal source, such as an electric utility, or the
backup source, such as a diesel generator. Backfeed or inadvertent connection of the
two sources is impossible.

On the other hand, an automatic transfer switch (ATS) continuously monitors electric utility
power. Fluctuations or serious power quality issues, which might precede an outage, trigger a start
command to the generator. After backup voltage and frequency stabilize, the transfer switch brings
the generator online. Once electric utility power is restored, with no fluctuations for a
predetermined amount of time, the switch goes back to its normal position. After a cooling down
interval, the generator is automatically shut down. All of these actions take place with no human
intervention.

No matter which type of switch is being used, the foregoing discussion is based on the assumption
that the generator is capable of supplying the total connected load, which is often not the case.
Unless the residential load is unusually small or the generator is unusually large, successful
operation depends on several factors.
With a manual transfer switch in place, the homeowner would first have to make his way to the
service entrance panel. Many times, this would be done in the dark with a flashlight in hand. Prior
to switching over to standby power, the homeowner would have to shut off individual breakers for
nonessential branch circuits so as to shed part of the load and size it down to match the capability
of the standby power plant. If the loads on their branch circuits weren't properly noted prior to this
activity, it's easy to overload the capability of the generator right from the start.

Fortunately, this process is not necessary with newer transfer switches. Several manufacturers
provide selective load transfer switches (click here to see Fig. 2), which provide alternate power to
only those branch circuits chosen in advance by the homeowner. Because this type of transfer
switch carries only a small portion of the total load, it is smaller and moderately priced. A typical
6-circuit model, suitable for a 5,000W generator, sells for about $350.

Moreover, the electrician that performs the initial installation does not have to cut incoming power
and perform heavy service entrance conductor work during the install. As the installer, all you
have to supply is a 60A double-pole breaker to match the service entrance panel make and model.

The retrofit
Photo 2. Automatic selective circuit transfer switch retrofitted to 200A residential service. Because it is for
an optional standby system, the owner designates the circuits to be supplied.
Begin a retrofit by mounting the selective circuit manual transfer switch next to the service
entrance panel (Photo 2). A length of flexible raceway, in many cases electrical nonmetallic tubing
(ENT), is often furnished with the transfer switch. However, you should replace this with metallic
raceway if the building is three or more stories above grade or if ENT is prohibited by local
codes. Note: ENT is permitted per the 2008 version of the NEC.

Feed the prewired harness through this raceway. It includes heavy conductors for the new double-
pole breaker in the existing service entrance panel along with designated ungrounded branch
circuit conductors. Splice these new conductors from the harness to the preselected branch circuit
conductors with twist-type wire connectors inside the service entrance panel. The raceway also
includes a green equipment grounding conductor, which is provided for the purpose of grounding
the transfer switch enclosure. The wiring harness is preterminated in the selective circuit transfer
switch so the only connections that have to be made are those in the service entrance panel.
Although the original branch circuit breakers are no longer used, you can leave them in place as
spares, or remove two of them to make space for the new double-pole 60A breaker.

With increased arc fault and GFCI branch circuit mandates, it may be necessary for you to upgrade
some of the breakers in the transfer switch. Some models do not allow for this change. It's
important not to overlook the whole notion of breaker compatibility. Some breakers from different
manufacturers may appear to interchange and fit the box properly, but they are not listed for this
purpose. One problem could be a mismatch of the metal alloy with the bus bars. Accordingly, you
must address this detail.

In addition to the cost of a double-pole breaker, another item of significant expense that has to be
furnished to complete the job is a flexible cord of sufficient ampacity and suitable to the
environment to bring power from the generator to the transfer switch or if hard-wired to a
power inlet box mounted on the outside of the dwelling.

Know the Code

The installation we've been discussing is, of course, governed by the NEC. The transfer switch is
defined in Art. 100 as: an automatic or non-automatic device for transferring one or more load
conductor connections from one power source to another. The reason this definition does not
mention keeping the sources isolated from one another is that, in certain instances, one or more
electric power sources are permitted to operate in parallel with a primary source of power, notably
the electric utility. This situation is covered in Art. 705 (Interconnected Electric Power Production
Sources) and is seen in homes with wind or solar power systems where there is a cogeneration
setup with the electric utility. For this type of hookup, a synchronous inverter is required so that
DC power from the storage batteries is converted to AC power of the proper voltage and frequency,
and phase-synchronized to the electric utility supply.

The requirements in Art. 445 (Generators) is very brief and makes no mention of the required
transfer switch. This and other details are covered in Art. 702 (Optional Standby Systems).

Emergency systems are those that supply power and/or light in the event of an electric utility
outage to designated areas where such electrical supply is essential for safety to human life. These
systems require ATSs, and a minimum time interval is specified for the switchover to be complete.

Legally required standby systems are those mandated by municipal, state, federal, or other codes
or by a jurisdictional government agency. These also require ATSs. There is also a minimum time
requirement, but it is longer than for emergency systems.

Optional standby systems supply power to facilities where life safety is not an issue and where
they are not mandated by codes or government regulations. Transfer switches may be manual or
automatic. In addition, there is no specified minimum transfer time. In most cases, it is this Article
that governs residential backup power systems, including transfer switches. Before performing
such an installation, you should carefully review this Article to make sure your work is NEC
compliant.

Optional standby power is useful for supplying those loads which, when not served due to an
electric utility outage, could cause discomfort or financial loss, but are not life safety related. If
only certain loads are picked up by the optional standby power supply, then it is the responsibility
of the homeowner or designated manager to select those loads. Typical choices are heating and
refrigeration (especially freezers where thawing could be costly), data processing and
communications, water supply and sewage disposal (where electric pumps are involved), selected
lighting, garage door openers (so that a vehicle is not stuck inside), some cooking equipment
(including gas stoves with electric ignition), an electric clock, and the like. Choices can be based on
need and amount of power consumed. It should be possible to supply everything essential to a
normal existence and even include TV and computer without overloading a moderate-sized
generator.
Article 702 requires that audible and visual signals shall be in place to indicate failure of the
optional standby source and to indicate when the optional standby source is carrying its load. An
exception allows these signals to be omitted if the optional standby source is portable, but not if it
is permanently installed at a given location.

Another Art. 702 requirement is that a sign shall be placed at the service entrance panel stating
type and location of the optional standby equipment.

To properly size the backup generator and transfer switch, follow the procedures covered in Art.
220 (Branch Circuit, Feeder and Service Calculations). If two loads will not be used concurrently,
the smaller of these can be omitted in calculating the total load. The classic example is heat and air
conditioning. This calculation will influence the size of the generator and transfer switch.

As we have seen, a transfer switch is a key element in a residential backup power installation.
However, it's simply a basic double-pole, double-throw device with a middle off position.

Herres is a licensed master electrician in Stewartstown, N.H. He can be reached

atelectriciansparadise@hughes.net.

Sidebar: Safety First

There really isn't a fail-safe way to ensure every building on the electric utility grid has its main
disconnect opened before its on-site generator is fired up. For this reason, some utility supply lines
will receive a backfeed during outage periods. In this situation, the generator's 240V output is
applied to the electric utility transformer's secondary windings. From there, it is stepped up to line
voltage, invariably in the kilovolt range. This situation endangers the lives of electric utility
workers.

In the event a backup generator is supplying power to a service entrance panel with the main
disconnect in the ON position, and electric utility power is restored, the two power sources will not
be in phase. In this case, the smaller of the two power sources (i.e., the home generator), with its
much higher internal impedance, will be destroyed.
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL SWITCHES
Electrical Switches are electromechanical devices that are
used in electrical circuits to control power, detect when systems
are outside their operating ranges, signal controllers of the
whereabouts of machine members and work pieces, provide a
means for manual control of machine and process functions,
control lighting, and so on. Switches come in a variety of styles
and are actuated by hand, foot, or through the detection of
pressure, level, or objects. Switches can be simple on-off types
or can have multiple positions that, for instance, can control the
speed of a multi-speed fan. Switch operators can be found in
various shapes and sizes, such as toggles or buttons, and can
be furnished in a variety of colors.
Types of Electrical Switches
Switch function is defined by the number of poles and throws the switch has. Poles are individual
circuits the switch controls (e.g., a 3-pole switch has three circuits controlled by the same throw).
Throws are unique positions or settings for the switch (e.g., a double-throw switch can operate
in two different positions like on/off, high/low, etc.). Combining the number of poles and throws
gives a succinct description of the switchs function, so the function of, for instance, a single-pole,
double-throw switch is implicit. Switch types are commonly abbreviated for brevity, so a single-
pole, double-throw switch would be referred to as an SPDT switch.
The simplest type of switch is a single-pole, single-throw (SPST) device that functions as an on-off
switch. Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switches are commonly employed as internal polarity
reversing circuits. Switches of up to four poles and three throws are common and some have
breaks.
Foot Switches
Foot Switches are electro-mechanical devices used to control power
in an electrical circuit by foot pressure. They are often used on
machines where an operator needs his or her hands to stabilize a
workpiece.
Key specifications include number of pedals, switching function,
voltage rating, and current rating.
Foot switches find use in many press applications where hand
controls cannot be used to actuate a cycle. They are also commonly
used in hospital equipment and office machines.

Level Switches
Level Switches are electro-mechanical devices used to detect the
level of liquids, powders, or solids. They are mounted in tanks,
hoppers, or bins, and can provide output to a control system. In some
instances they can be used to actuate a device directly, such as level
switches used in residential sump pumps.
Key specifications include measured media, output type, switch type,
voltage and current ratings, and the materials used for the body, stem,
and float.
Level switches are used extensively in the process industries to
monitor tank and hopper levels. They are used in everyday
applications as well.
Limit Switches
Limit Switches are electro-mechanical devices designed to sense
motion and position mechanically and provide output signals to a
controller. They are available as bare switches, or in rugged
enclosures intended for the tough environment of a factory floor.
Key specifications include actuator type, voltage, and current ratings.
A variety of actuator types from rods to whiskers ensures that any
manner of machine, component, or work pieces can be sensed by a
limit switch.
Limit switches are used in many common consumer machines such
as washing machines. In their ruggedized form they are used in many
types of manufacturing facilities such as steel mills and paper plants.
Membrane Switches
Membrane Switches are circuit board based electro-mechanical
devices that provide tactile control of processes and machines without
the need for individual push switches. They are often custom
designed to suit a particular process.
Key specifications include circuit assembly type, actuator type, and
terminal type. Number of keys, graphics, illumination, and displays
can also be important features.
Membrane Switches are common in commercial products where
incorporating all control functions into a single device can save costs
over using discrete switches.
Pressure Switches
Pressure Switches are electro-mechanical devices used to sense fluid
pressure and provide output signals to a controller. They often employ
a diaphragm as the sensing means.
Key specifications include the pressure type, media measured,
diaphragm material, pressure connection, minimum and maximum
working pressures, and maximum switch current.
Pressure switches are used to keep pressure within limits in
lubrication systems where over-pressure or under-pressure conditions
can result in damage to the machine.
Pull Chain Switches
Pull Chain Switches are electro-
mechanical devices that are hand operated and used to switch a
circuit on and off, or step a circuit through increasing power levels.
Their most common application is in lighting where they are used to
switch lamps. Pull Rope Switches are used as emergency stop
devices.
Key specifications include switching function, voltage and current
ratings, as well as various features specific to e-stop applications such
as broken-cable detection.
Pull chain switches can be used for manual control of overhead lights
and fans. As rope-pull switches, they are used for emergency stop
devices, for example along the length of an in-running roll. They are sometimes called Rope Pulls
or Cable Pulls.
Pushbutton Switches
Pushbutton Switches, also referred to as Push Switches, are hand
operated electro-mechanical devices used for switching circuits. They
are the most common variety of switch used on industrial control
panels.
Key specifications include single-throw or double-throw switching
function, contact type, mounting type, actuator type, and panel cut-out
diameter. The 30 mm cut-out is a common industrial size.
Pushbutton switches make up the bulk of manual switches used in
industrial controls. They are available in a variety of shapes and styles
to cover almost any manual control scenarios.
Rocker Switches
Rocker Switches are hand operated electro-mechanical devices used
for switching circuits. The switch operator position, raised or
depressed, gives a quick visual indication of the circuit's on or off
status.
Key specifications include single-throw or double-throw switching
function, mounting type, actuator type, and panel cut-out dimensions.
Rocker switches are used for manual switching in many industrial
controls as well as for control of consumer goods and office
machines.

Rotary Switches
Rotary Switches are hand operated electro-mechanical devices used
for switching circuits and selecting functions. Rotary switches can be
two-position, on-off, or they can have multiple discrete stops.
Key specifications include number of poles, number of positions,
construction type, mounting type, and panel cut-out diameter for panel
mount switches.
Rotary switches are used to provide a visually verifiable means of
switch position, allowing operators to tell with a glance whether a
circuit is energized or not. They are also called Paddle Switches.
Slide Switches
Slide Switches are hand operated electro-mechanical devices used
for switching circuits. The switch operator is in the form of a slider that
moves from position to position to control the circuit status.
Key specifications include single-throw or double-throw switching
function, mounting type, and panel cut-out dimensions.
Slide switches are used in electrical and electronic equipment where
the switching range can be limited and economy is important. They
are commonly used for on-off buttons or just as a general control
switch.
Thumbwheel / Pushwheel Switches
Thumbwheel Switches, also referred to
as Pushwheel Switches, are hand operated electro-mechanical
devices used to control electrical circuits with a rotatable wheel. They
display a numeric value corresponding to the switch position.
Key specifications include number of positions, mounting type,
actuator type, coded output type, and panel cut-out dimensions.
Thumbwheel switches are widely used in the aviation industry for
flight controls, instrumentation, and controllers. They are also used in
test and measurement equipment and computer devices.
Toggle Switches
Toggle Switches are hand operated electro-mechanical devices used
for switching circuits. They are actuated by a lever which is pushed
through a small arc. Moving the lever back and forth opens and closes
an electrical circuit, while the lever position gives a quick visualization
of the circuit status.
Key specifications include single-throw or double-throw switching
function, 1-axis, 2-axis, or 3-axis configuration, or in some cases
omnidirectional or joystick toggle configuration, and actuator type.
Toggle switched are used extensively in electronics panels and
instrumentation where a wider range of switching function is required,
such as in switchboards.
Wall Switches
Wall Switches are hand operated electro-mechanical devices used in
residential and commercial buildings most commonly for lighting
control. They are also used to control ceiling fans and electrical
outlets.
Key specifications include combination device function, actuator type,
and additional switch functions such as dimmer control, fan speed
control, or timer-based switching.
Wall switches are specifically designed to operate on line voltage and
fit inside standard electrical boxes. They are standard items in
residential and commercial construction. A variety of decorator or
designer styles can set these switches apart from industrial switches
where aesthetics are less of a concern.
Applications and Industries
Switches are used in myriad applications in every industrysuch as aerospace, automotive,
chemical, communication, marine, medical, military, petrochemical, and transportationas well as
in the commercial and residential sectors. A ubiquitous technology, switches can be found as part
of the user interface for nearly every electrical and mechanical product. Some typical places to find
switches include:

Access / Exit Control

Aircraft
Ammeters
Appliances
Brake Systems
Conveyors
Cranes
Doors
Electropneumatics
Emergency Stop
Escalators
HVAC
Hydraulics
Ignition / Starter
Instruments
Machine Tools
Motors
Pneumatics
Pressure Vessels
Process Control
Safety Interlock
Scrubbers
Separators
Speed Control
 Sumps
Tanks
Transformers
Valves
Voltmeters

Generally, the specific application will help determine what kind of switch is best for the job.
Because the switchs form factor is so critical, a selection cant be made until the purpose is
determined.
Considerations
Poles, Throws, and Form Factor
Because different applications will require different kinds of switchesboth in terms of their form
factor and the number of poles and throwsits important to know what the switch is needed for
prior to making a purchasing decision.
For instance, a simple light switch might need only one pole and one throw, but it could take many
forms: A pull chain, pushbutton, rocker, rotary, slide, toggle, and the familiar wall switch are all
common. Another example would be a level switch used to detect if a tank is getting close to its
capacity; this kind of switch has just one major form factor but can have different combinations of
poles and throws. Switch selection must be made with the entire systems function and goals in
mind.
Also keep in mind that different form factors will have different physical considerationsan
electrical rotary switch will have a maximum power rating you must be aware of but a level switch
will not, and a pressure switch will have a pressure rating that a wall switch will not.
Pricing and Quality
Switch prices and build quality can vary dramatically. The simplest, cheapest switches can cost
only a few dollars while complicated systems can cost hundreds apiece. Quality can be hard to
judge but an industry standard certification will ensure that a given switch meets certain minimum
guidelines prescribed by a respected agency or government.
There are no important distinctions between most new, used, rebuilt, and remanufactured
switches. New switches will be more expensive but should come with a warrantee; pre-owned
switches will be cheaper but may not have a warrantee or may have lower reliability. This tradeoff
must be carefully weighed, especially for critical components and applications.
Please keep in mind that this category refers to electrical switches, not network switches.
Important Attributes
There are many qualities that play into switch selection, some of which have already been
discussed. Here an in-depth description is given for many significant characteristics. The attributes
are broken into two main sectionsswitch construction and electrical specifications.
Switch Construction
A switchs construction is of the utmost importance. What its made out of and how its assembled
will determine whether or not a switch is suitable for a given application.
Circuit Configuration
The circuit configuration refers to the number of poles, throws, and breaks the switch has.
Switches commonly have anywhere between one and four poles and one and three throws; some
have either single or double breaks.
Contact Plating and Terminal Plating
Made of gold, nickel, or silver, the contact and terminal plating materials can affect the switchs
responsiveness, reliability, and cost. Terminal plating can also be made of tin or solder.

P Rating and NEMA Enclosure Rating

The Ingress Protection (IP) rating and National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
enclosure rating are official guidelines that show what kind of environment a switchs housing is
capable of withstanding. Stricter ratings are more appropriate for less forgiving work areas.
Mounting Type
A switchs mounting determines how it can be affixed to a system. A proper, compatible mounting
must be selected to ensure proper fit and function.
Electrical Specifications
As electromechanical devices, a switchs electrical specifications are important. A switchs
electrical capabilities dictate its ability to adequately perform its duties.
Contact Type
Used in changeover switches, there are two types of contacts: Non-shorting (break before make,
or BBM) and shorting (make before break, or MBB). Non-shorting changeover switches interrupt
one changeover circuit before activating the other; shorting changeover switches will very
temporarily activate both circuits. This can affect circuit function and choosing the correct one is
essential.
Current Rating
The current rating is typically measured in milliamps (mA) or amps (Amps). Exceeding this rating
can cause major failures and pose a hazard.
Dielectric Strength
Every switch has polarized insulating materials called dielectrics. The dielectric strength,
measured in volts (V) is the largest electric field it can withstand before its ability to insulate
degrades.
Electrical Life and Mechanical Life
These attributes refer to the number of electrical and mechanical operations, respectively, that the
switch is rated to perform before failing. Higher life ratings mean the switch will last longer before
needing service or replacement.
Power Rating
Typically measured in volt-amps (VA), watts (W), or horsepower (hp), the power rating is the
devices maximum safe power. Exceeding this rating can cause major failures and pose a hazard.
Voltage Rating
Measured in volts (V), the voltage rating is the maximum amount of voltage the switch can safely
use. Exceeding this rating can cause major failures and pose a hazard.
120-Volt Receptacles

120-Volt Outlets

These receptacles, which come in several different colors, are easily identified: they have two
identical outlets, each with three plug-in slots.
Each outlet has an arched slot at the bottom that grounds the appliance; above that are two narrow
slots the wider one is neutral and the narrower one is hot. Check the amperage and voltage
requirements of the appliance you intend to plug in to the outlet against the amperage and voltage of
the outlet, which are clearly shown on the front of the outlet itself.

Some duplex receptacles allow for back wiring instead of side wiring because it is a simpler process;
however, back wiring is not as secure a connection as side wiring and may not even be allowed by
local codes, so check before replacing or installing a new outlet. The best option is to purchase a
duplex outlet that has both types of connectors.
120/240-Volt Electrical Receptacles

120/240-Volt Outlets

Providing both 120 and 240 volts, these receptacles have four plug-in slotstwo that are hot, one
that is neutral, and one that is grounding.

Before making your purchase, inspect the plug and determine the amperage requirements of the
appliance you intend to use on that outlet to make sure it is compatible with the receptacles slot
pattern. You can find styles that mount directly onto a surface or that are recessed into a wall.

240-Volt Receptacles

240-Volt Outlets
This type of receptacle is not for use with standard appliances but rather is reserved for such items
as power tools, which often require a dedicated circuit because of their energy requirements.

Unlike standard three-prong outlets, which have a neutral and a hot slot in addition to the arch-
shaped grounding slot, a 240-volt receptacle has two hot slots in addition to the grounding slot.

The unique design of the outlet allows you to easily match it up to the plug of the power tool, not only
ensuring that amperage requirements are met but also offering the additional safety feature of
preventing you from accidentally plugging any other appliance into it.

240-volt receptacles come in styles that can be mounted directly onto a surface or recessed into a
wall. For added safety, you might consider an industrial model, which has a feature that locks the
plug in the slot. This is particularly useful for large or very heavy power tools.

GFCI Receptacles

HomeTips
GFCI Electrical Outlet

A special type of receptacle called a GFCI (or GFI), short for ground-fault circuit interrupter, is
required in kitchens, bathrooms, and other exposed, damp areas of a home to protect from the
serious shock that can occur where electricity and water meet.

Identified by the reset and test buttons located on its face, a 120-volt GFCI receptacle takes the place
of a standard duplex receptacle and monitors electric current. It is like a super-sensitive circuit
breaker. Whenever the amounts of incoming and outgoing current are not equal, such as during a
ground fault or current leakage, the GFCI will sense the problem and shut down itself or, in some
cases, other receptacles on the same circuit.

So it one or several of the receptacles in the kitchen, bathroom, or outdoor areas ceases to work,
look for the GFCI receptacle that serves that circuit.
Contactors
Chapter 5 - Electromechanical Relays

When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through its contacts, it is designated by
a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those contacts are usually (but
not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the
most common industrial use for contactors is the control of electric motors.

The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-phase AC power, typically at least
480 Volts for motors 1 horsepower or greater. The lowest contact is an auxiliary contact which has a
current rating much lower than that of the large motor power contacts, but is actuated by the same
armature as the power contacts. The auxiliary contact is often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some
other part of the motor control scheme, typically switching 120 Volt AC power instead of the motor
voltage. One contactor may have several auxiliary contacts, either normally-open or normally-closed if
required.
The three opposed-question-mark shaped devices in series with each phase going to the motor are
called overload heaters. Each heater element is a low-resistance strip of metal intended to heat up as the
motor draws current. If the temperature of any of these heater elements reaches a critical point (equivalent
to a moderate overloading of the motor), a normally-closed switch contact (not shown in the diagram) will
spring open. This normally-closed contact is usually connected in series with the relay coil, so that when it
opens the relay will automatically de-energize, thereby shutting off power to the motor. We will see more
of this overload protection wiring in the next chapter. Overload heaters are intended to provide
overcurrent protection for large electric motors, unlike circuit breakers and fuses which serve the primary
purpose of providing overcurrent protection for power conductors.
Overload heater function is often misunderstood. They are not fuses; that is, it is not their function to burn
open and directly break the circuit as a fuse is designed to do. Rather, overload heaters are designed to
thermally mimic the heating characteristic of the particular electric motor to be protected. All motors have
thermal characteristics, including the amount of heat energy generated by resistive dissipation (I2R), the
thermal transfer characteristics of heat conducted to the cooling medium through the metal frame of the
motor, the physical mass and specific heat of the materials constituting the motor, etc. These
characteristics are mimicked by the overload heater on a miniature scale: when the motor heats up toward
its critical temperature, so will the heater toward its critical temperature, ideally at the same rate and
approach curve. Thus, the overload contact, in sensing heater temperature with a thermomechanical
mechanism, will sense an analog of the real motor. If the overload contact trips due to excessive heater
temperature, it will be an indication that the real motor has reached its critical temperature (or, would have
done so in a short while). After tripping, the heaters are supposed to cool down at the same rate and
approach curve as the real motor, so that they indicate an accurate proportion of the motors thermal
condition, and will not allow power to be re-applied until the motor is truly ready for start-up again.
Shown here is a contactor for a three-phase electric motor, installed on a panel as part of an electrical
control system at a municipal water treatment plant:

Three-phase, 480 volt AC power comes into the three normally-open contacts at the top of the contactor
via screw terminals labeled L1, L2, and L3 (The L2 terminal is hidden behind a square-shaped
snubber circuit connected across the contactors coil terminals). Power to the motor exits the overload
heater assembly at the bottom of this device via screw terminals labeled T1, T2, and T3.
The overload heater units themselves are black, square-shaped blocks with the label W34, indicating a
particular thermal response for a certain horsepower and temperature rating of the electric motor. If an
electric motor of differing power and/or temperature ratings were to be substituted for the one presently in
service, the overload heater units would have to be replaced with units having a thermal response suitable
for the new motor. The motor manufacturer can provide information on the appropriate heater units to use.
A white push button located between the T1 and T2 line heaters serves as a way to manually reset the
normally-closed switch contact back to its normal state after having been tripped by excessive heater
temperature. Wire connections to the overload switch contact may be seen at the lower-right of the
photograph, near a label reading NC (normally-closed). On this particular overload unit, a small
window with the label Tripped indicates a tripped condition by means of a colored flag. In this
photograph, there is no tripped condition, and the indicator appears clear.
As a footnote, heater elements may be used as a crude current shunt resistor for determining whether or
not a motor is drawing current when the contactor is closed. There may be times when youre working on
a motor control circuit, where the contactor is located far away from the motor itself. How do you know if
the motor is consuming power when the contactor coil is energized and the armature has been pulled in? If
the motors windings are burnt open, you could be sending voltage to the motor through the contactor
contacts, but still, have zero current, and thus no motion from the motor shaft. If a clamp-on ammeter isnt
available to measure line current, you can take your multimeter and measure millivoltage across each
heater element: if the current is zero, the voltage across the heater will be zero (unless the heater element
itself is open, in which case the voltage across it will be large); if there is current going to the motor
through that phase of the contactor, you will read a definite millivoltage across that heater:

This is an especially useful trick to use for troubleshooting 3-phase AC motors, to see if one phase
winding is burnt open or disconnected, which will result in a rapidly destructive condition known as
single-phasing. If one of the lines carrying power to the motor is open, it will not have any current
through it (as indicated by a 0.00 mV reading across its heater), although the other two lines will (as
indicated by small amounts of voltage dropped across the respective heaters).

REVIEW:
A contactor is a large relay, usually used to switch current to an electric motor or another high-power load.
Large electric motors can be protected from overcurrent damage through the use of overload
heaters and overload contacts. If the series-connected heaters get too hot from excessive current, the
normally-closed overload contact will open, de-energizing the contactor sending power to the motor.
POWER SAVING DEVICES
A range of modern energy saving devices now exists for virtually all Seattle home appliances and electrical
equipment. The more energy efficient products you use the more you will save on your energy bills.

1. Solar charger
This simple energy saving device uses the energy from the sun to charge your electrical gadgets such as IPods,
Digital Cameras, PDAs and usually any device that has a USB port. Left in a sunny spot in the morning, the
batteries in the charger will be fully charged by early afternoon ready to charge up your gadgets.

2. Electricity Monitor
An electricity usage monitor shows you how much electricity you use, how much the electricity costs, and how
much carbon dioxide emissions you are contributing to the environment. You can use this information to reduce
your electricity consumption and save around 25% on your electricity bill. Modern wireless versions are also now
available for even greater convenience.

3. Night Lights
Night lights are an energy efficient way of keeping your kids happy at night time. They can run 24 hours a day for
365 days a year for under a dollar. Modern versions emit a cool blue green electro-luminescent light, perfect for
night lighting in bedrooms, hallways and corridors. I bet you didn't even know such an energy saving device
existed.

4. Energy saving light bulbs

A fantastic energy saving device, energy saving light bulbs are now cheaper than ever. In most homes, lighting
accounts for around 10-15 per cent of an electricity bill. Traditional light bulbs waste a lot of their energy by
turning it into heat. Each energy saving bulb can save you $15 a year. They also last, on average, up to 12 times
longer than ordinary light bulbs.

5. Water saving spout

Save up to 70% of your usual water consumption with an automatic, touch-free auto spout which simply attaches
on to your existing tap. The infrared sensors mean you just move your hands under the spout to activate the
water-flow, making it a hygienic eco-friendly alternative to a conventional tap.

6. Creative showerhead
These are shower heads with a 'twist'. Basically you can now buy water saving shower heads which simply
attach to your existing fitting, conserving water and energy without sacrificing pressure. These amazing
showerheads can make water savings of between 30 and 70%. The shower head technology uses less water
but the flow feels the same as it accelerates, energises and oxygenates the water.

7. Eco Kettle
It is estimated that, on average, we boil twice the volume of water needed every time, which means twice as
much energy. An eco kettle accurately measures the amount of water to be boiled using an internal reservoir
which holds a full capacity of water ready for use, while the measuring button allows the necessary quantity to
be released into a separate chamber for boiling. The result is exactly the right amount of water every time.
Another great energy saving device.

8. Toilet Water Saver

These devices consist of a plastic bag which sits in the toilet cistern conserving about 3 litres of water each time
a toilet is flushed. When the toilet is flushed, the water confined in the bag is saved. If you find the bag impairs
the flushing, you can usually cut off one of the bottom corners of the bag to make more space in the cistern. This
saves approximately 33% of water used in a toilet, and 10% of total water used in a house.

9. Energy Saving Plug

This is a great energy saving device. Plug your PC into the master socket and extensions into the side plugs,
and when your PC is switched off or on 'standby' the power will automatically be shut down to the extensions as
well. Average annual electrical savings including the savings from speakers, and printer equal around 84KWh.
10. The Intelligent Mains Plug Panel:
This fantastic energy saving device remembers to be eco-conscious even when you forget. Specifically made for
desktop computers, it automatically switches power to connected peripherals off, when the computer is on stand
by or has been turned off completely.