Front. Archit. Civ. Eng.

China 2007, 1(4): 379388

DOI 10.1007/s11709-007-0051-x
RESEARCH ARTICLE

XIANG Haifan, GE Yaojun

State-of-the-art of long-span bridge engineering in China

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag 2007

Abstract This paper introduces the state-of-the-art of long- construction has been experienced in China, and thousands
span bridge engineering in China with emphases on recent of highway bridges have been built each year. Up to the end
long-span bridge projects, bridge deck configuration and of 2005, the total number of highway bridges has reached
material, design codes of long-span bridges and improvement 330 000 with a total length of 1.4 million linear meters, among
of aerodynamic performance. The recent long-span bridge which more than 60% of the total number and about 75% of
projects include thirty-eight completed suspension bridges, the total length have been completed for the past 25 years.
cable-stayed and arch bridges with a main span over 400 m,
and eighteen major bridges are under construction. The bridge
deck configuration and material, with prestressed concrete 2 Recent long-span bridge projects
decks, steel-concrete composite decks and steel box decks
together with several popular cross-sections, are presented. With the beginning of the new reform and open policy,
The third part briefly outlines four design codes, including 25 years ago, bridge engineering in China has progressed,
static and dynamic design for highway long-span bridges, achieving marvelous success particularly in long-span bridge
and the recent engineering experiences gained from several structures. In the 1980s, as a preparation stage, a number of
aerodynamic vibration control projects of long-span bridges cable-stayed bridges with span lengths shorter than 300 m,
are shared in the last part. prestressed concrete beam bridges and arch bridges with
span lengths below 150 m were built. At the beginning of the
Keywords long-span bridge, construction project, deck 1990s, Nanpu Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge with a main span
configuration, design codes, aerodynamic performance of 423 m, was successfully built by Chinese in Shanghai. As
a milestone in the construction history of modern long-span
bridges, the great success of the Nanpu Bridge brought about
1 Introduction a high tide of construction of long-span bridges all over
the country. Since then, more than thirty long-span bridges
China, which has a long history of about 5 000 years, is still with a main span over 400 m, such as suspension bridges,
a developing country. The Chinese have built thousands of cable-stayed bridges and arch bridges, have been completed
bridges, which form an important part of Chinas culture. The across Chinas main rivers or bays.
Zhaozhou Stone Arch Bridge, which has served for about
1 400 years, and the iron chain suspension bridges built in 2.1 Completed long-span bridges
ancient times play an important role in the world history of
bridge development. Unfortunately, in the period of modern By the opening to traffic of the Runyang Bridge in May 2005,
bridge construction beginning in the nineteenth century, the span length of cable-supported bridges have been raised
China gradually fell behind western countries. up to 1 490 m for suspension bridges, as in the Runyang
It was not until the 1980s, with the soaring of Chinas Suspension Bridge shown in Fig. 1, and 648 m for cable-
economy, that bridge engineering in China entered a stayed bridges, as in the Third Nanjing Cable-Stayed Bridge
golden period. The unprecedented development in bridge in Fig. 2. China keeps the world record span length for both
steel arch bridge, which is the Lupu Steel Arch Bridge with
a main span of 550 m (Fig. 3), and concrete arch bridge,
Received March 10, 2007; accepted June 6, 2007 which is the Wanxian Concrete Arch Bridge with a 420 m
center span (Fig. 4). Thirty-eight completed bridges with a
XIANG Haifan, GE Yaojun ( )
College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, main span over 400 m, including thirteen suspension bridges,
China twenty-two cable-stayed bridges and three arch bridges, are
E-mail: yaojunge@mail.tongji.edu.cn listed in Table 1 for reference [1].
380

Fig. 3 Lupu Steel Arch Bridge

Fig. 1 Runyang Suspension Bridge

Fig. 4 Wanxian Concrete Arch Bridge

Fig. 2 The Third Nanjing Cable-Stayed Bridge

Table 1 Total long-span bridges completed in China

Type No. Bridge name Main span /m Year built No. Bridge name Main span /m Year built

1 Jiangsu Runyang S. 1 490 2005 8 Sichuan Egongyan 600 2000

2 Jiangsu Jiangyin 1 385 1999 9 Second Wanxian 580 2004
Suspension

3 Hongkong Tsingma 1 377 1997 10 Sichuan Zhongxian 560 2001

4 Hubei Yicang 960 2001 11 Tibet Dazi 500 1984
5 Hubei Xiling 900 1996 12 Shantou Bay 452 1995
6 Guangdong Humen 888 1997 13 Sichuan Fengdu 450 1997
7 Xiamen Haicang 648 1999

1 Third Nanjing 648 2005 12 Hongkong Tingkau 475 1998

2 Second Nanjing 628 2001 13 Hubei Junshan 460 2002
3 Hubei Baishazhou 618 2000 14 Chongqing Dafosi 450 2001
4 Fujian Qingzhou 605 2003 15 Chongqing Lijiatuo 444 1996
Cable-stayed

5 Shanghai Yangpu 602 1993 16 Anhui Tongling 432 1995

6 Shanghai Xupu 590 1997 17 Kap Shui Mun 430 1997
7 Zhejian Taoyaomen 580 2003 18 Shanghai Nanpu 423 1991
8 Hubei Queshi 518 1999 19 East Sea Main Br. 420 2005
9 Anhui Anqing 510 2004 20 Hubei Yunyan 414 1993
10 Hubei Jingzhou 500 2002 21 Jiangsu Runyang N. 406 2005
11 Hubei Ehuang 480 2002 22 Second Wuhan 400 1995

Arch 1 Shanghai Lupu 550 2003 3 First Wanxian 420 2001

2 Sichuan Wushan 460 2005

these bridge projects, two cable-stayed bridges, including

2.2 Major bridges under construction the 1 088 m Sutong Bridge shown in Fig. 5 and the 1 018 m
Stonecutters Bridge in Fig. 6, will create a world record span
After the first phase of bridge development in the past cen- length of 890 m, and the 552 m Caotianmen Arch Bridge in
tury, China is now in the process of designing and construct- Chongqing in Fig. 7 will become the longest span of arch
ing several remarkable projects of major bridges in the new bridges in the world. The Xihoumen Suspension Bridge in
century. Table 2 shows twenty-two major bridges, having a Zhoushan Archipelago with a main span of 1 650 m in Fig. 8
central span of more than 400 m, which are being construc- will set a new span-length record in suspension bridges with
ted and will be finished in the next two years [2]. Among a steel box girder.
 381
Table 2 Major bridges under construction in China
Type No. Bridge name Main span /m Year built No. Bridge name Main span /m Year built

1 Zhejiang Xihoumen 1 650 2008 4 Huangpu 1 108 2008

Suspension 2 Hubei Yangluo 1 280 2008 5 Guizhou Balinghe 1 088 2009
3 Hunan Aizhai 1 146 2009 6 Beipanjiang 888 2009
1 Jiangsu Sutong 1 088 2008 7 Zhejiang Xiangshan 688 2009
2 Stonecutters 1 018 2009 8 Zhoushan Jintang 620 2008
Cable-stayed 3 Hubei Edong 926 2009 9 Wuhan Tianxinzhou 504 2007
4 Hubei Jingsha 816 2009 10 Zhanjiang Bay 480 2007
5 Shanghai Yangtze 730 2009 11 Sichuan Fuling 450 2008
6 Shanghai Minpu 708 2009 12 Hangzhou Bay 448 2008

Arch 1 Caotianmen 552 2008 3 Caiyuanba 420 2008

2 Xinguang 428 2008 4 Fourth Xiantan 400 2007

Fig. 5 Sutong Cable-Stayed Bridge Fig. 8 Xihoumen Suspension Bridge

In order to meet the requirements of the rapid and

sustained development of Chinas economy, the central gov-
ernment has planned a state highway network for the twenty-
first century. This network will mainly consist of five lines
connecting the northern and southern territory and seven lines
from western to eastern China as a state highway skeleton,
which has been planned to be completed in the first two
decades of the twenty-first century. In this skeleton, there are
several ambitious sea or main river crossing projects, such
as Bohai Sea Strait, Qiongzhou Sea Strait, Yangtze River
Estuary, Qingdao Bay and so on, which become much more
challenging to Chinese bridge engineers as well as the
engineers from foreign countries [3].
Fig. 6 Stonecutters Cable-Stayed Bridge

3 Bridge deck configuration and material

In modern long-span bridges, the bridge deck, whether for a

cable-supported bridge or an arch bridge, is always incorpo-
rated in the girder to increase both the stiffness and the
strength so that the stiffening girder is the most appropriate
term for describing its performance. It is important for desig-
ners to make the selection of the cross-section and material
for a stiffening girder of a long-span bridge, a suspension
bridge, a cable-stayed bridge and an arch bridge. This is
because the general configuration of a stiffening girder not
only decides its contribution in the total structural system, but
Fig. 7 Caotianmen Arch Bridge also exerts an effect on the magnitude of vertical dead load
382
related to material and aerodynamic performance including 1995, including the Tongling Bridge, Lijiatuo Bridge, Dafosi
wind loads and flutter stability due to the shape of the cross- Bridge, Ehuang Bridge and Jingzhou Bridge [5]. In particular,
section [4]. The current and future trends in bridge deck con- the Jingzhou Bridge with a main span of 500 m has been the
figuration and material are mainly introduced with structural longest concrete cable-stayed bridge in the world since 2002
materials, including prestressed concrete, steel-concrete com- after its completion.
posite and steel or steel-concrete hybrid in addition to some In Fig. 9(b), a relative narrow box girder is placed cen-
typical shapes of cross-sections in each kind of material. trally with three cells, whereas the cables are anchored to
brackets outside the traffic zone. As the load has to be trans-
3.1 Prestressed concrete decks ferred from the box girder to the cable system, transverse
beams with increased strength have to be positioned at the
In highway bridges, a concrete bridge deck is generally com- anchor points. With this arrangement, the large self weight of
posed of a concrete slab with a thickness between 200 and the concrete box increases the dead load, thus requiring larger
300 mm linearly supported by stringers of floor beams with a cross sections of cables, pylons and piers, which confine its
spacing of 35 m. A larger spacing between supporting beams, application in self-anchored cable-stayed bridges. The sole
however, can be realized if the concrete slab is prestressed application of this kind of cross-section in the cable-stayed
as a prestressed concrete deck. There are basically two main bridges in Table 1 is in Yunyang Bridge, with a deck width
advantages with using prestressed concrete in the bridge deck, of 15.6 m and was completed in 1993. The other application
the low cost of the stiffening girder itself and the easy con- in suspension bridges led to a world record-breaking span
struction by a cantilevering method, which are very important length suspension bridge with a concrete stiffening girder,
in China particularly at the beginning of the new reform and the Shantou Bay Bridge having a 452-m main span built in
open policy, and for the owner with limited project funds. 1995.
Among twenty cable-stayed bridges with a main span over
400 m listed in Table 1, there are seven or about 1/3, employ- 3.2 Steel-concrete composite decks
ing prestressed concrete decks of which cross-sections can be
grouped into two types shown in Fig. 9. A concrete slab is not only used where the remaining part of
The stiffening girder of Fig. 9(a) comprises one slab and the stiffening girder is concrete, but is also quite popular to
two main girders made as solid ribs and placed at the traffic form a steel-concrete composite girder if all other parts of the
way edges immediately under the cable planes. The trans- girder are in steel. The popularity of the composite girder in
verse beams are designed as prestressed concrete ones with cable-stayed bridges basically depends upon the fact that the
almost the same depth as the main girders. Based on this con- smaller overall dead load in comparison with the concrete
figuration, the stay cables can be anchored in a very simply girder leads to the savings in cables, pylons and foundation.
way, as the cables can be led through tubes embedded in the Furthermore, during construction, the cantilevering from one
edge girders and anchored by sockets at the bottom. A large anchor point to the next can be easily made by the relatively
portion of the cross-section at the cable anchorage ensures a light steel structure allowing the following stay cable to be
most efficient transmission of the horizontal cable compo- erected before the heavy concrete slab is added. Among
nents to the stiffening girders. With these strong points in the twenty-one bridges in Table 1, six cable-stayed bridges
structural arrangement, this kind of cross-section is the most adopted steel-concrete composite decks, which mainly have
popular concrete cable-stayed bridge deck in China, which two types of the cross-sections shown in Fig. 10, except for
has been adopted in five concrete cable-stayed bridges since the Kap Shui Mun Bridge in Hong Kong.
H
H

B B

(a) (b)

Fig. 9 Cross sections of prestressed concrete decks

(a) Slab-ribs; (b) single box
H
H

B B

(a) (b)

Fig. 10 Cross-sections of composite decks

(a) Composite twin ribs; (b) composite twin boxes
 383
As explained above, the arrangement with the longitudinal total of thirteen, five cable-stayed bridges out of seven ones
main girders placed directly under the cable planes is also in steel and two arch bridges among three in total. With the
used in cable-stayed bridges with composite girders. An modification of the single steel box section, two box-shaped
example is in Fig. 10(a) showing the cross-section used in the edge girders shown in Fig. 11(b) are also applied in Baisha-
Nanpu Bridge completed in 1991, Ting Kau Bridge in 1998, zhou Bridge and Queshi Bridge with the advantage of saving
and Qingzhou Bridge in 2003, which has a 605 m main span the bottom plate in comparison with a big box in Fig. 11(a).
and is the longest composite cable-stayed bridge in the world.
In these bridges, the decks were made of precast concrete
slabs with a thickness of 250 mm, and efficient joints between 4 Design codes for long-span bridges
the precast slabs and the steel girders were established by
casting in situ joints with overlapping reinforcing bars placed The design of long-span bridges, especially cable-supported
above the top flanges of the floor beams. These joints were bridges, has experienced a considerable development in China
subsequently subjected to a favorable compression as the since the 1980s. It took about 15 years for twenty-two cable-
compressive force in the girder gradually increased in the stayed bridges and thirteen suspension bridges with main
consequence of the girder erection. span over 400 m to be constructed all over the country. Based
Yangpu Bridge and Xupu Bridge, both in Shanghai, have on the experience gained from both design and construction
almost the same girder composed of two small box-shaped of those large cable-supported bridges, several design codes
main girders behaving compositely with the 260-mm thick have been issued or prepared to be issued in order to meet
concrete slab forming the bridge deck shown in Fig. 10(b). the requirements of further long-span bridge development.
The stay cables are anchored inside the box girders positioned Referring to the codification and standardization of long-span
bridges, China has become one of the most active countries,
so that it has been easy to have wide pedestrian lanes outside
such as Japan, Denmark, Britain, and the United States.
the cable planes. With the arrangement of this cross-section
and the 602 m main span, the Yangpu Bridge was the longest
4.1 Design Specification of Highway Cable-Stayed
cable-stayed bridge in the world from 1993 to 1994 until the
Bridges
Normandy Bridge was completed.
The first design code introduced herein is the Design Specifi-
3.3 Steel box decks
cation of Highway Cable-Stayed Bridges [6], which has been
on trial since December 1, 1996, a half year after its issuance.
A steel girder generally consists of a relatively thin steel plate, This specification covers design of highway cable-stayed
typically 1214 mm thick, stiffened by longitudinal open or bridges made by concrete, steel, as well as steel and concrete
closed section ribs, which are in turn supported by floor beams composite, and the emphasis is placed on both the static
or diaphragms. The use of steel in the whole girder is consid- aspect, particularly the influence of concrete shrinkage and
erably more expensive per unit area than the use of concrete creep, and the dynamic aspect, including seismic analysis
or composite, but due to the lower self weight, about 30% of and aerodynamic consideration. The contents of the specifi-
the concrete girder weight, significant savings can often be cation are listed as follows [4]: (1) general principles; (2)
achieved in the remaining part of the bridge structure. With specific terms; (3) ordinary rulesstructural materials, bridge
the development of the economy and steel industry in China, patterns and allowable deformations; (4) design loading
steel or hybrid deck have become the current and future trends common regulations, loading computation, and safety factor
in long-span bridges since its first application in Queshi for cables and anchorages; (5) analysis principlesstructural
Cable-Stayed Bridge with a main span of 518 m in 1999. analysis, safety evaluation and structural control during con-
Figure 11 shows two basic cross-sections to be found in struction, aerodynamic stability, and cable design; and (6)
cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges with steel stiff- detailed requirementsgirder, pylons, cables and anchora-
ening girders. The stiffening girder in Fig. 11(a) is made with ges, and bearings and joints.
a hexagonal shape as a streamlined cross-section to improve
the aerodynamic properties. Although the principle of stream- 4.2 Design Specification of Highway Suspension Bridges
lining the cross-section was first applied in the Severn Bridge,
built in the mid 1960s, streamlined box girders have recently Besides the above-mentioned design specification for cable-
prevailed in China, with eight suspension bridges among a stayed bridges, another kind of cable-supported bridges,
H

B B

(a) (b)

Fig. 11 Cross-sections of steel box decks

(a) Single steel box; (b) twin steel boxes
384
suspension bridges, is to have its own design standard, the specification for highway bridges, the Seismic Design Speci-
Design Specification of Highway Suspension Bridges [7], fication for Highway Bridges [9], has been compiled with the
which is ready for discussion and will be issued next year. The domestic practice, as well as some successful experience
specification emphasizes static design of highway suspension from foreign countries including the American standards, the
bridges. The dynamic evaluation is left for the other two Japanese specifications and the Euro Code. This specification
standards, Wind-Resistant Design Specification for Highway covers the seismic design of highway bridges with a span
Bridges [8] and Seismic Design Specification for Highway length shorter than 200 m, because those highway bridges
Bridges [9]. The specification includes the following main with longer spans have their own characteristics which result
chapters [7]: (1) general principles; (2) specific terms; (3) in various sophisticated problems. The specification includes
structural materials; (4) loads and actions; (5) overall arrange- the following main contents [9]: (1) general principles; (2)
ments; (6) global structural analysis; (7) cable pylons; (8) specific terms; (3) fundamental requirements for seismic
anchor blocks; (9) main Cables; (10) hangers; (11) cable design; (4) construction site and foundation; (5) earthquake
clamps; (12) saddles; (13) stiffening girder; (14) bearings, action; (6) seismic fortification measures; (7) seismic analy-
joints and buffers; and (15) structural protection and deck sis of bridges; (8) seismic design methods; (9) seismic design
pavement. for beam bridges; (10) seismic detail requirements for beam
bridges; (10) seismic isolation design of bridges; and (11)
4.3 Wind-Resistant Design Specification for Highway seismic design for special bridges.
Bridges

In order to meet the requirement of aerodynamic design of 5 Improvement of aerodynamic

highway bridges, the Wind-Resistant Design Specification performance
for Highway Bridges [8] was been published in December
2005. It was based on the 20-year research and design prac- With the rapid increase in bridge span length, bridge
tice in bridge aerodynamics in China, especially the Wind- structures are becoming lighter and more flexible and their
Resistant Design Guideline for Highway Bridges [10] issued structural characteristics result in an increasing importance of
in 1996, as well as some successful experience and recent
aerodynamic study and design related to wind action, particu-
developments from foreign countries including the Euro
larly aerodynamic instability and vortex-shedding vibration.
Code, the BS5400, the American standards, the Japanese
If a long span bridge is predicted to have its intrinsic limit
specifications and the Danish experience. This specification
in the aspect of aerodynamic performance, especially of aero-
is mainly suitable for aerodynamic design of highway cable-
dynamic instability, some countermeasures should be adopted
stayed and suspension bridges with a span length longer than
150 m. However, it does not cover highway cable-stayed to improve the aerodynamic property in order to meet the
bridges with main spans over 800 m and highway suspension appropriate wind resistance requirements. The improvement
bridges with main spans beyond 1,500 m, as there are of aerodynamic performance focuses on the engineering
still some further sophisticated problems to be solved. The experience gained from several long-span bridges in wind-
contents of this specification are shown as follows [8]: induced vibration control and verification experiments [11].
(1) general principles; (2) specific terms and symbols; (3)
wind speed determinationbasic speed and design speed 5.1 Flutter stabilization in Runyang Bridge
after completion and under construction; (4) wind loading
general rules, static gust wind speed, static gust wind loading With the main span length of 1 490 m, the Runyang Bridge is
of a girder and the other elements and wind loading under the longest suspension bridge in China and the third longest
construction; (5) dynamic characteristics of bridge structures in the world. The stiffening girder of this bridge is 36.3 m in
general rules, fundamental frequency estimation of cable- width and 3 m in deepth streamlined box girder with two
stayed bridges and suspension bridges and structural damping shape edged fairings, shown in Fig. 12, to further improve
ratio; (6) determination of Aaerodynamic stabilitystatic aerodynamic performance, especially flutter instability.
stability check, galloping stability check, flutter stability With the emphasis on aerodynamic stability, the wind
check and aerodynamic stability under construction; (7) tunnel experiment with the 1:65 sectional model was carried
wind-induced vibration with limited amplitudebuffeting, out in the TJ-2 Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel of Tongji Uni-
vortex induced vibration and cable vibration; (8) wind- versity with the working section of the width of 3.0 m, the
induced vibration controlgeneral rules, girder, pylons height of 2.5 m and the length of 15 m. It was found in the
and piers, and cables and hangers; and (9) wind tunnel first phase of the testing that the minimum flutter speeds for
experiments. the original structure is only 50.8 m/s, which is slightly less
than the requirement of flutter speed of 54 m/s. Some preven-
4.4 Seismic Design Specification for Highway Bridges tive means have to be considered to stabilize the original
structure. The 0.65 and 0.80 m high central stabilizers were
Similar to the above-mentioned wind-resistant design speci- experimentally proven to be effective to raise flutter speed up
fication for highway bridges, another kind of dynamic design to 58.1 and 64.9 m/s, respectively [12].
 385

H
B

Fig. 12 Preventive means of Runyang Bridge

In order to confirm the sectional model testing results, the TJ-2 Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel. The minimum flutter
final wind tunnel testing with the 1:172 full aeroelastic model speed for the composite girder was found being only 58 m/s
of the Runyang Bridge was carried out in the TJ-3 Boundary at the 3 angle of attack, which is much lower than the
Layer Wind Tunnel of Tongji University with the working requirement of 70 m/s. After comparing and contrasting with
section of the width of 15 m, the height of 2 m and the length several preventive means, the right-angle fairings, with two
of 14 m. The 1:172 aeroelastic full bridge model simulated dimensions of b and h, 1 m by 1 m and 1.5 m by 1 m, were
three structure configurations including the original structure proposed to be attached on both edges of the composite
and the structures with the central stabilizers of 0.65 and girder shown in Fig. 11. The improved composite girders
0.80 m in height. The critical flutter speeds obtained from the were experimentally proven to raise flutter speed up to
full aeroelastic model testing are listed and compared with 69 m/s for the 1 m by 1 m angle fairing and 74 m/s for the
the values based on the sectional model testing in Table 3. 1.5 m by 1 m angle fairing, respectively [14]. The confirma-
The flutter stabilization of Runyang Bridge was realized by tion testing was made with a 1:150 full aeroelastic model in
employing a central stabilizer with the height of 0.8 m [13]. the TJ-3 Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel. The 1:150 aeroelastic
full bridge model simulated three structure configurations
5.2 Aerodynamic challenge in Qingzhou Bridge including the composite girder and the structures with the
right-angle fairings of 1 m by 1 m and 1.5 m by 1 m. The
The second example of wind-induced vibration control critical flutter speeds obtained from the full aeroelastic model
involves the aerodynamic challenge in Qingzhou Bridge pro- testing are listed and compared with the values based on the
posed as a cable-stayed bridge with the main span of 605 m. sectional model testing in Table 4 [15]. With this composite
The initial design scheme of this bridge adopted a steel girder shown in Fig. 11, 15% of the total cost was finally
streamlined box girder with very high aerodynamic stability, saved in comparison with the steel box girder.
but was quite expensive. In order to save the limited funds,
the steel box girder was suggested to be replaced by a com- 5.3 Vortex-induced vibration reduction in Lupu Bridge
posite girder composed of twin steel ribs and one concrete
slab. As the longest composite cable-stayed bridge in the The Lupu Bridge over the Huangpu River in Shanghai is a
world shown in Fig. 13, its cross-section is quite bluff and half-through arch bridge with two side spans of 100 m and
results in severe problems in aerodynamic stability, particu- a center span of 550 m, and is the longest span arch bridge
larly in a typhoon-prone area with the strict flutter limit of in the world. The orthotropic steel girder provides six lane
70 m/s. carriageways in the center of the deck and two sightseeing
This aerodynamic challenge began with the wind tunnel pedestrian ways on both sides, which are supported on arch
experiment with the 1:55 sectional model conducted in the ribs with some hangers and columns. There are several

Table 3 Flutter critical wind speeds of Runyang Bridge

No. Structural configurations Sectional model /(m s1) Aeroelastic model /(m s1)

3 0 +3 0 +3 Required

1 Original structure 77.1 64.4 50.8 64.3 52.5 54

2 0.65 m central stabilizer 58.1 69.5 53.8 54
3 0.80 m central stabilizer 64.9 72.1 55.1 54

b b
h h
2.97

2.7

29
unit: m

Fig. 13 Preventive means of Qingzhou Bridge

386
Table 4 Flutter critical wind speeds of Qingzhou Bridge
No. Structural configurations Sectional model /(m s1) Aeroelastic model /(m s1)

3 0 +3 3 0 +3

1 Composite structure 58 77 >115 55 74 >110

2 1 m by 1 m angle fairing 69 114 >115 74 88 >110
3 1.5 m by 1 m angle fairing 74 110 >115 88 107 >110

horizontal post-tensioning strands in both sides of the girder

between the cross beams at both ends of the bridge girder
to counteract the dead load thrusts from the arch ribs of the
center span. Two inclined arch ribs are 100 m high from the CS-5
CS-1
bottom to the crown and have a cross-section of modified
rectangular steel box with the width of 5 m and the depth of
6 m at the crown and 9 m at the rib bases shown in Fig. 14, a
configuration for which vortex-induced vibration could be
CS-6
induced in the construction stages as well as the completion CS-2
bridge structure.

5 000
CS-3
CS-7
3 000~6 000

CS-4
6 000~9 000

CS-8

Fig. 15 Preventive means of arch ribs

Table 5 Numerical results of VIV

No. Rib configuration Strouhal zmax /H
3 000

CS-1 Original structure 0.156 0.028

CS-2 2 m middle plates 0.220 0.025
CS-3 2 m bottom plates /H 0.137 0.034
3 000 CS-4 2 m bottom plates /V 0.137 0.032
CS-5 4 m top stabilizer 0.137 0.032
Fig. 14 Arch rib section (unit: mm) CS-6 4 m bottom stabilizer 0.156 0.017
CS-7 4 m corner deflectors 0.175 0.023
CS-8 Full cover plate 0.156 0.011
The computational fluid dynamics analysis was performed
on the two-dimensional model of a couple of rib cross
sections with the average depth of 7.5 m. It was found that the numerical results. The 1:100 aeroelastic full bridge model
the severe vortex-induced vibration (VIV) happens with the respectively simulates three structure states, including the
amplitude of zmax = 0.028 H (rib depth) at the reduced fre- maximum rib cantilever (MRC), the completed arch ribs
quency or Strouhal number St = 0.156. In order to improve (CAR) and the completion bridge structure (CBS). The wind
vortex shedding of the bluff cross-section of the ribs, several tunnel testing was conducted, including three structure states
aerodynamic preventive means shown in Fig. 15 were and the bridge configurations without or with preventive
numerically tested, and the calculation results including means A, the full cover plate, and means B, the cover plate
Strouhal number and relative amplitude are listed in Table 5. with 30% air vent [16]. It can be concluded that the preven-
There are only four effective means, including CS-2, CS-6, tive means A or B effectively makes it possible to reduce
CS-7, and CS-8, which can reduce the amplitude of vortex vortex-induced oscillation amplitudes [17].
and induce vibration to some extent. Among these four means,
the best solution is the full cover plate (CS-8), which can 5.4 Aerodynamic deck selection in Xihoumen Bridge
minimize the amplitude to only about 40% of that in the
original configuration [11]. As a main section of the Zhoushan Island-Mainland Connec-
The aeroelastic full model testing of Lupu Bridge was car- tion Project in Zhejiang Province, the Xihoumen Bridge is
ried out in the TJ-3 Wind Tunnel shown in Fig. 16 to confirm proposed as a two-span continuous suspension bridge with
 387
even with the more strict stability requirement of 80 m/s in
Xihoumen Bridge.
A traditional single box section and other three aerody-
namically modified deck sections were selected for compari-
son and contrast shown in Fig. 17. The wind tunnel testing
with these four sectional models in the scale of 1:80 were
performed in the TJ-1 Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel of Tongji
University with the working section of the width of 1.8 m, the
height of 1.8 m, and the length of 14 m. The experimental
results of flutter critical speeds are summarized in Table 6.
Apart from the traditional single box section, the remaining
Fig. 16 Aeroelastic model of Lupu Bridge three-deck sections can meet the flutter stability requirement
of 80 m/s, and the slotted deck configuration is finally
the span arrangement of 578 m+1 650 m+485 m, and its selected as the scheme for further detailed design [18].
main span is going to create a new record in box girder sus-
pension bridges. Based on the experience gained from the
1 624 m Great Belt Bridge with the flutter critical speed of 6 Conclusions
62 m/s and the 1 490 m long Runyang Bridge with the flutter
speed of 65 m/s, the span length of 1 600 m seems to be Based on the rapid and sustained development of long-span
the intrinsic limit in the aspect of aerodynamic stability for bridge construction, the current and future trends in long-span
this classic suspension bridge with streamlined box deck, bridge design in China has been presented with the aspects of

33.1/2 33.1/2
2.5 2 0.5 2.5 2 3.75 0.5 1 1 0.5 2 3.75 2.50.5 2 33/2 33/2
2.5 1.4 1 0.5 2.5 23.5 0.50.5 6/2 6/2 0.50.5 23.5 2.5 0.5 1 1.5

0.6
3.2 1.6

3.2 1.6

3.5
5

7.5 9 9 7.5
6.3 7.2 3 3 7.2 6.3
9.6 6.9 6.9 9.6
10.6 6 6 10.6

(a) (unit: m) (c)

36/2 36/2
30.1/2 31.8/2 1 2 1 2.5 23.750 0.5 0.5 6/2 6/2 0.5 0.5 23.750 2.5 1 2 1
1 2 0.5 2.5 23.75 0.5 1 1 0.5 23.75 2.5 0.5 2 1.5
2.2 1.1

2.6

3.5

3.3
2.3 1.1

3.5

3.6

3.4

5.82 11.18 11.18 5.82

6.5 6.6 0.9 3 3 0.9 6.6 6.5
6.7 7.3 7.3 6.7
4.7 4 5.3 5.3 4 4.7

(b) (d)

Fig. 17 Possible cross sections of Xihoumen Bridge

(a) Traditional single box; (b) single box with stabilizer; (c) 6 m slotted deck; (d) 10.6 m slotted deck

Table 6 Flutter critical wind speeds of Xihoumen Bridge (m/s)

No. Cross sections 3 0 +3 Minimum Required

a Single box 68.2 45.8 47.5 45.8 80

b With stabilizer >90 >90 89.3 89.3 80
c 6 m slotted 88.4 >94 >94 88.4 80
d 10.6 m slotted 87.4 >94 >94 87.4 80
388
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