8th Maths

TEXT BOOK COMMITTEE
Chairman
Dr. B. J. Venkatachala, Professor, H.B.C.S.E(T.I.F.R, Mumbai),
Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru.
Members
1. Dr. G. Sheela, Asst. Professor, Department of Education, Manasagangotri,
Mysore University, Mysuru.
2. Sri T. K. Raghavendra, Lecturer, D.I.E.T., Chickballapur.
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3. Sri A. Ramaswamy, Asst. Master, Govt. Empress High School, Tumkuru.
4. Sri Vinay A. Joseph, Asst. Master and P.R.O., St. Xaviers High School,
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Shivajinagar, Bengaluru.
5. Smt. Vasanthi Rao, Retired Teacher, Rajajinagar, Bengaluru.
6. Sri G. M. Jangi, Artist, D.S.E.R.T., Bengaluru.
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Scrutinizers
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1. Dr. Ashok M. Limkar, Subject Inspector of Mathematics, D.D.P.I., Office,
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Vijayapura.
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2. Sri A. S. Hanuman, Subject Inspector of Mathematics, D.D.P.I., Office,
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Shivamogga.
Editorial Committee Members

1. Dr. K. S. Sameera Simha, Joint Secretary, Vijaya Educational Institutions,

Jayanagar, Bengaluru.
2.Dr. S. Shiva Kumar, Professor, R.V. Engineering College, Bengaluru.
Chief advisors
1. Sri Nagendra Kumar, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Soci-ety,
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Bengaluru-85.
2. Sri Panduranga, Deputy Direcor(in-charge), Karnataka Text Book Society,
Bengaluru-85.
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Chief Co-ordinator
Prof. G. S. Mudambadithaya, Curriculum review and Text book preparation,
Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru-85.
Programme Co-ordinator
Smt. R. N. Shashikala, Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society,
Bengaluru-85.
Foreword
The Government of India through NCERT have brought out NCF-2005
to revise the curriculum of schools and suggested all the states to intro-
duce revised textbooks in the schools based on the new curriculum. Ac-
cordingly state Governments took up the work and requested respective
DSERTs to start introducing new curriculum and texts. Karnataka Gov-
ernment has suggested to its DSERT to take up the challenge to fulfil the
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vision of NCF-2005. DSERT, Karnataka started the process: constituted
committees to revise the syllabi, identified the writers and requested these
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people to write texts books based on the new syllabi incorporating the ex-
pectations of NCF-2005. Karnataka Text Book Society, took the initiative
and coordinated the whole programme of writing these text books.
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The current work, a text book in mathematics for 8-th standard, is a
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step taken in this direction. An effort has been made here to look at the
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mathematics needed at 8-th standard through a different lens. At first
glance, this may look a totally unconventional approach. Some may feel
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that it is hard on the part of 8-th standard students. On the other hand
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that is the correct age for the students to learn new concepts and ideas.
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Students are receptive to new intellectual challenges. It is the onus of

the teachers to teach new things to the students and prepare them to the

challenges of the ever changing world. This text book is also an effort
to integrate our students with the national mainstream where CBSE has
surged forward and parents think that their wards will be better off by
learning CBSE texts.
We have tried here to tell something new about numbers and number
system. Similarly, some thing new about graphs, postulates of geometry
and congruency of triangles are also introduced with more expectations.
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Quadrilaterals have been introduced now itself. There are optional prob-
lems at the end to challenge the students.
It is my earnest request to all my teacher friends to take up the new
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challenge. Let the parents of our students not feel that their wards are
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always in the back seats.
B. J. Venkatachala
Homi Bhabha Centre for
Science Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Table of Contents
Indian Mathematics - A brief introduction (i)
Chapter 1.
Unit 1. Playing with numbers 1
Unit 2. Squares, square-roots, cubes
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and cube-roots 27
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Unit 3. Rational numbers 53
Unit 4. Commercial arithmetic 80
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Unit 5. Statistics 102
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Unit 1. Algebraic Expressions 132
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Unit 2. Factorisation 148

Unit 3. Linear equations in one variable 156

Unit 4. Exponents 172
Unit 5. Introduction to graphs 192
Chapter 3.
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Unit 1. Axioms, postulates and theorems 219

Unit 2. Theorems on triangles 250
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Unit 3. Congruency of triangles 266

Unit 4. Construction of triangles 291
Unit 5. Quadrilaterals 306
Chapter 4.
Unit 1. Mensuration 330
Optional problems 341
INDIAN MATHEMATICS - A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
Indian Mathematics dates back to the Vedic times. The first

significant mathematical texts of Vedic times are Shulva Sutras.
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Shulva is a sanskrit word for chord. These contain the details of
construction of sacrificial altars. These ancient texts introduce
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surds of the type 2, 3, etc. (In fact most of the ancient mathe-
matics was developed because of the interest in Yajna and Yaga
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and astrology.) BaudhayanaSutra and Apastamba Sutra give a
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very good approximation to 2 in the form
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3 3 4 3 4 34
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which is correct up to 5 decimal places.

The classical Pythagoras theorem is stated in the above su-

tras, far earlier than the Greeks discovered it. Another ancient
unsolved problem known as squaring a circle finds its place in
Shulva sutras. One is required to construct, using only a ruler
and a compass, a square whose area is equal to that of the given
circle. Shulva sutras give approximate methods for construct-
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ing such a square. This remained unsolved over two thousand

years, and only in 18th century it was proved that such a con-
struction is impossible.
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Indian mathematicians are credited with being the first to

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give an approximate value for . Aryabhata I (476 AD) gave an

approximate value for as 3.1416; he mentions that a circle of
diameter 20000 units has circumference approximately equal
to 62832 units. It is interesting to note that Aryabhata I clearly
mentions, in the fifth century itself, that is not rational and he
is using its approximate value. Only in 1761, Lambart proved
that is an irrational number, and in 1882, Lindeman proved
that is, in fact, a transcendental number.
(ii) Indian Mathematics
The most remarkable contribution for which the entire world

still salutes India is the invention of the decimal system by in-
troducing zero and infinity. The use of decimal system is so
easy that even children can grasp it and use it in their calcula-
tions. If you really want to appreciate the simplicity of the deci-
mal system and the concept of place value, you must first study
the prevalent Roman system of representing numbers. Accord-
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ing to Florian Cajori, an eminent historian of great repute of
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all the mathematical discoveries, no one has contributed
more to the general progress of intelligence than Zero. Us-
ing base 10, Indians were able to grasp very large numbers(See
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Chapter 2, Unit 4, Exponents for more details).
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Ancient Jain contribution to mathematics is another impor-
tant milestone in the history of Indian Mathematics. Their find-
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ings are recorded in famous Jain texts, dating back to 500 BC
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200 BC. Here again, you see an approximate value for as

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10 and it is calculated up to 13 decimal places.

Ancient India has vastly contributed in the areas: the meth-

ods of Arithmetic called Vyakthaganita; The method of Algebra
called Avyakthaganita. Ancient Indian Mathematicians had in-
troduced all the four operations: addition, multiplication, sub-
traction and division. They also knew how to operate with frac-
tions, solving simple equations, finding square and square-root,
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finding cube and cube-root, and also knew about permutation

and combination.
Mahavira(9th century AD), a great Jain mathematician from
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Karnataka, gave the well known formula

nC n!
r= (n r)!r!
for the first time in the history of mathematics, in his Ganita
Sara Sangraha. Aryabhata I is one of our greatest mathemati-
cians and astronomers of all times. He is the one who system-
atically developed mathematics and is called, justifiably, the fa-
ther of Algebra. He gave tables to trigonometric ratio Sine,
Indian Mathematics (iii)
called jya in Sanskrit, for angles from 0 to 90 degrees at inter-

3
vals of 3 degrees. He was the first Indian to declare: the Earth
4
is round and that stars appear to move from East to West for a
stationary observer on the Earth.
Aryabhata I was followed by Bhaskara I (6th century AD) who
provided interesting geometrical treatment for many algebraic
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formulae and gave a very good rational approximation for sin ,
even for large values of angle . Brahmagupta(628 AD) was
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the first topgive a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral in
the form (s a)(s b)(s c)(s d), where a, b, c, d are the sides
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of the quadrilateral and s, the semi-perimeter. He is also the
first mathematician to obtain cyclic quadrilaterals with rational
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sides. bl
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Another important area, where our ancient mathematicians

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made significant contributions, is the solution of equations of
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the form ax + by = c, and x2 N y 2 = 1 in integers, where

a, b, c, N are given integers, and N is generally a square-free pos-

itive integer. Such equations are called Diophantine equations
in modern terminology. The second equation is wrongly called
Pells equation by the great Euler, but the name still contin-
ues. These days, many authors call the equation of the type
x2 N y 2 = 1 as Brahmagupta-Pells equation. Aryabhata I dis-
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cusses ax + by = c, whereas Brahmagupta made a significant

contribution in the understanding of the equation x2 N y 2 = 1.
However, later, Bhaskara II(popularly called Bhaskaracharya)
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developed a new method, called Chakravala method, for solv-

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ing x2 N y 2 = 1 in integers. Here is an interesting thing about

the equation x2 N y 2 = 1. In 1657, Fermat (who is famous
for his contribution to number theory) proposed the problem of
solving x2 61y 2 = 1 for integers x, y , to European mathemati-
cians. But none was able to solve this problem. In 1732, Euler
gave a complete solution to this equation. But surprisingly, as
a matter of divine coincidence, the same equation x2 61y 2 = 1
was solved by Bhaskara II(1150 AD)in his Bijaganitam by his
(iv) Indian Mathematics
chakravala method more than 5 centuries before. The smallest

solution of x2 61y 2 = 1 given by Bhaskara II is x = 226153980
and y = 1766319049. Bhaskara II also introduced calculus, the
concept of derivative, though not rigorously. He clearly men-
tions equivalent of d(sin x) = cos x dx.
We also see in the works of Bhaskara II and Mahavira very
beautiful and interesting problems, rich in poetic imagination.
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Incidentally, Bhaskara II was born in the current Bijapur dis-
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trict of Karnataka state (the exact place of his birth is still a
point of debate among the scholars) and moved to the current
Maharashtra state. Here we give two problems, originally stated
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in verses, whose translation runs as follows:
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1. (From Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya)
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A beautiful maiden asks me which is the number when mul-

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tiplied by 3, then increased by three-fourths of the product,
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divided by 7, diminished by one-third of the quotient, mul-

tiplied by itself, diminished by 52, the square-root found,

addition of 8, division by 10 gives the number 2?
2. (From Ganita Sara Sangraha of Mahavira)
Three merchants find a purse lying on a road. One mer-
chant says, If I keep the purse, I shall have twice as much
money as the two of you together. Give me the purse and I
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shall have three times as much" said the second merchant.

The third merchant said, I shall be better off than either
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of you if I keep the purse; I shall have five times as much as

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the two of you together. How much money is in the purse?

How much money does each merchant have?
The achievements of Indian Mathematicians are remarkable
in certain specific areas: arithmetic; theory of equations; spher-
ical trigonometry and astronomy; geometrical treatment of al-
gebraic equations; plane trigonometry; and mensuration. Un-
fortunately, after Bhaskara II, because of the invasion, Indian
Mathematics went into hibernation, except for a brief period
Indian Mathematics (v)
during which the Kerala school by Nilakanta and Madhava made

some important contributions in the area of series approxima-
tion to tan function. With Ramanujan, at the end of 19th cen-
tury, it recovered its earlier glory. Ramanujan was a prodigious
mathematician. In his brief span of 32 years, he made wonder-
ful contributions to number theory, hyper-geometric series, di-
vergent series, elliptic functions and integrals, and mock-theta
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function. Even today, world-wide mathematicians are trying to
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understand the depth of his mathematics and trying to prove
the conjectures he made. It is also worthwhile to mention that
Chadrashekhara Samantha of Orissa, at the end of 19th century,
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made some important contributions to astronomy.
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(For more details about the Indian mathematics see Indian
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Mathematics and Astronomy: Some landmarks by Dr S Bal-

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achandra Rao, published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bengaluru)
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CHAPTER 1 UNIT 1
PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

After studying this unit you learn:
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to write a given natural number in its general form ( in base 10);
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to formulate some games and puzzles involving numbers;
given two positive integers, how to divide one by the other to get the
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quotient and the remainder;
construction of a 3 3 magic square;
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divisibility tests for 4,3,9,5,11;
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about some unsolved problems involving numbers.
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1.1.1 Introduction

Numbers have played an important role in the intellectual development

of mankind. This still forms a perfect play-ground for activities of chil-
dren. One can create simple puzzles which are brain-teasers. They can be
used to play (mental) games among children. We shall explore some nice
properties of numbers which help in engaging children with puzzles and
these puzzles will help in arousing the curiosity of children. On the other
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hand the numbers can help us in placing some of the hitherto unproved
conjectures and perhaps those will help the children to further explore the
wonderful universe of numbers.
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You write 76 or 315 and say these are natural numbers. For example,
you say that 6 is the digit in the units place of 76, and 7 is the digit in
tens place. Similarly, looking at 315, you say that 5 is in the units place,
1 is in the tens place and 3 is in the hundreds place. You understand the
place value of each digit, given a natural number. We explore a little bit
more about these concepts and create puzzles using them.
Looking at the numbers 2, 24, 46, 88 or 122, you immediately say that
these are even numbers and each is divisible by 2. Can you say whether a
number is divisible by 3 by just looking at the number? Can you say that
2 Unit 1
a number is divisible by 4,5, 9 or 11 without actually dividing it by these?

Can you device simple rules which help us to decide whether a number is
divisible by 3,4,5,9,11?
1.1.2 Numbers in general form
Consider the number 45. We write this as
45 = 40 + 5 = (4 10) + (5 1).
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Similarly, 34 = 30 + 4 = (3 10) + (4 1). What can we do with 354? Observe
354 = 300 + 50 + 4 = (3 100) + (5 10) + (4 1).
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Activity 1: Write the following numbers in the form described as above:
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75, 88, 121, 361, 1024, 2011, 4444, 2345.
Can you see that any natural number can be written in the above form? It
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is immaterial how many digits are there in the number. Suppose you have
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123456789, a 9-digit number. You may write it as

123456789 = 100000000 + 20000000 + 3000000 + 400000

+50000 + 6000 + 700 + 80 + 9

= (1 100000000) + (2 10000000) + (3 1000000)
+(4 100000) + (5 10000) + (6 1000)
+(7 100) + (8 10) + (9 1).
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You will learn later that this can be written in a compact form as
123456789 = (1 108 ) + (2 107 ) + (3 106 ) + (4 105 ) + (5 104 )

+ (6 103 ) + (7 102 ) + (8 101 ) + (9 100 ).
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This is called the base 10 representation of the given natural numbers

or the generalised form of the number. This system of representing a
number using base 10 was invented by early Indian mathematicians.
Consider, for example, 136. You write this in the generalised form as:
136 = (1 100) + (3 10) + (6 1).
Can you see that 6 is associated with 1; 3 is associated with 10; and 1 is
associated with 100? This is the reason, 6 is called the digit in the units
Playing with numbers 3
place; 3 is the digit in the tens place; and 1 is the digit in the hundreds
place.
Suppose you have a number abcd, with the digits in the units place,
tens place hundreds place and thousands place respectively as d,c,b and
a. Then its generalised form is
abcd = (a 1000) + (b 100) + (c 10) + (d 1).
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To avoid the confusion that abcd may represent the product of a, b, c and
d, the number is written in the form abcd. Thus
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abcd = (a 1000) + (b 100) + (c 10) + (d 1).
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Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from 1200 BC
until the end of the 18th century and after that the modern era dawned.
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In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), impor-
tant contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta,
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and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system in use today and the binary
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number system were first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathe-

maticians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a
number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. These mathematical

concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led
to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of
mathematics.
All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500
BC; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form.
The oldest mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent
is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village
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of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan).

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The representation using base 10 is only a convenient thing. One can use
different bases and represent numbers. For example computers use base
2 representation(called binary codes) and base 16 representation(hexa-
decimal codes). However, in daily life the use of decimal system(base 10
representation) is the most useful thing and the Indian contribution is for-
ever remembered.
Exercise 1.1.2
1. Write the following numbers in generalised form:
39, 52, 106, 359, 628, 3458, 9502, 7000.
4 Unit 1
2. Write the following in the normal form:

(i) (5 10) + (6 1); (ii) (7 100) + (5 10) + (8 1); (iii) (6 1000) +
(5 10) + (8 1); (iv) (7 1000) + (6 1); (v) (1 1000) + (1 10).
3. Recalling your earlier knowledge, represent 555 in base 5.
4. What is the representation of 1024 in base 2?
1.1.3. Some games and puzzles involving digits
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Here we describe some properties of numbers which will help you to
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evolve a game to amuse your friends.
Game 1.
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You can play a trick with your friend. You do this in several steps.
Step 1. Ask your friend to choose a 2-digit number in his mind and
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not to reveal it to you.
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Step 2. Tell him to reverse the digits of the number he chose and get
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another number.
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Step 3. Now tell him to add both the numbers and divide the sum by

11.
Step 4. Surprise him by telling him that the remainder is 0.
At no stage he reveals you the number or its reversal or their sum. Still
you can conclude that the remainder of the sum when divided by 11 is
zero.
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For example suppose your friend chooses 41. The number obtained by
reversing its digits is 14. Their sum is 41 + 14 = 55. When 55 is divided by
11, the remainder is 0.
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Are you not curious how it works?

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Suppose the two digit number is ab. Then you know that ab = (a 10) +
(b 1). The reversed number is ba = (b 10) + (a 1). Thus you get the sum
of a number and its reversal as:
ab + ba = (a 10) + (b 1) + (b 10) + (a 1) = 11(a + b).
Now you see why the remainder when divided by 11 is zero.

Activity 2: You can create a game of your own. Instead of taking the
sum of a 2-digit number and its reversal, suppose you take their positive
difference. Take several examples, say, 21, 34, 86, 79, 95. Which divisor
is common to all the differences: 21 12, 43 34, 86 68, 97 79, 95 59?
What is the game you can formulate?
Game 2.
This time, tell your friend to choose a 3-digit number and to keep it in
his mind. Let him get the number obtained by reversing the digits of the
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original number and tell him to find the difference between the original
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number and the reversed number. Ask him to divide this difference by 99.
You may surprise him by telling the remainder is zero, even if you do not
know any thing about his choice. For example, if your friend chooses 891,
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the reversed number is 198 and their difference is 891 198 = 693 = 99 7.
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Hence the remainder is zero after dividing the difference by 99.
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Activity 3: Take several 3 digit numbers, say, 263, 394, 512, 765, 681,
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898, 926. Find the difference between each number and the number ob-
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tained by its reversal. Find the remainder when the difference is divided

by 99 in each case.
Why does this work in general? If the number chosen is abc, then the
reversed number is cba. Thus
abc cba = (a 100) + (b 10) + (c 1) (c 100) (b 10) (a 1)

= (99 a) (99 c)
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= 99(a c).
Hence you see that the difference is always divisible by 99.

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Game 3.
Now you start with a 3-digit number, say 132. You can get two more
numbers 213 and 321, by cyclically permuting the digits of 132. Add all
of them; you get
132 + 213 + 321 = 666 = 18 37.
Repeat this with numbers 196, 225, 308, 446, 589, 678, 846. Do you
observe that in each case the resulting number is divisible by 37? Can
you now formulate a game using this property?
6 Unit 1
Statement 1.
Given a 3-digit number abc, consider two more numbers obtained
by cyclical permutation of its digits, namely, bca and cab. Then 37
divides the sum abc + bca + cab.
The proof is not hard. Let us see how it works for 132. We have
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132 = (1 100) + (3 10) + (2 1),
321 = (3 100) + (2 10) + (1 1),
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213 = (2 100) + (1 10) + (3 1).
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Thus we get
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132 + 321 + 213 = 1 (10 + 100 + 1) + 3 (100 + 10 + 1) + 2 (100 + 1 + 10)
= (1 + 3 + 2) 111
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= 6 3 37.
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The same method works for for any number abc. Using the general form,

you get
abc = (a 100) + (b 10) + (c 1),
bca = (b 100) + (c 10) + (a 1),
cab = (c 100) + (a 10) + (b 1).
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Hence
abc + bca + cab = (a 100) + (b 10) + (c 1) + (b 100) + (c 10) + (a 1)

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+(c 100) + (a 10) + (b 1)

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= 111(a + b + c).
But 111 = 37 3 and hence the number on the right side is divisible by 37.
We may conclude that abc + bca + cab is divisible by 37.
Alpha numerals and puzzles
You can create puzzles involving numbers and letters of an alphabet.
Look at the following examples.
Example 1. Find the digit represented by P in the following addition.
Solution:
You see that P , being a digit, cannot exceed 9. The
4 1 P
only way you can arrive to 6 from 5 is adding 1.
+ Q 1 5
Hence P = 1. Similarly, you get Q = 1. You may
5 2 6
check that 411 + 115 = 526.
Example 2. Find the digits A and C in the following multiplication.
Solution:
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Here the last digit of 2 A is 4. Hence either A = 2
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or A = 7. Which one to choose?
Suppose A = 2. Then you get the product as 32
3 A
12 = 384. This shows that C = 3. On the other hand,
1 2
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if A = 7, then the product is 37 12 = 444. However,
C 8 4
the digit in the tens place of the result must be
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8 and not 4. We may therefore reject A = 7. We
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conclude A = 2 and C = 3.
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Example 3. In the following addition, A, B, C represent different digits.
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Find them and the sum.

Solution:
Here you observe that the last digit of A + B + C is
C, so that A + B = 10. (Why is that A + B = 0 not
possible?) Since C is a digit, C 9. Hence the carry
from units place to tens place is 1.
A A
Since we are adding only 3 digits, the carry in tens
+ B B
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place of the sum cannot exceed 2. Hence B cannot

+ C C
be more than 2. Thus you observe that B = 1 or 2.
B A C
The addition of digits in tens place gives(along with
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carry 1 from units place) A + B + C + 1 = 10 + C + 1

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and this must leave remainder A when divided by

10.
If B = 1, then A = 9 and hence C +1 = 9 giving C = 8. We get 99+11+88 =
198, which is a correct answer. If B = 2, you get A = 8 and C + 1 = 8 giving
C = 7. But then 88 + 22 + 77 = 187. This does not fit in as hundreds place
in the sum is 1 but not 2.
The correct answer is 99 + 11 + 88 = 198.
8 Unit 1
Exercise 1.1.3
1. In the following, find the digits represented by the letters:
(i) (ii) (iii)
3 16 2A
+ B + 2A A
7 B1 12 A
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(iv) (v) (vi)
1A A 1A 3A
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+ 1A A 1A A
2 A A 1 B A 2BA
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2. In the adjacent sum, A, B, C are consecutive dig- A B C
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its. In the third row, A, B, C appear in some order. + C
+
B

A

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Find A, B, C.
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1 2 4 2
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A B C
3. Find A, B, C in the adjacent multiplication table.

A A
A C 6 C
4. Is it possible to have the adjacent multiplication A A

table? Give reasons. B B
C C C
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1.1.4. Divisibility and remainders

One of the important property related to integers is the concept of di-
visibility. In your earlier class, you have studied how to divide a natural
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number by another natural number to get a quotient and a remainder.

If you divide 91 by 13, you see that 13 completely divides 91 and you do
not get any remainder. On the other hand, dividing 85 by 15, you see that
15 5 = 75 and 15 6 = 90, so that you cannot divide 85 completely by 15.
On actual division, you get 5 as quotient and 10 as remainder.

13 91 7 15 85 5
91 75

00 10
Suppose you divide 304 by 12. The quotient is 25 and the remainder is
4. If you divide 887 by 17, you obtain the quotient 52 and the remainder
3.

12 304 25 17 887 52
24 85
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64 37
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60 34
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4 3
We write these divisions in the following form:
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91 = (13 7) + 0,
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be T
pu
304 = (12 25) + 4,
K
887 = (17 52) + 3.

Do you observe that 0 < 13, 10 < 15, 4 < 12, 3 < 17? Can you conclude
that the remainder does not exceed the number from which you divide?
Activity 4: Find the quotient and the remainder in each of the following
cases:
(i) 100 divided by 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,23, 29 and 31.
(ii) 300 divided by 37, 41,43,47,53,59,61,67.
to
Our observation can be put in a formal way:

Given a non-negative integer a and another integer b > 0, there
t
exist unique integers q and r such that a = (b q) + r, where 0 r < b.

No
We say b divides a if the remainder is zero, that is, r = 0.

A similar statement can be made when a number is divided by another
non-zero number. You will learn more about these in higher classes. The
above statement can be used as a basis for a nice game which you can
play with your friends.
Game 4.
Ask your friend to choose a number smaller than 1000. Tell him to divide
this number by 7, 11, 13 respectively and ask for the remainders obtained
10 Unit 1
by these divisions. Using these remainders, you can construct the number
chosen by your friend.
Suppose your friend has chosen 128. Then the remainder when divided
by 7 is 2; the remainder when divided by 11 is 7 and the remainder when
divided by 13 is 11. Now form the sum
(2 715) + (7 364) + (11 924).
d
If you simplify this, you get 14142. Divide this by 1001. You see that
he
14142 = (1001 14) + 128,
is
re S
so that the remainder is 128. This is the number chosen by your friend.
B
Are you not thrilled?
bl
These are the steps in this game.
be T
pu
Step 1. Tell your friend to choose a number less than 1000, in his
K
mind.
Step 2. Tell him to divide the number by 7, 11, 13 and ask him to

give you three remainders.

Step 3. Now you construct the number he thought of using the three
remainders as follows. Suppose the remainders he gives you are
r1 (remainder when divided by 7), r2 (remainder when divided by 11),
and r3 (remainder when divided by 13); multiply r1 by 715, r2 by 364
to
and r3 by 924; take care that you are doing the correct multiplication.
Add all three numbers so obtained and divide the resulting number
by 1001. The remainder you obtain is the number chosen by your
t
friend.
No
Take another example, say 212. Observe that
212 = (7 30) + 2; 212 = (11 19) + 3; 212 = (13 16) + 4.
Thus r1 = 2, r2 = 3 and r3 = 4. We obtain

(r1 715) + (r2 364) + (r3 924) = (2 715) + (3 364) + (4 924) = 6218.
Divide 6218 by 1001. The remainder is 212, the number you started with.
You may be wondering how such a game works. Suppose you start with an
arbitrary number a < 1000. Let r1 , r2 , r3 be the remainders when a is divided
by 7, 11, 13 respectively. Then you can write
a = 7q1 + r1 , a = 11q2 + r2 , a = 13q3 + r3 ,
for some integers q1 , q2 , q3 . This shows that

r1 = a 7q1 , r2 = a 11q2 , r3 = a 13q3 .
d
Hence
he
715r1 + 364r2 + 924r3 = 715(a 7q1 ) + 364(a 11q2 ) + 924(a 13q3 )
= a(715 + 364 + 924) (7 715)q1 (11 364)q2 (13 924)q3 .
is
re S
However you may notice that
B
bl 7 715 = 7 11 13 5,
11 364 = 11 7 13 4,
be T
pu
13 924 = 13 7 11 12.
K
And 1001 = 7 11 13. Do you now understand why we consider the remain-
ders when divided by 7, 11 and 13? Hence you get

715r1 + 364r2 + 924r3 = a 2003 1001(5q1 + 4q2 + 12q3 ).
You may also observe that a 2003 = (a 1001 2) + a. When you divide
715r1 + 364r2 + 924r3 by 1001, you are left with a as all other terms are divisible
by 1001. Since a < 1000, a is indeed the remainder. But that is the number
you have started with.
to
Activity 5:
Check the game 4 with some more numbers: 804, 515, 676, 938, 97, 181.
t
Exercise 1.1.4
No
1. Find the quotient and the remainder when each of the following num-
ber is divided by 13:
8,31, 44, 85, 1220, 2011.
2. Find the quotient and the remainder when each of the following num-
ber is divided by 304:
128, 636,785,1038,2236,8858,13765,58876.
3. Find the least natural number larger than 100 which leaves the re-
mainder 12 when divided by 19.
12 Unit 1
4. What is the least natural number you have to add to 1024 to get a
multiple of 181?
5. What is the smallest number you have to add to 100000 to get a

multiple of 1234?
1.1.5 Magic squares
d
Can you arrange the numbers from 1 to 9 in 3 rows and 3 columns
he
such that the sum of the numbers in each row, each column and each
diagonal are all identical? Look at the following arrangement.(Fig. 1)
is
re S B
8
bl 1 6 6 1 8
be T
3 5 7 7 5 3
pu
K
4 9 2 2 9 4

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
You observe that the sum of the numbers in each row is 15, the column
sum is 15 and the diagonal sum is 15. You can also arrange the numbers
as in Fig. 2. Can you see that there is a resemblance between these two
magic squares? The middle column is (1, 5, 9) in both the squares. The
to
right most column (8, 3, 4) in the first square is the left most column in
the second. Similarly, the left most column (6, 7, 2) in the first square is
the right most column in the second. Thus the second magic square is
t
obtained by flipping the right most column and the left most column. The
No
sum 15 is called the magic sum.

Is there a way of constructing such a magic square? Start with the
middle cell of the topmost row and put 1 there. Thus we begin with the
following:
1
Now we follow the following rules:

Rule 1. If there is a vacant cell

along the diagonal from left to
right, you fill it with the next num-
5
ber. (Here there is a vacant cell
4 4
after 4 along the diagonal. Hence
we fill it with 5.)
Rule 2. If there is no vacant cell
1 1
d
along the diagonal and if there are

he
columns further, you fill the bot-
2
tom cell of the next column with
the next number. Follow Rule 1. (Here there is no vacant cell along
is
re S
the diagonal after 1. Hence we go to the bottom most cell in the next
column and fill with 2.)
B
bl
Rule 3. If there is no vacant cell
1 1
be T
along the diagonal and if there are

pu
3
no columns further, go to the row
K
2 2
above the cell you have reached

and fill the left most cell of this row with the next number and follow
Rule 1. (Here there is no vacant cell along the diagonal to move from
2 and we are already in the last column. Hence we move to the row
above and fill the left most cell with 3.)
Rule 4. If at any stage you en-
1 1 6
counter a cell which has already
3 3 5
to
been filled, go to the cell below the

4
cell you have reached and then
continue with Rule 1. (Here you cannot move from 3 to the next cell
t
along the diagonal since you have 1 already there. Hence we go to the
No
cell below 3 and fill with this 4.)

Rule 5. If you are at the end of
1 6 1 6
the main diagonal, fill the number
3 5 3 5 7
below the last cell in the diagonal
4 4
with the next number. And follow
the appropriate rule further. (Here you have 6 at the end of the main
diagonal. Hence we go to the cell below it and fill it with 7.)
14 Unit 1
Let us see how it works for a 3 3 magic square. We start with the
central cell of the first row and put 1 there. Now apply Rule 2, as we
cannot move diagonally. We fill the bottom cell of the next column, that
is column 3, with number 2. Again, we cannot move diagonally, nor do
we have column further. We apply rule 3 and move to the row above and
fill the left most cell with 3. Now you see that you cannot move along the
diagonal as the cell there is already filled. Hence we use Rule 4 and go to
d
the cell below the cell we are in. We fill this with 4 and move diagonally
he
to fill 5 and 6. Again, we cannot move further and we are on the main
diagonal. We use Rule 5 and fill the cell below the last cell on the diagonal
with 7. Now we use Rule 3 and fill the left most cell of the row above with
is
re S
8. Using Rule 2, we now fill the bottom most cell of the next column with
B
bl
9. And you have the magic square!
The sequence of operations are shown below
be T
pu
1 1 1
K
Rule 2 Rule 3 3 Rule 4

2 2
1 1 1 6
3 Rule 1 3 5 Rule 1 3 5 Rule 5
4 2 4 2 4 2
to
1 6 8 1 6 8 1 6
3 5 7 Rule 3 3 5 7 Rule 2 3 5 7
t
4 2 4 2 4 9 2
No
Activity 6: Using the central cell of the first column as the starting point,
construct a 3 3 magic square with numbers from 1 to 9. How does this
compare with the magic square in Fig. 1? What relation is there between
the magic sum and the number in the central cell of the magic square?
Using the numbers from 3 to 11, construct a magic square.

Solution: We use the same sequence of operations as we have used earlier,
but the starting number is 3 instead of 1.
3 3 3
Rule 2 Rule 3 5 Rule 4
4 4
3 3 3 8
5 Rule 1 5 7 Rule 1 5 7 Rule 5
6 4 6 4 6 4
d
he
3 8 10 3 8 10 3 8
5 7 9 Rule 3 5 7 9 Rule 2 5 7 9
is
6 4 6 4 6 11 4
re S
Here the magic sum is 21.
B
bl
Activity 7: Construct a 5 5 magic square using the above rules and with
be T
pu
numbers from 1 to 25. What relation is there between the magic sum and
K
the number in the central cell of the magic square?

Using the five rules, it is possible to construct an m m magic

square with the numbers from 1 to m2 , for any odd natural num-
ber m > 1.
Exercise 1.1.5
1. Using the numbers from 5 to 13, construct a 33 magic square. What
to
is the magic sum here? What relation is there between the magic sum
and the number in the central cell?
2. Using the numbers from 9 to 17, construct a 33 magic square. What
t
is the magic sum here? What relation is there between the magic sum
No
and the number in the central cell?

3. Starting with the middle cell in the bottom row of the square and
using numbers from 1 to 9, construct a 3 3 magic square.
4. Construct a 3 3 magic square using all odd numbers from 1 to 17.
5. Construct a 5 5 magic square using all even numbers from 1 to 50.
16 Unit 1
1.1.6 Divisibility tests

If a number ends with any of the digits 0, 2,4,6 or 8, you immediately
say the number is divisible by 2. What is your reasoning? You write any
such number a as a = 10k +r, where r is the remainder when divided by 10.
Hence r is one of the numbers 0,2,4,6,8. You now see that 10 is divisible
by 2 and r is also divisible by 2. You conclude that 2 divides a.
d
It is natural to think whether such simple tests are available for divisi-
he
bility by other numbers. We explore some of them here.
1. Divisibility by 4
is
re S
If a number is divisible by 4, it has to be divisible by 2(why?). Hence the
digit in the units place must be one of 0,2,4,6,8. But look at the following
B
bl
numbers: 10,22,34,46, 58. You see the last digit in each of these numbers
be T
are as required, yet none of them is divisible by 4? Thus you may conclude
pu
that it is not possible to decide the divisibility on just reading the last digit.
K
Perhaps, the last two digits may help.

If a number has two digits, you may decide the divisibility by actually
dividing it by 4. All you need is to remember the multiplication table for 4.
Suppose the given number is large, say it has more then 2 digits. Consider
the numbers, for example, 112 and 122. You see that 112 = 100 + 12, and
both 100 and 12 are divisible by 4. You may conclude that 112 is divisible
by 4. But 122 = 100 + 22; here 100 is divisible by 4, but 22 is not. Hence
to
122 is not divisible by 4. We invoke the following fundamental principle on

divisibility:
t
No
If a and b are integers which are divisible by an integer m 6= 0,

then m divides a + b, a b and ab.
How does this help us to decide the divisibility of a large number by 4?

Suppose you have a number a with more than 2 digits. Divide this by 100
to get a quotient q and remainder r: a = 100q + r, where 0 r < 100. Since
4 divides 100, you will immediately see that a is divisible by 4 if and only
if r is divisible by 4. But r is the number formed by the last two digits of
a. Thus you may arrive at the following test:
Statement 2
A number a (having more than one digit) is divisible by 4 if and only
if the 2-digit number formed by the last two digits of a is divisible by
4.
Example 4. Check whether 12456 is divisible by 4

Solution: Here, the number formed by the last two digits is 56. This is
d
divisible by 4 and hence so is 12456.
he
Example 5. Is the number 12345678 divisible by 4?
Solution: The number formed by the last 2 digits is 78, which is not
is
divisible by 4. Hence the given number is not divisible by 4.
re S
Activity 8:
B
bl
Ask your friend sitting adjacent to you to give several 4, 5 and 6 digit
be T
numbers. Test divisibility by 4 for them.

pu
K
Activity 9:
By dividing several 4 and 5 digit numbers by 8, formulate a divisibility test

by 8.
2. Divisibility by 3 and 9
Consider the numbers 2,23,234,2345, 23456, 234567. We observe that
among these 6 numbers, only 234 and 234567 are divisible by 3. Here,
we cannot think of the number formed by the last two digits, or for that
to
matter even three digits. Note that 3 divides 234, but it does not divide
34. Similarly, 3 divides 456, but 3 does not divide 23456.
Activity 10: Write down numbers 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, . . . , 141, 151. (All numbers
t
No
from 1 to 151 which ends in 1.) Form the sum of the digits of each number
and tabulate them. Check which numbers are divisible by 3 and whether
the digital sum of that number is also divisible by 3? What do you observe?
Consider the numbers 234 and 234567. The sum of the digits of the
first number is 9 and that of the second is 27. You see that both 9 and 27
are divisible by 3. (In fact, divisible by 9.) Let us explore this in a general
case for a 2-digit, 3-digit and 4-digit numbers. If n = ab is 2-digit number,
then
n = ab = (10 a) + b = 9a + (a + b).
18 Unit 1
This shows that n is divisible by 3 if and only if a + b is divisible by 3.

Similarly for m = pqr, we have
m = pqr = 100p + 10q + r = (99p + 9q) + (p + q + r),
and you may observe that m is divisible by 3 if and only if p + q + r is

divisible by 3. Do you observe that you can deduce divisibility test for 9 as
well: 9 divides m if and only if 9 divides p + q + r? Now you do not have any
d
problem to extend the test for a 4-digit number or a number with more
he
digits. Observe that the sum of the digits of 234567 is 27. You can check
that 9 divides 234567.
is
Statement 3
re S
An integer a is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of the digits of a
B
bl
is divisible by 3. An integer b is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum
be T
of the digits of b is divisible by 9.

pu
K
Example 6. Check whether the number 12345321 is divisible by 3. Is it

divisible by 9?

Solution: The sum of the digits is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 21. Hence the

number is divisible by 3, but not by 9. In fact 12345321 = (9 1371702) + 3.
Example 7. Is 444445 divisible by 3?
Solution: The sum of the digits is 25, which is not divisible by 3. Hence
444445 is not divisible by 3. Here the remainder is 1.
to
3. Divisibility by 5 and 10
Activity 9: Take all multiples of 5 from 51 to 100. Tabulate the last digits
t
of each multiple of 5.
No
Do you see that 0 or 5 appears as the digit in the units place for every
multiple of 5? Does this observation help you to formulate a divisibility
test for 5 and also for 10?
Statement 4
An integer a is divisible by 5 if and only if it ends with 0 or 5. A
number is divisible by 10 if and only if ends with 0.
Example 8. How many numbers from 101 to 200 are divisible by 5?

Solution: Write down all numbers from 101 to 200 which end with 0 or
5: 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 155, 160, 165, 170,
175, 180, 185, 190, 195, 200. There are 20 such numbers.
Solution: Note that 15 = 3 5. Hence the given number must be divisible
by both 3 and 5.(This is also sufficient to prove that the given number is
d
divisible by 15. However, a general rule is false. For example, 4 divides
12 and 6 divides 12, but their product 24 does not divide 12. Can you
he
formulate some rule?) It is obviously divisible by 5, as its last digit is 5.
The sum of the digits is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 and it is divisible by 3. Hence
is
3 also divides 12345. We conclude that 15 divides 12345.
re S
Example 10. How many numbers from 201 to 250 are divisible by 5, but
B
not by 3? bl
be T
pu
Solution: Here again, the numbers divisible by 5 are 205, 210, 215, 220,
K
225, 230, 235, 240, 245, 250. Now you compute the digital sum of these
numbers: you get 7,3,8,4,9,5,10,6,11,7. Among these, the only numbers

divisible by 3 are 3,6,9. Thus among the 10 numbers divisible by 5, only

three numbers are also divisible by 3. The remaining 7 numbers are not
divisible by 3.
3. Divisibility by 11
Consider the number 4587. You may check that it is divisible by 11.
to
(In fact, 4587 = 11 417.) We may also write
4587 = (4 1000) + (5 100) + (8 10) + 7

t
= (4 1001) + (5 99) + (8 11) + (4 + 5 8 + 7)

No
= (11 91 4) + (11 9 5) + (11 8) (4 5 + 8 7).
Each of the numbers in the first three brackets is divisible by 11. Hence
the divisibility of 4587 by 11 is now related to the divisibility of 4 5 + 8 7,
which involves only the digits of the given number. The important point to
note here is that the sign alternates with + and . We also observe that
4 5 + 8 7 = 0, which is divisible by 11.
Consider a 3 digit number 429. You may easily check hat 429 is divisi-
ble by 11: 429 = 11 39. On the other hand,
20 Unit 1
429 = (4 100) + (2 10) + 9

= (4 99) + (2 11) + (4 2 + 9).
Since 4 2 + 9 = 11 is divisible by 11, you may conclude that 11 divides

429, without actually dividing it by 11.
How do you test a general 3-digit or 4-digit number? Suppose n = abc
is a 3-digit number. Then
d
n = 100a + 10b + c
he
= 99a + 11b + (a b + c).
Thus n is divisible by 11 if and only if 11 divides a b + c. If m = pqrs is a
is
re S
4-digit number, then
B
bl
n = 1000p + 100q + 10r + s
= 1001p + 99q + 11r (p q + r s).
be T
pu
K
Hence 11 divides n if and only if 11 divides p q + r s. This may be

extended to numbers with any number of digits, with due care.

Statement 5
Given a number n in decimal form, put alternatively and + signs
between the digits and compute the sum. The number is divisible
by 11 if and only if this sum is divisible by 11. Thus a number
is divisible by 11 if and only if the difference between the sum of
to
the digits in odd places and the sum of the digits in even places is
divisible by 11.
t

No
Solution: Observe that 23+45+6 = 4 and hence not divisible by 11. The
test indicates that 23456 is not divisible by 11. In fact 23456 = (112123)+4.
A palindrome is a number which reads the same from left to right or
right to left. Thus a palindrome is a number n such that by reversing the
digits of n, you get back n. For example 232 is a 3-digit palindrome; 5445 is
a 4-digit palindrome.
Example 12. Find all 3-digit palindromes which are divisible by 11.
Solution: A 3-digit palindrome must be of the form aba, where a 6= 0 and
b are digits. This is divisible by 11 if and only if 2a b is divisible by 11.

This is possible only if 2a b = 0 or 2a b = 11 or 2a b = 11. Since a 1
and b 9, we see that 2a b 2 9 = 7 > 11. Hence 2a b = 11 is not
possible. Suppose 2a b = 0. Then 2a = b; thus a = 1, b = 2; a = 2, b = 4;
a = 3, b = 6; and a = 4, b = 8 are possible. We get the numbers 121, 242, 363,
484. For a = 6, b = 1, we see that 2a b = 12 1 = 11, and hence divisible by
11. Similarly a = 7, b = 3; a = 8, b = 5; and a = 9, b = 7 give the combinations
d
for which 2a b is divisible by 11. We get four more numbers: 616, 737, 858,
he
and 979.
Thus the required numbers are: 121, 242, 363, 484, 616, 737, 858, 979.
is
Example 13. Prove that 12456 is divisible by 36 without actually dividing
re S
it.
B
bl
Solution: First notice that 36 = 4 9. Hence it is enough to prove that
be T
the given number is separately divisible by 4 and 9(then it will be divisible

pu
by their LCM which is 36). Consider the number formed by the last two
K
digits: 56. It is divisible by 4. Hence 12456 is divisible by 4. On the

other hand the sum of the digits is 18 and divisible by 9. Hence 12456 is
divisible by 9 as well. Combining, we get the result.
Exercise 1.1.6
1. How many numbers from 1001 to 2000 are divisible by 4?

to
2. Suppose a 3-digit number abc is divisible by 3. Prove that abc+bca+cab

is divisible by 9.
t
No
3. If 4a3b is divisible by 11, find all possible values of a + b.
4. Prove that a 4-digit palindrome is always divisible by 11.
5. Using the digits 4,5,6,7,8, each once, construct a 5-digit number

which is divisible by 132.
22 Unit 1
You have seen the first few primes are:

2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61,67,71,73. . .
There are infinitely many primes. Among these look at the pairs:
(3,5), (5,7), (11,13), (17,19), (29,31), (41,43), (59,61), (71,73).
These are primes which differ by 2. That is: the difference between them is
2. Such a pair of primes is called a twin prime. It is an outstanding unsolved
problem: Are there infinitely many twin primes?
d
he
Another classical unsolved problem involving numbers is Goldbachs conjecture.
It dates back to 1742. Consider even numbers greater than 2: observe 4 = 2 + 2,
is
re S
6 = 3 + 3, 8 = 3 + 5, 10 = 3 + 7, 12 = 5 + 7, 14 = 3 + 11, 16 = 5 + 11, and so on. It
was conjectured by a German mathematician Goldbach that every even number
B
bl
greater than 2 is a sum of two primes. It has been extensively verified using
computers and there is a strong suspicion that the conjecture is true. But no
be T
pu
mathematical proof is available till today.
K

A natural number n is called a perfect number if it is equal to the sum of all

its proper positive divisors.(That is the sum of all its positive divisors excluding
the number itself.) The first perfect number is 6. It has three proper positive
divisors, 1,2,3; and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Similarly, 28 has proper divisors, 1,2,4,7,14;
and 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28. The next numbers are 496 and 8128. All these were
discovered by Euclid. Euclid also proved that 2p1 (2p 1) , with p a prime, is a
perfect number whenever 2p 1 is a prime. Prime numbers of the form 2p 1
to
are called Mersenne primes(after a seventh-century mathematician called Marin

Mersenne). It is easy to prove that 2n 1 is prime only if n is prime. But not all
numbers of the form 2p 1, where p a prime, are prime numbers. For example,
211 1 = 2047 = 23 89 and hence not a prime. Using this idea and computers,
t
No
one can generate some perfect numbers. The numbers 2p1 (2p 1), where p is
equal to
2,3,5,7,13,17,19,31,61,89,107,127,521,607,1279,2203,2281
are the first few perfect numbers. There are some unsolved problems related to
perfect numbers.
1. Are there infinitely many perfect numbers?(Equivalently, are there in-
finitely many Mersenne primes?)
2. All the perfect numbers so far known are even perfect numbers. This nat-
urally raises the question: Is there any odd perfect number?
Additional Problems on Playing with numbers
1. Choose the correct option:
(a) The general form of 456 is

A. (4 100) + (5 10) + (6 1) B. (4 100) + (6 10) + (5 1)
C. (5 100) + (4 10) + (6 1) D. (6 100) + (5 10) + (4 1)
d
(b) Computers use
he
A. decimal system B. binary system C. base 5 system D. base
6 system
is
re S
(c) If abc is a 3-digit number, then the number
B
bl n = abc + acb + bac + bca + cab + cba
be T
pu
is always divisible by
K
A. 8 B. 7 C. 6 D. 5
(d) If abc is a 3-digit number, then

n = abc acb + bac bca + cab cba
is always divisible by
A. 12 B. 15 C. 18 D. 21
(e) If 1K K1 = K2K, the letter K stands for the digit
to
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
(f) The numbers 345111 is divisible by
t
A. 15 B. 12 C. 9 D. 3
No
(g) The number of integers of the form 3AB4, where A, B denote some
digits, which are divisible by 11 is
A. 0 B. 4 C. 7 D. 9
2. What is the smallest 5-digit number divisible by 11 and containing

each of the digits 2,3,4,5,6?
3. How many 5-digit numbers divisible by 11 are there containing each

of the digits 2,3,4,5,6?
24 Unit 1
4. If 49A and A49, where A > 0, have a common factor, find all possible
values of A.
5. Write 1 to 10 using 3 and 5, each at least once, and using addition

and subtraction. (For example, 7 = 5 + 5 3.)
6. Find all 2-digit numbers each of which is divisible by the sum of its
digits.
d
he
7. The page numbers of a book written in a row gives a 216 digit number.
How many pages are there in the book?
is
8. Look at the following pattern:
re S B
bl 1
be T
1 1
pu
K
1 2 1
1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1
This is called Pascals triangle. What is the middle number in the 9-th
to
row?
t
8
9. Complete the adjoining magic
No
square.(Hint: In a 3 3 magic square,

3 7
the magic sum is three times the
central number.)
10. Find all 3-digit natural numbers which are 12 times as large as the
sum of their digits.
11. Find all digits x, y such that 34x5y is divisible by 36.

12. Can you divide the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 into two groups such
that the product of numbers in one group divides the product of num-
bers in the other group and the quotient is minimum?
13. Find all 8-digit numbers 273A49B5 which are divisible by 11 as well
as 25.
14. Suppose a, b are integers such that 2 + a and 35 b are divisible by 11.
d
Prove that a + b is divisible by 11.
he
15. A list of numbers and corresponding
589 724 1306 L
codes are given in the adjacent table.
524 386 9701 2011
Find the number L.
is
re S
16. In the multiplication table A8 3B = 2730, A and B represent distinct
B
bl
digits different from 0. Find A + B.
be T
17. Find the least natural number which leaves the remainders 6 and 8
pu
when divided by 7 and 9 respectively.
K
18. Prove that the sum of cubes of three consecutive natural numbers is

always divisible by 3.
Glossary
Divisibility: an integer a is said to be divisible by another non-zero integer
b, if a = qb for some integer q.
Quotient: if a = qb, for some integers a, b 6= 0 and q, then q is the quotient
to
upon division of a by b.
Remainder: if a = bq + r, where 0 r < b for some integer a and natural
number b, then r is the remainder upon division of a by b.
t
No
Palindrome: a number which reads the same from left to right and right
to left.
Puzzle: any mind twister.
Alpha numeral: a letter appearing in an equation and taking some nu-
merical value.
Conjecture: a statement which is believed to be true, but without any
substantiating mathematical proof.
Magic square: a square consisting of smaller squares and each smaller
square filled with numbers such that the row sum, the column sum and
26 Unit 1
the diagonal sum are all equal.

Perfect number: a natural number whose all positive divisors smaller
than the number add up to the number.
Twin-primes: pairs of prime numbers such that the difference of numbers
in each pair is 2.
Mersenne primes: prime numbers of the form 2p 1. (If 2p 1 is a prime,
it forces p is also a prime.)
d
Points to remember
he
Any natural number can be written in the generalised form using base
10.
is
re S
Given any two integers a and b > 0, there exist unique integers q and
B
bl
r such that a = bq + r, where 0 r < b.
A number is divisible by 4 if and only if the number formed by the
be T
pu
last two digits is divisible by 4.
K
A number is divisible by 3 or 9 if and only if the sum of the digits is

divisible by 3 or 9 respectively.

A number is divisible by 5 if and only if it ends in 0 or 5.

A number is divisible by 11 if and only if the difference between the
sum of oddly placed digits and the sum of evenly placed digits is
divisible by 11.
to
We must think and act like a nation of billion people and not like that
t
of a million people. Dream, dream, dream! Abdul Kalam

No
CHAPTER 1 UNIT 2
SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES, CUBE ROOTS

After studying this unit, you learn
perfect squares and square root of perfect squares;
d
to recognise the digits in units place of a perfect square;
he
to obtain the remainders when a perfect square is divided by 3 and 4;
is
different occasions leading to perfect squares;
re S
some methods of finding perfect squares and square-roots of perfect
B
squares; bl
be T
pu
perfect cubes and cube-roots of perfect cubes;
K
1.2.1 Introduction

Look at the numbers of the form 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and so on. What do

you recognise? For example, 4 = 2 2, 25 = 5 5. You see that each
such number is the product of two equal numbers. Similarly, you see
that 8 = 2 2 2, 64 = 4 4 4. Each number is the product of three
equal numbers. These numbers are given special names. In this chapter
we study some properties of such numbers. We also study the reverse
to
process: whenever a number is the product of two equal numbers or three

equal numbers, can we find these equal numbers?
1.2.2 Perfect squares
t
Look at the following diagrams.

No
How many dots do you find in each figure? You recognise them as 1, 4,
9, 16.
28 Unit 2
D
10 C
9 Suppose you have a square ABCD
8 of side-length 10 units. Divide
7
6
the square in to smaller unit
5 squares(as in the adjoining figure)
4
using lines parallel to the sides.
3
2 Can you count that there are 100
d
1 unit squares?
he
A B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Activity 1: Repeat this with squares of side-length 8, 12, 15 units and

tabulate your findings.
is
re S
Observe that 1 = 1 1, 4 = 2 2, 9 = 3 3, 16 = 4 4, 100 = 10 10.
B
bl
If a is an integer and b = a a, we say b is a perfect square.
be T
pu
Hence 1, 4, 9, 16, 100 are all perfect squares. Since 0 = 0 0, we see that
K
0 is also a perfect square.

If a is an integer, we denote a a by a2 (we read this as Square of a or

simply a-square). Thus 36 = 62 , 81 = 92 . Thus a perfect square is of the

form m2 , where m is an integer.
Here you may be observing some thing more. For example 4 = 2 2
and 4 = (2) (2); in the second representation, you again have equal
integers, but negative this time. There is nothing strange about this. The
property is inherent in the number system: if you multiply two negative
to
integers, you get a positive integer. Thus for any natural number m, we
get m2 = m m = (m) (m). This also tells something about the nature
t
of perfect squares. If m is a natural number, m2 = m m is also a natural

No
number and hence m2 is positive. If m = 0, then m2 = 0 0 = 0. If m

is a negative integer, then m = n for some natural number n. Hence
m2 = (n) (n) = n2 , which again is positive.
Thus a perfect square is either equal to 0 or must be a positive

integer. It can never be a negative integer.
We have seen that 1 = 12 and 4 = 22 are perfect squares. Can 2 and

3 also be written as a product of two equal integers? Your intuition tells
Squares and cubes 29
that this cannot happen. Can we see this mathematically? Suppose m

and n are two natural numbers such that m < n. Then it is easy to see
that m2 < n2 (why?).
If at all 2 is a perfect square, 2 = n2 for some natural number. Then
1 < 2 < 4 gives 1 = 12 < n2 < 22 = 4. This forces 1 < n < 2(why?). Thus n
is a natural number strictly between 1 and 2. But we know that given a
natural number k, there is no natural number between k and its successor
d
k + 1. Thus no natural number exists between 1 and 2. We conclude that
he
2 is not a perfect square.
Similarly, you can conclude that 3 is not a perfect square. This may be
extended to prove that any natural number n, such that m2 < n < (m + 1)2 ,
is
re S
cannot be a perfect square.
B
bl
Look at the following table:
be T
pu
a 1 2 3 8 7 12 20 15
K
a2 1 4 9 64 49 144 400 225

Do you see that squares of 2,8,-12, 20 are even numbers, where as the
squares of 1,3, 7, 15 are all odd numbers. What do you infer?
Statement 1. The square of an even integer is even and the square

of an odd integer is odd.
This is not hard to prove. If m is even, then m = 2n for some integer n

to
and m2 = (2n) (2n) = 4n2 is an even integer. If m is odd, then m = 2k + 1

for some integer k, so that
t
m2 = (2k + 1)(2k + 1)
No

= (2k + 1) (2k) + (2k + 1) 1
= (2k) (2k) + (1 2k) + (2k 1) + (1 1)
= 4k 2 + 2k + 2k + 1
= 4k 2 + 4k + 1,
which is an odd number.

Consider the first ten perfect squares as in the table.
30 Unit 2
12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 102
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
If you observe the units place in these squares, you see that they are
1,4,9,6,5,6,9,4,1,0 in that order. Thus the only digits which can occupy
the units place in a perfect square are 0,1,4,5,6,9. If you take any num-
ber, its units digit is one of 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Hence the square of that
d
number(multiply the number with it self in your mind to get the digit in
he
units place) ends with one of the numbers 0,1,4,5,6,9. Can you see that
the digits 2,3,7,8 can never occur as the last digit of a perfect square? We
can make a formal statement:
is
re S
Statement 2. A perfect square always ends in one of the digits
B
bl
0,1,4,5,6,9. If the last digit of a number is 2,3,7 or 8, it cannot be a
be T
perfect square.
pu
K
Think it over ! If a number ends in 0,1,4,5,6 or 9, then it is not

necessary that the number is a perfect square.

In precise mathematical language, we say that a necessary condition

for the given number to be a perfect square is that it should end with one
of the digits 0,1,4,5,6 or 9, but this condition is not a sufficient condition
to ensure that the given number is a perfect square. This helps us to
recognise perfect squares.
to
Exercise 1.2.2
1. Express the following statements mathematically:
t
(i) square of 4 is 16; (ii) square of 8 is 64; (iii) square of 15 is 225.

No
2. Identify the perfect squares among the following numbers:

1,2,3,8,36,49,65,67,71,81,169,625,125,900,100,1000,100000.
3. Make a list of all perfect squares from 1 to 500.
4. Write 3-digit numbers ending with 0,1,4,5,6,9, one for each digit, but
none of them is a perfect square.
5. Find numbers from 100 to 400 that end with 0,1,4,5,6 or 9, which
are perfect squares.
1.2.3 Some facts related to perfect squares

There are some nice properties about perfect squares. We study them
here.
(a) Look at the following table:
a 4 10 20 25 100 300 1000

a2 16 100 400 625 10000 90000 1000000
d
The number of
he
zeros at the 0 2 2 0 4 4 6
end of a2
is
re S
What do you observe? The number of zeros at the end of a square is
always an even number(it may be equal to 0, but still an even number).
B
bl
Moreover the number of zeros at the end of each square is twice the num-
be T
ber of zeros at the end of the number whose square is considered. Can
pu
you now formulate this as a statement?
K
Statement 3. If a number has k zeros at the end, then its square

ends in 2k zeros.
Thus, if a number ends in odd number of zeros, it cannot be a perfect
square. This helps us to rule out certain numbers from the list of perfect
squares.
(b) Look at the adjoining table:
to
a a2 The remainder of a2 The remainder of a2

when divided by 3 when divided by 4
t
1 1 1 1
No
2 4 1 0
3 9 0 1
5 25 1 1
8 64 1 0
11 121 1 1
6 36 0 0
Do you see that the remainder of a perfect square when divided by 3 is

either 0 or 1? Similarly, the remainder of a perfect square when divided by
32 Unit 2
4 is either 0 or 1. When you divide a number by 3, the possible remainders

are 0, 1 and 2. But when you divide a perfect square by 3, the remainder
is either 0 or 1, but never 2. Similarly, when you divide a number by 4,
the possible remainders are 0,1,2 or 3. However, when you divide a perfect
square by 4, the remainder is either 0 or 1, but it can never be 2 and 3.
Statement 4. The remainder of a perfect square, when divided by
d
3, is either 0 or 1, but never 2. The remainder of a perfect square,
when divided by 4, is either 0 or 1, but never 2 and 3.
he
Think it over !
is
The remainder of a perfect square, when divided by 8, is either
re S
0 or 1 or 4. It can never be equal to 2,3,5,6,7.
B
(c)
bl
be T
pu
Activity 2:
K
Take any four consecutive natural numbers and form their product. Add
1 to this product. Check whether it is a perfect square. Repeat this with

some more sets of four consecutive natural numbers. Do the same with
some sets of consecutive negative integers. What is your observation if one
of the four consecutive integers is 0 ?
For example:
(1 2 3 4) + 1 = 24 + 1 = 25 = 52 ;
to
(8 9 10 11) + 1 = 7920 + 1 = 7921 = 892 .

t
Statement 5. When the product of four consecutive integers is

No
added to 1, the resulting number is a perfect square.
(d) Read the following table:
1 = 1 = 12 ,
1 + 3 = 4 = 22 ,
1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32 ,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42 ,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 = 52 .
Continue this process for some more rounds, adding the next odd number
to the previous sum. You see that you go on getting perfect squares. A
careful observation also reveals some thing more. The sum of the first 4
odd natural numbers is 42 ; the sum of the first 5 odd natural numbers is
52 . Check this with the sum of the first 8 and 12 odd natural numbers.
Can you formulate this as a new statement?
Statement 6. The sum of the first n odd natural numbers is equal
d
to n2 , for every natural number n.
he
(e)
Activity 3:
is
re S
Consider the numbers 11, 101, 1001, 10001 and compute their squares.
B
bl
Do the same inserting some more zeros. Do you see some pattern?
For example:
be T
pu
112 = 121,
K
1012 = 10201,
10012 = 1002001,

and so on. You see that the middle number of each square is always 2;
on both sides of 2, zeros appear as digits; and the end digits are equal to
1. The number of zeros both sides of 2 are equal and equal to the number
of zeros in the original number. Thus we can formulate a statement as
follows.
to
Statement 7. Consider the number N = 1000 01, where zeros

appear k times. (For example, for k = 6, you get N = 10000001; there
t
are 6 zeros in the middle.) Then N 2 = 1000 02000 01, where the
No
number of zeros on both sides of 2 is k.
(f) Look at the following patterns:

34 Unit 2
To generate such a pattern, put a dot in row 1, put 2 dots in row 2,

put 3 dots in row 3, and so on, as shown in the figure. The dots are now
arranged in the shape of a triangle. Count the number of dots in each of
the triangle.(Single dot is considered as a degenerate triangle.) They are
1,3,6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36 and so on. These numbers are called triangular
numbers (you know the reason). You can see how the triangular numbers
are formed. For n-th triangular number, you form a triangle of dots with
d
n rows and each row contains as many points as the index of that row. If
he
you want to find the 8-th triangular number, the number of points in the
8-th triangle is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 36.
is
re S
Here are the first few triangular numbers:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91.
B
bl
Take any two consecutive triangular numbers and find their sum. For
be T
example: 10 + 15 = 25 = 52 ; 28 + 36 = 64 = 82 ; 55 + 66 = 121 = 112 ; 36 + 45 =

pu
81 = 92 . You see that the sum of any two consecutive triangular numbers
K
is a perfect square. You can also observe some thing more. Note that 28
is 7-th triangular number and 36 is 8-th one; their sum is 82 . Similarly

66 is 11-th triangular number and 78 is 12-th one; their sum is 144 = 122 .
Verify this property for some more pairs.
Statement 8. The sum of n-th and (n + 1)-th triangular numbers is
(n + 1)2 .
to
Exercise 1.2.3
1. Find the sum 1 + 3 + 5 + + 51(the sum of all odd numbers from 1 to
51) without actually adding them.
t
No
2. Express 144 as a sum of 12 odd numbers.

3. Find the 14-th and 15-th triangular numbers, and find their sum.
Verify the Statement 8 for this sum.
4. What are the remainders of a perfect square when divided by 5?
1.2.4 Methods for squaring a number

Many times, it is easy to find the square of a number without actually
multiplying the number with itself. Consider 422 . We may write 42 = 40 + 2.
Thus
422 = (40 + 2)(40 + 2)

= 402 + (40 2) + (2 40) + 22
= 402 + (2 40 2) + 22 .
Here we have used the distributive property of integers. Now it is easy to

recognise 402 = 1600; 2 40 2 = 160; and 22 = 4. Hence 422 = 1600 + 160 + 4 =
1764. (You can compute 402 , 2 40 2 and 22 in mind and add.)
d
he
Note. The basis for this method is the identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
which you will study later.
is
Activity 4:
re S
Find 892 , 682 , 962 using the above method.
B
bl
There is an easy way of computing the square of a number ending with
be T
5. For example, consider 352 . Take the digit in units place, namely 5.
pu
K
Put 25 (= 52 ) first. Remove the units digit from the given number and
consider the number formed by the remaining digits, which is 3. Consider

the product of 3 and its next number 4; 3 4 = 12. Prefix 12 to 25 to get

1225. Check that 352 = 1225.
Take another example, say 1052 . Here the number formed by the re-
maining digits after the removal of the digit in the units place is 10 and
its successor is 11. Their product is 10 11 = 110. Now you may check that
1052 = 11025. You may formulate this as a statement.
to
Statement 9. If n = a1 a2 ak 5(represented in base 10), then n2 is

equal to 25 prefixed by
t
No
(a1 a2 ak ) (a1 a2 ak + 1)
Exercise 1.2.4
1. Find the squares of:
(i) 31, (ii) 72; (iii) 37 ; (iv) 166.
2. Find the squares of: (i) 85; (ii) 115; (iii) 165.
3. Find the square of 1468 by writing this as 1465 + 3.
36 Unit 2
1.2.5 Square roots
As you know, if the side-length of a square ABCD is l, then its area is

l2 . Can you reverse the process? Given the area of a square, can we find
its side-length?
Suppose the area of a square is 16 cm2 . To find its side-length, we write
l2 = 16 = 42 and conclude l = 4 cm. Here the square of a number is given
d
and we have to find the number. Do you see that we are moving in the
he
opposite direction?
Again consider the following perfect squares:
is
re S
1 = 12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 16 = 42 , 49 = 72 , 81 = 92 , 196 = 142 .
B
bl
In each case the number is obtained by product of two equal numbers.
be T
pu
Here we say 1 is square root of 1; 2 is square root of 4; 7 is square root of
K
49 and so on.

Suppose N is a natural number such that N = M 2 . The number

M is called a square root of N.
We have seen earlier m2 = m m = (m) (m) = (m)2 . Thus m2 has

two square roots: m and m. Which one should be taken? For example
to
16 = 42 = (4)2 . Thus both 4 and 4 are square roots of 16. It is not clear,
which one of these should be taken. Many times, physical context clarify
the matter. As in the above example, if the area of a square is 16 units,
t
then its side-length is necessarily 4 units(4 is not admissible as it cannot

No
be length). However, mathematically both 4 and 4 are acceptable as a

square root of 16. We make the following convention.
Whenever the word square root is used, it is always meant to

be the positive square root. The square root of N is denoted by

N.
Activity 5: Fill in the following blanks looking at the similarity of the

statements:

12 = 1 = 1 = 1;

22 = 4 = 4 = 2;

52 = 25 = 25 = ;
112 = 121 = = 11;
d
= 225 = = 15.
he
Activity 6: Fill in the blanks with appropriate word or number looking at
the similarity of the statements:
is
re S
square square
B
bl
be T
2 4 3 9 4 16
pu
K
square root square root

square square
6 49
t to
We have learnt earlier that the square of a non-zero integer is always a

No
positive integer. Hence square root is meaningful only for positive integers
or possibly 0 (whose square root is 0).
Square root of a perfect square by factorisation

We know that 3 = 9 and 4 = 16. However 9 = 33 and 16 = 2222 =
4 4. Thus we can factorise the given perfect square in terms of their
prime factors, combine these prime factors appropriately to write the given
perfect square as a product of two equal integers. This will help us to read
off the square root of the given perfect square.
38 Unit 2
Example 1. Find the square root of 5929.

Solution: We do this in several steps.
Step 1. We express 5929 as a product of prime numbers:
7 5929
7 847
d
he
11 121
11
is
re S
Thus 5929 = 7 7 11 11.
B
bl
Step 2. We arrange these prime factors suitably to write 5929 = (7 11)
be T
(7 11) = 77 77.
pu
K
Step 3. Since 5929 = 77 77, a product of two equal integers, we conclude

5929 = 77.

Example 2. Find the square root of 6724.

Solution: We observe that 6724 is even so that 2 is its prime factor.
Thus 6724 = 2 3362. Again 3362 is even so that 3362 = 2 1681. Thus
6724 = 2 2 1681. Now there is no easy way of finding prime factors of
1681. We must go on checking whether 1681 is divisible by the primes
in increasing order, starting from 3. We see that it is not divisible by
to
3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37, but it is divisible by 41 and 1681 = 41 41.

Thus we obtain 6724 = 2 2 41 41 = (2 41) (2 41) = 82 82. We

t
conclude: 6724 = 82.

No
There is no easy way of finding the prime factors of a given

number. There are some algorithms which can be used on com-
puters to find the prime factors of a given large number. How-
ever, these algorithms also use up lot of computer time. The
fact that there is no easy way of factorising a large number is
the basis for modern day security systems used in banks and
other financial institutions.
Why some numbers are not perfect squares?

You might have noticed, while finding the square root of a perfect
square by factorising it, that each prime factor of the perfect square oc-
curs even number of times. For example, if you take 1296, you factorise
it as 1296 = 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3. It has two distinct prime factors,
2 and 3. Now 2 occurs four times and 3 also occurs 4 times. This helps
d
you to write 1296 = (2 2 3 3) (2 2 3 3) = 36 36, as a product

of two equal integers. You conclude that 1296 = 36. The success of this
he
method depends on the fact that the prime factors can be properly paired
to get the given number as a product of two equal integers. This is possible
is
because each prime factor occurs even number of times.
re S
Activity 7:
B
bl
Write all perfect squares between 1000 and 1500. In each case factorise
be T
it as a product of prime numbers. Check that in every case, each of the

pu
prime factor occurs even times in the product.
K
Now you can see why a number fails to be a perfect square. In its

prime factorisation, some primes may not occur even number of times.
Then there is no way of pairing the factors such that the given number
is equal to a product of two equal integers. However, you can make it a
perfect square on multiplication by a suitable factor or on division by a
suitable factor.
Suppose a number is not a perfect square. Take for example, 48. We
to
see that 48 = 2 2 2 2 3. Here 2 occurs four times, where as 3 occurs

only once. Hence we cannot properly pair the prime factors. However, if
t
we multiply 48 by 3, we see that

No
48 3 = 2 2 2 2 3 3 = (2 2 3) (2 2 3) = 12 12,
and we get a perfect square. Of course you may as well multiply 48 with
3 2 2 and get
48 12 = (2 2 3 2) (2 2 3 2) = 24 24,
leading to a perfect square. In fact you can multiply 48 by 3k 2 where k

is any positive integer and get as earlier 48 3k 2 = (12k) (12k), which is
40 Unit 2
a perfect square. However 3 is the least number with which you have to
multiply 48 to get a perfect square.
Example 3. Find the least positive integer whose product with 9408 gives
a perfect square.
Solution: You can start with 2 and go on dividing by 2 till you get an odd
number: 9408 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 147. Now 147 = 3 49 = 3 7 7. Thus
d
we get
9408 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 7 7.
he
Here both 2 and 7 occur even number of times, where as 3 occurs only
once. Hence we have to multiply 9408 by 3 to get a perfect square(you get
is
re S
9408 3 = (168)2 ).
B
bl
Let us go back to 48 = 2 2 2 2 3. Instead of multiplying by 3, we
can as well divide by 3:
be T
pu
48 22223
K
= = 4 4.
3 3

Still we get a perfect square. Here again you may divide by 3 2 2 and
get
48 22223
= = 2 2,
322 322
a perfect square. However 3 is the least number with which you have to
divide 48 to get a perfect square.
to
Example 4. Find the smallest positive integer with which one has to divide
336 to get a perfect square.
t
Solution: We observe that 336 = 2 2 2 2 3 7. Here both 3 and 7

No
occur only once. Hence we have to remove them to get a perfect square.
We divide 336 by 3 7 = 21 and get
336
= 16 = 42 .
21
The least number required is 21.
Exercise 1.2.5
1. Find the square root of the following numbers by factorisation:
(i)196; (ii) 256; (iii) 10404; (iv) 1156; (v) 13225.
2. Simplify:

(i) 100 + 36; (ii) 1360 + 9; (iii) 2704 + 144 + 289; (iv) 225

25; (v) 1764 1444; (vi) 169 361.
3. A square yard has area 1764 m2 . From a corner of this yard, an-
other square part of area 784 m2 is taken out for public utility. The
remaining portion is divided in to 5 equal square parts. What is the
perimeter of each of these equal parts?
d
4. Find the smallest positive integer with which one has to multiply each
he
of the following numbers to get a perfect square:
(i) 847; (ii) 450; (iii) 1445; (iv) 1352.
is
re S
5. Find the largest perfect square factor of each of the following num-
B
bers:
(i) 48; bl
(ii) 11280; (iii) 729; (iv) 1352.
be T
pu
6. Find a proper positive factor of 48 and a proper positive multiple of
K
48 which add up to a perfect square. Can you prove that there are
infinitely many such pairs?

1.2.6 Perfect squares near to a given number

Let us start with a non-perfect square, say, 72. Observe that 72 =
2 2 2 3 3, so that 2 appears only an odd number of times. We
can multiply 72 by 2 to get 72 2 = 144 = 122 . Or we may divide 72
72
to
by 2 to get = 36 = 62 . But there are more perfect squares between

2
62 and 122 , namely 72 = 49, 82 = 64, 92 = 81, 102 = 100 and 112 = 121.
Which one is the nearest to 72 among these perfect squares? You see that
t
82 = 64 < 72 < 81 = 92 and 72 64 = 8 < 9 = 81 72. Thus we see that 64 is

No
nearer to 72 than 81. Hence 64 is the nearest perfect square to 72.

In fact, given a non-perfect square, there is a unique perfect square
nearest to it. Suppose N is the given non-perfect square. You can put
it between two consecutive squares; there is a unique n such that n2 <
N < (n + 1)2 .(Can you see why?). Since n and n + 1 are two consecutive
numbers, one of them is even and the other odd. Hence N cannot be
exactly in the middle of n2 and (n + 1)2 ; if N n2 = (n + 1)2 N, then
2N = n2 + (n + 1)2 = n2 + n2 + 2n + 1 = 2n2 + 2n + 1 which is impossible since
42 Unit 2
2N is even and 2n2 + 2n + 1 is odd. Hence either n2 is the nearest perfect

square to N or (n + 1)2 is the nearest perfect square. If n2 is the nearest

perfect square to N, we say n approximates N; if (n + 1)2 happens to be

the nearest square to N, we say n + 1 approximates N . Thus, even if N

is not a perfect square(so that N is no more an integer), we can find the

nearest integer to N and get an integer approximation to N .
Example 5. If the area of a square is 90 cm2 , what is its side-length,
d
rounded to the nearest integer?
he
Solution: Since A = l2 , we have l2 = 90. But 81 < 90 < 100 and 81 is nearer

to 90 than 100. Hence the nearest integer to 90 is 81 = 9.
is
re S
Example 6. A square piece of land has area 112 m2 . What is the closest
B
bl
integer which approximates the perimeter of the land?
Solution: If l is the side-length of a square, its perimeter is 4l. We know
be T
that l2 = 112. Hence

pu
K
(4l)2 = 16l2 = (16) (112) = 1792.

But 422 = 1764 < 1792 < 1849 = 432 and 1764 is nearer to 1792 than 1849.

Hence the integer approximation for 1792 is 42. The approximate value
of the perimeter is 42 cm.
Caution!

If you take 112 to the nearest integer you see that it is 11
to
and you may be tempted to write the approximate value of the

perimeter as 44(= 4 11) cm. By replacing 112 with 11, you have
t
already committed an error and when you multiply by 4, the er-

No
ror increases by 4 times. That is the reason we have multiplied

112 by 16 first and then took the square root to the nearest in-
teger. There is nothing strange in this. The nearest integer to
r = 1/4 is 0. But the nearest integer to 3r = 3/4 is 1, not 3 0 = 0.

Now you may see the limitations of integers. If you want to find 90,

you have to take it as 9; if you want 94, then you have to take it as 10.
But neither of them gives you a true picture of what is the square root
of a non-perfect square. The limitation is because: there is no integer
between n and n + 1. However, this property ceases to be true in the

system of rational numbers. You can find a rational number between any
two rational numbers. This will help in moving further close to the square
root of a non-perfect square. You will learn more about this in your higher
classes.
Exercise 1.2.6
d
1. Find the nearest integer to the square root of the following numbers:
he
(i) 232; (ii) 600; (iii) 728; (iv) 824; (v) 1729.
2. A piece of land is in the shape of a square and its area is 1000 m2 .
is
This has to be fenced using barbed wire. The barbed wire is available
re S
only in integral lengths. What is the minimum length of the barbed
B
bl
wire that has to be bought for this purpose?

3. A student was asked to find 961. He read it wrongly and found 691
be T
pu
to the nearest integer. How much small was his number from the
K
correct answer?

1.2.7 Perfect cubes

Read the following table:
1 = 1 1 1;
8 = 2 2 2;
27 = 3 3 3;
to
125 = 5 5 5
You observe that each number is written as a product of 3 equal integers..

t
No
We say that an integer N is a perfect cube if N can be written

as a product of three equal integers. If N = m m m, we say N
is the cube of m and write N = m3 (read as cube of m or simply
m-cube).
Consider a few more examples:

(4) (4) (4) = 64 = (4)3 ,
(5) (5) (5) = 125 = (5)3

44 Unit 2
(8) (8) (8) = 512 = (8)3

Do you see that the negative numbers are also perfect cubes? Contrast
this with perfect squares. A non-zero perfect square is necessarily a posi-
tive integer. However, perfect cubes can as well be negative.
Example 7. Find the cube of 6.
Solution: We have 63 = 6 6 6 = 36 6 = 216.
d
he
Example 8. What is the cube of 20?
Solution: Again (20)3 = 20 20 20 = (400) 20 = 8000.
You have studied about a solid called cube. It is a solid having equal
is
re S
length, breadth and height. If l is the side-length of a cube, then its volume
V = l3 cubic units.
B
bl
Example 9. If a cube has side-length 10 cm, what is its volume?
be T
pu
Solution: We have V = 10 10 10 = 1000 cm3 .
K
Example 10. Find the smallest integer larger than 1 which is a perfect

square as well as a perfect cube.

Solution: Start with any number n and multiply it with itself 6 times to
get a number N. We observe that
N = n n n n n n = (n n) (n n) (n n)
= (n2 ) (n2 ) (n2 ) = (n2 )3 .
to
Thus N is the cube of n2 . On the other hand you may also observe that
N = n n n n n n = (n n n) (n n n)
t
= (n3 ) (n3 ) = (n3 )2 .

No
Hence N is also the square of n3 . Thus N is both a perfect cube and a

perfect square. Taking n = 2, we get the least number: N = 2 2 2 2
2 2 = 64. You may verify that 64 = 43 and 64 = 82 .
Example 11. Show that 6 is not a perfect cube.
Solution: We observe that 1 < 6 < 8 so that 13 < 6 < 23 . Since no integer
exists between 1 and 2, 6 cannot be written as a product of three equal
integers. Hence 6 is not a perfect cube.
Exercise 1.2.7
1. Looking at the pattern, fill in the gaps in the following:
2 3 4 5 8
23 = 8 33 = = 64 = 63 = = = 729
2. Find the cubes of the first five odd natural numbers and the cubes
d
of the first five even natural numbers. What can you say about the
he
parity of the odd cubes and even cubes?
3. How many perfect cubes you can find from 1 to 100? How many from
100 to 100?
is
re S
4. How many perfect cubes are there from 1 to 500? How many are
B
bl
perfect squares among these cubes?
5. Find the cubes of 10, 30, 100, 1000. What can you say about the
be T
pu
zeros at the end?
K
6. What are the digits in the units place of the cubes of 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
10? Is it possible to say that a number is not a perfect cube by looking

at the digit in units place of the given number, just like you did for
squares?
Activity 8: (More on Hardy-Ramanujan numbers) Express 4104 and

13832 as a sum of two perfect cubes in two different ways. Find some
numbers which can be expressed as a sum of two different perfect squares
to
in two or more ways. Explore more on this topic.

1.2.8 Cube root
t
No
You know how to find the volume of a cube, given its side-length. Can
you reverse the process? Given the volume of a cube, is it possible to find
its side-length?
Suppose the volume of a cube is 125 cm3 . If l is its side-length, you
write l3 = 125 and conclude l = 5 cm. Here we say 5 is the cube root of 125

and write 5 = 3 125.
If N is number and n is another number such that N = n3 , we say

n is the cube root of N and write n = 3 N .
46 Unit 2
Remark: The definition of square root and cube root makes sense even for
non-integers(for square root , the number must be non-negative). At this
stage we confine only to integers and do not get involved in generality.
Contrast the definition of cube root with that of square root. Given a
perfect square, there are two possible square roots; positive and negative.
This is because, the square of a non-zero integer is always positive and
(n)2 = n2 for any integer n. Such a thing cannot happen for cubes.
d
If n is positive, then n3 is positive; if n is negative, n3 is also negative.
he
Hence cube root of a perfect cube is negative or positive depending on the
negativity or positivity of the given perfect cube. This shows that we can,
is
unambiguously, talk of the cube root of a perfect cube. There is no need
re S
to follow a convention as in the case of square roots.
B
bl
As in the case of square roots, we can find the cube root of a perfect
cube by prime factorisation.
be T
pu
Example 12. Find the cube root of 216 by factorisation.
K
Solution: Observe

216 = 2 (108) = 2 2 (54) = 2 2 2 27 = 2 2 2 3 3 3

= (2 3) (2 3) (2 3)
= 6 6 6.

3
Hence 216 = 6.
to
Example 13. Find the cube root of 17576 using factorisation.

Solution: Let us first find the cube root of 17576. As earlier, we have
t
No
17576 = 2 (8788) = 2 2 (4394) = 2 2 2 (2197)

= 2 2 2 13 (169)
= 2 2 2 13 13 13
= (2 13) (2 13) (2 13)
= 26 26 26.

3
This shows that 17576 = (26) (26) (26). Thus 17576 = 26.
Srinivasa Ramanujan(1887-1920)
is undoubtedly the greatest Indian
mathematician of all times. He was
self-taught and had an uncanny math-
ematical manipulative ability. He was
not able to pass his school examina-
tions in India, and had to be content
d
with a clerical position in the Port Trust
he
of Madras. However, he continued to
create his own mathematics, obtained
lot of hitherto unknown results. He
is
sent these results G. H. Hardy who at
re S
once recognized Ramanujans intrinsic
B
bl mathematical ability and arranged for
him to travel to Cambridge.
be T
pu
Because of his lack of formal training, Ramanujan sometimes did not differen-
K
tiate between formal proof and apparent truth based on intuitive or numerical
evidence. His intuition and computational ability allowed him to determine and

state highly original and unconventional results which continued to defy formal
proof until recently.
Ramanujan had an intimate familiarity with numbers, and excelled especially
in number theory. J. Littelewood( a collaborator of G.H.Hardy) exclaimed that
every integer was a personal friend of Ramanujan. His familiarity with num-
bers may be demonstrated by the following incident. During an illness in Eng-
land, Hardy visited Ramanujan in the hospital. When Hardy remarked that
to
he had taken taxi number 1729, a singularly dull number, Ramanujan imme-
diately responded that this number was actually quite remarkable: it is the
smallest integer that can be represented in two ways by the sum of two cubes:
t
1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103 (Hardy-Ramanujan number).

No
Unfortunately, Ramanujans health deteriorated rapidly in England, due per-

haps to the unfamiliar climate, food, and to the isolation which Ramanujan felt
as the sole Indian in a culture which was largely foreign to him. Ramanujan
was sent home to recuperate in 1919, but tragically died the next year at the
very young age of 32.
Example 14. What is the least positive integer with which you have to
multiply 243 to get a perfect cube?
48 Unit 2
Solution: Let us factorise 243. We observe that
243 = 3 (81) = 3 3 3 3 3.
If we multiply 243 by 3, we see that
243 3 = 3 3 3 3 3 3 = 9 9 9,
and we get a perfect cube. The answer is therefore 3.
d
If you factorise a positive perfect cube, you may observe that the num-
he
ber of times each prime factor occurs is always a multiple of 3(just like it is
a multiple of 2 for perfect squares). Hence to get the least positive integer
is
whose product with the given integer makes a perfect cube, you have to
re S
see how much each prime factor is deficient in the prime factorisation of
B
bl
the given number to be away from a perfect cube.
Often, finding the cube root of a given perfect cube may be time con-
be T
pu
suming. We seek to find easier methods. We can use the behaviour of
K
the units digit of a cube to fix the cube root. We see that the units dig-
its of the cubes of numbers ending with 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0 are uniquely

determined. See the following table:
units digit of n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
units digit of n3 1 8 7 4 5 6 3 2 9 0
We also tabulate the cubes of first nine numbers:
to
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n3 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729
t
Let us see how these help us.

No
Example 15. Find the cube root of 103823.

Solution: Here the units digit of 103823 is 3. If n3 = 103823, then the units
digit of n must be 7. Let us split 103823 as 103 and 823. We observe that
43 = 64 < 103 < 125 = 53 . Hence
403 = 64000 < 103823 < 125000 = 503 .
Hence n must lie between 40 and 50. Since the units digit of n is 7, the
only such number is 47. You may check that 473 = 103823.
Note: This method works only if you know that the given number is
a perfect cube.
Nevertheless, this helps us in estimating the cube root of a non-perfect

cube. We can squeeze the given number between two perfect cubes and
see which is the nearest one.
Example 16. Find the nearest integer to the cube root of 12345.
d
Solution: We observe that
he
203 = 8000 < 12345 < 27000 = 303 .

is
re S
Hence 3 12345 must lie between 20 and 30. We do not know whether 12345
is a perfect cube or not. However, we may sharpen the bound: 233 = 12167
B
bl
and 243 = 13824 and hence 3 12345 must be between 23 and 24. Moreover

be T
12167 is nearer to 12345 than 13824. Hence the closest integer to 3 12345
pu
is 23.
K
Exercise 1.2.8

1. Find the cube root by prime factorisation:

(i) 10648; (ii) 46656; (iii) 15625.
2. Find the cube root of the following by looking at the last digit and
using estimation:
(i) 91125; (ii) 166375; (iii) 704969.
to
3. Find the nearest integer to the cube root of each of the following:
(i) 331776; (ii) 46656; (iii) 373248.
t
No
50 Unit 2
Additional problems on
Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
1. Match the numbers in the column A with their squares in the column
B:
A B Answers
d

(1) 5 (a) 25 (1)
he
(2) 8 (b) 144 (2)
(3) 2 (c) 36 (3)
is
(4) 6 (d) 484 (4)
re S
(5) 22 (e) 64 (5)
B
(6)
bl12 (f) 4 (6)
be T
(g) 121
pu
K
2. Choose the correct option.

(a) The number of perfect squares from 1 to 500 is:

A. 1) B. 16 C. 22 D. 25
(b) The last digit of a perfect square can never be
A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 9
(c) If a number ends in 5 zeros, its square ends in:
to
A. 5 zeros B. 8 zeros C. 10 zeros D. 12 zeros

(d) Which could be the remainder among the following when a perfect
square is divided by 8?
t
No
A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7
(e) The 6-th triangular number is:
A. 6 B. 10 C. 21 D. 28
3. Consider all integers from 10 to 5, and square each of them. How

many distinct numbers do you get?
4. Write the digit in units place when the following numbers are squared:
4,5,9,24,17,76,34,52, 33, 2319, 18, 3458, 3453.
5. Write all numbers from 400 to 425 which end in 2,3, 7 or 8. Check if
any of these is a perfect square.
6. Find the sum of the digits of (111111111)2.
7. Suppose x2 + y 2 = z 2 .
(i) if x = 4 and y = 3 find z;
d
(ii) if x = 5 and z = 13, find y;
he
(iii) if y = 15 and z = 17, find x.
8. A sum of 2304 is equally distributed among several people. Each
is
re S
gets as many rupees as the number of persons. How much does each
one get?
B
bl
9. Define a new operation on the set of all natural numbers by m n =
be T
pu
m2 + n2 .
K
(i) Is N closed under ?

(ii) Is commutative on N?
(iii) Is associative on N?
(iv) Is there an identity element in N with respect to ?
10. (Exploration) Find all perfect squares from 1 to 500, each of which is
a sum of two perfect squares.
to
11. Suppose the area of a square field is 7396 m2 . Find its perimeter.
12. Can 1010 be written as a difference of two perfect squares? [Hint:

t
No
How many times 2 occurs as a factor of 1010?]
13. What are the remainders when a perfect cube is divided by 7?
14. What is the least perfect square which leaves the remainder 1 when
divided by 7 as well as by 11?
15. Find two smallest perfect squares whose product is a perfect cube.
52 Unit 2
Glossary
Perfect square: an integer which is the product of two equal integers.
Triangular numbers: the sum of the first n natural number is called n-th
triangular number.
Square-root: a number a is a square root of b if b = a2 .
Perfect cube: an integer which is the product of three equal integers.
Cube-root: a number c whose cube is d is called a cube-root of c.
d
Prime factor: a prime number which divides an integer a is a prime factor
he
of a.
Irrational number: any real number which is not a rational number.
Points to remember
is
re S
A perfect square is the product of two equal integers; a perfect cube
B
bl
is the product of three equal integers.
be T
A perfect square is always non-negative(0 is also perfect square); a

pu
perfect cube may be negative, equal to 0 or may be positive.
K
Given a positive number, there are two square-roots, positive and

negative. But for any number, there is only one cube-root.

Given any positive number which is not a square, you can always
squeeze it between two consecutive perfect squares.
t to
No
CHAPTER 1 UNIT 3
RATIONAL NUMBERS
d
the concept of fraction and rational numbers;
he
to add and multiply rational numbers;
the properties of rational numbers with respect to addition and mul-
is
re S
tiplication: closure,associativity, commutativity, distributive proper-
ties, and existence of identity and inverse;
B
bl
representation of rational numbers on the number-line and density
be T
property of rational numbers;

pu
K
the gain while moving from integers to rational numbers and the loss.

1.3.1 Introduction
Earlier, you have studied natural numbers and some of their proper-
ties; the numbers {1, 2, 3, . . .}. This is called as the set of all natural num-
bers and is denoted by N. You have seen that the sum or product of any
two natural numbers is again a natural number: for example 5 + 13 = 18;
12 15 = 180. We say that the set of all natural numbers is closed un-
to
der addition and multiplication(or the closure property of addition and

multiplication of the set of all natural numbers). You have also observed
t
observed that:
No
8 + 12 = 12 + 8; 13 + (9 + 21) = (13 + 9) + 21; 15 7 = 7 15; 3 (5 6) = (3 5) 6.
Here you can take any natural number. Thus you have also seen that for
all natural numbers m, n, p the following hold:
m+n = n + m, (commutative property of addition);
m + (n + p) = (m + n) + p, (associative property of addition);
mn = n m, (commutative property of multiplication);
m (n p) = (m n) p, (associative property of multiplication).
54 Unit 3
You have learnt how to combine addition and multiplication and get yet
another property called the distributive property. For example
5 (7 + 8) = 5 15 = 75 = 35 + 40 = (5 7) + (5 8).
Thus for all natural numbers m, n, p, you may write

m (n + p) = m n + m p.
d
From this you also get
he
(n + p) m = n m + p m,
using the commutative property of multiplication and addition. You have
is
re S
also seen that the natural number 1 satisfies 1 8 = 8 1 = 8; again 8 is
B
bl
irrelevant and the relation 1 m = m 1 = m holds for all natural numbers
m.
be T
pu
You must have wondered why such a natural number does not exist for
K
addition; a number u such that m + u = u + m = m for all natural numbers.

This is the reason you have added the number 0 to the set of all natural

numbers and got the set of all whole numbers, W . Thus W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
The number 0 satisfies, for example, 8 + 0 = 0 + 8 = 8 and 9 0 = 0 9 = 0.
Thus the number 0 obeys certain rules:
m + 0 = 0 + m = m, for all natural numbers m;

m 0 = 0 m = 0, for all natural numbers m;
to
0 + 0 = 0;
0 0 = 0.
t
No
If you multiply two non-zero numbers in W , you get a non-zero number:

for example 14 6 6= 0. Thus in W , you must have noticed that m n = 0
is possible if and only if either m = 0 or n = 0(or may be both). Another
important property you have studied about the natural number is that it
is possible to compare any two natural numbers; for example, if you are
asked to compare 12 and 81, you immediately say that 12 is smaller than
81; or 81 is larger than 12. You write 12 < 81 or 81 > 12. Thus given any
two natural numbers m, n, you know that either m < n or m = n or m > n;
and only one of these properties hold. This is called the ordering on the
Rational numbers 55
set of all natural numbers; and you write 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < . Now we place
0 before 1 and get ordering on W ; 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < . There is one
fundamental truth about this ordering.
For example, if you consider the set E = {3, 6, 9, . . .}, the set of all mul-
tiples of 3, you see that 3 is the smallest element in it. However this set
does not have the largest element. Suppose you take the set of all marks
scored by students in your class in a test. If you write the marks in as-
d
cending order, you see that one of the marks is the lowest. Any subset of
he
N containing at least one element of N is called a non-empty subset of N.
For example, the set of all even natural numbers is a non-empty subset of
N. The set of all numbers which are both even and odd is an empty subset
is
re S
of N since there is no such number.
B
bl
Every non-empty subset of natural numbers of N (or W ) has
be T
the smallest element.

pu
K
This is called the well ordering property of natural numbers.

Activity 1: Write down five finite non-empty subsets of N and find their

smallest elements. Write down two infinite subsets of W and find the least
element of these subsets.
There is one distinct disadvantage inherent in N or W . Consider the
equation x + 5 = 3. You see that there is no natural number m such that
m + 5 = 3. In fact, for any natural number, you know that m + 5 > 5 > 3.
to
This disadvantage is removed in the set of all integers, Z. You have seen
that you can adjoin to W , another class of numbers called the negative
integers. For each natural number m, you associate another number
t
m called the negative of m(or the opposite of m). Thus Z consists of

No
three parts: the set of all natural numbers; 0; and the set of all negative
numbers. We usually write this as
Z = { 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, }.
Here Z is derived from the German word Zahlen(which means number).

You have also seen that you can perform addition and multiplication
on Z. If m and n are two natural numbers, then
(i) (m) + (n) = (m + n);

56 Unit 3
(ii) (m) + 0 = m = 0 + (m);

(m n), if m > n
(iii) (m) + n = n m, if m < n ;

0, if m = n
(iv) (m) n = m (n) = (m n);
d
(v) (m) (n) = m n;
he
(vi) (m) 0 = 0 (m) = 0.
Of course, if m and n are two whole numbers, we retain the same old
is
re S
addition and multiplication for them.
With this extension of definition of addition and multiplication, Z now
B
bl
enjoys several nice properties:
be T
pu
1. closure property: for all integers a, b, both a + b and a b are also
K
integers;

2. commutative property: for all integers a, b

a + b = b + a and a b = b a;
3. associative property: for all integers a, b, c,

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a (b c) = (a b) c;
4. distributive property: for all integers a, b, c,
to
a (b + c) = a b + a c;
5. cancellation law: if a, b, c are integers such that c 6= 0 and ac = bc,
t
then a = b (effectively you can cancel c on both sides).

No
Note that the cancellation law holds only if c 6= 0. For example, you may be
tempted to write 3 0 = 0 = 5 0 and try to cancel 0 on both sides to end up
with an absurd conclusion 3 = 5. Many of the fallacious conclusions are
due to such erroneous cancellations.
What is the advantage in moving from N to Z? You see that 0 has a
special status: a + 0 = 0 + a = a for all integers. We say that 0 is the additive
identity of Z(or 0 is the identity with respect to addition). Moreover, for
each integer a, we have another integer a such that a+(a) = 0 = (a)+a;
Rational numbers 57
if a = m is a natural number, a is the negative integer m; if a = 0, then

a = 0; if a is a negative integer, then a = n for some natural number n
and we take a = n, so that
a + (a) = (m) + m = 0,
by the way we have defined negative numbers. We say a is the additive

inverse of a. Every integer has additive inverse. Now you can solve an
d
equation x + a = b in integers, for any two integers a, b. We can take x =
he
b + (a). Then

x + a = (b + (a)) + a = b + (a) + a = b + 0 = b;
is
re S
we have used associativity of addition, the fact that (a) is the additive
inverse of a and that 0 is the additive identity.
B
bl
We can also order the elements of Z. For any natural number n, we
be T
put n < 0. If m and n are two natural numbers such that m < n, we put
pu
n < m. You now see that all the elements of Z can be compared. Every
K
natural number is an integer and we call the natural numbers as positive

integers.
Here you may be wondering what is the status of subtraction. This is
not introduced as a fundamental operation. You have learnt earlier that
12 7 = 5. However, you have learnt now that 7 is the additive inverse of
7. Thus you may think 12 7 = 12 + (7) adding 12 and 7. Here you see
that the subtraction is a convenient name we have given to the extension
to
of our fundamental operation addition to cover negative integers. This

makes sense even when two integers are negative. Suppose you want to
find 8 13. You put this as (8) + (13) = (8 + 13) = 21, by the way
t
No
we have defined addition of two negative integers. Now what is 15 21?.

Your answer is clear: adding 15 and (21). The definition shows that
15 + (21) = (21 15) = 6. What is the additive inverse of m? Since
m + (m) = 0, we see that m is the additive inverse of m; thus you obtain
(m) = m. The emphasis here is to the fact that symbol represents
additive inverse.
It is a universal law that when you gain some thing, you must lose
some thing. In Z, the gain is clear: you are able to solve an equation of the
form x + a = b, whenever a and b are integers. Such an equation cannot be
58 Unit 3
solved in N unless b > a, and a, b natural numbers. On the other hand, you
see that in the set of all integers, a non-empty subset need not have the
smallest element: if you take { 5, 4, 3, 2, 1}, the set of all negative
integers, this does not have the smallest element(why?). But the gain we
have by going to the integers is much more than the loss incurred.
Consider again Z. Here an equation of the form ax = b, where a 6= 0
cannot be solved, in general. (You may solve this provided a divides b.)
d
Hence Z is also inadequate for our purpose. We look forward for a new
he
number system in which we can do better things than we are able to do
in Z. We also take care that it has most of the nice properties of Z and
perhaps much more. But remember we have to loose some thing. We shall
is
re S
see what is the loss and what is the gain?
B
bl Exercise 1.3.1
1. Identify the property in the following statements:
be T
pu
(i) 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4; (ii) 2 8 = 8 2; (iii) 8 (6 + 5) = (8 6) + (8 5).
K
2. Find the additive inverses of the following integers:

6, 9, 123, 76, 85, 1000.
3. Find the integer m in the following:

(i) m + 6 = 8; m + 25 = 15; (iii) m 40 = 26; (iv) m + 28 = 49.
4. Write the following in increasing order:
21, 8, 26, 85, 33, 333, 210, 0, 2011.
to
5. Write the following in decreasing order

85, 210, 58, 2011, 1024, 528, 364, 10000, 12.
t
No
1.3.2 Rational numbers

In your earlier class, you have learnt about fractions; numbers of the
form p/q, where p and q are natural numbers. For example: 1/2, 1/3, 3/4, 8/3
and such numbers. You have also learnt how to add and multiply such
numbers.
1 8
Example 1. Add and multiply and .
3 5
Solution: We have
Rational numbers 59
1 8 (1 5) + (8 3) 5 + 24 29
+ = = = .
3 5 35 15 15
Their product is 1 8 18 8
= = .
3 5 35 15
If you are given a fraction 10/4, you write this in the form
10 52 5
= = ,
4 22 2
d
by canceling one 2 in the numerator with another 2 in the denominator.
he
In other words, if there are common factors between the numerator and
the denominator, you cancel them for convenience. Thus you do not dis-
is
tinguish between 10/4 and 5/2. You also divide one fraction by another: if
re S
you want to divide 1/3 by 8/5, the result is
B
bl 1/3
8/5
=
15
38
= .
5
24
be T
pu
You have learnt a lot about working with fractions. Can all these be put in
K
a formal way? Is it possible to include negative fractions just like we have

included negative integers?

p
We define a rational number as a number of the form , where p is
q
an integer and q > 0. Here p is called the numerator and q is called
the denominator of the rational number p/q. Thus the denominator of
a rational number is always a positive integer, where as the numerator
could be positive, negative or possibly 0.
to
Given two rational numbers a/b and c/d, we say they are equivalent if
a d = c b. Thus 10/4 is equivalent to 5/2 since 10 2 = 20 = 5 4. We say
a rational number a/b is in its lowest form or irreducible form if a and b
t
do not have any common factors other than 1. Thus 5/2 is its lowest form,
No
where as 10/4 is not.

Activity 2: Write ten rational numbers equivalent to 3/4. How many ra-
tional numbers are there which are equivalent to 3/4?
Thus 3/4, 1/5, 6/7, 7/10, 5/8, 6/11 are all rational numbers. You may
observe that each integer is also a rational number: given an integer a,
you may write it as a/1. Thus we do not distinguish between 7 and 7/1.
Suppose you have a fraction 3/4. Just like we have defined negative
integers using natural numbers(or positive integers), we can also define
60 Unit 3
3 3
negative of . This is defined as the rational number . This is denoted
4 4
3
by .
4
We denote the set of all rational numbers by Q. Thus we can describe
Q as:
p
Q= p, q are integers and q > 0, HCF(p,q)=1 .
q
Here HCF denotes the highest common factor.
d
At this point, you may wonder why we are not taking negative integers
he
p
in the denominator. Suppose you take a number of the form , where
q
q > 0 is an integer. You may observe that this is equivalent to the ratio-
p
is
re S
nal number , since p q = (p) (q). Thus you are not losing out
q
any rational number by restricting denominators to the set of all positive
B
integers. bl
be T
We say a rational number is positive if both its numerator and denomi-

pu
nator are positive integers.
K
The term rational number is derived from the word ratio. A rational

number is a ratio of two integers where the denominator is not equal to

zero.
Exercise 1.3.2
1. Write down ten rational numbers which are equivalent to 5/7 and the
denominator not exceeding 80.
2. Write down 15 rational numbers which are equivalent to 11/5 and the
to
numerator not exceeding 180.

3. Write down ten positive rational numbers such that the sum of the
t
numerator and the denominator of each is 11. Write them in decreas-

No
ing order.
4. Write down ten positive rational numbers such that numerator de-
nominator for each of them is 2. Write them in increasing order.
3
5. Is a rational number? If so, how do you write it in a form conform-
2
ing to the definition of a rational number(that is, the denominator as
a positive integer)?
6. Earlier you have studied decimals 0.9, 0.8 . Can you write these as
rational numbers?
Rational numbers 61
1.3.3 Properties of rational numbers

Closure property
You have learnt that the set of all natural numbers and the set of all inte-
gers have addition and multiplication satisfying the closure, commutative,
associative and distributive properties. Can we similarly define addition
and multiplication on the set of all rational numbers having these prop-
d
erties? Our starting point is the addition and multiplication of fractions,
which you have learnt in your lower class.
he
5 11
Example 1. Let us find the sum of and . It is
6 13
is
5 11 (5 13) + (11 6)
re S
+ =
6 13 (6 13)
B
bl =
65 + 66
78
be T
pu
131
= .
K
78
4 3
Similarly, the sum of and is:

7 5
4 3 (4 5) + ((3) 7)
+ =
7 5 75
20 + (21)
=
35
1
= .
to
35
7 3
The sum of and is:
4 7
t
No
7 3 (7) 7 + (3) 4
+ =
4 7 47
(49) + (12)
=
28
61
= .
28
2 8
Example 2. The product of and is:
11 7
2 8 28 16
= = .
11 7 11 7 77
62 Unit 3
3 7
Similarly, the product of and is:
5 2
3 7 (3) (7) 21
= = .
5 2 52 10
Based on these ideas, we can introduce addition and multiplication of
a c
two rational numbers. Given two rational numbers and , we define
b d
a c ad + cb a c ac
d
+ = ; = .
b d bd b d bd
he
Since b > 0 and d > 0, you see that bd is a natural number. Moreover
ad + cb ac
ad + cb and ac are integers. Thus you may conclude that and
is
bd bd
re S
are rational numbers. Thus the sum of two rational numbers is again a
rational number. We say that the set of all rationals numbers is closed
B
under addition. bl
be T
pu
The set of all rational numbers is closed under addition and
K
multiplication.

Activity 3: Take ten pairs of rational numbers. Find the sum of the
numbers in each pair. Check that you will always end up with rational
numbers. Thus satisfy your self that the closure with respect to addition
holds. Similarly, multiply the two numbers in each pair and satisfy your
self that the closure property with respect to multiplication also holds.
to
Associative property You have seen earlier that integers have the prop-
erties: p + (q + r) = (p + q) + r and p (q r) = (p q) r. For example:
3 + (5 + 8) = (3 + 5) + 8 and 3 (5 8) = (3 5) 8. Will such things hold for
t
rational numbers as well?

No
Example 3. Consider three rational numbers 1/2, 4/5, 6/7. Observe that

1 4 6 1 7 4 + (6) 5 1 28 30
+ + = + = +
2 5 7 2 57 2 35
1 2
= +
2 35
35 1 + (2) 2
=
70
31
= .
70
Rational numbers 63
On the other hand, you also have

1 4 6 5+8 6 13 6
+ + = + = +
2 5 7 10 7 10 7
91 60
=
70
31
= .
70
d
Can you conclude
1 4 6 1 4 6
he
+ + = + + ?
2 5 7 2 5 7
This is true for any three rational numbers a/b, c/d and e/f . You compute

is
both a c e
re S
a c e
+ + and + + .
b d f b d f
B
You get
bl
be T
a c e a cf + ed adf + (cf + de)b

pu
+ + = + =
b d f b df bdf
K
adf + cf b + deb
= .

bdf
Similarly, a c e ad + cb e adf + cbf + ebd
+ + = + = .
b d f bd f bdf
Now can you see that adf + cf b + deb = adf + cbf + ebd? What properties of
integers have we used here? Thus both the sums are the same.
2 7 11
Similar result is true for multiplication. Consider , , . We have
to
3 8 13
2 7 11 2 77 154
= = ;
3 8 13 3 104 312
t
2 7 11 14 11 154
No
= = ;
3 8 13 24 13 312
We conclude that
2 7 11 2 7 11
= .
3 8 13 3 8 13
a c e
For any three rational numbers , and , we obtain
b d f

a c e a ce ace
= = ,
b d f b df bdf
a c e ac e ace
= = ,
b d f bd f bdf
64 Unit 3
so that a c e
a c e
= .
b d f b d f
Addition and multiplication are associative on the set of all ra-

tional numbers.
Commutative property
You have studied earlier that addition and multiplication satisfy commu-
d
tative property on the set of all integers. Given any two integers m and n,
he
you have m + n = n + m and m n = n m; for example 3 + 5 = 5 + 3 and
3 5 = 5 3. Do we have similar things for rational numbers?
is
Example 4. Let us take two rational numbers, say 8/11 and 16/9. Ob-
re S
serve that
B
bl8
+
16
=
8 9 + (16) 11
be T
11 9 11 9
pu
72 176 104
= = .
K
99 99
Similarly,

16 8 (16) 11 + 8 9
+ =
9 11 9 11
176 + 72 104
= = .
99 99
Thus you will get 8 16 16 8
to
+ = + .
11 9 9 11
Example 5. Similarly, you may verify that
8 16 16 8
t
= ,.
No
11 9 9 11
Can we put this in a more general setting? Take any two rational numbers
a/b and c/d. Observe that
a c ad + cb c a cb + ad
+ = , and + = .
b d bd d b db
But you know that ad + cb = cb + ad and bd = db(What properties of integers
are used here?). Hence you may conclude that
a c c a
+ = + .
b d d b
Rational numbers 65
This gives the commutative property of addition. A similar observation can

be made for multiplication:
a c ac ca c a
= = = .
b d bd db d b
We obtain the commutative property of multiplication.
Addition and multiplication are commutative on the set of all

rational numbers.
d
Distributive property
he
Consider the rational numbers
2/3,
1/2 and 1/9. Observe that
2 1 1 2 11 22 11
+ = = = .
3 2 9 3 18 54 27
is
re S
Similarly, we have
B
bl
2 1 2 1
+ = +
3 2 3 9
2
6 27
2
=
66
162
11
= .
27
be T
Note that we have used the property of equivalent fractions. We may con-
pu

K
clude that 2 1 1 2 1 2 1
+ = + .
3 2 9 3 2 3 9

Activity 4:
Take several triples of rational numbers and verify distributive property.
Also prove this as a general statement: if p/q, r/s and u/v are rational
numbers, then p r u p r p u
+ = + ,
q s v q s q v
to
using the definition of addition and multiplication of rational numbers and

properties of integers.
In the set of all rational numbers, multiplication is distributive

t
No
over addition.
Think it over!
Given rational numbers a/b, c/d, e/f , can you have

a c e a c a e
+ = + + ?
b d f b d b f
In other words can addition be distributive over multiplica-
tion?(That is, can we interchange addition and multiplication
in the above distributive property?)
66 Unit 3
Additive identity
0
Consider the rational number . Observe
1
7 0 71+08 7
+ = = .
8 1 81 8
Similarly, you may verify that
d
0 7 7
+ = .
he
1 8 8
For any rational number a/b, you see that
a 0 a1+0b a
is
+ = = .
re S
b 1 b1 b
B
bl
Similarly, you may easily verify that
0 a a
be T
+ = .
pu
1 b b
K
0
Thus the rational number acts as additive identity. We denote this sim-
1

ply by 0.
The set of all rational numbers has 0 as additive identity; that

is r + 0 = 0 + r = 0, for all rational numbers r.
Multiplicative identity
1
to
Again consider the rational number . We have, for example,

1
11 1 11
= .
t
12 1 12
No
Thus any rational number a/b, we observe that

a 1 a 1 a
= = .
b 1 b 1 b
1
Hence the rational number (which again is denoted by 1) is identity with
1
respect to multiplication.
The set of all rational numbers has 1 as multiplicative identity;

that is r 1 = r = 1 r, for all rational numbers r.
Rational numbers 67
Additive inverse
8 8
Take and . If we add these two, we get
13 13
8 8 8 13 + (8 13) 0
+ = = = 0.
13 13 169 169
a
This is true for any rational number. For each rational number , consider
b
d
a
the rational number . Let us find their sum:
b
he
a a ab + (a)b 0
+ = = .
b b b2 b2
is
0 0
re S
But the rational number 2 is the same as as they are equivalent frac-
b 1
B
a a
tions. Thus
b bl
is the additive inverse of .
b
be T
pu
For each rational number r, there exists a rational number, de-
K
noted by r, such that r + (r) = 0 = (r) + r.

Multiplicative inverse
You have seen that an integer may not have multiplicative inverse. For
example, 8 has no multiplicative inverse; 8 a = 1 is not possible for any
7
integer a. On the other hand, consider . We see that
5
7 5 35
= = 1.
to
5 7 35
This is true for any nonzero rational number.
Take any nonzero rational number a/b. Then a 6= 0 and hence b/a is also
t
No
a rational number, Observe that

a b ab 1
= = ,
b a ba 1
the multiplicative identity. We have used the fact that 1/1 and ab/ba are
equivalent fractions. You observe here that every nonzero rational number
has multiplicative inverse.
For each rational number r 6= 0, there exists a rational number,

denoted by r 1 (or 1/r), such that r r 1 = 1 = r 1 r.
68 Unit 3
In integers, you have observed another important property, namely

cancellation law. For example, if 8 a = 48, you write
8 a = 8 6.
You cancel 8 both sides and get a = 6. Thus if a, b, c are integers such that
a 6= 0 and ab = ac, then b = c. Effectively, you can cancel equal nonzero
integers on both sides of an equality. This also holds in Q.
d
For example, we have 4/4 = 2/2, as they are equivalent fractions. But
he
4 2 2 1
= 2 , and =2 .
4 4 2 2
is
You thus obtain 2 1
re S
2 =2 .
4 2
B
bl
Canceling 2 on both sides, you get 2/4 = 1/2, which is true as they are
be T
equivalent fractions.
pu
a
Suppose you have three rational numbers a/b, c/d, e/f such that 6= 0
K
b
and you have a c a e
= .
b d b f

a
Since 6= 0, it has multiplicative inverse b/a. Multiply both sides by b/a:
b
b a c b a e
= .
a b d a b f
Use the associative property to write this as

to
b a c b a e
= .
a b d a b f
This gives c e
t
= ,
No
d f
and we have canceled a/b both sides.
Now we define two more operations on Q: subtraction and division.
4 12
Consider the rational numbers and . We want to give meaning for
13 7
4 12 12 12
. Recall, you have the additive inverse of , which is simply .
13 7 7 7
We define 4 12 4 12
= + .
13 7 13 7
You can simplify this using the definition of addition:
Rational numbers 69
4 12 4 7 + (12) 13 128
+ = = .
13 7 13 7 91
a
In other words subtraction amounts to adding the additive inverse. If
b
c
and are two rational numbers, then
d
a c a c ad bc
= + = .
b d b d bd
d
a c c
he
Similarly, if and are two rational numbers and if is not equal to
b d d
a c
zero,we define the division of by as follows:
b d
is
a c a d ad
re S
= = .
b d b c bc
B
bl
Note that we are multiplying
a c
with the multiplicative inverse of , which
be T
b d
pu
8
exists as this is a non-zero rational number. If you want to divide by
K
15
7
, it is simply
11 8 7 8 11 88

= = .
15 11 15 7 105
The only fundamental operations are addition and multiplica-

tion. The subtraction and division are defined in terms of addi-
tion and multiplication.
to
Let us look at what we have gained from enlarging our number system
from Z to Q. If a 6= 0 is an integer, then there is no integer b such that
a b = b a = 1, unless a = 1 or a = 1. Thus, apart from 1 and 1, no
t
No
other integer has multiplicative inverse. On the other hand, every non-
zero rational number has its multiplicative inverse in Q.
This helps us to solve an equation of the form rx = s, where r 6= 0 and s
3 5
are rational numbers. Suppose we have to solve the equation x = . You
8 9
solve this for x by multiplying both sides by 8/3. Thus
8 3 8 5 40
x= = .
3 8 3 9 27
You get x = 40/27. This you can do for any general equation.
70 Unit 3
Suppose r = a/b and s = u/v, where a, u are integers and b, v are natural
numbers. Since r 6= 0 implies that a 6= 0, r has its multiplicative inverse
b/a. Multiplying both sides by b/a, you get
b a b u
x = .
a b a v
bu
This gives x = .
av
d
Exercise 1.3.3
he
1. Name the property indicated in the following:
3 9 27
(i) 315 + 115 = 430; (ii) = ; (iii) 5 + 0 = 0 + 5 = 5;
is
re S
4 5 20
8 8 8 8 22 23
(iv) 1 = ; (v) + = 0; (vi) = 1.
B
9
bl
9 17 17 23 22
2. Check the commutative property of addition for the following pairs:
be T
pu
102 3 8 23 7 18
(i) , ; (ii) , ; (iii) , .
K
201 4 13 27 9 19
3. Check the commutative property of multiplication for the following

pairs:
22 3 7 25 8 17
(i) , ; (ii) , ; (iii) , .
45 4 13 27 9 19
4. Check the distributive property for the following triples of rational
numbers:
1 1 1 4 6 11 3 13
(i) , , ; (ii) , , ; (iii) , 0, .
to
8 9 10 9 5 10 8 7
5. Find the additive inverse of each of the following numbers:
8 6 3 16 4
, , , , .
t
5 10 8 3 1
No
6. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers:

6 8 19 1
2, , , , .
11 15 18 1000
Rational numbers 71
1.3.4 Representation of rational numbers on the Number

line
Earlier, you have seen how to represent integers on a line. We choose
an infinite line and fix some point on the line. This is denoted by 0. Fix
a unit of length and on both sides of 0, go on marking points at equal
unit distance. On the right side, at unit distance you get 1. If you move a
d
further unit distance, you get 2 and so on. If you move to the left by unit
distance, you get 1. If you further move unit distance to the left, you get
he
2 and so on. Thus all the integers are represented on the line.
is
re S
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
B
bl
We can also use the same number line to represent rational numbers.
be T
For example, we can represent 1/2 as the mid-point between 0 and 1.

pu
K
1 1/2 0 1/2 1

We can obtain A by bisecting the line-segment from 0 to 1. Similarly,

1
we can represent as the mid-point of the line-segment from 1 to 0.
2
7
How can we get ?
3
P Q
to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t
P R S Q
No
Again consider the line-segment P Q from 0 to 7. We divide P Q in to 3

equal parts: P R = RS = SQ.(Here you need some geometrical construc-
tions, which you will learn later.) Then P R = 7/3. Hence R represents the
7
rational number 7/3. We can get by locating a point R to the left of P
3
such that R P = P R.
R P R S Q
7/3 0 7/3
72 Unit 3
Activity 5:
1 1 1 4 3
Draw a number line and locate the points , , , , on it.
8 6 3 5 8
In this way, you can represent each rational number by a unique point
on the number line. You may observe that 2/4 and 1/2 are represented
by the same point on the number line. (Can you see why?) All rational
numbers which are equivalent to a given rational number get the same
representation on the number line.
d
he
0 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1
is
re S
Can you now observe what is happening when you represent the ratio-
nal numbers on the number line? You have seen that you can locate 1/2
B
bl
between 0 and 1 as the mid-point of the line-segment from 0 to 1. If you
be T
take the mid-point of 0 and 1/2, you get 1/4; and the mid-point of 1/2 and
pu
1 is 3/4. The mid-point of 1/4 and 1/2 is 3/8. Do you see that the mid-point
K
of the line-segment joining two points representing two rational numbers

on the number-line is again a rational number? We may observe here that

it is possible to order the rational numbers using the ordering on Z. Sup-

a c
pose a/b and c/d are two rational numbers. We say < , if ad < bc. Thus
b d
6 7 7 6
< , since 48 < 49. On the other hand < , since 49 < 48.
7 8 8 7
2 5 2 5
Suppose you consider and . Then < . Then the average of these
7 8 7 8
to
two is
2 5
+
7 8 = 51 .
2 112
t
No
51 2 5
Now lies between and . In fact
112 7 8
2 51 5
< < ,
7 112 8
which may be easily verified.
This is true for any two rational numbers. If we start with two ratio-
a c a c
nal numbers and such that < , then the mid-point of the points
b d b d
a c
representing and represents the number
b d
Rational numbers 73
a c
+
b d = ad + bc .
2 2bd
This is also a rational number. You may observe that
a ad + bc c
< < .
b 2bd d
In fact
d
a ad + bc
< a (2bd) < b(ad + bc)
he
b 2bd
2ad < ad + bc (cancellation of b)
a c
ad < bc < ,
is
b d
re S
which is given. Similarly, you can prove the other inequality. Thus the
B
rational number
2bdbl
ad + bc a c
is strictly between and .
b d
be T
pu
Between any two distinct rational numbers, there is another
K
rational number.

Compare this with the property of integers. Given any integer m, there
is no integer between m and its successor m + 1. This is no longer true for
rational numbers. We can talk of the next integer, but there is nothing
like the next rational number.
This is precisely the loss we have while moving from integers to rational
numbers. Thus the gain is: we can divide one rational number by another
to
nonzero rational number which helps us in solving an equation of the form

rx = s, where r 6= 0 and s are rational numbers. The loss is: there is no
more the next number in rationals, which we had in integers.
t
No
Exercise 1.3.4
1. Represent the following rational numbers on the number line:
8 3 2 12 45
; ; ; ; .
5 8 7 5 13
2. Write the following rational numbers in ascending order:
3 7 15 22 101 4 102 13
, , , , , , , .
4 12 11 19 100 5 81 7
2 3
3. Write 5 rational number between and , having the same denomi-
5 5
nators.
74 Unit 3
4. How many positive rational numbers less than 1 are there such that
the sum of the numerator and denominator does not exceed 10?
5. Suppose m/n and p/q are two positive rational numbers. Where does
m+p
lie, with respect to m/n and p/q?
n+q
6. How many rational numbers are there strictly between 0 and 1 such
that the denominator of the rational number is 80?
d
7. How many rational numbers are there strictly between 0 and 1 with
he
the property that the sum of the numerator and denominator is 70?
1.3.5 Introducing irrational numbers
is
re S
You have seen that there is no integer whose square is 2. The argument
B
bl
used was: 12 = 1 < 2 < 4 = 22 and there is no integer between 1 and 2.
be T
However, you have seen now that there are plenty of rational numbers
pu
between 1 and 2. In fact there are infinitely many rational numbers which
K
lie between 1 and 2. Hence, it is natural to wonder whether one could get
a rational number between 1 and 2 such that its square is 2. And the

astounding answer is no! There is no rational number r such that r 2 = 2.

The argument is also simple. Suppose, if possible, there is a rational r
such that r 2 = 2. Write r = p/q, such that HCF(p,q)=1 You get the relation
p2 = 2q 2 .
to
This shows that p2 is even and hence p itself is even; for, if p is odd, p2
must be odd. Hence you may write p = 2a, for some integer a.
Substitution gives
t
No
4a2 = 2q 2 which implies q 2 = 2a2 .
But then, q is also even. Thus p and q are both even and must have a
common factor 2. This contradicts what we know: p/q is in its lowest
form. We conclude that no rational number, whose square is 2, exists.
Do you now see that the set of all rational numbers is also inadequate?
You cannot solve an equation of the form x2 = 2 in Q. This is the reason
that the mathematicians started enlarging the rational number system to
a better number system. One can show that for any natural number n,
Rational numbers 75
which is not a perfect square, there is no rational number r such that

r 2 = n. Thus, we need to give a meaning to n, where n is a non-perfect
square. This is taken care in the real number system.

The number 2 or such numbers which are not rational numbers are
called irrational numbers. One can also prove that there is no ratio-

nal number whose cube is equal to 2. We denote this by 3 2 called the
cube-root of 2. This again is an irrational number. There is a systematic
d
construction of the real number system starting from Q, but it involves a
he
better understanding of the structure of Q.
The set of all real numbers consists of two parts: rational numbers
and irrational numbers. Both parts are infinite. However, in some sense,
is
re S
the set of all irrational numbers is much larger than the set of all rational
B
bl
numbers. In this way there are different infinities and a hierarchy among
infinities. You will enter a fascinating world of infinities.
be T
pu
Additional problems on Rational numbers
K

1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The number 0 is not in the set of -.

(b) The least number in the set of all whole numbers is .
(c) The least number in the set of all even natural numbers is
.
to
(d) The successor of 8 in the set of all natural numbers is .

(e) The sum of two odd integers is -.
t
(f) The product of two odd integers is -.

No
2. State whether the following statements are true or false:
(a) The set of all even natural numbers is a finite set.

(b) Every non-empty subset of Z has the smallest element.
(c) Every integer can be identified with a rational number.
(d) For each rational number, one can find the next rational number.
(e) There is the largest rational number.
76 Unit 3
(f) Every integer is either even or odd.

(g) Between any two rational numbers, there is an integer.
3. Simplify:
(i) 100(100 3) (100 100 3); (ii) (20 (2011 201)) + (2011 (201 20))
4. Suppose m is an integer such that m 6= 1 and m 6= 2. Which is
d
m m+1
larger or ? State your reasons.
m+1 m+2
he
5. Define an operation on the set of all rational numbers Q as follows:
is
re S
r s = r + s (r s),
B
bl
for any two rational numbers r, s. Answer the following with justifica-
be T
tion:
pu
K
(i) Is Q closed under the operation ?

(ii) Is an associative operation on Q?

(iii) Is a commutative operation on Q?

(v) What is a 1 for any a in Q?
(vi) Find two integers a 6= 0 and b 6= 0 such that a b = 0.
6. Find the multiplicative inverses of the following rational numbers:

to
8 12 26 13 101
, , , , .
13 17 23 11 100
t
7. Write the following in increasing order:

No
10 20 5 40 25 10
, , , , , .
13 23 6 43 28 11
8. Write the following in decreasing order:
21 31 13 41 51 9
, , , , , .
17 27 11 37 47 8
9. (a) What is the additive inverse of 0?
(b) What is the multiplicative inverse of 1?
(c) Which integers have multiplicative inverses?
Rational numbers 77
10. In the set of all rational numbers, give 2 examples each illustrating
the following properties:
(i) associativity; (ii) commutativity; (iii) distributivity of multiplica-
tion over addition.
11. Simplify the following using distributive property:

2 1 2 5 25 32 8 11 2
(i) + ; (ii) + ; (iii) + .
d
5 9 5 12 9 5 9 2 9
he
12. Simplify the following:

25 12 3 22 36 6
(i) + + ; (ii) + ;
9 3 5 7 5 7
is

re S
51 7 3 16 21 15 2
(iii) + ; (iv) + .
B
2 6
bl5 7 8 3 9
13. Which is the property that is there in the set of all rationals but which
be T
pu
is not in the set of all integers?
K
14. What is the value of

1
1+ ?
1
1+
1+1
15. Find the value of .

1 1 1 1
.
3 4 2 3
to
16. Find all rational numbers each of which is equal to its reciprocal.
t
17. A bus shuttles between two neigbouring towns every two hours. It
No
starts from 8 AM in the morning and the last trip is at 6 PM. On one
day the driver observed that the first trip had 30 passengers and each
subsequent trip had one passenger less than the previous trip. How
many passengers travelled on that day?
18. How many rational numbers p/q are there between 0 and 1 for which
q < p?
3n + 4
19. Find all integers such that is also an integer.
n+2
78 Unit 3
20. By inserting parenthesis(that is brackets), you can get several values

for 2 3 + 4 5. (For example (2 3) + 4 5 is one way of inserting
parenthesis.) How many such values are there?
1
21. Suppose p/q is a positive rational in its lowest form. Prove that +
q
1
is also in its lowest form.
p+q
d
14n + 3
22. Show that for each natural number n, the fraction is in its
he
21n + 4
lowest form.
23. Find all integers n for which the number (n+3)(n1) is also an integer.
is
re S
Glossary
B
bl
Ordering; the comparability of numbers.
be T
Well ordering property; every non-empty subset has the least element.
pu
Positive integers; the integers which can be identified with natural num-
K
bers.

Negative integers; those integers which are additive inverses of positive

integers.
Cancellation law; the law which enables us to cancel two non-zero equal
quantities on both sides of an equality.
Rational number; the numbers which are of the formp/q, where p is an
integer and q is a natural number.
to
Lowest form or irreducible form of a rational number; that form p/q of

a rational number such that p and q have no common factor.
Additive identity; that number which added to a given number does not
t
No
change the given number.

Additive inverse; given a number, that number which added to the given
number gives the additive identity.
Multiplicative identity; that number which multiplied with the given
number does not change the given number.
Multiplicative inverse; given a number, that number which when multi-
plied with the given number gives the multiplicative identity.
Density property; the inseparable property of numbers; for example ra-
tional numbers are dense in number line.
Rational numbers 79
Successor; the next number; integers have this property, where as ratio-
nals do not have this property.
Points to remember
A rational number is a ratio of the form p/q, where p is an integer and
q is a natural number.
d
The set of all rational numbers is closed under addition and multipli-
cation.
he
The set of all rational numbers has associative property and com-
mutative property with respect to both addition and multiplication.
is
re S
Moreover, multiplication is distributive over addition.
B
bl
The rational number 0 is the additive identity; 1 is the multiplicative
be T
identity.
pu
K
Every rational number has its additive inverse; every non-zero ratio-
nal number has its multiplicative inverse.

Between any two distinct rational numbers, there are infinitely many
rational numbers.
Every integer has the next integer, but there is no next rational num-
ber for any given rational number.
t to
No
CHAPTER 1 UNIT 4
COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC
After studying this unit, you learn to:
identify the processes of mathematics in commercial transactions;
d
define the term percentage;
solve the numerical problems involving percentage;
he
identify profit or loss in commercial transactions;
workout problems on profit, loss, selling price and marked price;
is
re S
calculate discount, discount percentage and selling price after dis-
B
count;
bl
solve problems on commission and commission percentage;
be T
pu
define simple interest and other terminologies associated with simple
K
interest;
calculate simple interest, principal, time, rate of interest and amount

in numerical problems.
1.4.1 Introduction
In this unit, we study several aspects of commercial mathematics which
are useful in daily life. You go to a market and buy some essential item.
You pay money for it. But behind this transaction a separate world of
to
arithmetic exists. The vendor brings the goods from somewhere and he
has to decide how much he should charge for the goods before selling.
t
Depending on the market strategy, he has to fix his selling prices. Some
No
times, he may have to sell it for a price lower than the price for which he
has procured the goods. Some other times, he has to announce attractive
incentives to get a good number of customers. When you do some transac-
tions in buying and selling land, houses and cattle, you may have to give
some money for the service you get from the agent. All these things are
generally dealt with money. This is the reason why money is an important
part of human life. Commercial mathematics is an insight into this kind
of transactions in daily life.
Commercial arithmetic 81
1.4.2 Percentage
You are familiar with the meaning of percent. Per cent means for ev-
4
ery hundred. Thus, 4 percent (or 4%) means 4 for every hundred or .
100
Percentage is also a fraction whose denominator is 100. The numerator
of the fraction is called rate percent. Thus 12% means 12 out of hun-
12
dred or . The concept of percentage is used in business transactions,
d
100
calculating interest, comparison of quantities and the like.
he
Suppose a basket has, say, 6 pineapples and 14 oranges. Then the
number of pineapples and oranges can be compared using the fraction
6 3 3
is
= . The number of pineapples is times the number of oranges. In
re S
14 7 7
7
the same way, the number of oranges is times the number of pineapples.
B
bl 3
Comparison can also be done using percentages.
be T
pu
There are 6 pineapples out of Out of 20 fruits, number of
K
20 (=6+14) fruits. Therefore pineapples is 6. So out of 100

percentage of pineapples fruits, number of pineapples

6 30 is
= = 30% 6
20 100 100 = 30%.
20
(here denominator is made This is called unitary method.
100)
to
The basket contains only pineapples and oranges.

Therefore percentage of pineapples + percentage of oranges = 100.
Or 30% + % of oranges =100 or % of oranges = 100 -30= 70.
t
Thus the basket has 30% pineapples and 70% oranges.

No
Percentage is a convenient way of comparing quanti-

ties.
Example 1. A man spends 78% of his monthly income and saves 1,100.
What is his monthly income?
Solution: Let his monthly income be 100. Then his expenditure is 78.
Therefore, his savings is 100-78 = 22.
82 Unit 4
Let us put this in reverse way. If the savings is22, then the income
100
is 100. Hence if the savings is 1, then the income is .
22
100
If the savings is 1,100, then the income is 1100 = 5, 000 rupees.
22
Hence his monthly income is 5,000.
Aliter: Given expenditure is 78%. Therefore savings is (100 78) = 22%.
Let the monthly income of the man be x. Then 22% of x is 1,100.
d
This means
22
he
x = 1100.
100
Solving for x, we obtain
is
re S
100
x = 1100 = 5000.
B
22
bl
Hence his monthly income is 5,000.
be T
78
pu
Verification: 78% of 5,000 = 5000 = 3900. Hence, his savings is
100
K
5,000 -3,900 = 1,100.

Example 2. An athlete won 8 events out of a number of events. If the win

percentage was 40, how many events were there in total?
Solution: We are given that win percentage is 40. So,
40 events were won out of 100 events.
100
8 events were won out of 8 = 20 events.
40
Hence, there were 20 events in total.
to
Activity 1: Try this in another method.

Example 3. Ravis income is 25% more than that of Raghu. What percent
t
is Raghus income less than that of Ravi?

No
Solution: Let Raghus income be 100. Then, Ravis income is 125. Put
this in the reverse way. If Ravis income is Rs 125, Raghus income is
100
100. Hence if Ravis income is Rs 1, Raghus income is . Changing the
125
100
scale to 100, if Ravis income is 100, then Raghus income is 100
125
= 80. Therefore Raghus income is 100 - 80 = 20% less than that of Ravi.
Example 4. The salary of an employee is increased by 15%. If his new
salary is 12,650, what was his salary before enhancement?
Solution: Let the salary before enhancement be 100. Since his incre-
ment is 15%, his salary after enhancement is 100 + 15 = 115.
Now we reverse the role. If the new salary is 115, salary before enhance-
ment is 100.
100
If the new salary is 12,650, salary before enhancement is 12650 =
115
11,000.
Therefore, his salary before enhancement is 11,000.
d
Exercise 1.4.2
he
1. In a school, 30% of students play chess, 60% play carrom and the rest
play other games. If the total number of students in the school is 900,
is
find the exact number of students who play each game.
re S
2. In a school function 360 remained after spending 82% of the money.
B
bl
How much money was there in the beginning? Verify your answer.
be T
3. Akshays income is 20% less than that of Ajay. What percent is Ajays
pu
income more than that of Akshay?
K
4. A daily wage employee spends 84% of his weekly earning. If he saves

384, find his weekly earning.

5. A factory announces a bonus of 10% to its employees. If an employee

gets 10,780, find his actual salary.
1.4.3 Profit and Loss

We purchase goods from shops. The shopkeeper purchases goods ei-
to
ther directly from a manufacturer or through a wholesale dealer. The

money paid to buy goods is called Cost Price and abbreviated as C.P.
The price at which goods are sold in shops is called Selling Price abbre-
t
viated as S.P. When an article is bought, some additional expenses such

No
as freight charges, labour charges, transportation charges, maintenance

charges etc., are made before selling. These expenses are known as Over-
head Charges. These expenses have to be included in the cost price.
Hence, you may conclude that
the real cost price = total investment
= price for buying goods + overhead charges.
If S.P > C.P, there is a gain or profit. If S.P < C.P, there is a loss.
Therefore,
84 Unit 4
profit = S.P - C.P. and loss = C.P. - S.P.

Gain (or profit) or loss on 100 is called as gain percent or loss percent.
Note: Profit or loss is always calculated on cost

price.
Remember the following formulae:
d
he
(100-loss%)
gain 4. Selling Price =
1. Gain or profit % = 100; 100
C.P. C.P.;
is
re S
loss 100
2. Loss % = 100; 5. Cost Price =
C.P. (100+gain%)
B
bl
3. Selling Price =
(100+gain%)
100
S.P.;
be T
C.P.; 100
pu
6. Cost Price = S.P..
(100-loss%)
K

Example 5. The cost price of a computer is 19,500. An additional 450

was spent on installing a software. If it is sold at 12% profit, find the selling
price of the computer.
Solution: Cost price of the com- Aliter: (Unitary method)
puter is 19,500 + 450 (over- Profit = 12%. Hence selling
to
head expenses) = 19,950. The price is 100 + 12 = 112.

computer is sold at a profit of 12%. If the cost price is 100, sell-
Therefore, ing price is 112.
t
If the cost price is 19,950,

No
(100+gain%)
selling price = C.P.
100 112
(100 + 12) selling price = 19950
= 19950 100
100 = 22344.
112
= 1995 Hence, the selling price of
10
= 22344. computer is 22,344.
Thus the selling price is 22,344.

Example 6. On selling a bicycle for 4,300, a dealer loses 14%. For how
much should he sell it to gain 14%?
Solution: Selling price of the bicy- Aliter: (Unitary method)
cle is 4,300, and the loss is 14%. We know that the loss is 14%.
Therefore, Therefore selling price =
100 100 - 14 = 86.
cost price = S.P. If the selling price is 86,
(100-loss%)
d
100 cost price is 100. If the sell-
= 4300
he
(100 14) ing price is 4300,
100
= 4300 100
86 cost price = 4300 = 5000.
is
86
re S
= 5000.
B
bl
Hence the cost price of the bicycle
is 5,000.
be T
pu
K
Now, the cost price of the bicycle is 5,000. Let us find out what should
be the selling price to get 14% profit.

Expected gain = 14%. Aliter:(Unitary method)

Therefore, Expected gain = 14%.
(100+gain%) Therefore, selling price
selling price = C.P. = 100 + 14 = 114.
100
(100 + 14) If the cost price is 100, sell-
= 5000
to
100 ing price = 114.

114 If the cost price is 5,000,
= 5000
100
= 5700. 114
t
selling price = 5000 = 5700.

No
100
Hence, the selling price of the bicycle to gain 14% is 5,700.
Example 7. Two cows were sold for 12,000 each, one at a gain of 20%
and the other at a loss of 20%. Find the loss or gain in the entire transac-
tion.
Solution: We first find out the cost price of each cow and then add them
to find the total amount spent. We know the total money received. Com-
86 Unit 4
paring them, we will know whether there is a loss or gain in the whole
transaction.
First cow: Second Cow:
S.P. = 12,000. S.P = 12,000.
Gain = 20%. Therefore, Loss = 20%. Therefore,
100 100
Cost price = S.P. Cost price = S.P.
(100+gain%) (100-loss%)
d
100 100
= 12000 = 12000
he
(100 + 20) (100 20)
100 100
= 12000 = 12000
120 80
is
re S
= 10000. = 15000.
B
Activity 2: bl
be T
pu
Find the cost price of the cow in both the cases using unitary method.
K
Let us compute the total cost price and selling price in the combined trans-

action.
Total C.P. of both cows = (10,000 + 15,000) = 25,000. Total S.P. of both
cows = 12,000 2 = 24,000. Here, we observe that S.P. < C.P.
Therefore, loss = (25,000 - 24,000 ) = 1,000. Hence,
loss 1000
loss percentage = 100 = 100 = 4.
C.P. 25000
to
Therefore, there is a loss of 4% in the whole transaction.

Example 8. If the cost price of 21 cell phones is equal to selling price of
t
18 cell phones, find the profit percent.

No
Solution: Let the C.P. of each cell phone be Re. 1. Then the C.P. of 21 cell
phones is 21.
By the given data, S.P. of 18 cell phones = C.P. of 21 cell phones = 21.
21
Therefore, S.P. of 1 cell phone is . This gives
18
21 3 1
Profit = S.P. -C.P. = 1 = = .
18 18 6
Thus, there is a profit of 1/6 on each cell phone. Now we can calculate
profit percentage:
profit 1/6 50 2
Profit percentage = 100 = 100 = = 16 .
C.P. 1 3 3
Therefore, the profit percentage is 16 32 %.
To find the overall profit or loss, we need to find the combined

C.P. and combined S.P.
d
Example 9. A dealer sells a radio at a profit of 8%. Had he sold it for 85
he
less, he would have lost 2%. Find the cost price of the radio.
Solution: Let the cost price of the radio be x. Let us calculate the selling
is
re S
price with 8% profit and 2% loss, separately.
B
With 8% profit:
We have here bl With 2% loss:
We obtain here
be T
pu
(100+gain%) (100-loss %)
S.P. = C.P. S.P. = C.P.
K
100 100
(100 + 8) (100 2)
= C.P. = C.P.

100 100
54 49
= x. = x.
50 50
Activity 3:
Calculate S.P. in both the cases using unitary method.
to
Thus the difference in the selling price with 8% profit and 2% loss is
54 49 5 x
x x= x= .
50 50 50 10
t
x
No
But, this difference is given to be equal to 85, so that = 85. This

10
implies that, x = 850. Hence, the cost price of radio is 850.
Exercise 1.4.3
1. Sonu bought a bicycle for 3,750 and spent 250 on its repairs. He
sold it for 4,400. Find his loss or profit percentage.
2. A shop keeper purchases an article for 3,500 and pays transport
charge of 100. He incurred a loss of 12% in selling this. Find the
selling price of the article.
88 Unit 4
3. By selling a watch for 720, Ravi loses 10%. At what price should he
sell it, in order to gain 15%?
4. Hari bought two fans for 2,400 each. He sold one at a loss of 10%
and the other at a profit of 15%. Find the selling price of each fan and
find also the total profit or loss.
5. A store keeper sells a book at 15% gain. Had he sold it for 18 more,
he would have gained 18%. Find the cost price of the book.
d
6. The cost price of 12 pens is equal to selling price of 10 pens. Find the
he
profit percentage.
is
1.4.4 Discount
re S B
bl
A reduction on the marked price of articles is called discount. Gen-
erally discount is given to attract customers to buy goods or to promote
be T
pu
the sale of goods. The following completely describe the facts related to
K
discount:
discount is always given on the marked price of the article;

discount = marked price - selling price;

marked price is sometimes called list price;
discount = rate of discount times the marked price;
net price = marked price - discount.
to
Example 10. A computer marked at 18,000 was sold at 15,840. Find

the percentage of discount.
t
Solution: Marked price is 18,000 and selling price is 15,480. There-

No
fore, discount = 18,000 - 15,840 = 2,160. Thus, for a marked price of

18,000, discount is 2,160.
2160
For a marked price of 100, discount = 100 = 12%. Therefore the
18000
percentage of discount is 12.
Example 11. A tape recorder is sold at 5,225 after being given a discount
of 5%. What is its marked price?
Solution: We are given that the discount is 5%. This means that for
100, the discount is 5.
Therefore, selling price = 100 - 5= 95.

Thus on a selling price of 95, the marked price is 100.
100
On a selling price of 5,225, the marked price = 5225 = 5500.
95
Therefore, marked price of the tape recorder is 5,500.
Example 12. A shop keeper buys an article for 500. He marks it at 20%
above the cost price. If he sells it at 12% discount, find the selling price.
d
Solution: Cost price = 500;
20
he
profit = 20% of 500 = 500 = 100;
100
marked price = cost price + profit = 500 + 100 = 600.
Now the discount given is 12%.
is
re S
12
For 600, the discount = 600 = 72 rupees.
100
B
bl
Therefore, selling price = cost price - discount= 600 - 72 =
Hence the selling price of the article is 528.
528.
be T
pu
Example 13. A cloth seller marks a dress at 45% above the cost price and
K
allows a discount of 20%. What profit does he make in selling the dress?
Solution: Suppose the cost price of the dress material is 100. Since the

seller marks it 45% above the C.P., the marked price would be
100 + 45 = 145.
20
Discount of 20% on this marked price is = 20% of 145 = 145= 29.
100
Therefore, selling price = 145 - 29 = 116. We get
profit = S.P. - C.P. = 116 - 100 = 16.
to
profit 16
Hence, profit percent = 100= 100 =16.
C.P. 100
Thus the merchant makes a profit of 16% on the marked price. (Observe
t
it is not 45-20=25 percent.)

No
Exercise 1.4.4
1. An article marked 800 is sold for 704. Find the discount and
discount percent.
2. A dress is sold at 550 after allowing a discount of 12%. Find its
marked price.
3. A shopkeeper buys a suit piece for 1,400 and marks it 60% above
the cost price. He allows a discount of 15% on it. Find the marked
price of the suit piece and also the discount given.
90 Unit 4
4. A dealer marks his goods 40% above the cost price and allows a dis-
count of 10%. Find the profit percent.
5. A dealer is selling an article at a discount of 15%. Find:
(i) the selling price if the marked price is 500;
(ii) the cost price if he makes 25% profit.
1.4.5 Commission
d
he
You might have observed some advertisements in news papers regard-
ing the availability of houses, sites, vehicles etc., for sale. Many a times,
these transactions are mediated by a person other than the owner and
is
re S
the buyer. This mediator who helps in buying and selling is called com-
B
bl
mission agent or broker. The money that the broker or agent receives in
the deal is called brokerage or commission. Commission is calculated on
be T
pu
the transaction amount in percentage. Commission per hundred rupees
K
is called commission rate.

Example 14. A real estate agent receives a commission of 1.5% in selling

a land for 1,60,000. What is the commission amount?

Solution: Selling price of the land is 1,60,000 and the commission rate
is 1.5%.
If the selling price is 100, commission = 1.5.
1.5
If the selling price is 1,60,000, commission = 160000= 2,400.
100
to
Therefore commission amount is 2,400.

The commission amount can also be calculated directly.
t
Commission = commission rate selling price

No
In the example above,

1.5
commission = 1.5% of 1,60,000 = 160000 = 2,400.
100
Example 15. The price of a long note book is 18. A shop keeper sells
410 note books in a month and receives 1,033.20 as commission. Find
the rate of commission.
Solution: Price of one note book is 18.
= Price of 410 note books = 410 18 = 7,380.
Now the commission received for this amount is 1,033.20. Hence for
100, the commission is
1033.20
100 = 14.
7380
Therefore, the rate of commission is 14%.
Example 16. Abdul sold his house through a broker by paying 6,125
d
as brokerage. If the rate of brokerage is 2.5%, find the selling price of the
he
house.
Solution: Brokerage given is 6,125. The brokerage rate is 2.5%.
If the brokerage is 2.5, selling price would be 100.
is
re S
If the commission is 6,125, selling price is
B
bl 100
2.5
6125 = 245000.
be T
pu
Thus the selling price of the house is 2,45,000.
K
The selling price can also be calculated directly;

100
selling price = commission.
commission rate
100
In this example, S.P. = 6125 = 2,45,000.
2.5
Exercise 1.4.5
to
1. Sindhu sells her scooty for 28,000 through a broker. The rate of
brokerage is 2 12 %. Find the commission that the agent gets and the
t
net amount Sindhu gets.

No
2. A share agent sells 2000 shares at 45 each and gets the commission
at the rate of 1.5%. Find the amount the agent gets.
3. A person insures 26,000 through an insurance agent. If the agent
gets 650 as the commission, find the rate of commission.
4. A selling agent gets 10,200 in a month. This includes his monthly
salary of 6000 and 6% commission for the sales. Find the value of
goods he sold.
92 Unit 4
1.4.6 Simple interest
People borrow money from banks or financial institutions or money

lenders for various purposes. While returning the borrowed money after a
period of time, they need to pay some extra amount. This extra amount
paid on the borrowed money after a period of time is called interest. In
this context, we define the following terms.
d
1. Principal: the money borrowed is called principal or sum.
he
2. Interest: the extra money paid on the principal after a period of time
is called interest.
is
re S
3. Amount: the total money paid is called amount. Thus Amount =
Principal + Interest.
B
bl
4. Rate: interest for every 100 for one year is known as rate percent
be T
per annum.
pu
K
5. Time: time is the duration for which the borrowed money is utilised.
Time is expressed in years or months or days.

6. Simple interest: the interest calculated uniformly on the principal

alone throughout the loan period is called simple interest. In other
words, it is the interest paid on the principal alone.
In the world of finance (Bankers rule), time is often

expressed in days also.
to
Formula to find the simple interest:

Let P = principal; R = rate of interest per annum; T = time in years; I =
t
No
simple interest. These are related by the formula
P T R
I=
100
From the above formula, we obtain different formulae:
100 I 100 I 100 I
P = , T = , R= .
T R P R P T
Amount = principal + interest.

Example 17. Calculate the interest on 800 at 6 21 % per annum, for 3 12

years.
7 13
Solution: Given: P = 800; T = 3 21 years = years; R = 6 12 % = %. We
2 2
use the formula for I;
PTR 800 (7/2) (13/2)
I= = = 2 7 13 = 182.
100 100
d
Thus the interest is 182.
he
Example 18. Find the simple interest on 3,000 at 16% per annum for
the period from 4th February 2010 to 16th June 2010.
is
Solution: Here the principal is P = 3,000, and the rate of interest R =
re S
16% p.a. However, we are not given time in years; we have only the period,
B
bl
4th February 2010 to 16th June 2010. We have to convert this to years.
be T
Observe that
pu
February 5th to 28th = 24 days(2010 is not a leap year)
K
March = 31 days

April = 30 days
May = 31 days
June = 16 days.
Adding, we get the total time is equal to 132 days. Converting this to years,
132
T = years. Now we have all the required data to apply formula:
365
to
PTR (3000 132 16)

I= = = 173.58.
100 365 100
Thus the interest is approximately 174.
t
No
Note: 1. For calculating interest, the day on which money de-

posited is not counted, while the day on which money is withdrawn
is counted.
2. When the time is given in days or months, it is to be expressed in
years.
Example 19. A sum at a simple interest of 12 21 % amounts to 2,502.50

after 3 years. Find the sum, and the interest.
94 Unit 4
25
Solution: Given: Amount = 2,502.50, and R = 12 21 % = %. Let the sum
2
be x. Using the formula, we have
PTR x 3 25 75x 3x
I= = = = .
100 2 100 200 8
But we know that
3x (8x + 3x) 11x
d
Amount = Principal + Simple interest = x + = = .
8 8 8
he
11x
This amount is given to be 2,502.50. Therefore, we obtain 2502.50 = .
8
Solving for x, we get
is
re S
2502.5 8
x= = 1820.
11
B
Hence, the sum is bl 1,820. The interest is
be T
2,502.50 - 1,820= 682.50.

pu
K
Example 20. 800 amounts to 920 in 3 years at a certain rate of

interest. If the rate of interest is increased by 3%, what would the amount

will become?
Solution: Recall, interest(I) = amount(A) - principal(P ). Hence,
I = 920 - 800 = 120.
This interest is accrued in T = 3 years, for the principal 800. Using,
PTR
I= we get,
100
to
100 I 100 120

R= = = 5.
P T 800 3
Thus the original rate of interest is 5%. After the increase of interest by
t
3%, the new rate of interest, which we again denote by R = 5% + 3% =

No
8%. The principal P = 800 and the period T = 3 years remain the same.
Therefore,
PTR 800 3 8
I= = = 192.
100 100
Therefore, the new amount = 800 + 192 = 992.
Exercise 1.4.6
1. Find the simple interest on 2,500 for 4 years at 6 14 % per annum.

2. Find the simple interest on 3,500 at the rate of 2 12 % per annum for
165 days.
3. In what period will 5,200 amounts to 7,384 at 12% per annum
simple interest?
4. Ramya borrowed a loan from a bank for buying a computer. After
4 years she paid 26,640 and settled the accounts. If the rate of
interest is 12% per annum, what was the sum she borrowed?
d
5. A sum of money triples itself in 8 years. Find the rate of interest.
he
1.4.7 Tax
is
re S
The Government requires money for its functioning. Money required
B
bl
for a Government is collected from the public in the form of taxes. One
such method of collecting money is Sales Tax.
be T
pu
Sales Tax is the tax we pay when we buy goods/articles from a shop.
K
Sales Tax is charged by the Government on the sale of every good/article.

Sales tax is called indirect tax as it is collected from the manufacturer,

wholesaler and retailer (shopkeeper) who in turn collects it from the cus-
tomer.
Value added tax (VAT)
Value Added Tax(VAT) is a revised version of sales tax. Normally an

article, before it reaches consumer, passes through various stages as given
to
here:
Manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer.

t
No
The person/company who/which manufactures an article is Manufac-

turer. Depending on the cost of producing an article, manufacturer marks
the price higher than the cost price. On this marked price manufacturer
has to charge sales tax, which he pays to the Government.
The person who purchases large quantities of articles from the manufac-
turer is the Wholesaler. He marks a price higher than the price he pur-
chased from the manufacturer(as he has to get his profit). On this marked
price, he also charges sales tax.
96 Unit 4
The person who buys articles in smaller quantities from the wholesaler
is the Retailer. He marks the price higher than his cost price(he again
takes his profit). On this marked price, he charges sales tax.
The common people who purchase the articles from the shop are Con-
sumers. For the consumer, the cost price is the marked price of the re-
tailer plus the sales tax on the marked price. Thus, VAT is a tax on the
d
value added at each stage for a product that has to pass through various
stages in the channel of distribution.
he
Remember:
No shopkeeper sells any article at loss. Even when a high dis-
is
re S
count is given, he makes a profit. The discount is given to
B
bl
attract customers and to expedite sales so that he can reinvest
his principal.
be T
pu
K
Example 21. Abdul purchases a pair of clothes with a marked price

1,350. If the rate of sales tax is 4%, calculate the amount to be paid by

him.
Solution: Marked price of the item is 1,350, and sales tax is 4%, on the
4
marked price. Hence the total sales tax on the item is 1350 = 54.
100
Amount to be paid = Marked price + tax = 1,350 + 54= 1,404. Hence,
the amount to be paid by him is 1,404.
to
Example 22. A blazer marked at 1,600 is billed at 1,696. Find the

rate of sales tax.
Solution: Selling price is 1,696 and marked price is 1,600. Hence
t
No
sales tax paid is 96. On 1,600, sales tax is 96. Hence the percentage
of sales tax is
96
100 = 6.
1600
Hence, the rate of sales tax is 6%.
Exercise 1.4.7
1. A person purchases the following items from a mall for which the
sales tax is mentioned against:
(a) Stationary materials for 250 and sales tax of 4% there on;
(b) Electronic goods worth 2,580 and sales tax of 10% there on;
(c) Groceries worth 1,200 on which sales tax of 3% is levied;
(d) Medicines worth 200 with sales tax of 6%.
Find the bill amount for each item.

2. A person buys electronic goods worth 10,000 for which the sales
tax is 4% and other material worth 15,000 for which the sales tax
is 6%. He manufactures a gadget using all these and sells it at 15%
d
profit. What is his selling price?
he
3. A trader purchases 70 kg of tea at the rate of 200 /kg and another
30 kg at the rate of 250/kg. He pays a sales tax of 4% on the
is
re S
transaction. He mixes both of them and sells the product at the rate
of 240/kg. What is the percentage gain or loss(find approximate
B
value)? bl
be T
pu
Additional problems on Commercial Arithmetic
K
1. Four alternative options are given for each of the following statements.

Select the correct option.
(a) Nine percent of 700 is:

A. 63 B. 630 C. 6.3 D. 0.63
(b) What percent of 50 metres is 12 metres?
to
A. 20% B. 60% C. 24% D. 32%

(c) The number whose 8% is 12 is:
A. 120 B. 150 C. 130 D. 140
t
No
(d) An article costing 600 is sold for 750. The gain percentage is:
A. 20 B. 25 C. 30 D. 35
(e) By selling note book for 22 a shopkeeper gains 10%. The cost
price of the book is:
A. 18 B. 30 C. 20 D. 22
(f) The percentage of loss, when an article worth 10,000 was sold
for 9,000 is:
A. 10 B. 20 C. 15 D. 25
98 Unit 4
(g) A radio marked 1000 is given away for 850. The discount is:
A. 50 B. 100 C. 150 D. 200
(h) A book marked 250 was sold for 200 after discount. The
percentage of discount is:
A. 10 B. 30 C. 20 D. 25
(i) The marked price of an article is 200. If 15% of discount is
d
allowed on it, its selling price is:
he
A. 185 B. 170 C. 215 D. 175
(j) One sells his bike through a broker by paying 200 brokerage.
is
The rate of brokerage is 2%. The selling price of the bike is:
re S
A. 12,000 B. 10,000 C. 14,000 D. 12,500
B
bl
(k) The brokerage amount for a deal of 25,000 at 2% rate of com-
be T
mission is:
pu
K
A. 500 B. 250 C. 5,000 D. 2,500

(l) If 1,600 is the commission at 8% for goods sold through a broker

, the selling price of the goods is:

A. 18,000 B. 20,000 C. 22,000 D. 24,000
(m) The simple interest on 5,000 at 2% per month for 3 months is:
A. 100 B. 200 C. 300 D. 400
(n) The time in which simple interest on a certain sum be 0.15 times
to
the principal at 10% per annum is:

A. 1.5 years B. 1 year C. 2 years D. 2.5 years
t
(o) The principal that yields a simple interest of 1,280 at 16% per
No
annum for 8 months is:

A. 10,000 B. 12,000 C. 12,800 D. 14,000
2. A time interval of 3 minutes and 20 seconds is wrongly measured as

3 minutes and 25 seconds. What is the percentage error?
3. Hari reads 22% of the pages of a book on the first day, 53% on the sec-
ond day and 15% on the third day. If the number of pages remaining
to be read is 30, find the total number of pages in the book.
4. If 55% of students in a school are girls and the number of boys is 270,
find the number of girls in the school.
5. By selling an article for 920, a shop keeper gains 15%. Find the cost
price of the article.
6. Amit sells a watch at 20% gain. Had he sold it for 36 more, he would
have gained 23%. Find the cost price of the watch.
d
he
7. On selling apples at 40 per kg, a vendor incurs 10% loss. If he incurs
a total loss of 120, calculate the quantity(in kg) of apples he sold.
is
8. A dealer allows a discount of 20% and still gains 20%. Find the
re S
marked price of an article which costs the dealer 720.
B
bl
9. A shop keeper buys an article for 600 and marks 25% above the cost
be T
pu
price. Find (i) the selling price if he sells the article at 10% discount;
K
(ii) the percentage of discount if it is sold for 690.

10. A retailer purchases goods worth 33, 600 and gets a discount of 14%
from a whole seller. For paying in cash, the whole seller gives an
additional discount of 1.5% on the amount to be paid after the first
discount. What is the net amount the retailer has to pay?
11. An old car was disposed through a broker for 42, 000. If the brokerage
is 2 12 %, find the amount the owner gets.
to
12. A milk-man sells 20 litres of milk everyday at 22. He receives a com-

mission of 4% for every litre. Find the total commission he receives in
t
No
a month of 30 days.
13. A bike was sold for 48, 000 and a commission of 8, 640 was received
by the dealer. Find the rate of commission.
14. In how many years will a sum of money becomes three times at the
rate of interest 10% per annum?
15. In what time will the simple interest on a certain sum be 0.24 times
the principal at 12% per annum?
100 Unit 4
16. Find the amount of 30, 000 from 15-th January, 2010 to 10-th Au-
gust, 2010 at 12% per annum.
17. A person purchases electronic items worth 2,50,000. The shop
keeper charges him a sales tax of 21% instead of 12%. The purchaser
does not realise that he has over paid. But after some time he finds
that he has paid excess and asks the shop-keeper to return the ex-
cess money. The shop-keeper refuses and the purchaser moves the
d
consumer court. The court with due hearing orders the shop-keeper
he
to pay the purchaser the excess money paid by the way of sales tax,
with an interest of 12% per annum. If the whole deliberation takes 8
is
months, what is the money that the purchaser gets back?
re S B
Glossary bl
be T
Percentage: it means for every hundred; thus 6% means 6 for hundred.

pu
Rate percent: when the percent is expressed as a fraction with denomi-
K
nator equal to 100, the numerator is called rate percent.

Cost price: the money paid to procure an item is called its cost price and
abbreviated as C.P.
Overhead charges: it is the additional charges on the item before it is
ready for sale, like, labour, transportation, etc.
Selling price: it is the price at which goods are sold; it is abbreviated as
S.P.
to
Profit: it is the gain in a transaction; it is equal to S.P- C.P. whenever S.P.

> C.P.
Loss: if S.P. is less than C.P., then C.P.-S.P. is the loss.
t
No
Discount: it is the reduction on the marked price of an item given by the

seller to attract customers.
Brokerage or commission: it is the money charged by a mediator for the
service provided for a smooth transaction of sales between a seller and a
buyer.
Simple interest: it is the money charged by a lender on the receiver for
the amount lent for a period of time.
Principal: it is the money lent for a period of time by a lender to a receiver.
Rate: it is the money charged as interest for every 100 for one year.
Time: it is the period for which money is lent.

Amount: principal plus interest is called amount.
Sales tax: on every sales done, the Government levies a certain amount of
money; it is called sales tax; this is a certain percent on the marked price
of an item.
VAT: Value Added Tax; the sales tax goes on adding when there is multiple
sales of goods.
d
Manufacturer: a company or a factory at which goods originate for sales.
he
Wholesaler: the purchaser who buys goods in bulk, and in turn sells it to
small vendors.
Retailer: the vendor who buys goods in small quantities and sells it.
is
re S
Consumer: the ultimate user of the goods.
B
Points to remember
bl
Percentage is a method of comparing quantities of the same kind.
be T
pu
If SP > CP, then SP CP is the profit; if SP < CP, then CP SP is the
K
loss.
Profit or loss is always calculated on the cost price.

Discount is the reduction given in the marked price.

The money that an agent (or broker) receives in a deal is the commis-
sion(or brokerage).
While calculating the simple interest, the day on which money is de-
posited is not counted where as the day on which it is withdrawn is
to
taken in to account.
VAT means value added tax.
t
No
CHAPTER 1 UNIT 5
STATISTICS
After learning this chapter, you learn to:
explain the terms data, observation, range, frequency, class interval,
d
exclusive and inclusive class intervals size of class interval, mid-point
he
of class interval;
construct frequency distribution table for exclusive and inclusive class
is
intervals;
re S
draw histogram for the given frequency distribution;
B
bl
define mean, median and mode;
be T
calculate mean for grouped and un-grouped data;

pu
K
calculate median for grouped and un-grouped data;

identify mode of un-grouped and grouped data.

1.5.1 Introduction
Statistics is considered to be a mathematical science pertaining to the
collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.
Statistics is useful in drawing conclusions from numerical data. It is also
useful to predict weather, to obtain information concerning business, im-
to
port, export, education etc.. All research and investigation require statis-
tical interpretation.
t
A collection of numerical facts with particular information is called data.

No
Consider, the marks obtained by 20 students in mathematics in 8th

standard mid-term examination:
56, 31, 44, 78, 67, 74, 38, 60, 56, 59, 87, 73, 38, 77, 84, 80, 49, 60, 60, 71.
The above data is a collection numerical entries. It is called observation.
Such a collection of data is called raw data.
The data can be arranged in ascending or descending order. Arranged in
descending order, we get,
87, 84, 80, 78, 77, 74, 73, 71, 67, 60, 60, 60, 59, 56, 56, 49, 44, 38, 38, 31.
Statistics 103
From this, we can infer that the highest score is 87 and lowest score is 31.
The difference between the highest and the lowest score is called range.
The range of above data is (87 -31) = 56.
We can observe that the scores 38 and 60 are repeated. The number
38 is repeated twice and 60 is repeated thrice. We say that the frequency
of 38 is 2 and the frequency of 60 is 3. The frequency of rest of the scores
d
is 1. The number of times a particular observation (score) occurs in a data
is called its frequency. The above data may be represented in a tabular
he
form, showing the frequency of each distribution. This representation in
tabular form is called Frequency Distribution Table. Tallies are used to
is
mark the counts; III represents three(3) counts, where as I I I I represents 5
re S
counts.
B
bl
Example 1. The marks scored by 20 students in a unit test out of 25
be T
marks are given below.

pu
12, 10, 08, 12, 04, 15, 18, 23, 18, 16, 16, 12, 23, 18, 12, 05, 16, 16, 12, 20.
K
Prepare a frequency distribution table.

Solution: The table looks like:
Marks Tally No. of students

marks (frequency)
23 II 2
20 I 1
to
18 III 3
16 IIII 4
15 I 1
t
12 IIII 5
No
10 I 1
08 I 1
05 I 1
04 I 1
Total 20 20
104 Unit 5
1.5.2 Grouping Data

Organising the data in the form of frequency distribution table is called
grouped frequency distribution of raw data. Sometimes, we have to deal
with a large data.
Example 2. Consider the following marks (out of 50) scored in mathemat-

ics by 50 students of 8th class:
d
41, 31, 33, 32, 28, 31, 21, 10, 30, 22, 33, 37, 12, 05, 08, 15, 39, 26, 41,
he
46, 34, 22, 09,
11, 16, 22, 25, 29, 31, 39, 23, 31, 21, 45, 47, 30, 22, 17, 36, 18, 20, 22,
44, 16, 24, 10,
is
re S
27, 39, 28, 17.
B
bl
Prepare a frequency distribution table.
Solution: If we prepare a frequency distribution table for each observa-
be T
pu
tion, then the table would be too long. So for convenience, we make groups
K
of observations like 0 - 9, 10 - 19 and so on. We obtain a frequency of dis-

tribution of the number of observations coming under each group. In this

way, we prepare a frequency distribution table for the above data as below:
Groups Tally marks Frequency

0-9 III 03
10 - 19 IIII , IIII 10
20 - 29 IIII , IIII , IIII , I 16
to
30 - 39 IIII , IIII , IIII 15

40 - 49 IIII , I 06
t
50 - 59 0
No
Total 50 50
The data presented in this manner is said to be grouped and the dis-
tribution obtained is called grouped frequency distribution. Grouped
frequency distribution table helps us to draw meaningful inferences like:
1. most of the students have scored between 20 and 29;
2. only 3 students have scored less than 10;
3. no student has scored 50 or more than 50.
Statistics 105
In the above table, marks are grouped into 0 - 9, 10 - 19 and the like. No
score overlaps in any group. Each of these groups is called a class interval
or a class. This method of grouping data is called Inclusive Method.
Class Limit: In the class interval, say (10 - 19), 9.5 is called the lower class
limit and 19.5 is called the upper class limit.
Note: To find the class limit, in inclusive method, subtract 0.5 from
d
lower score to get lower class limit and add 0.5 to the upper score to
he
get upper class limit.
Class Size: The number of scores in the class interval say, (10-19), in-
is
re S
cluding 10 and 19, is called the class size or width of the class. In this
example, the class size is 10.
B
bl
Class Mark: The midpoint of a class is called its class mark (or midpoint
be T
of class interval). It is obtained by adding the two limits and dividing by 2.

pu
For example, the class mark of (10-19) is (10 + 19)/2 = 14.5. The class mark
K
of (10-20) is (10+20)/2 = 15.

The data in Example 2 can also be grouped in class intervals like 0 -

10, 10 - 20, 20 - 30 and so on. The frequency distribution table will then
be as follows:
Groups Tally marks Frequency
0 - 10 III 03
10 - 20 IIII , IIII 10
to
20 - 30 I I I I , I I I I , I I I I , III 18
30 - 40 I I I I , I I I I , III 13
t
40 - 50 IIII , I 06
No
Total 50 50
Here observe that 10 occurs in both the classes (0 - 10) as well as (10
-20). But it is not possible that an observation (say 10) can belong to two
classes (0 - 10) and (10 - 20) simultaneously. In order to avoid this, we
follow a convention that the common observation (here 10) will belong to
the higher class, that is 10 belongs to (10 - 20) and not to (0 - 10). Similarly
30 belongs to (30 - 40) and not (20 -30). This method of grouping the data
is called Exclusive method.
106 Unit 5
Class Limit: In the class interval (10 - 20), 10 is called the lower limit and
20 is called the upper limit.
Class Size: The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit is
called the class size or width. The width of class in (10 - 20) is 20 - 10 =
10.
Example 3. Forty candidates from 10th class of a school appear for a
d
test. The number of questions (out of 60) attempted by them in forty five
minutes is given here.
he
52, 42, 40, 36, 12, 28, 15, 37, 35, 22, 39, 50, 54, 39, 21, 34, 46, 31, 10,
09,
is
re S
13, 24, 29, 31, 49, 58, 40, 44, 37, 28, 13, 16, 29, 36, 39, 41, 47, 55, 52,
B
bl 09.
be T
Prepare a frequency distribution table with the class size 10 and answer
pu
the following:
K
(i) Which class has the highest frequency? (ii) Which class has the lowest

frequency? (iii) Write the upper and lower limits of the class (20- 29).
(iv) Which two classes have the same frequency?
Solution: Let us first prepare the frequency distribution table pertaining
to this data.
Class-Interval Tally marks Frequency
0-9 II 2
to
10 - 19 IIII , I 6
20 - 29 I I I I , II 7
t
30 - 39 IIII , IIII , I 11
No
40 - 49 I I I I , III 8
50 - 59 IIII , I 6
Total 40 40
Using this table, we can observe:

(i) (30-39) has the highest frequency;
(ii) (0-9) has the lowest frequency;
(iii) upper limit is 29.5 and lower limit is 19.5;
(iv) (10-19) and (50-59) have the same frequency.
Statistics 107
Example 4. The heights of 25 children in centimetre are given below:

174, 168, 110, 142, 156, 119, 110, 101, 190, 102, 190, 111, 172, 140,
136, 174, 128, 124, 136, 147, 168, 192, 101, 129, 114.
Prepare a frequency distribution table, taking the size of the class interval
as 20, and answer the following:
(i) Mention the class intervals of highest and lowest frequency.
(ii) What does the frequency 6 corresponding to class interval (160-180)
d
indicate?
he
(iii) Find out the class mark (or midpoint) of (140-160).
(iv) What is the range of heights?
is
re S
Solution: The frequency distribution for the given data is as follows:
B
bl
Class-Interval Tally marks Frequency
be T
100 - 120 I I I I , III 8

pu
120 - 140 IIII 5
K
140 - 160 III 3

160 - 180 IIII , I 6

180 - 200 III 3
Total 25 25
Answers:
(i) Highest frequency: (100-120); lowest frequency: (140-160). and (180-
200).
to
(ii) There are 6 children whose heights are in the range 160 cm to 180
cm.
t
(iii) Mid-point = (140+160)/2 = 150

No
(iv) Range = highest score- lowest score= 192 - 101 = 91.
Exercise 1.5.2
1. The marks scored by 40 candidates in an examination (out of 100) is
given below:
75, 65, 57, 50, 32, 54, 75, 67, 75, 88, 80, 42, 40, 41, 34, 78, 43, 61,
42, 46, 68, 52, 43, 49, 59, 49, 67, 34, 33, 87, 97, 47, 46, 54, 48, 45,
51, 47, 41, 43.
108 Unit 5
Prepare a frequency distribution table with the class size 10. Take
the class intervals as (30 - 39), (40 - 49), . . . and answer the following
questions:
(i) Which class intervals have highest and lowest frequency?

(ii) Write the upper and lower limits of the class interval 30-39.
(iii) What is the range of the given distribution?
d
2. Prepare the frequency distribution table for the given set of scores:
he
39, 16, 30, 37, 53, 15, 16, 60, 58, 26, 28, 19, 20, 12, 14, 24, 59,
21, 57, 38, 25, 36, 34, 15, 25, 41, 52, 45, 60, 63, 18, 26, 43, 36, 18,
is
re S
27, 59, 63, 46, 48, 25, 33, 46, 27, 46, 42, 48, 35, 64, 24. Take class
intervals as (10 -20), (20 - 30), . . . and answer the following:
B
bl
(i) What does the frequency corresponding to the third class interval
be T
pu
mean?
K
ii) What is the size of each class interval? Find the midpoint of the
class interval 30 - 40.

iii) What is the range of the given set of scores?
1.5.3 Histogram
A histogram is a representation of a frequency distribution by means

to
of rectangles whose widths represent class intervals and whose areas are
proportional to the corresponding frequencies. In a histogram, frequency
t
is plotted against class interval. Thus, a histogram is a two-dimensional

No
graphical representation of data. However, if the length of all the class

intervals are the same, then the frequency is proportional to the height of
the rectangle.
Construction of a histogram
We will show how to construct histograms taking some examples.
Example 5. Draw the histogram of the following frequency distribution:

Statistics 109
Class - Interval Frequency

0-9 5
10 - 19 8
20 - 29 12
30 - 39 18
40 - 49 22
50 - 59 10
d
he
Solution: The given distribution is in inclusive form. It should be con-
is
verted into exclusive form. This can be done by applying a correction
re S
d
factor , where
B
2
bl
be T
pu
K
d = (lower limit of a class) - (upper limit of a class before it)

Here, we have
d
actual upper limit = stated limit + ;
2
d
actual lower limit = stated limit - .
2
to
For example, consider the class limit 10 - 19. You get

t
d = lower limit of the class interval -upper limit of class before it =10-9 =1.
No
d
Hence, d = 1 or = 0.5. Now,
2
d
actual upper limit = (stated upper limit) + = 19 + 0.5 =19.5.
2
d
actual lower limit = (stated lower limit) - = 10 - 0.5= 9.5
2
Converting into exclusive form, we get the table as below:

110 Unit 5
22
Stated Actual Frequency 20
Class Class
interval interval 15
0-9 -0.5 - 9.5 5
d
10 - 19 9.5 - 19.5 8
10
frequency
20 - 29 19.5 - 29.5 12
he
30 - 39 29.5 - 39.5 18
40 - 49 39.5 - 49.5 22 5
is
50 - 59 49.5 - 59.5 10
re S B
bl 0.5 9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5
class intervals
X
be T
Construction of histogram:
pu
1. Draw x-axis and y-axis. Choose a proper scale for x and y axes, say
K
on x-axis: 1cm = 10 and on y-axis: 1cm = 5.

2. Mark the class intervals on x-axis; (0.5 - 9.5), (9.5 - 19.5) and the like.
3. Draw a rectangle of height 5cm on the first class interval (0.5 - 9.5).
4. Draw a second rectangle of height 8 cm on the second class interval
and follow the same procedure for the rest of the class intervals and
the corresponding frequencies.
to
Then, the histogram takes the form shown above.

In the above histogram, we observe that,
t
there are no gaps between rectangles, showing that the distribution

No
is continuous;
the heights of rectangles represent the frequencies and the base rep-
resents class intervals.
Remember:
In a bar graph, the height of the bar represents the data. The
bars may be separated or closed.
In a histogram, the area of each rectangle represents correspond-
ing data (frequency). There should be no gaps between rectangles.
Statistics 111
Example 6. Draw the histogram for the following frequency distribution.
16

12
0-5 5
frequency
d
5 - 10 8
8
10 - 15 15
he
15 - 20 4
4
20 - 25 10
is
re S
X
5 10 15 20 25
B
bl
Solution: The given distribution is in exclusive form. So, we can take the
class intervals
be T
class-intervals as( 0 - 5), (5 - 10) etc., along the x-axis and frequency along
pu
y-axis.Choosing a proper scale, we can construct a histogram as explained
K
in the previous example.

Note: Histogram is drawn for class intervals which are exclusive

(continuous). If the class intervals are given in inclusive (discrete), it
should be converted into exclusive form by applying the correction
factor.
Exercise 1.5.3
to
1. Draw a histogram to represent 2. Draw a histogram to represent

t
the following frequency distri- the following frequency distri-

No
bution. bution.
Class - Interval Frequency Class - Interval Frequency

20 -25 5 10 - 19 7
25 - 30 10 20 - 29 10
30 - 35 18 30 - 39 20
35 - 40 14 40 - 49 5
40 - 45 12 50 - 59 15
112 Unit 5
1.5.4 Mean, Median and Mode

Now we study three important quantities associated with a statistical
data. They give a clear picture of the behaviour of an experiment. They
are generally called measures of central tendencies.
Mean
Mean is a commonly used as a measure, in a given statistical experi-
d
ment, to get an idea how the experiment is behaving. This is simply the
he
average of the numerical data collected during an experiment.
Mean for an un-grouped data:
is
re S
It is the sum of the numerical values of all the observations divided by
the total number of observations. If x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xN are the values of N
B
observations, then bl
be T
(sum of all values of observations) x1 + x2 + x3 + + xN

pu
Mean = = .
(the number of observations) N
K
P P
The sum of N values of x is represented by x. Here stands for sum-

mation notation. Therefore, X

x
X=
N
P
Note: Sum is denoted by and read as
sigma.
to
Mean is denoted by X. This is read as X-

bar.
t
Example 7. Find the mean of first six even natural numbers.

No
Solution: The first six even natural numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12. There
are six scores. Therefore, N = 6. The observations are x1 = 2, x2 = 4,
x3 = 6, x4 = 8, x5 = 10, x6 = 12. Hence
X
x = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 = 42
Hence the mean is given by

X
x 42
X= = = 7.
N 6
Statistics 113
Example 8. Marks scored by Hari in 5 tests (out of 25 marks) are given:

24, 22, 23, 23, 25. Find his average score.
P
Solution: We observe that there are 5 scores, so that x = 24 + 22 + 23 +
23 + 25 = 117. Hence the mean is given by
X
x 117
X= = = 23.4.
N 5
d
In the above examples, the number of values is very less. So we could
he
find the mean easily. If large number of values is given and we need to find
the mean, it is difficult. In these cases, where the given data is more, we
is
group the data and prepare a frequency distribution table. From frequency
re S
distribution table, we can find the mean.
B
bl
Mean of a grouped data:
be T
Example 9: The number of goals scored by a hockey team in 20 matches

pu
is given here:
K
4, 6, 3, 2, 2, 4, 1, 5, 3, 0, 4, 5, 4, 5, 4, 0, 4, 3, 6, 4.

Find the mean.

Solution: To find the mean, let us prepare a frequency distribution table
first. We observe that some scores are repeated. So to find the sum of all
scores, we have to multiply each score with its frequency and then find
the sum.
Scores Frequency fx
to
Scores Tally marks Frequency

(x) (f )
0 II 2
0 2 0
1 I 1
t
1 1 1
No
2 II 2
2 2 4
3 III 3
3 3 9
4 I I I I , II 7
4 7 28
5 III 3
5 3 15
6 II 2
6 2 12
N = 20 P
N = 20 f x = 69
To do this, let us denote the scores by x and frequency by f , then multiply
P
f and x and add the product f x. Here f x denotes the sum of all the
114 Unit 5
products f x. Now the mean is

P
sum of the scores fx 69
X= = = .
number of scores N 20
Thus we get X = 3.45.
Example 10. Find the mean for the given frequency distribution table.
d
Solution: To find the mean, first we
he
have to find the mid-point of each class
0-4 3
interval. Mid-point of 0 - 4 = (0+4)/2 =
5-9 5
2; mid-point of 5 - 9 = (5+9)/2= 7 and
is
10 - 14 7
re S
the like. Denote the midpoint of the
15 - 19 4
class interval by x. Write down the fre-
B
20 - 24
bl 6
N = 25
quencies f corresponding to each class
be T
interval.
pu
K
Class interval Mid-point of CI (x) Frequency(f ) fx

0-4 2 3 6

5-9 7 5 35
10 - 14 12 7 84
15 - 19 17 4 68
20 - 24 22 6 132
P
N = 25 f x = 325
to
P
Multiply f and x to get f x. Add all f x and find out f x. Now the mean is
calculated using the formula,
t
X
No
sum of all scores fx

X= = .
total number of scores N
Thus we get X
fx 325
X= = = 13.
N 25
Therefore mean is 13.
Activity 1:
Mark the height in centimetres on a wall in your school. (Take the help of
Statistics 115
your teacher). Measure and record the height of 10 of your friends. Find
the mean height.
Median
Median is the mid-point of the data(raw scores), after being arranged in
ascending or descending order. Median divides the given set of scores into
two equal halves, that is there are as many scores below the median as
d
above the median.
he
The mean depends on the nature of scores. If some scores are
very high(or low), that will influence the mean. For example;
is
consider the data 5,8, 6, 9, 12, 110,130. If you compute the
re S
mean, it is 40(the sum is 280 and there are 7 scores). But there
B
bl
are 5 scores below 40 and only two scores above 40. Hence it is
not central. On the other hand the median is 9 and you see that
be T
pu
it is in the centre. Thus mean is influenced by unusually high
K
scores in the given data and may not be a true representative of

an experiment. In such cases median is preferred.

Median for an un-grouped data:

Arrange the given set of scores in ascending or descending order of magni-
tudes (values). If the total number of scores is odd, then the middle most
score is the median. If the total number of scores is even, then the average
of the two middle most scores is the median.
to
Example 11. Find the median of the data: 26, 31, 33, 37, 43, 8, 26, 33.
Solution: Arranging the scores in ascending order, we have 26, 31, 33,
t
No
37, 38, 42, 43.

Here the number of terms is 7. The middle term is the 4-th one and it is
37. Therefore, median is 37.
Think it over:
Do you get the same median if the scores are arranged in de-
scending order?
Example 12. Find the median of the data: 32, 30, 28, 31, 22, 26, 27, 21.
116 Unit 5
Solution: Arranging in descending order, we obtain 32, 31, 30, 28, 27,
26, 22, 21.
There are 8 terms. Therefore, median is the average of the two middle
(27 + 28)
terms, which are 27 and 28. Thus the median is = 27.5.
2
Think it over:
d
Do you get the same median if the scores are arranged in as-
he
cending order?
Note: When N scores are given, we can use the following method to find
is
re S
the median:
First arrange the scores in ascending or descending order; (i) If N is odd,
B
bl
then median is the score at
(N + 1)
-th place; (ii) If N is even, median is
1
be T
2 2
pu
N N
the score at -th place + the score at + 1 -th place .
K
2 2
Median for a grouped data

In the case of an un-grouped data, you could compute its median as the
middle score if the number of scores is odd(or the mean of its two middle
scores in the case of even number of scores). We have to adopt a different
way of computing the median of a grouped data. We describe it through
examples.
to
Example 13. Find the median for the following grouped data.
Solution: Median is the middle
Class - Interval Frequency score. Here actual scores are not
t
No
1-5 4 given. So we have to use a differ-

6 - 10 3 ent procedure to find the median.
11 - 15 6 We have N = 20, an even num-
16 - 20 5 ber. Therefore, there are two mid-
21 - 25 2 dle scores: one corresponding to
N = 20 N/2 = 20/2 = 10-th score and the
other is 11-th score.
We have to locate the median between 10-th and 11-th scores. Since we
are not given individual scores, we have to get some idea about 10-th and
Statistics 117
11-th scores. For this it is required to find the cumulative frequency.

Observe the following table, to know how to find cumulative frequency.
Class Frequency(f ) Cumulative

Interval frequency(fc)
1-5 4 4 4
6 - 10 3 7 4+3=7
d
11 - 15 6 13 7+6=13
16 - 20 5 18 13+5=18
he
21 - 25 2 20 18+2=20
N = 20
is
re S
Observe that the cumulative frequency corresponding to the last class
B
bl
interval is equal to N. Counting frequencies from first class interval
downwards, we find that the 10-th score lies in the class interval (11 - 15).
be T
pu
This class interval (11 - 15) is called the median class. The frequency cor-
K
responding to this is 6. Its lower real limit (LRL) is 10.5. The cumulative
frequency above this class is 7. Now, knowing:

(a) lower real limit(LRL)=10.5;

(b) frequency of the median class (fm ) = 6;
(c) cumulative frequency above the median class (fc ) = 7; and
(d) size of the class interval(i) = 5;
we can find the median, using the formula

to
((N/2) fc )
median = LRL+ i.
fm
t
No
Thus we get
(20/2) 7 (10 7)
median = 10.5 + 5 = 10.5 + 5
6 6
3
= 10.5 + 5 = 10.5 + 2.5 = 13.
6
(N/2 fc )
Note: Median = LRL+ i. This formula can be derived from the
fm
basic principles.
118 Unit 5
Example 14. Calculate the median for an exclusive(continuous) distribu-

tion given below.
Class Frequency Cumulative

Class Interval Frequency
Interval (f ) frequency (fc )
10 - 20 11
10 - 20 11 11
20 - 30 13
d
20 - 30 13 24
30 - 40 13
30 - 40 13 37
he
40 - 50 9
40 - 50 9 46
50 - 60 4
50 - 60 4 50
is
re S
Solution: We first prepare the cumulative frequency table(see above). Here
B
bl
you see that the total number of observation is N = 50. Therefore (30 - 40)
is the median class. We also observe that LRL = 30, fc = 24, fm = 13 and
be T
pu
i = 20 10 = 10. Now we are in a position to use the formula for median:
K
(N/2) fc (25 24) 10

median = LRL + i = 30 + 10 = 30 + = 30.77,
fm 13 13

approximately.
Mode
There is another measure of central tendency which is used occasion-
ally, called mode. Mode is the score that occurs frequently in a given set
of scores. Mode is the value around which the other scores cluster around
to
densely.
Mode for an un-grouped data:

t
No
Example 15. Find the mode for the data: 15, 20, 22, 25, 30, 20, 15, 20,
12, 20.
Solution: Here 20 appear maximum times (4 times). Therefore, mode is

20.
Example 16. Find the mode of the data: 5, 3, 3, 5, 7, 6, 3, 4, 3, 5, 8, 5.
Solution: Here 3 and 5 appear 4 times. Therefore modes are both 3 and
5.
Statistics 119
Note: A collection of data can have more than one mode. If the
data has only one mode, we say it has uni-mode, if it has 2
modes, we say it has bi-mode and if it has more than 2 modes,
we say it has multi-mode.
Mode for a grouped data
d
For a grouped data, the same score having maximum frequency is
the mode.
he
Example 17. Find the mode for the following data.
is
Number 12 13 14 15 16 17
re S
Frequency 7 9 6 22 20 19
B
bl
Solution: Here the maximum frequency is 22. Therefore, the number 15
be T
pu
corresponding to maximum frequency is the mode.
K
Hence, the mode is 15.

Exercise 1.5.4

1. Runs scored by 10 batsmen in a one day cricket match are given.

Find the average run scored.
23, 54, 08, 94, 60, 18, 29, 44, 05, 86
2. Find the mean weight from the following table.
Weight(kg) 29 30 31 32 33
to
No. of children 02 01 04 03 05
3. Calculate the mean for the following frequency distribution:

t
No
Marks 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Frequency 3 7 10 6 8 2 4
4. Calculate the mean for the following frequency distribution:

Marks 15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44
Frequency 6 5 9 12 6 2
5. Find the median of the data: 15, 22, 9, 20, 6, 18, 11, 25, 14.
6. Find the median of the data: 22, 28, 34, 49, 44, 57, 18, 10, 33, 41,
66, 59.
120 Unit 5
7. Find the median for the following frequency distribution table:
Class 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 150-159 160-169

Intervals
Frequency 6 8 15 10 6 5
8. Find the median for the following frequency distribution table:
d
Class-interval 0 - 5 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30
he
Frequency 5 3 9 10 8 5
9. Find the mode for the following data:
is
(i) 4, 3, 1, 5, 3, 7, 9, 6
re S
(ii) 22, 36, 18, 22, 20, 34, 22, 42, 46, 42
B
bl
10. Find the mode for the following data:
be T
x 5 10 12 15 20 30 40
pu
f 4 8 11 13 16 12 9
K
Additional problems on Statistics

1. Four alternative options are given for each of the following statements.
Select the correct option.
(a) The size or width of the Class interval (0 - 4) is :

A. 4 B. 5 C. 3 D. 0
to
(b) The midpoint of class interval (10 - 19) is:

A. 10 B. 14 C. 15 D. 14.5
t
(c) The difference between highest and lowest score of a distribution

No
gives:
A. class interval B. class width C. range D. class limit
(d) The number of times a particular observation (score) occurs in a
data is called its:
A. frequency B. range C. class interval D. class limit
(e) In inclusive form, the actual upper limit and lower limit of class
interval (0 - 4) are:
A. -0.5 & 3.5 B. 0.5 & 4.5 C. 1 & 5 D. 1 & 5
Statistics 121
(f) The height of a rectangle in a histogram represents:

A. class interval B. midpoint C. frequency density D. fre-
quency
(g) In a histogram, the width of the rectangle indicates:
A. class interval B. midpoint C. frequency density D. fre-
quency
d
(h) The mean of scores 10, 15, 12, 15, 15 is:
he
A. 15 B. 13 C. 13.4 D. 14.3
(i) Class interval grouping of data is done when:
is
A. the range of data is small B. the range of data is large
re S
C. the class intervals are small D. class intervals are large
B
bl
(j) The mean of 6, 4, 7, x and 10 is 8. The value of x is:
be T
A. 10 B. 12 C. 14 D. 13
pu
P
K
(k) If n = 10 and Mean = 12, then f x is:

A. 120 B. 1200 C. 12 D. 13

(l) The mean of first three multiples of 5 is :

A. 5 B. 10 C. 15 D. 30
(m) The median of 37, 83, 70, 29, 32, 42, 40 is:
A. 29 B. 30 C. 40 D. 42
(n) In an inclusive class interval (10 - 14), the lower real limit is:
to
A. 9.5 B. 10.5 C. 13.5 D. 14.5

(o) In an exclusive class interval (10 - 20), the lower real limit is:
t
A. 20 B. 10 C. 10.5 D. 20.5
No
(p) The mode of 2, 3, 3, 5, 3, 5, 7, 3, 5 is:

A. 3 B. 5 C. 3 and 5 D. 3,5,7
(q) For given two values of x, 16, 18 the frequencies are respectively
12 and 20. Then the mode is:
A. 16 B. 18 C. 12 D. 20
(r) A collection of data having more than 3 modes is said to be:
A. uni-mode B. bi-mode C. tri-mode D. multi-mode
122 Unit 5
2. Prepare a frequency distribution table for the scores given:
42,22,55,18,50,10,33,29,17,29,29,27,34,15,40,42,40,41,35, 27,
44,31,38,19,54,55,38,19,20,30,42,59,15,19,27,23,40,32,28,51.
Take the class intervals as 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60. From
the frequency distribution table answer the following questions:
d
(i) What does the frequency corresponding to the class interval 20-
he
30 indicate?
(ii) In which class intervals are the scores 10,20 and 30 included?
is
re S
(iii) Find the range of the scores.
B
bl
3. The following are the marks scored in a unit test(out of 25). Prepare
be T
a frequency distribution table, taking the class intervals as 0-4, 5-9,

pu
10-14, 15-19, 20-24:
K
21,14,3,7,23,18,24,16,18,17,20,10,17,18,21,23,19,12,14,9,16,18,12, 14,11.

From the table (i) find the mid-points of each class interval; (ii) find
the class interval having maximum frequency; (iii) find the range of
the scores.
4. Draw histogram for the fol- 5. Draw histogram for the fol-
lowing frequency distribution: lowing frequency distribution:
Class Interval Frequency Class Interval Frequency
to
5-15 2 0-10 4
15-25 8 11-20 18
25-35 14 21-30 12
t
No
35-45 14 31-40 6
45-55 12 41-50 20
51-60 10
6. The marks obtained by 12 students in a mathematics examination

are given below.
48,78,93,90,66,54,83,58,60,75,89,84.
Find (i) the mean of the marks; (ii) the mean mark of the students if
each student is given 4 grace marks.
Statistics 123
7. If the mean of 8,12,21,42,x is 20, find the value of x.
8. Find the mean for the following distribution:

12,14,10,12,15,12,18,10,15,11,19,20,12,15,19,10,18,16,20,17.
Glossary
Data: collection of numerical facts with a particular information during
d
an experiment.
he
Observation: numerical display of data.
Score: the numerical entries in an observation.
Range: the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in an
is
re S
observation.
Frequency: the number of times a particular score appears in an obser-
B
vation. bl
be T
GFD: Grouped frequency distribution; the data is collected in to several

pu
groups and the frequency of scores in each group is recorded.
K
Class interval: in a grouped frequency distribution, each group is called

a class interval.
Cumulative frequency: the sum of the frequencies up to the current class
interval.
FDT: Frequency Distribution Table; it displays the frequencies of scores
corresponding to various class intervals.
Inclusive method: while grouping, the end points of the groups do not
to
overlap.
Exclusive method: the end points of consecutive groups overlap.
Class limit: the end points of a class in exclusive method; the end points
t
No
of a class with correction factors in inclusive method.

Class size(or width): the difference between the upper class limit and the
lower class limit.
Class mark: the mid point of the class interval; it is equal to the average
between the upper class limit and the lower class limit.
Histogram: a graphical way of representing grouped data using rectangu-
lar bars in which the frequency is proportional to the area of the rectangle.
Mean: average of the scores; It is equal to the sum of the scores divided
by the number of scores.
124 Answers
Median: the middle score.

Mode: the score which appears maximum number of times in an obser-
vation.
Median class: in a grouped data, it is difficult to say which is the median
as scores are not given explicitly; but one can say in which class interval,
the middle score lies. This is called the median class.
d
Points to remember
he
Statistics is a branch of science which helps us to analyse the col-
lected data in a systematic way.
Mean, median and mode are three different measures which, in some
is
re S
sense, represent the given data. They are called measures of central
B
tendency.
bl
be T
pu
Answers to Exercises in Chapter 1.
K
Exercise 1.1.2

1. (i) (3 10) + (9 1); (ii) (5 10) + (2 1); (iii) (1 100) + (6 1);

(iv) (3 100) + (5 10) + (9 1); (v) (6 100) + (2 10) + (8 1); (vi)
(3 1000) + (4 100) + (5 10) + (8 1); (vii) (9 1000) + (5 100) + (2 1);
(viii) (7 1000). 2. (i) 56; (ii) 758; (iii) 6058; (iv) 7006; (v) 1010.
3. 555 = (4210)5 = (4 125) + (2 25) + (1 5) + (0 1). 4. 1024 =
(10000000000)2 = (1 210 ).
to
Exercise 1.1.3
1. (i) B = 4; (ii) A = 5, B = 4; (iii) A = 5; (iv) A = 0; (v) two solutions:
t
A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 2; (vi) A = 6, B = 1. 2. A = 3, B = 4, C = 5.
No
3. A = 1, B = 7, C = 9. 4. Not possible. (Hint: AA = 11 A.)

Exercise 1.1.4
1. If s (q, r) denotes the quotient q and remainder r, when s is divided
by 13, then:
8 (0, 8); 31 (2, 5); 44 (3, 5); 85 (6, 7); 1220 (93, 11).
2. If s (q, r) denotes the quotient q and remainder r, when s is divided
by 304, then
128 (0, 128); 636 (2, 28); 785 (2, 177); 1038 (3, 126); 2236
Answers 125
(7, 108); 8858 (29, 42); 13765 (45, 85); 58876 (304, 204).
3. 107. 4. 62. 5. 46.
Exercise 1.1.5
1. 2. 3.
12 5 10 16 9 14 2 9 4
7 9 11 11 13 15 7 5 3
d
8 13 6 12 17 10 6 1 8
he
Magic sum is Magic sum is This is only one magic
27. Central 39. Central square. You can construct
is
number is 9. number is 13. different magic squares for
re S
We have 27 = We have 39 = different positions of 1, as
B
3 9.
4. bl 3 13.
5.
you have seen earlier.
be T
pu
15 1 11 34 48 2 16 30
K
5 9 13 46 10 14 28 32

7 17 3 8 12 26 40 44
20 24 38 42 6
22 36 50 4 18
Exercise 1.1.6
1. 250 numbers. 3. The only numbers in the required form and divisible
by 11 are 4939, 4037, 4136, 4235, 4334, 4433, 4532, 4631, 4730. Hence
to
a + b = 18(in the case of 4939), or a + b = 7. 5. There are 4 numbers:

58476, 48576, 57684, 67584. (Use divisibility by 4 and 11 together.)
t
Additional problems on Playing with numbers

No
1. (a) A; (b) B; (c) C; (d) C; (e) A; (f) D; (g) D. 2. 24365. 3. 12.

4. 2, 5, 7, 8. 5. 1 = 3+35, 2 = 53, 3 = 5+5+533333+3,
4 = 3+3+35, 5 = 5+5+5+533333, 6 = 5+5+5+3+333333,
7 = 5 + 5 3, 8 = 5 + 3, 9 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 3 + 3 + 3 3 3 3 3 3,
10 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 3 3 3 3 3. 6. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80,
90, 12, 18, 21, 24, 27, 36, 42, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 84 7. 108
pages. 8. 70.
126 Answers
9. 10. Only such number is 108. 11. x = 4,

8 9 4 y = 2 or x = 0, y = 6 or x = 9, y = 6. 12. Take
one group as {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 7} and the other group as
3 7 11
{4, 6, 10}. Then (123587)/(4610) = 7 and
10 5 6
this is the minimum quotient. 13. 27314925
and 27364975. 15. 8066. 16. 12. 17. 62.
Exercise 1.2.2
d
1. (i) 42 = 16; (ii) 82 = 64; (iii) 152 = 225. 2. 1, 36 = 62 , 49 = 72 , 81 = 92 ,
he
169 = 132 , 625 = 252 , 900 = 302 , 100 = 102 .
3. 1,4,9,16,25,36,49,64,81,100,121,144,169,196,225,256,289,324, 361,
is
400,441,484. 4. You can take 200,201,204,205,206,209. None of these
re S
is a square as they lie between 196 = 142 and 225 = 152 .
B
bl
5. 100,121,144,169,196,225,256,289,324,361,400.
Exercise 1.2.3
be T
pu
1. 1 + 3 + 5 + + 51 = 262 = 676. 2. 144 = 122 = 1 + 3 + 5 + + 23.
K
3. 105 and 120. Their sum is 225 = 152 . 4. 0, 1 or 4.

Exercise 1.2.4
1. (i) 961; (ii) 5184; (iii) 1369; (iv) 27556. 2. (i) 7225; (ii) 13225;
(iii) 27225. 3. 2155024.
Exercise 1.2.5
1. (i) 14; (ii) 16; (iii) 102; (iv) 34; (v) 115. 2. (i) 16; (ii) 37;
(iii) 81; (iv) 10; (v) 4; (vi) 247. 3. 56 m. 4. (i) 7; (ii) 2; (iii)
to
5; (iv) 2. 5. (i) 16; (ii) 16; (iii) 729; (iv) 676. 6. You can take
16 as factor of 48 and 240 as a multiple of 48; 16 + 240 = 256 = 162 . You
t
can generate infinitely many by taking l = m(3m + 2), m = 1, 2, 3, . . .; 16 as a

No
factor of 48 and 48l as a multiple of 48. Observe
16 + 48l = 16 + 48m(3m + 2) = 16 + 96m + 144m2 = (4 + 12m)2 .
Exercise 1.2.6
1. (i) 15; (ii) 24; (iii) 27; (iv) 29; (v) 42. 2. 127 m. 3. 5.
Answers 127
Exercise 1.2.7
1.
2 3 4 5 6 8 9
23 = 8 33 = 27 43 = 64 (5)3 = 125 63 = 216 83 = 512 (9)3 = 729
2.
13 33 53 73 93 23 43 63 83 103
d
1 27 125 343 729 8 64 216 512 1000
he
The cube of an odd number is odd and the cube of an even number is
even.
is
re S
3. There are 4 perfect cubes from 1 to 100; there are 9 perfect cubes from
100 to 100(recall 0 is also a perfect cube). 4. There are 7 perfect cubes
B
bl
from 1 to 500. Of these 64 is the only perfect square; 64 = 43 = 82 .
be T
5. The number of zeros at the end is always a multiple of 3. 6. Each

pu
digit occurs at the end of some cube. Hence one cannot conclude that
K
some number is not a cube by looking at the last digit(compare this with

perfect squares).
Exercise 1.2.8
1. (i) 22; (ii) 36; (iii) 25. 2. (i) 45; (ii) 55; (iii) 89. 3. (i) 69; (ii)
36; (iii) 72.
Additional problems on Squares square roots,
cubes and cube roots
to
2. (a) C; (b) B; (c) C; (d) A; (e) C. 3. 11. 4. 6,5,1,6,9,6,6,4,9,1,4,4,9.

5. None of them is a perfect square. 6. 81. 7. (i) z = 5; (ii) y = 12;
t
(iii) x = 8. 8. 48. 9. (i) closed; (ii) commutative; (iii) associative;

No
(iv) no, because m2 + k 2 = m2 implies k = 0 and N does not contain 0.

11. 344 m. 12. If 1010 = a2 b2 for some integers a and b, then either
both a and b are odd or both even. Hence a2 b2 is divisible by 4. But
1010 is not divisible by 4. Hence 1010 is not the difference of two perfect
squares. 13. 0,1,6. 14. 1156 = 342 . 15. 4 and 16.
Exercise 1.3.1
1. (i) associative property of addition in Z; (ii) commutative property of
multiplication in Z; (iii) distributivity of multiplication over addition in
128 Answers
Z.
2. 6, 9, 123, 76, 85, 1000. 3. (i) m = 2; (ii) m = 10; (iii)
m = 14; m = 77. 4. 333, 210, 26, 8, 0, 21, 33, 85, 2011. 5. 2011,
528, 364, 210, 85, 12, 58, 1024, 10000.
Exercise 1.3.2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
1. You can take , , , , , , , , , .
14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77
d
22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 143 154 165 176
2.Take , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
he
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3. , , , , , , , , , .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
is
re S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4. , , , , , , , , , .
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
B
5. The number
3
2
blis the same as
3
, as these are equivalent fractions;
be T
2
pu
recall that the denominator is always positive as a convention.
9 8 4
K
6. 0.9 = ; 0.8 = = .
10 10 5

Exercise 1.3.3
1. (i) closure property of addition; closure property of multiplication; (iii)
0 is the additive
identity;
(iv) 1 is the multiplicative identity.
8 6 3 3 16 4 1 11 15 18
5. , = , , , . 6. , , , , 1000.
5 10 5 8 3 1 2 6 8 19
Exercise 1.3.4
to
13 102 4 7 3 101 22 15
2. < < < < < < < .
7 81 5 12 4 100 19 11
13 14 15 16 17
3. We can take , , , , . If you increase both the numerator and
t
30 30 30 30 30
denominator and use the property of equivalent fractions, you can get any
No
number of such collections.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4
4. There are 15 such rational numbers: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 5 7 4 5 7 5
m p m+p m p m p
5. If and are distinct, then lies between and . If = ,
n q n+q n q n q
m+p m p
then = = . 6. 79. 7. 69.
n+q n q
Additional problems on Rational numbers
1. (a) natural numbers; (b) 0; (c) 2; (d) 9; (e) even; (f) odd. 2. (a) false;
Answers 129
(b) false; (c) true; (d) false; (e) false; (f) true; (g) false. 3. (i) 297; (ii)
39. 4. m/(m + 1) < (m + 1)/(m + 2); do not forget two cases m < 2 and
m > 1. 5. (i) yes; (ii) yes; (iii) yes; (iv) a 1 = 1; (e) a = 2, b = 2.
13 17 23 11 100 10 5 20 25 10 40
6. , , , , . 7. < < < < < .
8 12 26 13 101 13 6 23 28 11 43
21 13 31 9 41 51
8. > > > > > . 9. (a) 0; (b) 1; (c) 1, 1.
17 11 27 8 37 47
46 413 225 11825
d
11 (i) ; (ii) ; (iii) ; (iv) . 13. Every non-zero rational
225 108 6 504
he
5
number is invertible, but only 1 are invertible integers. 14. .
3
1
15. . 16. 1. 17. 140. 18. No rational p/q between 0 and 1 for
is
2
re S
which q < p. 19. n = 0, 1, 3, 4. 20. 4 values: 26, 46, 50, 70.
23. n = 2, 3, 5, 0, 1, 3.
B
Exercise 1.4.2 bl
be T
pu
1. chess: 270, carom: 540, other games: 90 2. 2,000. 3. 25%.
K
4. 2,400. 5. 9,800.
Exercise 1.4.3

1. 10% profit. 2. 3,168. 3. 920. 4. Profit 120 5. 600 6. 20%.

Exercise 1.4.4
1. 12%. 2. 625. 3. 1904(marked price) and 336(discount).
4. 26%. 5. (i) 425. (ii) 340.
Exercise 1.4.5
to
1. 700(commission); Sindhu gets 27,300. 2. 1,350. 3. 2.5%.

4. 70,000.
Exercise 1.4.6
t
No
1. 625. 2. 39.55 3. 3 12 years 4. 18,000. 5. 12 12 %.

Exercise 1.4.7
1.(i) 260; (ii) 2,838; (iii) 1,236. (iv) 212. 2. 30,245
3. 7.33% gain.
Additional problems on Commercial Arithmetic
1. (a) A.; (b) C.; (c) B.; (d) B. ; (e) C.; (f) A.; (g) C.; (h) C.;
(i) B.; (j) B.; (k) A.; (l) B.; (m) C.; (n) A.; (o) B..
2. 2 12 . 3. 325. 4. 330. 5. 800. 6. 1,200. 7. 27 kg.
130 Answers
8. 1,080. 9. (i) 675; (ii) 8% . 10 28,462.56. 11. 41,050.

12. 528. 13. 18%. 14. 20 years. 15. 2 years. 16. 32,041.65.
17. 24,300.
Exercise 1.5.2
1.
2.
Class Tally Frequency
Class Tally Frequency
d
Interval marks
Interval marks
he
30-39 IIII 4
10-20 I I I I , IIII 9
40-49 IIII , IIII , 16
20-30 I I I I , I I I I , II 12
IIII , I
is
30-40 IIII , IIII 10
re S
50-59 I I I I , II 7
40-50 I I I I , IIII 9
B
60-69 5
70-79 bl
IIII
IIII 4
50-60 IIII , I 6
be T
60-70 IIII 4
pu
80-89 III 3
(i) 10 scores between 30 and 40.
K
90-99 I 1
ii) 10, 35. (iii) 52.
(i) highest: 40 - 49, lowest: 90 - 99

(ii) 30.5 and 39.5 (iii) 65.

Exercise 1.5.3
1. 2.
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
to
20 20
15 15
10 10
t
5 5
No
20 25 30 35 40 45 9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5
Exercise 1.5.4
1. 42.1. 2. 29.73. 3. 42.75. 4. 22.63. 5. 15. 6. 37.5.
7. 136.8. 8. 16.7. 9. (i) 3; (ii) 22 and 42(bi-mode distribution).
10. 20.
Additional problems on Statistics
1. (a) B. (b) D. (c) B. (d) A. (e) A. (f) D. (g) A. (h) C. (i) B. (j) D.
(k) A. (l) B. (m) C. (n) A. (o) B. (p) A. (q) D. (r) B.
Answers 131
2.
Class-Interval Tally Frequency (i) The largest number of

marks scores lie in the class inter-
10 - 20 I I I I , III 8 val 20-30.
20 - 30 IIII , IIII 10 (ii) 10, 20, 30 are included re-
30 - 40 I I I I , III 8
d
spectively in the class inter-
40 - 50 I I I I , III 8 vals 10-20, 20-30, 30-40.
he
50 - 60 IIII , I 6 (iii) The range of the scores is
Total 40 40 59-10=49.
is
re S
3.
B
Class-Interval
bl Tally Frequency (i) Mid-points of 0-4, 5-9, 10-
be T
pu
marks 14, 15-19, 20-24 are respec-
K
0-4 I 1 tively 2,7,12,17,22.

5-9 II 2 (ii) The class interval having

10 - 14 I I I I , II 7 maximum frequency is 15-

15 - 19 I I I I , IIII 9 19.
20 - 24 IIII , I 6 (iii) The range of the scores is
Total 25 25 24-3=21.
4. 5.
to
20 20
20
18
t
15 14 14
15
No
12 12
10 10
8 10
6
5 5 4
2
5 15 25 35 45 55 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
6. (i) 73.17(approximately); (i) 77.17(approximately). 7. 17. 8. 14.75.

CHAPTER 2 UNIT 1
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
the meaning and types of polynomials;
d
addition and subtraction of polynomials;
he
multiplication of polynomials: monomials by monomials, binomial by
monomials, binomial by binomial (x + a)(x + b), (a + b)2 , (a b)2 and
(a + b)(a b) etc.
is
re S B
2.1.1 Introduction
bl
Let us first review some of the things you have learnt earlier.
be T
pu
A symbol which has a fixed value is called a constant.
K

Examples: 5, -7, 2 35 , 5, 2 + 3 etc.

A symbol which does not have any fixed value, but may be assigned value
(values) according to the requirement is called a variable or a literal.
Examples: p, q, x, y, z etc.
Note:
1. Combination of a constant and a variable is a variable.
to
Examples: 3x, (4 + p), 6/x, x/7, x 4, 9x etc.

2. Combination of two or more variables is either a variable or a constant.
Examples: xy, x/y, (x y), (y x), x, (x + y), xyz, xy/z , 13 + x y,
t
14x y, 10 xy, 7x/y, 8/xy etc. Observe (4 + x) + (4 x) = 8 which is a

No
constant.
A term is a number (constant), a variable, or a combination of (product or
quotient of) numbers and variables.
Examples: 9, x, 3x, 4xy, 7x/15y, 21/xy, yz/x etc.
A single term or a combination of two or more terms connected by additive
(both addition and subtraction) and multiplicative(both multiplication and
division) symbols form an algebraic expression.
Examples: 7 y, 3x2 4y, 6xy, 6 + x2 3x, (7x/9) + 4y 6z etc.
Algebraic Expressions 133
Note: The signs of multiplication and division do not separate terms. For
example: 9x2 4y or 4x2 /7y are single terms.
An algebraic expression which contains only one term is called a mono-
mial.
Examples: 4, 5/ 11, x, 6x, 8xy, 7x2 /y, yz/x, 5x2 y/7z etc.
An algebraic expression which contains two terms is called a binomial.
d
Examples: 7 + x, xy 7, (5x/y) 3x, 3x2 6xy, yz 2 + 2z.
he
An algebraic expression which contains three terms is called a trinomial.
Examples: 4 + x + y, 6x + 15 y 2 , ax2 + bx + c, ax + by + 2.
An algebraic expression in which each term contains only the variable(s)
is
re S
with non negative integral exponent(s) is called a polynomial.
B
x bl
Examples: x2 4x, x 4xy + y 2 , 6 5y + xy + x2 y, 4.
Note: + 2 is not a polynomial, it is only an algebraic expression.
be T
y
pu
Exercise 2.1.1
K
1. Separate the constants and variables from the following:

12 + z, 15, x/5, 3/7, x, 3, (2/3)xy, (5xy)/2, 7, 7 x, 6x + 4y,

7z, (8yz)/3x, y + 4, y/4 and (2x)/(8yz).
2. Separate the monomials, binomials and trinomials from the following:
7xyz, 9 4y, 4y 2 xz, x 2y + 3z, 7x + z 2 , 8x/y, (8/5)x2 y 2 , 4 + 5y 6z.
2.1.2 Algebraic expressions

to
Consider 9x. It contains two factors: 9 and x. We say 9 is the numerical

coefficient(or constant or arithmetical coefficient);x is called as vari-
able(or literal factor or literal coefficient). Or consider 9xy. Here there
t
are two variables x and y. We say 9x is the coefficient of y and 9y is the

No
coefficient of x. Observe the following tabular columns:

Product Coefficient Numerical Literal
Coefficient Coefficient
(constant) (variable)
8xy 8x is the coefficient of y 8 x
8y is the coefficient of x 8 y
xy is the coefficient of 8 xy
8 is the coefficient of xy 8
134 Unit 1
Note: 1. If the literal factor (variable) has no sign, it is taken as

positive.
2. If the variable has no power, it is taken as 1.
3. If the variable has no numerical coefficient, it is taken as 1.
For example, x means +1x.
4. The highest power of the variable in a polynomial with single
variable is called the degree of the polynomial.
d
he
Like and unlike terms
Terms having the same variable with same exponents are called like terms.
is
re S
Examples:
5x, 2x, 7x, 9x, (1/3)x etc.;
B
bl 1
x2 , 2x2 , 6x2 , 9x2 , x2 etc.;
7
be T
1
pu
x , 3x , 7x , 9x , x3 etc.
3 3 3 3
9
K
Terms having the same variable with different exponents or different

variables with same/different exponents are called unlike terms.

Examples: x, x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 etc.; x, m, n, p etc.; x, xy, xy 2 etc.
2.1.3 Addition and Subtraction of polynomials

Let us first review properties of addition and multiplication in the set of
all integers:
to
1. Sum of two positive integers is a positive integer; (+7)+(+5) = +7+5 =

+12.
t
2. Sum of two negative integers is a negative integer; (7) + (5) = 7

No
5 = 12.
3. Sum of a positive integer and a negative integer is positive if the abso-
lute value of the negative integer is smaller than the positive integer;
(+7) + (5) = +7 5 = +2.
4. Sum of a positive integer and a negative integer is negative if the ab-
solute value of the negative integer is larger than the positive integer;
(7) + (+5) = 7 + 5 = 2
5. Product of two positive integers is also a positive integer; (+7) (+5) =
+35.
6. Product of two negative integers is a positive integer; (7) (5) = +35
7. Product of a positive integer and a negative integer is a negative inte-

ger; (+7) (5) = 35.
8. Product of a negative integer and a positive integer is a negative inte-
ger; (7) (+5) = 35.
d
Make the following rules for addition and subtraction of two polynomials:
he
1. like terms can be added or subtracted;
2. unlike terms cannot be added or subtracted;
is
3. while adding or subtracting like terms, their numerical coefficients
re S
are added or subtracted;
B
bl
Example 1. Add 5x2 y, 7x2 y and 9x2 y.
be T
pu
Solution: Recall rule 1. We have
K

(5x2 y) + (7x2 y) + (9x2 y) = 5 + (7) + 9 x2 y

= 5 7 + 9 x2 y
= 7x2 y.
This is horizontal addition. We can also have vertical addition:
+5 x2 y
to
7 x2 y
+9 x2 y
7 x2 y
t
No
You may observe that we are adding the coefficients and retaining the
variable term as it is.
Example 2. Add: 7x2 4x + 5 and 9x 10.

Solution: Here there are unlike
7x2 4x +5
terms. We can add only like terms.
+9x 10
We write like terms one below other
7x2 +5x 5
to facilitate easy addition.
Example 3. Add 8xy + 4yz 7zx, 6yz + 11zx 6y and 5xz + 6x 2yx.
136 Unit 1
Solution: Here again there are

many unlike terms. We write
+8xy +4yz 7zx
like terms one below other to
+6yz +11zx 6y
facilitate easy addition. We
2xy 5xz +6x
are also using the commuta-
6xy +10yz xz +6x 6y
tive property: xy = yx and xz =
zx.
d
Example 4. Subtract 2x3 x2 + 4x 6 from x3 + 5x2 4x + 6.
he
Solution: We write like terms
+1x3 +5x2 4x +6 Minuend
one below other to facilitate
+2x3 x2 +4x 6 Subtrahend
is
easy subtraction. Note that we
re S
(2) (+1) (4) (+6)
are subtracting relevant coeffi-
1x3 +6x2 8x +12
B
bl
cients. Subtracting a negative
number is equivalent to adding the negative of that number. Hence we
be T
pu
have changed the signs of coefficients in the subtrahend and added the
K
coefficients. You can also do this in a quick way, once you understand the
meaning of subtraction, as follows:

x3 + 5x2 4x + 6) 2x3 x2 + 4x 6
= x3 + 5x2 4x + 6 2x3 + x2 4x + 6
= (1 2)x3 + (5 + 1)x2 + (4 4)x + (6 + 6)
= 1x3 + 6x2 8x + 12
to
= x3 + 6x2 8x + 12.
t
Exercise 2.1.3
No
1. Classify into like terms:

1
4x2 , x, 8x3 , xy, 6x3 , 4y, 74x3 , 8xy, 7xyz, 3x2 .
3
2. Simplify:
(i) 7x 9y + 3 3x 5y + 8; (ii) 3x2 + 5xy 4y 2 + x2 8xy 5y 2 .
3. Add:
(i) 5a + 3b, a 2b and 3a + 5b; (ii) x3 x2 y + 5xy 2 + y 3 , x3 9xy 2 + y 3 ,
and 3x2 y + 9xy 2 .
4. Subtract:
(i) 2x2 y + 3xy 2 from 8x2 y; (ii) a b 2c from 4a + 6b 2c.
2.1.4 Multiplication of Polynomials

Observe the following products: (i) 5x 6x2 = (5 6) (x x2 ) = 30x3 ;
(ii) 2x 6y 8z = (2x 6y) (8z)

d
= (2 6) (x y) (8z) = 12xy (8z)

he
= 12 8 (xy z) = 96xyz.
We can also write this in one step: 2x6y8z = (268)(xyz) = 96xyz.
is
re S
Note: coefficient of the product= the product of the coefficients of
B
expressions;
bl
algebraic factor of the product= the product of all the algebraic fac-
be T
pu
tors.
K
Example 5. Find the product of 6x and 7x2 y.

Solution: We have (6x) (7x2 y) = 6 (7) (x x2 y) = (42)x3 y.
Note: We are using x x2 y = (x x2 )y = x3 y. In other words, we

multiply similar variables and use the law of indices for simplifying
the expression: xm xn = xm+n for all integers m, n, which you will
study later.
to
Multiplying a monomial by a monomial

t
Example 6. Find the product 4x 5y 7z.

No
Solution: We have 4x 5y 7z = (4 5 7) (x y z) = 140xyz.

Example 7. What is the product 2l2 m 3lm2 ?
Solution: We have 2l2 m 3lm2 = (2 3) (l2 l) (m m2 ) = 6l3 m3 . We are
using the law of indices: ak al = ak+l .
Multiplying a monomial by a binomial
Consider the product 9 103 = 927. We may also write this in the form
9 103 = 9 (100 + 3) = (9 100) + (9 3) = 900 + 27 = 927.

138 Unit 1
Do you see that we have used the distributive property of multiplication

over addition? We adopt the same strategy when a binomial is involved.
Thus

2x(3x + 5xy) = (2x) (3x) + (2x) (5xy) = 6x2 + 10x2 y.
Example 8. Determine the product (8y + 3) 4x.

Solution: We have
d
(8y + 3) (4x) = (4x) (8y + 3)
he
= (4x 8y) + (4x) 3
= 32xy + 12x.
is
re S
Here we have used the commutativity of the product and right distributiv-
B
bl
ity. We can also use left distributive law and get
be T

pu
(8y + 3) (4x) = (8y) (4x) + 3 (4x)
K
= 32yx + 12x
= 32xy + 12x,

because xy = yx, the commutative property of the product.
Important points:
We are using all the properties of numbers to the algebraic vari-
ables; associativity, commutativity, law of indices, distributive
to
property. This is because, when we substitute numbers for these

variables, all these properties are true. As an extrapolation, we
expect them to hold for variables as well.
t
No
Multiplying a binomial by a binomial

Consider the product of two binomials (4a + 6b) and (5a + 7b). We have
(4a + 6b)(5a + 7b) = 4a(5a + 7b) + 6b(5a + 7b)

= (4a)(5a) + (4a)(7b) + (6b)(5a) + (6b)(7b)
= 20a2 + 28ab + 30ab + 42b2
= 20a2 + 42b2 + 58ab.
Exercise 2.1.4
1. Complete the following table of products of two monomials:
First 3x 6y 4x2 8xy 9x2 y 11x3 y 2

Second
3x
d
6y
4x2
he
8xy
9x2 y
is
re S
11x3 y 2
B
bl
2. Find the products:
be T
6x 3 3
(ii) (3pq)(15p3 q 2 q 3 );
pu
(i) (5x+ 8)3; (iii) (a b ); (iv) x(x15).
5
K
3. Simplify the following:

(i) (2x2 yxy)(3xy5); (ii) (3x2 y 2 +1)(4xy6xy 2); (iii) (3x2 +2x)(2x2 +3);
(iv) (2m3 + 3m)(5m 1).
2.1.5 Special product

Now we study a special product, a product of two binomials. Consider the
to
product:
(x + a)(x + b) = x(x + b) + a(x + b) = x2 + xb + ax + ab

t
= x2 + ax + bx + ab
No
= x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
We have used commutative property and the distributive property: xb = bx,

(ax + bx) = (a + b)x. We say (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab is an identity.
Thus
(x + 2)(x + 1) = x2 + (2 + 1)x + (2 1) = x2 + 3x + 2.
We can also represent the the identity (x + 2)(x + 1) = x2 + 3x + 2, pictorially.
140 Unit 1
You observe that the

area of the rectangle is
D x I 1 H 1 C (x + 2)(x + 1). The rectan-
1 x
1 1 1 1 1 gle is split in to smaller
x 1 1
J G squares and rectangles:
K L
squares AEKJ, KLHI
and LGCH having ar-
d
(x+1)
x x x eas x2 , 1 and 1 respec-
he
x x tively; rectangles EF LK,
x2 x
F BGL, JKID having ar-
eas x, x, x respectively.
is
re S
Thus the area of ABCD
is x2 + 1 + 1 + x + x + x =
B
A xbl E 1 F 1 B x2 + 3x + 2. We thus ob-
be T
pu
(x+2) tain
K
(x + 2)(x + 1) = x2 + 3x + 2.

What is the value of (x + a)(x + b)? If we replace x by y what

happens to the identity: (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab? Can you
see that you again get an identity?
Example 9. Find the product (x + 6)(x + 7).

Solution: We observe that (x + 6)(x + 7) = x2 + (6 + 7)x + (6 7) = x2 + 13x + 42.
to
Example 10. Determine the product (x + 8)(x 4)

Solution: Using the identity (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab, we get
t
No
(x + 8)(x 4) = x2 + (8 4)x + 8 (4) = x2 + 4x 32.
Example 11. Compute (2x + 5)(2x + 3).

Solution: We know that (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab. Thus
(2x + 5)(2x + 3) = (2x)2 + (5 + 3)(2x) + (5 3) = 4x2 + 16x + 15,
Example 12. Find the product 103 98 using the above identity.
103 98 = (100 + 3)(100 2)

= (100)2 + (3) + (2) 100 + 3 (2)
= 10000 + (1 100) + (6) = 10094,
where we have taken x = 100, a = 3 and b = 2 in the expansion: (x + a)(x +
d
b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
he
Example 13. Find the product (p2 5)(p2 3).
Solution: We have
is
re S B

bl
(p2 5)(p2 3) = (p2 )2 + (5) + (3) (p2 ) + (5) (3) = p4 8p2 + 15.
be T
pu
K

Identities
An identity is an equality which is true for every value of the variable in
it.
For example (x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 5x + 6 is an identity. If you give any value
for the variable x, you see that the left side and right side coincide.
to
We have some special identities, which are helpful in solving problems.

Consider
t
No
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a2 + ab + ba + b2

= a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + b2 + 2ab.
Observe that we have used the commutative law: ab = ba. We can have a
pictorial proof of this identity using geometrical squares.
142 Unit 1
Observe that the square

D a G b C
ABCD has area equal to
(a + b)2 , since its side-length
is a + b. Now we divide the
a a ab a square in to two smaller
(a+b)
squares and two rectangles;
squares HKGD having area
d
H
K a2 and the square EBF K
F
he
b ab b b
having area b2 ; the rectangle
KF CG having area ab and the
A a E b B rectangle AEKH having area
is
re S
ab. Thus the area of ABCD is
(a+b)
a2 + b2 + ab + ab = a2 + b2 + 2ab.
B
Similarly we obtain
bl
be T
(a b)2 = a2 + b2 2ab.
pu
K
And its pictorial proof is as follows.

Consider a square ABCD with

(ab)
side-length a so that its area
D G b C
is equal to a2 . Now we divide
the square in to two smaller
squares and two rectangles;
(ab)
(ab) b(ab) squares HKGD having area

(ab)
(a b)2 and the square EBF K

to
a
having area b2 ; the rectan-
H
K gle KF CG having area b(a b)
F
t
and the rectangle AEKH hav-

No
b b(ab) b b
ing area b(ab). (We assume a is
A (ab) E b B greater than b.) Now the area of
HKGD is obtained by subtract-
a
ing the areas of EBKF , KF CG
and AEKH from that of ABCD.
Hence we get
(a b)2 = a2 b2 b(a b) b(a b) = a2 b2 ba + b2 ba + b2
= a2 2ab + b2 .
We also have
(a + b)(a b) = a2 ab + ba b2 = a2 b2 .
These are called standard identities.
Example 14. Find (2x + 3y)2.
Solution: We use the identity: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 . Taking a = 2x and
b = 3y, we get
d
(2x + 3y)2 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3y) + (3y)2 = 4x2 + 12xy + 9y 2.
he
Example 15. What is the expansion of (4p 3q)2 ?
Solution: Here we use (a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2 . Taking a = 4p and b = 3q, we
is
obtain
re S
(4p 3q)2 = (4p)2 2(4p)(3q) + (3q)2 = 16p2 24pq + 9q 2 .
B
bl
Example 16. Compute (4.9)2 .
be T
Solution: We can use identities for this problem. Observe

pu
(4.9)2 = (5 0.1)2 = 52 2(5)(0.1) + (0.1)2 = 25 1 + 0.01 = 24.01.
K
You may verify this by directly computing (4.9)2 .

Example 17. Compute 54 46.

Solution: Here again, identities are useful. We make use of (a + b)(a b) =
a2 b2 . Taking a = 50 and b = 4, we see that
54 46 = (50 + 4)(50 4) = (50)2 (4)2 = 2500 16 = 2484.
to
Activity 1:
Represent the identity (a + b)(a b) = a2 b2 pictorially as has been done in
the case of other identities.
t
No
Exercise 2.1.5
1. Find the product:
(i) (a+ 3)(a+ 5), (ii) (3t+ 1)(3t+ 4); (iii) (a8)(a+ 2); (iv) (a6)(a2).
2. Evaluate:
(i) 53 55; (ii)102 106; (iii) 34 36; (iv) 103 96.
3. Can you imitate the case of the identity (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab,
and get a similar expression for the product (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)?
144 Unit 1
4. Using the identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 , simplify the following:

(i) (a + 6)2 , (ii) (3x + 2y)2 ; (iii) (2p + 3q)2 ; (iv) (x2 + 5)2 .
5. Evaluate using the identity (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 :
(i) (34)2 ; (ii) (10.2)2 ; (iii) (53)2 ; (iv) (41)2 .
6. Use the identity (a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2 to compute:
(i) (x 6)2 ; (ii) (3x 5y)2; (iii) (5a 4b)2 ;
d
(iv) (p2 q 2 )2 .
he
7. Evaluate using the identity (a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2 :
(i) (49)2 ; (ii) (9.8)2 ; (iii) (59)2 ; (iv) (198)2 .
8. Use the identity (a + b)(a b) = a2 b2 to find the products:
is
re S
(x + 6)(x
(i) 6); (ii) (3x + 5)(3x 5); (iii) (2a + 4b)(2a 4b); (iv)
B
2x
3
+1
2x
3
1 .
bl
be T
9. Evaluate these using identity:

pu
K
(i) 55 45; (ii) 33 27; (iii) 8.5 9.5; (iv) 102 98.
10. Find the product:

(i) (x3)(x+3)(x2 +9); (ii) (2a+3)(2a3)(4a2 +9); (iii) (p+2)(p2)(p2 +4);

1 1 1 1 1 2 1
(iv) m m+ m + ; (v) (2xy)(2x+y)(4x2 +y 2); (vi)
2 3 2 3 4 9
(2x 3y)(2x + 3y)(4x2 + 9y 2).
Additional problems on Algebraic expressions

to
1. Choose the correct answer.
(a) Terms having the same literal factors with same exponents are
t
No
called
A. exponents B. like terms C. factors D. unlike terms
(b) The coefficient of ab in 2ab is:
A. ab B. 2 C. 2a D. 2b
(c) The exponential form of a a a is:
A. 3a B. 3 + a C. a3 D. 3 a
(d) Sum of two negative integers is:
A. negative B. positive C. zero D. infinite
(e) What should be added to a2 + 2ab to make it a complete square?

A. b2 B. 2ab C. ab D. 2a
(f) What is the product (x + 2)(x 3)?
A. 2x 6 B. 3x 2 C. x2 x 6 D. x2 6x
(g) The value of (7.2)2 is( use an identity to expand):
A. 49.4 B. 14.4 C. 51.84 D. 49.04
d
(h) The expansion of (2x 3y)2 is:
he
A. 2x2 + 3y 2 + 6xy B. 4x2 + 9y 2 12xy
C. 2x2 + 3y 2 6xy D. 4x2 + 9y 2 + 12xy
is
re S
(i) The product 58 62 is(use an identity):
B
bl
A. 4596 B. 2596 C. 3596 D. 6596
be T
2. Take away 8x 7y 8p + 10q from 10x + 10y 7p + 9q.

pu
K
3. Expand:
(i) (4x + 3)2 ; (ii) (x + 2y)2 ; (iii) (x + 1/x)2 ; (iv) (x 1/x)2 .

4. Expand:
(i) (2t + 5)(2t 5); (ii) (xy + 8)(xy 8); (iii) (2x + 3y)(2x 3y).
5. Expand:
(i) (n 1)(n + 1)(n2 + 1); (ii) (n 1/n)(n + 1/n)(n2 + 1/n2 );
(iii) (x 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1)(x4 + 1); (iv) (2x y)(2x + y)(4x2 + y 2 ).
to
6. Use appropriate formulae and compute:

(i) (103)2 ; (ii) (96)2 ; (iii) 107 93; (iv) 1008 992; (v) 1852 1152 .
t
No
7. If x + y = 7 and xy = 12, find x2 + y 2 .
8. If x + y = 12 and xy = 32, find x2 + y 2 .
9. If 4x2 + y 2 = 40 and xy = 6, find 2x + y.
10. If x y = 3 and xy = 10, find x2 + y 2 .
11. If x + (1/x) = 3, find x2 + (1/x2 ) and x3 + (1/x3 ).
12. If x + (1/x) = 6, find x2 + (1/x2 ) and x4 + (1/x4 ).

146 Unit 1
13. Simplify: (i) (x + y)2 + (x y)2; (ii) (x + y)2 (x y)2.
14. Express the following as difference of two squares:

(i) (x + 2z)(2x + z); (ii) 4(x + 2y)(2x + y); (iii) (x + 98)(x + 102); (iv)

a+b 2 ab 2
505 495. (Hint. ab = .)
2 2
15. If a = 3x 5y, b = 6x + 3y and c = 2y 4x, find
d
(i) a + b c; (ii) 2a 3b + 4c.
he
16. The perimeter of a triangle is 15x2 23x + 9 and two of its sides are
5x2 + 8x 1 and 6x2 9x + 4. Find the third side.
is
re S
17. The two adjacent sides of a rectangle are 2x2 5xy+3z 2 and 4xyx2 z 2 .
B
bl
Find its perimeter.
be T
18. The base and the altitude of a triangle are (3x 4y) and (6x + 5y)
pu
respectively. Find its area.
K
19. The sides of a rectangle are 2x + 3y and 3x + 2y. From this a square of

side length x+y is removed. What is the area of the remaining region?
20. If a, b, c are rational numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca = 0,

prove that a = b = c.
Glossary
to
Constant: any symbol which has a fixed value.

Variable: a symbol which can be given any value as desired.
Algebraic expression: a combination of constants and variables con-
t
No
nected by algebraic operations.

Polynomial: an algebraic expression in which the variables have non-
negative integral powers.
Term: a part of an algebraic expression which does not involve addition
and subtraction, but may be connected by multiplication and division.
Coefficient: the companion term of a variable.
Monomial: an algebraic expression containing only one term.
Binomial: an algebraic expression containing two terms.
Trinomial: an algebraic expression containing three terms.
Degree: the largest power of a variable in a polynomial(if it has more than

one variable, then one has to take the sum of the powers of variables in
each term and take the maximum of all these sums).
Identity: equality of two algebraic expressions which is valid for all the
values of the variables in it.
Points to remember
d
An expression involving variables and constants combined using the
algebraic operations, namely addition, multiplication, subtraction and
he
division is an algebraic expression.
While adding two algebraic expressions, we add only like terms.
is
re S
While multiplying two expressions, we multiply term-by-term and use
the laws of exponents to simplify it.
B
bl
In a polynomial, the powers of variable(s) in it are non-negative inte-
be T
gers.
pu
K
An identity is an equality of two algebraic expressions which is valid

for all values of the variable(s) in it.

All the religions of the world, while they may differ in other respects,
to
unitedly proclaim that nothing lives in this world but Truth.

Gandhiji
t
No
CHAPTER 2 UNIT 2
FACTORISATION
factorise an algebraic expression by taking out common factors;
d
factorise an expression by grouping appropriate terms;
factorise an expression which is a difference of two square expres-
he
sions;
factorise a trinomial expression;
is
re S
factorise a square trinomial expression by using known identities.
B
2.2.1 Introduction
bl
be T
The process of writing a given algebraic expression as a product of

pu
two or more expressions is called factorisation. Each of the expres-
K
sion(constant or variable) which form the product is called a factor of

the given algebraic expression.

For example: (i) Consider 7xy. It has factors: 7, x, y, 7x, 7y, xy and 7xy;
(ii) (x + 3) and (x + 2) are factors of x2 + 5x + 6.
Recall the process of factorisation of a number. Given an integer, we
write this as a product of other integers. This ultimately leads to prime
factorisation of a number. In some sense, algebraic expressions also follow
to
similar way. Given an expression, you will be able to write the expression
as a product of its factors.
t
Note: (1) Factorisation and multiplication are reverse processes. In

No
multiplication, we multiply different expressions and get a new ex-

pression. In factorisation, we split the given expression in to simpler
expressions whose product turns out to be the given expression.
(2) You can always use 1 as a factor: (x + 5) = 1 (x + 5). But this
does not give any thing new. This is called the trivial factorisation.
Many times one has to consider such factorisations as well.
Factorisation 149
2.2.2 Different methods of factorisation

There are many ways of factorising a given expression. We study them
here.
1. Factorisation taking common factors
Consider the following examples:
Example 1: 5x2 10x
d
Here you see that 5x is the HCF of 5x2 and 10x. We can remove them from
he
both the terms. Thus we get
5x2 10x = (5x)(x) (5x)2 = (5x)(x 2).
is
re S
Example 2: 4a + 12b = 4(a + 3b).
B
bl
Example 3: 3x2 y 6xy 2 + 9xy = 3xy(x 2y + 3).
be T
Example 4: a3 a2 + a = a(a2 a + 1).

pu
You see that we look at the HCF of all the terms in the expression and
K
take out the HCF to get a factorisation.

2. Factorisation by grouping
We follow several steps in this process:
Step I: Arrange the terms of the given expression in suitable groups
such that each group has a common factor;
Step II: Factorise each group;
to
Step III: Take out the factor which is common to each group.
Example 5: Factorise ax bx + ay by.

t
Solution: We group them as

No
(ax bx) + (ay by) = (a b)x + (a b)y = (a b)(x + y).
Do you see that the distributive law is used in a reverse way? We can also
do this as follows:
ax bx + ay by = (ax + ay) (bx + by)

= a(x + y) b(x + y)
= (a b)(x + y).
150 Unit 2
Example 6: Get the factors of y 3 3y 2 + 2y 6 xy + 3x.

Solution: Here again we group the terms in the expression and factorise:
y 3 3y 2 + 2y 6 xy + 3x = (y 3 3y 2) + (2y 6) (xy 3x)

= y 2 (y 3) + 2(y 3) x(y 3) = (y 2 + 2 x)(y 3).
3. Factorisation of difference of two squares
d
We know from earlier unit that (a + b)(a b) = a2 b2 for all a, b. This
he
leads to a nice factorisation when the given expression can be written as
difference of two squares.
is
re S
Example 7: Factorise 36a2 49b2 .
Solution: Observe that 36a2 = (6a)2 and 49b2 = (7b)2 . Thus we get
B
bl
36a2 49b2 = (6a)2 (7b)2 = (6a + 7b)(6a 7b).
be T
pu
x2 9
K
Example 8: Factorise 2 .
y 16
Solution: Here again, we write

2 2
x2 9 x 3 x 3 x 3
= = + .
y 2 16 y 4 y 4 y 4
Example 9: Compute (4.5)2 (1.5)2 .

Solution: We have
to
(4.5)2 (1.5)2 = (4.5 + 1.5)(4.5 1.5) = 6 3 = 18.
Exercise 2.2.2
t
No
1. Resolve in to factors:
(i) x2 + xy; (ii) 3x2 6x; (iii) (1.6)a2 (0.8)a; (iv) 5 10m 20n.
2. Factorise:
(i) a2 + ax + ab + bx; (ii) 3ac + 7bc 3ad 7bd; (iii) 3xy 6zy 3xt + 6zt;
(iv) y 3 3y 2 + 2y 6 xy + 3x.
3. Factorise: 2 2
9
(i) 4a2 25; (ii) x2 ; (iii) x4 y 4 ; 3 1
(iv) 7 10 2 10 ;
16
(v) (0.7)2 (0.3)2 ; (vi) (5a 2b)2 (2a b)2 .
Factorisation 151
2.2.3 Factorisation of trinomials

We have seen earlier how to multiply two binomials of the from (x + a)
and (x + b):
(x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
We can also proceed in the reverse direction. Given the trinomial of the
form x2 +(a+b)x+ab, we can factorise this to get x2 +(a+b)x+ab = (x+a)(x+b).
d
But generally, the trinomial is not given in this form. You may be given in
the form x2 + mx + n, where m, n are some numbers. You must be able to
he
write m = (a+b) and n = ab to bring the given trinomial in to a factorisable
form. This needs some properties of numbers. We study them here.
is
re S
The sum and product of two numbers are positive if and
B
bl
only if both the numbers are positive.
be T
This says that if a + b and ab are positive then so are a, b. The converse
pu
is also true. Thus 6 and 5 are positive; 5 = 3 + 2 and 6 = 3 2; both 3 and
K
2 are positive.

The sum of two numbers is negative and their product pos-

itive if and only if both the numbers are negative.
Thus a+b negative and ab positive if and only if both a and b are negative.
If we are given numbers 21 and 10, we see that 10 = (7) + (3) and
21 = (7)(3).
to
We say 7 is the absolute value of both 7 and 7. Thus given an integer

a, we define its absolute value by |a| = a if a > 0; |a| = a if a < 0; and
|a| = 0 if a = 0. Observe 8 < 6 but | 8| = 8 > 6 = | 6|.
t
No
The sum of two numbers is positive and their product neg-

ative if and only if one of the numbers is positive and the
other negative, and the positive number has larger absolute
value than the negative number.
This means a + b is positive and ab negative only if one of a, b is positive

and the other negative; and if a is positive and b is negative, then |a| > |b|;
if a is negative and b positive, then |a| < |b|. For example, we see that if
a + b = 7 and ab = 18, then a = 9 and b = 2 or a = 2 and b = 9.
152 Unit 2
The sum of two numbers is negative and their product neg-

ative if and only if one of the numbers is positive and the
other negative, and the positive number has smaller abso-
lute value than the negative number.
Thus a + b is negative and ab negative if and only if one of a, b is positive

and the other negative; if a is positive and b is negative, then |a| < |b|; if a
d
is negative and b positive, then |a| > |b|. For example, if a + b = 12 and
he
ab = 28, we can write a = 2 and b = 14 or a = 14 and b = 2.
Here we have not mentioned any thing about the nature of numbers.
They can be integers, rational numbers or even real numbers, which you
is
re S
will study in your next class.
B
bl
Example 10. Factorise 6x2 + 11x + 3.
Solution: Here you can adopt the standard method of splitting and group-
be T
pu
ing:
K
6x2 + 11x + 3 = 6x2 + 9x + 2x + 3 = (6x2 + 9x) + (2x + 3)

= 3x(2x + 3) + 1(2x + 3) = (3x + 1)(2x + 3).
The genuine problem is how to arrive at this splitting. Suppose we are

looking for a factorisation of the form 6x2 + 11x + 3 = (ax + b)(cx + d). This
gives, after expansion,
6x2 + 11x + 3 = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd.
to
After comparing terms of different degrees,

t
ac = 6, ad + bc = 11, bd = 3.
No
Thus acbd = 18 or (ad)(bc) = 18; and ad + bc = 11. You have two numbers
whose product is 18 and their sum is 11. You will immediately conclude
that ad = 9, bc = 2 or ad = 2, bc = 9. Thus you may write
6x2 + 11x + 3 = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd = 6x2 + 9x + 2x + 3,
which is the splitting we have used. Observe we can also use the other
pair of values for (ad, bc); ad = 2, bc = 9. We get
6x2 + 11x + 3 = (6x2 + 2x) + (9x + 3) = 2x(3x + 1) + 3(3x + 1) = (2x + 3)(3x + 1),
Factorisation 153
which is the same as the original factorisation.

Rule: If you want to factorise a trinomial of the form x2 + px + q, you
must be able to find numbers a and b such that a b = q and a + b = p.
Then x2 + px + q = (x + a)(x + b).
You may notice here that a polynomial of degree 2 is written as

a product of two polynomials, each of degree 1, in the process
d
of factorisation. This helps us in understanding the structure
of a polynomial of degree 2. You will see in later classes that
he
this is an easy way of solving a polynomial equation, if you are
able to factorise the polynomial.
is
re S
Example 11. Factorise x2 9x + 20.
B
bl
Solution: Again you must be able to find two numbers a and b such that
ab = 1 20(the product of the coefficients of x2 term and the constant term)
be T
pu
and a+b = 9. Here the product is positive and the sum is negative. Hence
K
both the numbers must be negative. This can be achieved by taking a = 5

and b = 4. Thus

x2 9x + 20 = (x2 5x) + (4x + 20) = x(x 5) 4(x 5) = (x 4)(x 5).
Factorising a square trinomial

Any algebraic expression, which can be written either in the form a2 +
2ab + b2 or in the form a2 2ab + b2 , is called a square trinomial. For
example, x2 + 2x + 1 is a square trinomial. We can have an immediate
to
factorisation for such a trinomial using a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)(a + b) or

a2 2ab + b2 = (a b)(a b).
t
Example 12. Factorise 4x2 + 12xy + 9y 2 .

No
4x2 + 12xy + 9y 2 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3y) + (3y)2 = (2x + 3y)2.
Thus its factors are two equal expressions: 2x + 3y and 2x + 3y.

Example 13. Is x2 6xy + 36y 2 a square trinomial?
We observe that
x2 6xy + 36y 2 = (x)2 (x)(6y) + (6y)2 ,

154 Unit 2
which is not in the standard form,. Thus x2 6xy + 36y 2 is not a square
trinomial.
Think it over!
Is it possible to factorise x2 + 1? Alternatively, is it possible to find
two numbers whose sum is zero and whose product is one?
d
Exercise 2.2.3
he
1. In the following, you are given the product pq and the sum p + q.
Determine p and q:
is
(i) pq = 18 and p + q = 11; (ii) pq = 32 and p + q = 12; (iii) pq = 24
re S
and p + q = 2; (iv) pq = 12 and p + q = 11; (v) pq = 6 and p + q = 5;
B
bl
(vi) pq = 44 and p + q = 7.
2. Factorise:
be T
pu
(i) x2 + 6x + 8; (ii) x2 + 4x + 3; (iii) a2 + 5a + 6; (iv) a2 5a + 6; (v)
K
a2 3a 40; (vi) x2 x 72.

3. Factorise:
(i) x2 + 14x + 49; (ii) 4x2 + 4x + 1; (iii) a2 10a + 25; (iv) 2x2 24x + 72;
(v) p2 24p + 144; (vi) x3 12x2 + 36x.
Additional problems on Factorisation
1. Choose the correct answer:

to
(a) 4a + 12b is equal to

A. 4a B. 12b C. 4(a + 3b) D. 3a
t
No
(b) The product of two numbers is positive and their sum negative
only when
A. both are positive
B. both are negative
C. one positive the other negative
D. one of them equal to zero
(c) Factorising x2 + 6x + 8, we get
A. (x+1)(x+8) B. (x+6)(x+2) C. (x+10)(x2) D. (x+4)(x+2)
Factorisation 155
(d) The denominator of an algebraic fraction should not be

A. 1 B. 0 C. 4 D. 7
(e) If the sum of two integers is 2 and their product is 24, the
numbers are
A. 6 and 4 B. 6 and 4 C. 6 and 4 D. 6 and 4
(f) The difference (0.7)2 (0.3)2 simplifies to
d
A. 0.4 B. 0.04 C. 0.49 D. 0.56
he
2. Factorise the following:
(i) x2 + 6x + 9; (ii) 1 8x + 16x2 ; (iii) 4x2 81y 2; (iv) 4a2 + 4ab + b2 ; (v)
is
a2 b2 + c2 d2 a2 c2 b2 d2 .
re S B
bl
(i) x2 + 7x + 12; (ii) x2 + x 12; (iii) x2 3x 18; (iv) x2 + 4x 21; (v)
be T
pu
x2 4x 192; (vi) x4 5x2 + 4; (vii) x4 13x2 y 2 + 36y 4.
K

(i) 2x2 + 7x + 6; (ii) 3x2 17x + 20; (iii) 6x2 5x 14; (iv) 4x2 + 12xy + 5y 2;
(v) 4x4 5x2 + 1.

(i) x8 y 8 ; (ii) a12 x4 a4 x12 ; (iii) x4 + x2 + 1; (iv) x4 + 5x2 + 9.
6. Factorise x4 + 4y 4 . Use this to prove that 20114 + 64 is a composite

to
number.
Glossary
t
No
Common factor: given two or more expressions, the factor of each ex-
pression which is common to all the expressions.
Factorisation: the process of writing an algebraic expression as a product
of more than one algebraic expressions.
Points to remember:
Factorisation is the reverse process to the formation of the products;
One can factorise some expressions using proper grouping and split-
ting of its terms.
CHAPTER 2 UNIT 3
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

After studying this unit, you learn:
the meaning of linear equation in one variable;
d
to solve a linear equation in one variable;
he
to formulate a linear equation from a verbal problem;
to verify the solution.
is
2.3.1 Introduction
re S
In this chapter, we study linear equations in one variable with rational
B
bl
co-efficients and solve them in rational number system.
be T
Equality of two different algebraic expression is called an equation. The

pu
standard form of an equation is a statement that an algebraic expression
K
is equal to 0. The statement need not be true for any value of the variables

in it; or may be true only for certain values of the variables in it. For
example: consider 3x 5 = 0. If we are looking for integers x for which
this statement is true, you see that no integer satisfies it. On the other
hand, if you look for a rational number, then x = 5/3 makes the statement
3x 5 = 0 true. The value of the variable which makes the statement true
is called a solution of the equation.
to
Some times you may come across statements like 2x 5 = x + 6. This is

also an equation, but this is not in the standard form. However, this can
be brought to standard form; x 11 = 0.
t
No
Given an equation, it may not have any solution in some system and
may have solution in some other system, as you have noticed earlier. The
equation x2 2 = 0 has no solution in the set of all rational numbers, but
it can be solved in the set of real numbers. In fact one of the motivations
to introduce new number systems is that we should be able to solve such
equations. You will learn later that the equation x2 + 1 = 0 also cannot be
solved in the set of all real numbers, but it can be solved in an enlarged
number system called the set of all complex numbers. Thus it is very
important to mention where you are seeking the solution.
Linear equations 157
An equation in one variable is a statement that an algebraic expression

in one variable is equal to 0. If the degree of the expression is also 1, we
say that the equation is a linear equation. The standard form of a linear
equation in one variable is ax + b = 0, where a 6= 0. Here x is the variable
and a, b are constants(some numbers). For example: x 9 = 0; 5x 30 = 0;
3 1
x + = 0.
5 3
What do we mean by solving an equation?. The statement that some
d
expression equals to 0 may not be valid for every value of the variable in
he
it. However, some value(s) of the variable may make the statement true.
In this case, that value of the variable which makes the statement true is
is
called a solution of the given equation.
re S
The process of finding solution or solutions of a given equation is called
B
solving the equation.
bl
As you have observed, given a linear equation ax+b = 0, the existence of
be T
pu
solution depends on the number system where you are seeking solution.
K
If a and b are integers, then there may not be any integer solution unless a
divides b. However, if you are in the system of rational numbers, you can

always get a rational number as a solution. This is the advantage we had

from moving from integers to rational numbers. We are ready to exploit it.
With this back-ground we can now make the statement:
A linear equation with rational coefficients, ax+b = 0, a 6= 0,

has a unique solution in the rational number system.
to
In fact the solution can be written as x = ba1 , where a1 is the multi-

plicative inverse of a. You have seen earlier, while studying rational num-
t
No
bers, that any non-zero rational number has its multiplicative inverse in
the system of rational numbers.
You will see later that this statement is also true in the real number
system, provided you look for solution in the real number system. (In fact
this is true in any number system in which every nonzero number has
multiplicative inverse.)
2.3.2 Solving a linear equation in one variable

Consider the equation 5x 15 = 0. We want to find the value of x for
158 Unit 3
which 5x 15 = 0 holds. Here we make use of important axioms. You will

again come across them in Geometry.
1. If equals are added to equals, we again get

equals.
If we know a = b, then for any c, we get a + c = b + c. For example x 5 = 0
d
is given. We add equal number 5 both sides. What the axioms says is that
equality remains intact. Thus (x 5) + 5 = 0 + 5 which is same as x = 5. The
he
important point to note is that here a, b, c can be algebraic expressions as
well. Thus 3x + 2 = 5 x implies that (3x + 2) + (x 5) = (5 x) + (x 5) = 0
is
re S
or 4x 3 = 0. This axiom and others are important tools in manipulations
of expressions.
B
bl
be T
2. If equals are subtracted from equals, we again get equals.

pu
K
Thus a = b implies that a c = b c. Given x + 5 = 2x 6, we can subtract

x 6 from both sides and get (x + 5) (x 6) = (2x 6) (x 6) or 11 = x.

Can you see that there is not much difference between 1 and 2 once
you consider subtraction as addition of additive inverse. Just like you
define additive inverse to numbers, you can do this for polynomials as
well and all the properties which are true for integers are true again for
polynomials.
to
Example 1. Solve the equation x 15 = 0.

Solution: We add 15 both sides and invoke axiom 1 to get (x 15) + 15 =
0 + 15 = 15. This reduces to x = 15.
t
No
Example 2. Solve the equation x + 9 = 20.

Solution: Do you see that this is not in the standard form. We can bring
this to standard form by subtracting 20 both sides. Thus 2 gives (x + 9)
20 = 20 20 = 0 or x 11 = 0. Now this is in standard form. By adding
11 both sides, you will get x 11 + 11 = 0 + 11 or x = 11. We can combine
both these and reduce the number of steps: subtract 9 both sides. Thus
(x + 9) 9 = 20 9 or x = 11.
Example 3. Solve 2x 3 = x + 8.
Solution: Here you see that both the sides contain algebraic expression.
Suppose you subtract x 3 from both the sides. You get
(2x 3) (x 3) = (x + 8) (x 3) or equivalently x = 11.
3. If equals are multiplied by equal quantities, we again get

equals.
d
x
Thus if a = b, then ac = bc for any c. For example, suppose = 1 is
2
he
x
given. You can multiply both the sides from 2 and get 2 = 1 2 or x = 2.
2
is
4. If equals are divided by non-zero equal quantities, we get
re S
equals.
B
bl a b
be T
This says that if a = b and c 6= 0, then = . This again is the same as 3

pu
c c
once you think that division is the same as multiplication by multiplicative
K
inverse.
x

Example 4. Solve = 9.
3
Solution: We multiply both the sides from 3 and get
x
3 = 9 3 = 27.
3
Thus x = 27.
2x
Example 5. Solve = 5.
to
9
9
Solution: We multiply both the sides by the same number . Note this is
2
same as multiplying first by 9 and then dividing by 2. We get
t
No
2x 9 9 45
=5 = .
9 2 2 2
45
We obtain x = .
2
Example 6. Solve 15x = 120.
Solution: We divide both the sides by 15 and get
15x 120
= = 8.
15 15
This gives x = 8.
160 Unit 3
Example 7. Solve 13y = 100.

We divide both sides by 13 and get
13y 100
= .
13 13
This gives y = 100/13.
Another important component of solving an equation is that of veri-
fying the solution. We have to check whether the so called solution we
d
obtain makes the given statement true. This is done by substituting the
he
value of the variable we have got in the given equation and by verifying the
truth of the statement.
is
re S
Example 8. Is 2 a solution of the equation 3x 5 = 19 ?
Solution: We substitute x = 2, in the given relation. We obtain 3x 5 =
B
bl
3(2) 5 = 6 5 = 1, which is the left hand side or LHS. But the right hand
be T
side or RHS is 19. Since 1 6= 19, we see that LHS is not equal to RHS for
pu
x = 2. Hence x = 2 is not a solution.
K
Example 9. Is 7 a solution of 2x 4 = 10 ?

Solution: Substitute x = 7 in the given relation. We get LHS = 2x 4 =

(2 7) 4 = 14 4 = 10 and RHS = 10. Thus we see that LHS = RHS.
Therefore, x = 7 is the solution of 2x 4 = 10.
Example 10. Solve the equation 2x 3 = 7.
Solution: Adding 3 both the sides, we get 2x 3 + 3 = 7 + 3. This gives
2x 10
to
2x = 10. Now dividing both the sides by 2, we get = . Hence x = 5.

2 2
Let us verify whether we have got a solution. Putting x = 5, we get 2x 3 =
2(5) 3 = 10 3 = 7. Thus the equation is satisfied.
t
No
We can reduce the number of steps in solving an equation. Consider

the equation 2x 3 = 7. We can simply write this as 2x = 7 + 3. Actually you
are adding 3 both sides. But you drop that as a separate step and do the
addition mentally to write 2x3+3 = 2x. We say, we have transposed 3 to
the other side. In fact this is a convenient way for doing fast calculations.
Again you can divide both the sides by 2 in mind and write x = 5.
We can also transpose algebraic expressions as well. For example, given
4x 3 = 3x + 2, we transpose 3x to the left side and 3 to the write side to
get (4x 3x) = (3 + 2); i.e., x = 5.
Example 11. Solve 5x 12 = 10 6x.

Solution: By transposing 6x to the right side and 12 to the left side, we
get 5x + 6x = 10 + 12. Hence 11x = 22 or x = 2.
Rule for transposing: when you transpose an expression

from one side to the other side of an equality, you have
to change the sign of the expression you are transposing.
d
Thus 6x in the previous example becomes +6x when transposed from
he
the left side to the right side.
Example 12. Solve 8x 3 = 9 2x.
is
re S
Solution: We transpose the variables on one side and constants on the
B
6
to x = . bl
other side and get 8x + 2x = 9 + 3. Thus 10x = 12 or x = 12/10. This reduces
be T
5
pu
Example 13. Solve 8x + 9 = 3(x 1) + 7.
K
Solution: The equation is 8x + 9 = 3x 3 + 7 = 3x + 4. By transposing, we

get 8x 3x = 4 9 or 5x = 5. We thus get x = 1. We can verify this:

8x + 9 = 8(1) + 9 = 8 + 9 = 1 and 3(x 1) + 7 = 3(1 1) + 7 = 3(2) + 7 =
6 + 7 = 1. Thus 8x + 9 = 3(x 1) + 7 is true for x = 1. This checks that
x = 1 is a solution.
2 3 7
Example 14. Solve x = x + .
3 8 12
Solution: Here we multiply by the LCM of the denominators: LCM of
to
3,8,12 is 24. (Which axiom are you using here?) Thus

2 3 7
x 24 = x+ 24,
t
3 8 12
No
and this simplifies to

16x = 9x + 14.
Hence 7x = 14 or x = 2. Check that x = 2 is indeed the solution.
Do you see the advantage of multiplying both the sides by the LCM of all
the denominators?. The new expression becomes an equation with integer
coefficients. You can easily handle this equation. Thus Axiom 3 helps
in transforming an equation with rational coefficients to an equivalent
equation with integer coefficients.
162 Unit 3
Example 15. Solve the equation

2x + 7 3x + 11 2x + 8
= 5.
5 2 3
Solution: Here 2,3,5 appear in the denominators of various fractions.
Their LCM is 30. We multiply through out by 30. Thus
2x + 7 3x + 11 2x + 8
30 30 = 30 (5 30).
5 2 3
d
This reduces to
he
6(2x + 7) 15(3x + 11) = 10(2x + 8) 150.
= 12x + 42 45x 165 = 20x + 80 150.
is
re S
Transposing appropriate quantities, we get
B
bl
12x 45x 20x = 42 + 165 + 80 150 = 53x = 53.
be T
Hence x = 1 is the solution. You may verify this by substituting in the

pu
equation and checking whether LHS and RHS agree.
K
Example 16. Solve (x + 4)2 (x 5)2 = 9.

Solution: This apparently looks like an equation which is not linear. But
expanding this using identities, we get
x2 + 8x + 16 x2 + 10x 25 = 9.
This reduces to 18x9 = 9. After transposing, we get 18x = 18. Hence x = 1.

It is easy to verify that x = 1 is a solution.
to
Think it over!
(1) You have learnt how to solve an equation of the form
t
No
ax + b = 0, where a 6= 0. You get x = (b/a), as the unique

solution. Suppose you have two variables x and y; say an
equation ax+by +c = 0, where a 6= 0 and b 6= 0. This is again a
linear equation, but the number of variables is now 2. Can
you solve such an equation? How many solutions (x, y) are
there for such an equation? If a, b, c are integers, is it al-
ways possible to find integers x, y satisfying the equation?
(2) Can you solve (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1 ?
Exercise 2.3.2
1. Solve the following:

3 9
(i) x + 3 = 11; (ii) y 9 = 21; (iii) 10 = z + 3; (iv) +x= ;
11 11
s 3x x
(v) 10x = 30; (vi) = 4; (vii) = 10; (viii) 1.6 = ;
7 6 1.5
x 7 x 3x
(ix) 8x 8 = 48; (x) + 1 = ; (xi) = 12; (xii) = 15;
d
3 15 5 5
x
(xiii) 3(x + 6) = 24; (xiv) 8 = 1; (xv) 3(x + 2) 2(x 1) = 7.
he
4
2. Solve the equations:
(i) 5x = 3x + 24; (ii) 8t + 5 = 2t 31; (iii) 7x 10 = 4x + 11;
is
re S
(iv) 4z + 3 = 6 + 2z; (v) 2x 1 = 14 x; (vi) 6x + 1 = 3(x 1) + 7;
2x 3 x x3 2x
B
(vii)
5 2
bl
= + 1; (viii)
2 5
2 =
5
; (ix) 3(x + 1) = 12 + 4(x 1);
(x) 2x 5 = 3(x 5); (xi) 6(1 4x) + 7(2 + 5x) = 53;
be T
2m m 3
pu
(xii) 3(x + 6) + 2(x + 3) = 64; (xiii) + 8 = 1; (xiv) (x 1) = x 3.
3 2 4
K

2.3.3 Application of linear equations
We shall take up some practical situations leading to linear equations

in one variable.
Example 17. Seven times a number, if increased by 11, is 81. Find the
to
number.
Solution: We do this in several steps.
Step 1: First we convert the given data to an appropriate equation.
t
No
Let the number be x. Apriori, we do not know what this number is.
We formulate a linear equation involving the unknown x, using the
given data. Now seven times the number means 7x. Increasing this
by 11 leads to 7x + 11. The problem says that 7x + 11 = 81. Can you
see now that we have a linear equation in the unknown x?.
Step 2: We now have to solve the equation 7x + 11 = 81. You have
already learnt methods for solving such an equation. Transpose 11
to the other side to get 7x = 81 11 = 70. Divide by 7 and you get
x = 10.
164 Unit 3
Step 3: We have to check whether the number 10 satisfies the state-

ment of our problem. Now seven times the number gives 7 10 = 70.
Adding 11 to this gives 81. And that is precisely the data says. Thus
x = 10 is indeed the solution.
Example 18. The present age of Siris mother is three times the present
age of Siri. After 5 years, their ages add to 66 years. Find their present
d
ages.
he
Solution: Again we go through several steps in the solution of this prob-
lem. Suppose Siris present age is x years. Then her mothers age is 3x
years. After 5 years, Siris and her mothers respective ages would be x + 5
is
re S
and 3x + 5 years. The data says that these two numbers would add up to
B
bl
66. Thus we get the equation
(x + 5) + (3x + 5) = 66.
be T
pu
K
Now it is easy to find the value of x. The equation reduces to 4x + 10 =

66. After transposing 10 to the other side, we obtain 4x = 56 or x = 14.

This means Siris present age is 14 years and her mothers present age is
14 3 = 42 years.
Let us now verify whether these numbers match with the statement of
the problem. After 5 years, Siris age would be 14 + 5 = 19 years. Her
mothers age would be 42 + 5 = 47 years. Their sum is 19 + 47 = 66 years
which completely matches with the given statement. We conclude that
to
Siris present age is 14 years and her mothers age is 42 years.

Example 19. The sum of three consecutive even numbers is 252. Find
t
them.
No
Solution: Let x be the least number among these three consecutive even
numbers. Then the other numbers are x + 2 and x + 4. This is because any
two consecutive even numbers differ by 2. The given condition says that
x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 252.
Thus we get 3x + 6 = 252. This reduces to 3x = 246. Solving this, we obtain

x = 82. Hence the numbers are 82, 82 + 2 = 84 and 82 + 4 = 86. We check
that
82 + 84 + 86 = 252,
and this verifies the validity of the solution.

Example 20. If the perimeter of a triangle is 14 cm and the sides are x + 4,
3x + 1 and 4x + 1, find x.
Solution: You know that the
perimeter of a triangle is the sum
C of its three sides. Since the sides
are given to be x + 4, 3x + 1 and
d
3 x+1 4x + 1, the perimeter is (x + 4) +
he
4 x +1 (3x + 1) + (4x + 1) = 8x + 6. The
given condition is 8x + 6 = 14. On
is
solving this, you get x = 1. Hence
re S
A x +4 B the sides are 1+4 = 5, (31)+1 = 4
B
bl and (4 1) + 1 = 5 cm. You get a
triangle with sides 5, 4, 5 cm.
be T
pu
One of the important things to keep in mind is that a mathemati-
K
cal formulation of a problem may not always be physically feasible.

Suppose you are asked to find the sides of a triangle, given that
they are x, x + 1 and x + 3, and its perimeter is 10 units. You write
x + (x + 1) + (x + 3) = 10 and solve this to get x = 2. You may con-
clude that the sides are 2, 2 + 1 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5. But, there is no triangle
with sides 2, 3, 5, since the sides of a triangle must satisfy the triangle
inequality; the sum of any two sides is greater than the third side.
to
Thus one has to check whether the solution one obtains is a physi-
cally valid solution. This is a very important part in the solution of a
given problem.
t
No
There is nothing strange in this. Mathematics is a game you play

using certain rules. As long as you play it safe confining to rules, you
will always get an end result. Whether that result is right or wrong,
no mathematical law will tell you. You have to go back to the physical
situation and see whether the solution you got is a physically correct
solution.
Example 21. Let P be a point on a line AB such that P lies between A

and B, and AP = 3P B. Given that AB = 10 cm, find the length of AP .
166 Unit 3
Solution: Since P lies between A

A P B and B, we have AB = AP + P B.
Thus 10 = 3P B + P B = 4P B. We
5 15
can solve for P B and get P B = 10/4 = 5/2. Hence AP = 3P B = 3 =
2 2
cm. (Here we are not putting P B = x and get an equation in x. You may
directly treat P B as a variable and get an equation involving P B.)
d
Activity 1:
he
In the previous problem you have taken that P lies between A and B. It
may happen that, on the line AB, P may lie to the left of A or to the right
of B. Formulate appropriate equations for both these cases and solve
is
re S
them. One case gives you negative number. This is not a feasible practical
situation, as length is non-negative number.
B
bl
Example 22. The sum of the digits of a two digit number is 12. If the new
be T
pu
number formed by reversing the digits is greater than the original number
K
by 54, find the original number.

Solution: Let x be the digit in units place. Then 12 x is the digit is tens

place. Hence the number is
(12 x) 10 + x = 120 9x.
The number obtained by reversing the digits is 10 x + 12 x = 12 + 9x. The

given condition
to
120 9x + 54 = 12 + 9x.
From this we obtain 18x = 120 + 54 12 = 162. Hence x = 9. Therefore the
digit in units place 9. The digit is tens place is 12 9 = 3. The number is
t
hence 39.
No
Alternate solution: Let the digit in the units place be x and the digit in the tens place
be y. Thus the number is 10y + x. We know that x + y = 12. The number obtained by
reversing the digits is 10x + y. The second condition tells that 10x + y = 10y + x + 54. This
reduces to 9(x y) = 54 or x y = 6.
Observe that, we have two equations x + y = 12 and x y = 6. Adding these, you obtain
(x + y) + (x y) = 12 + 6 = 18. Thus 2x = 18 or x = 9. Since y = 12 x, you will also get
y = 12 9 = 3. This shows that the original number is 39.
We verify this. The number obtained by reversing the digits is 93. You
may easily check that 93 = 39 + 54.
Example 23. The sum of two numbers is 75 and they are in the ratio 3:2.
Find the numbers.
Solution: The numbers which are in the ratio 3:2 are 3x and 2x. We are
given
3x + 2x = 75.
Thus
5x = 75.
d
Solving for x, we get x = 15. Hence the numbers are 3x = 45 and 2x = 30
he
We verify: 45/30 = 3/2 and 45 + 30 = 75.
Exercise 2.3.3
is
re S
1. If 4 is added to a number and the sum is multiplied by 3, the result is
B
bl
30. Find the number.
be T
2. Find three consecutive odd numbers whose sum is 219.

pu
K
3. A rectangle has length which is 5 cm less than twice its breadth. If

the length is decreased by 5 cm and breadth is increased by 2 cm,

the perimeter of the resulting rectangle will be 74 cm. Find the length
and breadth of the original rectangle.
4. A number subtracted by 30 gives 14 subtracted by 3 times the num-
ber. Find the number.
5. Sristis salary is same as 4 times Azars salary. If together they earn
Rs 3,750 a month, find their individual salaries.
to
6. Prakruthis age is 6 times Sahils age. After 15 years, Prakruthi will

be 3 times as old as Sahil. Find their age.
t
No
D C
7. In the figure, AB is a straight line. Find x +40

x. x +20 x
A B
168 Unit 3
8. If 5 is subtracted from three times a number, the result is 16. Find

the number.
9. Find two numbers such that one of them exceeds the other by 9 and
their sum is 81.
10. The length of a rectangular field is twice its breadth. If the perimeter
of the field is 288 m, find the dimensions of the field.
d
11. Ahmeds father is thrice as old as Ahmed. After 12 years, his age will
he
be twice that of his son. Find their present age.
12. Sanju is 6 years older than his brother Nishu. If the sum of their ages
is 28 years, what are their present age ?
is
re S
13. Viji is twice as old as his brother Deepu. If the difference of their ages
B
bl
is 11 years, find their present age.
be T
14. Mrs. Joseph is 27 years older than her daughter Bindu. After 8 years
pu
she will be twice as old as Bindu. Find their present age.
K
15. After 16 years, Leena will be three times as old as she is now. Find

her present age.
Additional problems on Linear equations in one variable
1. Choose the correct answer

to
(a) The value of x in the equation 5x 35 = 0 is:

A. 2 B. 7 C. 8 D. 11
t
(b) If 14 is taken away from one fifth of a number, the result is 20.
No
The equation expressing this statement is:

A. (x/5) 14 = 20 B. x (14/5) = (20/5)
C. x 14 = (20/5) D. x + (14/5) = 20
(c) If five times a number increased by 8 is 53, the number is:
A. 12 B. 9 C. 11 D. 2
(d) The value of x in the equation 5(x 2) = 3(x 3) is:
A. 2 B. 1/2 C. 3/4 D. 0
(e) If the sum of two numbers is 84 and their difference is 30, the
numbers are:
A. 57 and 27 B. 57 and 27 C. 57 and 27 D. 57 and 27
(f) If the area of a rectangle whose length is twice its breadth is 800
m2 , then the length and breadth of the rectangle are:
A. 60 m and 20 m B. 40 m and 20 m
d
C. 80 m and 10 m D. 100 m and 8 m
he
(g) If the sum of three consecutive odd numbers is 249, the numbers
are
is
A. 81,83,85 B. 79,81,83 C. 103,105,107 D. 95,97,99
re S
(h) If (x + 0.7x)/2 = 0.85, the value of x is:
B
A. 2
bl
B. 1 C. 1 D. 0
be T
(i) If 2x (3x 4) = 3x 5, then x equals:

pu
K
A. 4/9 B. 9/4 C. 3/2 D. 2/3
2. Solve: (i) (3x + 24)/(2x + 7) = 2: (ii)(1 9y)/(11 3y) = (5/8).

3. The sum of two numbers is 45 and their ratio is 7:8. Find the num-
bers.
4. Shonas mother is four times as old as Shona. After five years, her
mother will be three times as old as Shona(at that time). What are
their present age?
to
5. The sum of three consecutive even numbers is 336. Find them.

t
6. Two friends A and B start a joint business with a capital 60, 000. If
No
As share is twice that of B, how much have each invested?
7. Which is the number when 40 is subtracted gives one-third of the

original number?
8. Find the number whose sixth part exceeds its eigth part by 3.
9. A house and a garden together cost 8, 40, 000. The price of the garden
5
is times the price of the house. Find the price of the house and the
7
garden.
170 Unit 3
10. Two farmers A and B together own a stock of grocery. They agree to
divide it by its value. Farmer A takes 72 bags while B takes 92 bags
and gives 8, 000 to A. What is the cost of each bag?.
11. A fathers age is four times that of his son. After 5 years, it will be
three times that of his son. How many more years will take if fathers
age is to be twice that of his son?
d
12. Find a number which when multiplied by 7 is as much above 132 as
he
it was originally below it.
13. A person buys 25 pens worth 250, each of equal cost. He wants to
is
re S
keep 5 pens for himself and sell the remaining to recover his money.
B
What should be the price of each pen?
bl
be T
14. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 12. If the new number
pu
formed by reversing the digits is greater than the original number by
K
18, find the original number. Check your solution.

15. The distance between two stations is 340 km. Two trains start si-
multaneously from these stations on parallel tracks and cross each
other. The speed of one of the them is greater than that of the other
by 5 km/hr. If the distance between two trains after 2 hours of their
start is 30 km., find the speed of each train.
to
16. A steamer goes down stream and covers the distance between two
ports in 4 hours while it covers the same distance up stream in 5
hours. If the speed of the steamer upstream is 2 km/hour, find the
t
speed of steamer in still water.

No
17. The numerator of the rational number is less than its denominator
by 3. If the numerator becomes three times and the denominator is
increased by 20, the new number becomes 1/8. Find the original
number.
18. The digit at the tens place of a two digit number is three times the
digit at the units place. If the sum of this number and the number
formed by reversing its digits is 88, find the number.
19. The altitude of a triangle is five- thirds the length of its corresponding
base. If the altitude is increased by 4 cm and the base decreased by
2 cm, the area of the triangle would remain the same. Find the base
and altitude of the triangle.
20. One of the angles of a triangle is equal to the sum of the other two
angles. If the ratio of the other two angles of the triangle is 4:5, find
d
the angles of the triangle.
he
Glossary
Equation: a statement that a non constant algebraic expression is equal
is
to 0.
re S
Solution: given an equation, any value of the variable which makes the
B
statement true.
bl
be T
Linear equation: an equation of degree one.

pu
Transposition: moving a part of the expression to the other side of the
K
equality; while moving, the sign of the part which has moved changes.
Verification: to check whether the solution obtained satisfies the equa-

tion.
Points to remember
An equation is valid for a certain set of values of the variable(s) in it;
an identity is valid for all values of the variable(s) in it.
Given a problem, setting up an equation conforming to the given data
to
is an important step in the solution of the given problem.

A mathematical solution may not always be valid physically. One
has to check whether the solution obtained by a valid mathematical
t
No
procedure is also correct for the given physical situation.

CHAPTER 2 UNIT 4
EXPONENTS
the concept of an integral power to a non-zero base;
d
to write large numbers in exponential form;
about the various laws of exponents and their use in simplifying com-
he
plicated expressions;
about the validity of these laws of exponents for algebraic variables.
is
re S
2.4.1 Introduction
B
bl
Suppose somebody asks you: how far is the Sun from the Earth? What
be T
is your answer? Perhaps some search in books will give you an idea how
pu
far is the Sun from us. A ray of light travels approximately at the speed of
K
2,99,792 km per second. It takes roughly eight and a half minutes for a

ray of light to reach the Earth starting from the Sun. Hence the distance
from the Earth to the Sun is about 15, 29,00,000 km. Apart from the Sun,
do you know how far is the nearest star to us? Proxima Centauri is the
closest star to us and it is at a distance of 4.3 light years from us; that is,
the distance a ray of light travels in 4.3 years at the speed of 2,99,792 km
per second. This is equal to
to
4.3 365 24 60 60 299792km,
which you can see is a very huge number.

t
At the other end what would be the size of an atom ? As you can expect,
No
it should be very small. The diameter of an atom is roughly 1/100000000000

meters. The subatomic particles have still smaller sizes. Hence there is
a need to represent either big or small numbers in a compact form. The
exponential notation is a very useful and handy notation used for this
purpose. As we shall see there is a methodical way of handling exponen-
tials.
Consider the number 128. An easy factorisation gives
128 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.
Exponents 173
Thus 128 is obtained by multiplying 2 with itself seven times. We write

this as 27 . Here 2 is called the base and 7 is called the exponent. We read
this as 2 raised to the power 7. The number 27 is called the exponential
form of 128. Similarly, we observe that
243 = 3 3 3 3 3 = 35 .
Here 3 is the base and 5 is the exponent. We read this as 3 raised to the
d
power 5.
he
On the other-hand, consider 72 = 2 2 2 3 3. In the case of 128, the
only prime factor is 2 and we are able to write 128 = 27 . Similarly, 343 = 35 ,
as 3 is the only prime factor of 343. However, 72 has two prime factors,
is
re S
namely, 2 and 3. We see that 2 occurs 3 times and 3 occurs 2 times. We
write this in the form 72 = 23 32 . We read this as 2 to the power of 3 times
B
3 to the power of 2.bl
be T
Let us consider 81 = 3333 = 34 . We also observe that 81 = 99 = 92 .

pu
Thus the same number 81 can be written in two ways: 81 = 34 = 92 .
K
In the first representation, 3 is the base and 4 is the exponent. In the

second representation, 9 is the base and 2 is the exponent. Thus the

same number may be represented using different bases and exponents.
Observe!
2 2
9 = 3 3 = 32 . Hence 92 = 32 . Thus you obtain 32 = 92 = 81 = 34 .
Can you recognise some thing?
to
It is not necessary that we use only numbers. For example, if we have

an algebraic variable a, we write a a a a = a4 and read this as a raised
t
to the power four. Many times we suppress the word raised, and read a
No
to the power four or simply a power four. An expression of the form ab4
is read as a times b power four.
Observe:
ab4 = a b b b b = a(b4 ), but not ab ab ab ab which is
actually a4 b4
To avoid such confusions, it is always better to use braces: instead of

writing ab4 , write this as a(b4 ). If you want 529 = 23 23, write this as (23)2 .
174 Unit 4
The notation 232 may some time be confused with 2 32 which is 18. Thus
use proper braces: 2(32 ) to represent 18 and (23)2 to represent 529.
Another thing you may notice is that it is not necessary to use only
integers as bases. In fact you may use any real number for base:
(0.1)5 = 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 = 0.00001,

(1.2)3 = (1.2) (1.2) (1.2) = 1.728,
4
d
1 1 1 1 1 1
= = ,
he
5 5 5 5 5 625

( 2)2 = 2.
is
Think it over!
re S
Is it possible to take for exponent a real number which is not an
B
integer?
bl
be T
pu
In general, given a number a or an algebraic variable which we again
K
denote by a, and a natural number n, we define
an = |a a a{z a}.

n times
This is read as a raised to the power n or simply a power n. Here, we say
a is the base and n is the exponent.
Observe:
0n = 0 for any natural number n and a1 = a for any number a.
to
Moreover, am = an if and only if m = n for any number a 6= 0,

a 6= 1 or a 6= 1
t
Let us look at more examples:

No
Number Expanded Exponential Base and

form form exponent
1000 10 10 10 103 base 10, exponent 3
m6 mmmmmm m 6 base m, exponent 6
10
1 1 1 1 1
(10 times) base , exponent 10
1024 2 2 2 2
625 5555 5 4 base 5, exponent 4
625 (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) 4 base 5, exponent 4.
Exponents 175
Look at the last two examples. The number 625 is represented as 54

(with base 5 and exponent 4) and also as (5)4 (with base 5 and exponent
4). Thus the same number has representation in base 5 and base 5.
For a number a 6= 0, and a natural number n, we define
n
n 1 1
a = = n.
a a
d
This extends the definition of power to negative integer exponents. Here
he
are some more examples:

4 1 1 1 1
3 = ; (read as 3 to the power 4.)
3 3 3 3
is
re S
5
5 1
(0.1) = = (10)5 = 100000; (read as (0.1) to the power 5.)
B
(0.1)
bl
6 6
be T
4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 56
pu
= = = 6.
5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
K
If a = bn for some integer n 6= 0, 1 and number b 6= 0, we say a is in

exponential form. Here b is called the base and n is called the exponent.
Earlier you have observed that 81 = 34 = 92 . Thus the same number may
have different exponential forms.
Caution!
bn is not defined for b = 0, and n = 0 or
to
n < 0.
Example 1. Express 1024 and 0.1024 using base 2.

t
Solution: Consider the number 1024 = 210 . Here we have base 2 and
No
exponent 10. However, 1024 is a number in decimal notation: here 4 is in

units place; 2 in 10s place; 0 in 100s place; and 1 in 1000s place. Thus
we have
1024 = (1 1000) + (0 100) + (2 10) + (4 1)

= (1 103 ) + (2 101 ) + 4.
Suppose we define b0 = 1 for any number b 6= 0. Then we see that 1024 =

1 103 + 2 101 + 4 100. Do you see that we have done this in the unit playing
176 Unit 4
with numbers? Similarly, consider 0.1024. You observe that
0.1024 = (0.1) + (0.002) + (0.0004)

1 2 4
= + +
10 1000 10000
1 2 4
= + 3+ 4
10 10 10
= 1 10 + 2 103 + 4 104 .
1
d
he
Example 2. Express 1000 using base 2 and exponents.
Solution: Consider 1000. How do you express this using base 2 and
exponents? You observe that 512 = 29 , 256 = 28 , 128 = 27 and 26 = 64. Thus
is
re S
you get the sum
512 + 256 + 128 + 64 = 960.
B
bl
You are still short by 40 to reach 1000. But 40 = 32 + 8 = 25 + 23 . Thus you
be T
pu
obtain
K
1000 = 29 + 28 + 27 + 26 + 25 + 23
= 1 29 + 1 28 + 1 27 + 1 26 + 1 25 + 0 24 + 1 23 + 0 22 + 0 21 + 0 20 .

You observe that this is precisely the binary representation of 1000. We

write this 1000 = (1111101000)2.
Some uses of exponents in daily life
Some examples of how exponents do connect with our everyday lives:
to
when we speak about square feet, square meters or any such area units;
or about cubic feet, cubic meters, cubic centimeters or any other such
volume units.
t
The unit square cm is actually 1 cm 1 cm = 1 cm2 . Similarly, a cubic

No
cm is 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm = 1 cm3 .
Another kind of indirect example is if you talk about extremely small or
extremely big quantities. For example, the term nanometer means 109
m. The prefix nano means the number 109 - an extremely small number.
Or, within computer world you often see megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes.
Mega means 106 or one million; giga means 109 , and tera means 1012 .
Suppose you have a chemical concentration 0.000442 gm per litre, or
a star having huge mass of 8,290,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg. Those
Exponents 177
zeroes take up a lot of space. Scientific notation simplifies this by writing

the last number, for example, as 829 1019 kg, which means 829 followed
by 19 zeroes. On the other-hand, the chemical concentration is written
with a negative exponent: 4.42 104 gm per litre.
The mass of a proton is 0.000000000000000000000001673 gm. You see how
much space you need to write such a tiny number. If you use exponents,
you may write this in the form 1.673 1024 gm.
d
Another place where exponential notation helps is in calculators. In a
he
calculator, no display is possible once the number exceeds certain fixed
number of digits. This fixed number varies from calculator to calcula-
is
tor depending on the capacity of the calculator. Scientific calculators, in
re S
which large or small numbers are calculated, use exponential notation.
B
bl
For example, a calculator may show only eight significant digits in its dis-
play. So to display a number of the form 234587643214878, which has
be T
pu
15 digits, calculators round it off to 234587640000000 and write the re-
K
sulting number in the form 23458764 107 ( or some calculators in the form
.23458764 1015).

Activity 1:
Collect information about many more life situations where the exponential
notation is useful.
Indian contribution to large numbers
The Indians had a passion for high numbers, which is intimately related
to
to their religious thought. For example, in texts belonging to the Vedic lit-
erature dated from 1200 BC to 500 BC, we find individual Sanskrit names
for each of the powers of 10 up to a trillion and even 1062. One of these
t
No
Vedic texts, the Yajur Veda (1200-900 BC), even discusses the concept of
numeric infinity (purna fullness), stating that if you subtract purna from
purna, you are still left with purna.
The Lalitavistara Sutra (a Mahayana Buddhist work) recounts a contest
including writing, arithmetic, wrestling and archery, in which the Buddha
was pitted against the great mathematician Arjuna and showed off his
numerical skills by citing the names of the powers of ten up to 1 tallak-
shana, which equals 1053 , but then going on to explain that this is just
one of a series of counting systems that can be expanded geometrically.
178 Unit 4
The last number at which he arrived after going through nine successive
counting systems was 10421 , that is, a 1 followed by 421 zeros.
There is also an analogous system of Sanskrit terms for fractional num-
bers, capable of dealing with both very large and very small numbers.
Larger number in Buddhism seems
122
1072 or 1037218383881977644441306597687849648128,
d
which appeared as Bodhisattvas maths in the Avatamsaka Sutra.
he
Here are a few large numbers used in India by about 5-th century BC
(See Georges Ifrah: A Universal History of Numbers, pp 422-423):
koti - 107 , ayuta - 109 , niyuta - 1011 , kankara - 1013 , pakoti - 1014 , vivara
is
re S
- 1015, kshobhya - 1017 , vivaha - 1019 , kotippakoti - 1021 , bahula - 1023 ,
B
bl
nagabala - 1025 , and so on. They also had name for 10421 as dhvajagran-
ishamani. (wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_large_numbers)
be T
pu
Two Indian Legends about Large numbers
K
1. King Shiraham of India was pleased with his grand Vizier (Chief min-
ister) for inventing the game of Chess and wanted to reward him. Viziers

request was simple. He said: Your Majesty, give me a grain of wheat

to put on the first square of the chess board, two grains to put on the
second square, four grains to put on the third, eight on the fourth, each
time doubling the number of grains, please give me enough grains to cover
all the 64 squares. King thought that his ministers request was very
to
very modest. He ordered his men to bring the wheat grains and fulfill
his Viziers desire. But he soon realised his folly. Do you know how many
grains are needed to comply with the ministers request? It is 264 1 grains.
t
This is roughly equal to the worlds wheat production for more than 2000
No
years.(At the current rate of production.)

2. In the great temple of Beneras(that is Kashi), there is a brass plate
in which three diamond needles are fixed. On one of the needles, at the
creation, Lord Brahma placed sixty four golden discs of decreasing diam-
eters such that each disc sits only on a disc of larger diameter. Day and
night, the priest on duty transfers discs from one diamond needle to the
other according to the immutable laws of Lord Brahma. This requires that
the priest must move only one disc at a time and only in such a way that
Exponents 179
there is no larger disc on a smaller disc. When all the sixty four discs get
transferred to another needle in accordance with this rule, the world will
come to an end. Can you make a guess of the time required for this? Even
with the assumption that the priests move one disc per second, the total
time needed would be 264 1 seconds. If you convert this to years, it will
be more than 58 thousand billion years (58 1012 years). This is five times
more than the current estimated age of our Universe.
d
Exercise 2.4.1
he
1. Express the following numbers in the exponential form:
1
(i) 1728 (ii) (iii) 0.000169.
is
512
re S
2. Write the following numbers using base 10 and exponents:
B
(i) 12345
bl
(ii) 1010.0101 (iii) 0.1020304
3. Use base 5 and exponents to represent 2010.
be T
pu
4. Express (1234)5 in decimal form
K
5. Find the value (0.2)4 .

2.4.2 The first law of exponents

Consider 1024 = 210 . Observe
210 = 1024 = 2 512 = 21 29 : 1 + 9 = 10 and 210 = 21+9 ;

210 = 1024 = 4 256 = 22 28 : 2 + 8 = 10 and 210 = 22+8 ;
210 = 1024 = 8 128 = 23 27 : 3 + 7 = 10 and 210 = 23+7 ;
to
210 = 1024 = 16 64 = 24 26 : 4 + 6 = 10 and 210 = 24+6 ;

210 = 1024 = 32 32 = 25 25 : 5 + 5 = 10 and 210 = 25+5 ;
t
No
What do you observe? Consider more examples:
54 = 625 = 25 25 = 52 52 : 2 + 2 = 4 and 54 = 52+2;

a7 = (a a a a) (a a a) = a4 a3 : 4 + 3 = 7 and a7 = a4+3 .
Looking at these examples, can you formulate a law?
For any number a and positive integers m, n, am an =

am+n .
180 Unit 4
This is also true for an algebraic variable x: xm xn = xm+n . This is called

the first law of exponents. This is useful in simplifying large expressions.
Examples:
3. 25 26 = 25+6 = 211 ;
4. 33 36 37 = (33 36 ) 37 = 33+6 37 = 39 37 = 39+7 = 316 .
5. 25 52 23 5 = (25 23 ) (52 5) = 28 53 .
d
Exercise 2.4.2
he
1. Simplify:
(i) 31 32 33 34 35 36 . (ii) 22 33 24 35 36 .
is
re S
2. How many zeros are there in 104 103 102 10?

3. Which is larger: 53 54 55 56 or 57 58 ?
B
bl
be T
2.4.3 The second law of exponents

pu
K
Look at the following example:
1024 210

29 = 512 = = 1 : 9 = 10 1 and 29 = 2101;

2 2
1024 210
28 = 256 = = 2 : 8 = 10 2 and 28 = 2102;
4 2
1024 210
27 = 128 = = 3 : 7 = 10 3 and 27 = 2103;
8 2
1024 210
26 = 6 = 10 4 and 26 = 2104;
to
64 = = 4 :
16 2
256 2 8
26 = 64 = = 2 : 6 = 8 2 and 26 = 282 .
4 2
t
No
Study one more:
243 35
33 = 27 = = 2 : 3 = 5 2 and 33 = 352 .
9 3
Can you see some pattern? Is it apparent that some law is followed here
again?
For any number a and positive integers m, n, with m > n,
am
= amn .
an
Exponents 181
The natural question is: what happens if m = n or m < n. A few exam-

ples will help to clarify the situation.
1 1 2 21
= = = .
25 32 64 26
Recall: we have defined an = a1n for any a 6= 0 and positive integer n. Thus
d
21
25 = 6 : 5 = 1 6.
he
2
Similarly,
1 1 9 32
is
34 = 4 = = = 6 : 4 = 2 6 and 34 = 326 ;
re S
3 81 729 3
B
1
101 =
10
= bl
1000
10000
103
= 4 ; 1 = 3 4 and 101 = 1034 .
10
be T
pu
The above observations may be put in the following form:
K
For any number a 6= 0 and positive integers m, n, with m 6= n,

am

= amn .
an
Again recall, we have defined a0 = 1 for all a 6= 0. Observe
25
= 1 = 20 : 5 5 = 0 and 255 = 20 ;
25
to
34
= 1 = 30 : 4 4 = 0 and 344 = 30 .
34
t
This shows that aam = 1 = a0 for all a 6= 0. We can now reformulate our law:
m
No
For any number a 6= 0 and positive integers m, n, not nec-

essarily distinct, am
= amn .
an
The important thing here is that the only condition on m, n is that they are
positive integers. It may happen that m < n, or m = n or m > n. In all these
cases, the above law holds.
182 Unit 4
There is another way of looking at the second law. Suppose a 6= 0, and

m, n are positive integers. Then
am 1
amn = n = am n = am an ,
a a
1
where we have used an = n . Thus we obtain
a
amn = am an .
d
Observe that this resembles the first law except that we have negative
he
integer n. In this sense, the second law simply extends the first law.
Again observe that for natural numbers m, n,
is
re S
1 1
a(m+n) = m+n = m (using the first law)
a a an
B
bl 1 1
= m n (property of fractions)
a a
be T
pu
m
= a an .
K
Thus we see that the first law is also valid for negative integers m, n. We

can combine both the first and the second law and state them together:
If a 6= 0 and m, n are integers, then am an =

am+n .
Example 6. Simplify
35 22 73
.
to
72 33 24
Solution: The expression is equal to
5 2 3
3 2 7
t
= 35(3) 224 73(2)

No
3 3 2 4 7 2
= 35+3 22 73+2
38 6561
= 38 22 71 = 2 = .
2 7 28
Example 7. If 3l 32 = 35 , find the value of l.
Solution: Using the second law of exponents, we obtain 3l+2 = 35 . But we

know that for any a 6= 0, 1, 1, if am = an , then m = n. Hence l + 2 = 5 or
l = 3.
Exponents 183
Exercise 2.4.3
23 32 54
1. Simplify: (i) 101 102 103 104 105 106 ; (ii) 3 2 24
.
3 5
2. Which is larger: 34 23 or 25 32 ?
3m 2n
3. Suppose m and n are distinct integers. Can m be an integer?
2 3n
Give reasons.
24
d
4. Suppose b is a positive integer such that 2 is also an integer. What
b
he
are the possible values of b?
2.4.4 The third law of exponents
is
re S
Consider the following examples:
B
bl
210 = 22+2+2+2+2 = 22 22 22 22 22 = 22
5
:
be T
2 5 = 10 and (22 )5 = 210 = 225;

pu
5 2
210 = 25+5 = 25 25 = 2
K
:
2
5 2 = 10 and 25 = 210 = 252 ;

6
312 = 32+2+2+2+2+2 = 32 32 32 32 32 32 = 32 :
2 6
2 6 = 12 and 3 = 312 = 326;
12 3+3+3+3 4
3 = 3 = 3 3 3 3 = 33 :
3 3 3 3
4
3 4 = 12 and 33 = 312 = 334;
to
2
312 = 36+6 = 36 36 = 36 :
2
6 2 = 12 and 36 = 312 = 362.
t
No
What do you see? Can you put your observations in to a rule?

n
If a 6= 0 is a number and m, n are positive integers, then am = amn .
Study more examples:
1 1 2 4
22(4) = 28 = = = 2 ;
28 (22 )4
2
3 (5)2 =3 10 1 1
= 10 = 5 2 =
1
= 3 5 2 .
3 (3 ) 35
Do you see that negative integer exponents follow similar rule?

184 Unit 4
n
If a 6= 0 is a number and m, n are positive integers, then am =
n
amn = am .
What do you expect in the case when exponents are negative integers?
Consider the example:
1 1 3
5 (4)(3) 12
= 5 = 12 = 4
3 = 5 .
5 54
d
Are you convinced that the negative exponents also follow the same rule:
n
am = amn for all numbers a 6= 0 and positive integers m, n?
he
What if one of m, n is equal to 0? You observe that for a 6= 0, a0 = 1 and
hence (a0 )n = 1n = 1 = a0 and 0 n = 0.
is
re S
Thus we can formulate the third law of exponents:
n
B
amn . bl
If a 6= 0 is a number and m, n are integers , then am =
be T
pu
(1024)3 (81)4
K
Example 8. Simplify .
(243)2 (128)4
Solution: Observe 1024 = 210 , 81 = 34 , 243 = 35 , and 128 = 27 . Hence the

expression is
(210 )3 (34 )4 230 316
=
(35 )2 (27 )4 310 228
= 23028 31610 = 22 36 = 2916.
Exercise 2.4.4
to
6 2 2
25 33 53 34
1. Simplify: (i) 5 3 ; (ii) 3 2 .
26 32 32 53
t
2. Can you find two integers m, n such that 2m+n = 2mn ?

4
No
3. If 2m = 46 , find the value of m.

2.4.5 The fourth law of exponents
Study the following examples.
(1) 105 = 10 10 10 10 10
= 2525252525
= (2 2 2 2 2) (5 5 5 5 5)
= 25 55 .
Exponents 185
Here you may observe that 10 = 2 5.
(2) 34 24 = (3 3 3 3) (2 2 2 2)
= (3 2) (3 2) (3 2) (3 2)
= 6666
= 64 .
d
Here again 3 2 = 6. Consider one more example:
he
(3) (2)4 (44 ) = (2) (2) (2) (2) 4 4 4 4
= (2 4) (2 4) (2 4) (2 4)
is
= (8) (8) (8) (8) = (8)4 .
re S B
bl
Once again you find that (2) 4 = (8). Let us see what happens if both
the numbers are negative.
be T
pu
(4) (3)3 (5)3 = (3) (3) (3) (5) (5) (5)
K

= (3) (5) (3) (5) (3) (5)

= 15 15 15
= 153 .
Again you see that expected rule is true: (3) (5) = 15. Now you can
formulate new law:
If a and b are two non-zero numbers and m is any positive integer,
to
then (a b)m = am bm .
Observe that this is also true if m = 0. Since a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, you may
conclude that a b 6= 0. Thus (a b)0 = 1. But a0 = 1 and b0 = 1 so that
t
a0 b0 = 1. It follows that (a b)0 = a0 b0 . What happens if m is negative?

No
If a, b are non-zero numbers and n is a positive integer, you see that

1 1 1 1
(a b)n = = = = an bn .
(a b)n an bn an bn
Thus the negative exponents also obey the same rule. We may now refor-
mulate the law:
For any two numbers a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, and integer m,

(a b)m = am bm .
186 Unit 4
Here are more examples .

154 142
Example 9. Simplify: .
213 103
Solution: The numerator is
154 142 = (3 5)4 (2 7)2 = 34 54 22 72 .
Similarly the denominator is
d
213 103 = (7 3)3 (2 5)3 = 73 33 23 53 .
he
The given expression is therefore
34 54 22 72 . 35 15
= 343 543 223 723 =
is
= .
re S
3 3
7 3 2 5 3 3 27 14
B
bl
Example 10. Which is larger: (0.25)4 or (0.35)3 ?
Solution: We use the simple observation: if a and b are nonzero numbers,
be T
a
pu
then a < b is equivalent to < 1.
b
K
1 35 7 1 73
Write 0.25 = and 0.35 = = . We have to compare 4 and 3 . But
4 100 20 4 20

203 = (4 5)3 = 43 53 . Thus we see that
(0.25)4 43 53 53
= = < 1,
(0.35)3 44 73 4 73
since 5 < 7. Thus (0.25)4 < (0.35)3 .

to
Exercise 2.4.5
t
68 53 (15)3 (12)4 (0.22)4 (0.222)3

No
1. Simplify: (i) ; (ii) ; (iii) .

103 34 56 (36)2 (0.2)5 (0.2222)2
(104 )3
2. Is an integer? Justify your answer.
513
3. Which is larger : (100)4 or (125)3 ?
2.4.6 The fifth law of exponents

Consider
5
3 3 3 3 3 3 33333 35
= = = 5.
4 4 4 4 4 4 44444 4
Exponents 187
Similarly, you observe that

3
4 4 4 4 (4) (4) (4) (4)3
= = = .
5 5 5 5 555 53
What do you infer from these two examples? Do you see that there is yet
another law of exponent?
a m am
If a, b are non-zero numbers and m is a positive integer, = m.
b b
d
You may also observe that this is valid if m = 0. In this case
he
a 0 1 a0
= 1 = = 0.
b 1 b
is
What do you think if m happens to be a negative integer? If m < 0, then
re S
n = m is a positive integer. Hence you can use the law for positive integral
B
exponent:
bl a n an
= n.
be T
b b
pu
1 1 1 1 1
K
However, we know that an = n = m . Similarly bn = n = m or n = bm .

a a b b b
Thus you may obtain

a n an 1 1 bm
= n = an n = m bm = m .
b b b a a
But we know 1 a n bm
a m = = m.
b a
b
This implies that am a m
to
= .
bm b
We have obtained law for negative exponent. Thus we may write the fifth
t
law of exponents:
No
a m
If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, and m is an integer, then =
b
am
.
bm
3
0.2 4 2
Example 11. Simplify: .
5 0.5
Solution: You may simplify the two fractions separately. Thus
188 Unit 4

0.2 1 2
= 2, = 2 2 = 22 .
5 5 0.5
Thus the expression simplifies to
4
1
2 2 3 = 1
= 2
1
= 0.00000004.
5 2 8
5 2 6 5 106
Example 12. Which is larger: (2.5)6 or (1.25)12 ?
d
6
6 5 56
Solution: We write (2.5) = = 6 . Similarly, you may obtain
he
2 2
12
5 512 512
(1.25)12 = = 12 = 24 .
4 4 2
is
re S
56 512
Thus you have to check which of the numbers 6 , is larger. Equiva-
B
bl 2 224
lently, you must determine the larger number between 56 and 218 (why?).
be T
However 52 = 25 < 32 = 25 . Hence

pu
K
56 = (52 )3 < (25 )3 = 215 < 218 .

Thus
512 56 56 56
= < .
224 218 26 26
Hence (1.25)12 < (2.5)6 .
Exercise 2.4.6
8 3
to
2 6 (0.0006)9
1. Simplify: (i) ; (ii) (1.8)6 (4.2)3 ; (iii) .
3 4 (0.015)4
(30)3
2. What is the least positive integer n such that n is also an integer?
t
(35)2
No
m m2
4 2
3. Can it happen that for some integer m 6= 0, = ?
25
n 5
4. Find all positive integers m, n such that 3m = 3m 3n .
Can you see that the fifth law of exponents can be deduced from the
a
fourth law? You may write = a b1 . Thus you obtain
b
a m am
= (a b1 )m = am (b1 )m = am bm = m .
b b
Exponents 189
You may notice that you needed (b1 )m = bm which is a consequence of

the third law. Thus the fifth law is a consequence of the fourth and third
laws.
Important points
All these laws are also valid for algebraic variables. So far you have
d
seen the validity of these laws for numbers. If x is a variable, we have
he
xm xn = xm+n , for all integers m, n. (1)
Here again, we define x0 = 1. Unlike for numbers, where we have defined
is
1 1
an = n for a 6= 0, we cannot so easily introduce . Hence we define xn ,
re S
a x
for a natural number n, as that expression for which xn xn = 1 holds.
B
bl 1 1
We write xn in the form n . Thus we have the result: xn n = 1, for all
be T
x x
pu
natural numbers n. Note that xn = xn1 also holds for all natural numbers
K
n. With this understanding, the above law (1) holds. Similarly, you may
write laws:

(xm )n = xmn , for all integers m, n; (2)

(x y)m = xm y m , for all integers m and variables x, y. (3)
Additional problems on Exponents

to
1. Mark the correct option:

n
(a) The value of 3m , for every pair of integers (m, n), is
t
A. 3m+n B. 3mn C. 3m D. 3m + 3n
n
No
y
(b) If x, y, 2x + are nonzero real numbers, then
2
y 1
y 1 1
2x + (2x) +
2 2
equals
A. 1 B. x y 1 C. x1 y D. x1 y 1
(c) If 2x 2x2 = 192, the value of x is
A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8
190 Unit 4
1/6
66
(d) The number 6 is equal to
6 5 6
A. 66 B. 66 1 C. 6(6 ) D. 6(5 )
(e) The number of pairs positive integers (m, n) such that mn = 25 is
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. more than 2
2. Use the laws of exponents and simplify:
d
2
(12)6 34 105 (625) 23
he
(i) ; (ii) ; (iii) 3 2 .
162 53 64 (2 )
3. The diameter of the Sun is 1.4 109 meters and that of the Earth is
is
re S
about 1.2768 107 meters. Find the approximate ratio of the diameter
B
bl
of the Sun to that of the Earth.
(103 )2 104
be T
4. What is the value of ?

pu
102
K
2 !2
b3 b7 b1
5. Simplify: 3 .

(b)2 b2
6. Find the value of each of the following expressions:
2 2 2
(a) 32 (2)3 (52 ) ;
0 2
(b) (0.6)2 (4.5)0 ;
3
1 5
(c) (41 )4 25 82 (642 )3 ;
to
16
3
3 3 3
(d) (0.75) + (0.3) ;
t
2

No
8 (42 )4 33 272 + 9 63 47 (32 )3

(e) ;
24 (62 )4 (24 )2 + 144 (23 )4 (92 )2 42

219 273 + 15 49 94
(f) .
69 210 + 1210
7. How many digits are there in the number 23 54 205 ?

2 3 a3 4 a17 1
a
8. If a7 = 3, find the value of .
a7
Exponents 191
9. If 2m a2 = 28 , where a, m are positive integers, find all possible values

of a + m.
10. Suppose 3k b2 = 64 for some positive integers k, b. Find all possible

values of k + b.
11. Find the value of

(625)6.25 (25)2.60
.
d
(625)7.25 (5)1.20
he
12. A person had some rupees which is a power of 5. He gave a part of it
to his friend which is also a power of 5. He was left with 500. How
much did money he have?
is
re S
Glossary
B
bl
Light year: this is the distance travelled by a light ray in one year; it is
be T
equal to 4.3 365 24 60 60 299792 km.

pu
Exponential notation: writing a a a, where the product is taken
K
n times in the form an

Base: in the abbreviation an , a is the base.

Exponent: in the abbreviation an , n is the exponent.

Laws of exponents: am an = am+n ; (am )n = amn ; (ab)m = am bm hold
for non-zero numbers and integers m, n. (These are also true for algebraic
variables a, b and real numbers m, n.)
Points to remember
to
0n = 0 for n > 0; 0n is not defined for n 0.

am = an if and only if m = n for any a 6= 0, 1 or 1.
1
For any a 6= 0, and natural number n, an = n .
t
a
No
For any a 6= 0, and integers m, n,
am an = am+n .
n
For any a 6= 0, and integers m, n, am = amn .
For any a 6= 0, b 6= 0 and integer m,
(ab)m = am bm .
CHAPTER 2 UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS
After learning this unit, you learn to:
identify a point in the plane using a rectangular coordinate system;
d
set up a coordinate system and draw graphs of linear curves in such
he
a system;
get to know the way the coordinates of a point are related in two
different rectangular coordinate systems with axes parallel to each
is
re S
other;
B
bl
construct the equation of a straight line by looking at the graph of the
straight line on a graph paper.
be T
pu
2.5.1 Introduction
K
In May, when the summer is at its peak, you may find some days are

hot and some days are not so hot. You may measure the maximum tem-
perature on each day (you may use either Fahrenheit or Celsius to mea-
sure temperature). You get a data for the whole month. Perhaps you will
tabulate it in a straight forward way:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 30 31
to
Maximum
Temperature 33 32 34 35 37 32 35 38 36 36 .
t
No
Similarly, the rainfall for each month of a year can be measured in

inches or centimeters and we obtain a data. Recording these data is very
useful for future plans. For example, you can see the rain pattern over
several years and plan the agricultural crops accordingly. You may come
across several such important data in daily life which need to be recorded
for a better future. One easy way is to tabulate as earlier. However, this
is a very cumbersome procedure. People look for efficient way of recording
such data, which also help them to analyse it in a better way. One of the
effective method is the use of graphs.
Graphs 193
What is a graph? We can define a graph as the visual representa-

tion of numerical data collected during an experiment. By looking at the
graph, one can easily understand the data. Moreover, the graphs also help
us to analyse the data quickly.
There are different types of graphs: Bar graphs; Pie charts; Histograms;
Cartesian graphs. Each of them is useful for describing a particular type
of data. But the principal behind all these graphical representation is the
d
same; an easy visual comprehension of the collected data.
he
2.5.2 Bar graphs
Suppose a firm makes a profit of 36 lacks during 2006, 48 lakhs
is
during 2007, 70 lakhs during 2008, 85 lakhs during 2009 and 75
re S
lakhs during 2010. There is an easy visualisation of the firms perfor-
B
bl
mance during this 5-year period, if we represent the profit by a rectangular
be T
vertical bar as shown below.

pu
K
85
75
70

48
36
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Note that each bar in the above picture represents the profit of the firm
to
during that year which is given below the bar. You see that the firm has a
good growth, but a set-back in the last year.
t
96
90
No
87
80
It is not necessary that the verti-
cal bars in a bar graph be sepa-
65
rated. The adjacent graph shows
the marks obtained by Shilpa in
Social Studies
her 8-th standard examination.

Mathematics
Kannada
It is easy to compare her perfor-

Science
English
mance in individual subjects.

194 Unit 5
2.5.3 Pie charts

Rahim is an engineer in an industry and his take home salary is
36,000 per month. His expenditure for a month runs as follows:
How can this data be repre- House rent 6,000
sented as a graph? Rahim Food 6,000
would like to see what frac- Childrens education 3,600
d
tion of his income is spent Miscellaneous 6,000
on various heads. The graph Parental care 6,000
he
must immediately reflect the Savings 8,400.
fraction of his expenditure against his total salary income per month.
is
re S
We may think that 36,000 is represented by a circle. Since the expen-
B
bl
diture on each item is a part of Rahims total earning, such expenditure
must be represented by a part of the circle. The representation must im-
be T
pu
mediately reflect the ratio of the part to the whole For example, Rahim
K
spends 6,000 on rent and let us find the ratio of his rental expenditure
6000 1
to that of his income. It is = . Thus his rental expenses is one-

36000 6
sixth of his earnings and we have to represent rent by one-sixth part of
the whole circle. We can use the fact that the total angle at a point is 360 .
Consider the centre of the circle. Construct a sector of the circle which
measures 60 , since one-sixth of of 360 is 60 . Thus, this sector repre-
1
sents exactly part of the whole circle. This we can do for all heads and
6
to
find out the angle of the sector needed to represent each of the individual
expenditures. Thus
t
6000 1 1
No
House rent = and 360 = 60

36000 6 6
6000 1 1
Food = and 360 = 60
36000 6 6
3600 1 1
Childrens education = and 360 = 36
36000 10 10
6000 1 1
Miscellaneous = and 360 = 60
36000 6 6
Graphs 195
6000 1 1
Parental care = and 360 = 60
36000 6 6
8400 7 7
Savings = and 360 = 84
36000 30 30
The graph we have generated is as follows:
d
he
1/6
ion
Food
1/10 at
uc
is
re S
Ed 1/6
nt
Re
B
Miscellaneo
bl 1/6
us
Sa
vin
Par
be T
gs
pu
ent
K s
7/30
1/6

1 1 1 1 1 7
Observe! + + + + + = 1.
6 6 10 6 6 30
2.5.4 Coordinate system

to
Another extremely useful and important method of representing data

is the use of Cartesian graphs. These are also called coordinate graphs
as the basic principle depends on the use of a coordinate system. A
t
No
coordinate system is a useful device for representing points on the plane.

If you take a line, then the points on the line correspond to real numbers.
In a coordinate system in the plane, two lines, one perpendicular to the
other are used. This will help us to identify the points on the plane in a
definite manner.
To get an idea how a coordinate system works, suppose there is a rect-
angular grazing yard and you are standing at one corner of the yard. A
cow is grazing at some point in the yard. You have to identify its location
by some numerical data. What do you do?
196 Unit 5
An easy way is: walk in the direction of the cow from where you stand
and measure the distance you move. You may measure it using some
convenient measurement. But when you describe the situation to some
one else, you have to tell the direction in which you had moved and the
distance you had moved. Describing the direction is not so easy. You have
to use a different mechanism.
d
D C
The best way is to use the bound-
aries of the grazing yard. Suppose
he
you are at the point A and the cow
E (cow)
G is grazing at E.(Look at the adja-
is
re S
100 cent figure.) You may walk along
the boundary AB to a point F
B
(you)
A 300
bl F B
where EF is parallel to AD. Then
make a 90 turn anti clock-wise and move in the direction of the cow;
be T
pu
remember EF is parallel to AD. If AF = 300 m and F E = 100 m, you may
K
say the cow is located at 300 m in the direction of AB and 100 m in the
direction of AD.

Briefly we say E has coordinates (300, 100) with respect to the point A and
the system (AB, AD). Note that 300 is the distance in the direction of AB
and 100 is the distance in the direction of AD.
You may also walk along AD first to a point G where AG = 100 m, and
then walk along GE(which is parallel to AB) to the point E where GE = 300
to
m. Thus if you use the point A and the system (AD, AB), then E has
coordinates (100, 300).
t
Observe!
No
The point E is described by the ordered pair (300, 100) with re-
spect to the point A and the system (AB, AD). The same point E
is described by the ordered pair (100, 300) now with respect to the
point A and the system (AD, AC). Thus the same point E may
have different coordinates with respect to different systems.
Caution!!
With respect to the point A and the system (AB, AD), the points
(300, 100) and (100, 300) are totally different.
Graphs 197
D C Instead being at the point A, sup-

pose you are at the point P (See
the figure). How do you describe
E
(cow) the location of the cow with re-
50
P Q
spect to new position? Again, you
(you)
50 50 may walk along P Q to the point Q,
A 100 R 200
F B where P Q is parallel to AB and QE
d
is parallel to AD. Then you may move along QE to reach E. Now you
he
can describe E with respect to the point P and the system (AB, AD). Note
that P Q is parallel to AB and QE is parallel to AD; we are using the same
system (AB, AD) but a different starting point P . If you know P Q and
is
re S
QE, you can easily describe E. Draw P R parallel to AD with R on AB.
B
bl
Suppose AR = 100 m. Then P Q = RF = 200 m. Similarly, if RP = 50 m,
then QE = F E F Q = F E RP = 100 50 = 50 m. Thus with respect to the
be T
pu
point P and the system (AB, AD), the point E has coordinates (200, 50)
K
Observe!

The point P can be described with respect to A and the

system (AB, AD) by (100, 50), since AR = 100 and RP = 50
units. Using the point P and the system (AB, AD), the
point E is described by (200, 50). But E is described by
(300, 100) using the point A and the system (AB, AD). Can
you see that 300 = 100 + 200 and 100 = 50 + 50? What do you
to
conclude?
Now you imagine a situation of a huge grazing yard which is endless

t
No
and having no boundaries. Again a cow is grazing at some point in the

yard and you are standing at some other point. How do you describe
the position of the cow? Earlier, you had a rectangular yard and you
had a rectangular frame given by the boundaries. Now you are on your
own and you do not have any such frame. You may consider two lines
perpendicular to each other and passing through the point where you are
standing. Let O be the point where you are standing and let X OX, Y OY
be two line perpendicular to each other and passing through O. Let the
cow be grazing at E(See the figure).
198 Unit 5
Again you may move along

OX to F , where EF is par-
Y allel to Y OY . Then you
P may move from F to E
along F E. With respect to
L F
X
Q O
X the point O and the system
(X OX, Y OY ), you can de-
d
K
G E scribe E using the lengths
he
Y OF and F E = OG(here G is
on the line Y OY such that
GE is parallel to X OX).
is
re S
But there is a difficulty. If the point E is below the line X OX, as shown

B
in the figure, then you have to move along the ray OX to the point F , and
bl
then you have to move from F to E in the direction of the ray OY . If some
be T
pu
other cow is located at the point K, then you have to move from O to L in

the direction of the ray OX and then you have to move from L to K in the
K

direction of the ray OY . Similarly, you can reach the point P from O, by

moving first along OX and then from Q to P in the direction of OY .
Now you may observe that there are four different directions to move

starting from O; OX; OX ; OY ; and OY . You may think the line X OX
as the real number line and O corresponding to the number zero. Thus

all points to the left of O (along OX ) correspond to negative numbers and

all points to the right of O (along OX) correspond to the positive num-
to
bers. Similarly, we can view the line Y OY as another copy of number line
and O corresponding to zero; all points above O corresponding to positive
t
numbers and all points below O corresponding to negative numbers. Note

No
that O has the position 0 with respect to both the lines. We say O has
coordinates (0, 0).
Y
7
For reaching E, you have to move 5
6
5
P 4
units to F in the direction OX and 4
3
2

1 units in the direction OY , from F to E.
L Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Since OY corresponds to the negative
X 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 O F X
2
3
K 4
5
E part of the number line, we describe E
6
7
8
by (5, 4). We say E has coordinates
Y
Graphs 199
(5, 4) with respect to the rectangular coordinate system X OX

Y OY . (Here X OX Y OY is a symbol used to represent the coordi-
nate system.)
Here the line X OX is called the x-axis and Y OY is called the y-axis.

The point O is called the origin of the coordinate system. The ray OX

is called as the positive x-axis and OX is called as the negative x-

axis. Similarly, OY is the positive y-axis and OY is the negative y-axis.
d
The point E has coordinates (5, 4) in this system. We say 5 is the x-
he
coordinate of E and 4 is the y-coordinate of E. Note that the first num-
ber is always identifier along the horizontal axis and the second number
is
is always the identifier along the vertical axis. Similarly, the point K has
re S
6 as its x-coordinate and 3 as its y-coordinate. We say K has coordi-
B
bl
nates (6, 4) in this system. Similarly, P has coordinates (4, 4).
The lines X OX and Y OY di-
be T
pu
Y
vide the plane in to 4 regions.
K
The region bounded by the rays

OX and OY is called the first

X X
O quadrant. Similarly, you have
the second quadrant, the third
quadrant and the fourth quad-
Y
rant. If you take any point in

the first quadrant, you have to move in the directions of OX and OY to
to
reach that point. Thus you use the positive x and y-axes.
You will now recognise that all points in the first quadrant has non-

negative x- and y- coordinates; each point on the ray OX has its y-coordinate
t

No
equal to 0; and each point on the ray OY has its x-coordinate 0. In the

second quadrant, you have to use the rays OX and OY ; hence each point
in the second quadrant has non-positive x-coordinate and non-negative
y-coordinate. Similarly, the points in the third quadrant are described by
the coordinates (x, y), where x 0 and y 0. Each point in the fourth
quadrant is represented by the ordered pair (x, y) where x 0 and y 0.
The x-coordinate of a point is also called its the abscissa and the y-
coordinate is called the ordinate of that point.
200 Unit 5
Observe that the lines X OX and Y OY are completely left to

your choice. The only condition is that they must be perpendic-
ular to each other for obtaining a rectangular coordinate system.
Ren Descartes was born on

March 31st, 1596 in the town
d
of La Haye in the south of
France. In 1606, at the age
he
of 8, Ren Descartes started
studying literature, grammar,
science, and mathematics. In
is
re S
1616, he received his bac-
calaureate and licentiate de-
B
bl grees in Law. Aside from his
Law degrees, Descartes also
be T
pu
spent time studying philoso-
K
phy, theology, and medicine.

After a short stay in the military, Descartes went on to lead a quiet life,

continuing his intellectual pursuits, writing philosophical essays, and ex-

ploring the world of science and mathematics. In 1637, he published Ge-
ometry, in which his combination of algebra and geometry gave birth to
analytical geometry, better known as Cartesian geometry.
We use only rectangular coordinate system throughout this chap-

ter. However, it is possible to have a coordinate system in which
to
the two axes need not be perpendicular to each other. Such a system
called oblique coordinate system is also useful in solving many practical
t
problems.
No
The idea of introducing coordinates to identify the points on the plane

is due to Ren Descartes, a french mathematician and philosopher. This
has revolutionised the thinking as it helps to convert geometrical problems
to equivalent algebraic problems. To commemorate his contribution, the
system we study is also known as Cartesian coordinate system. This
has developed in to a new branch of mathematics known as Analytic ge-
ometry.
Graphs 201
Activity 1:
Locating a given point on a graph paper
Suppose you are given a graph paper. You also fix up your coordinate
system in the graph paper, say X OX and Y OY which are perpendicular
to each other. How do you locate the point P with coordinates (4, 6)?
Y
d
P(4,6)
8
he
7
6
5
4
is
3
re S
2
Q
B
1
X
bl 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X
be T
2
pu
3
K
4
5
7
8

Starting from the origin O, move 4 units in the direction of the ray OX .

Since OX represents negative x-axis, when 4 is given as x-coordinate,

you have to move 4 units in the direction of OX . You end up with the point
to

Q on OX . Now move 6 units up in the direction parallel to OY . Remember

OY represents positive y-axis. Hence the number 6(with positive sign)tells

t
you that you have to move 6 units upwards parallel to OY . You then reach
No
a point P whose coordinates are (4, 6).

Activity 2:
Take a sheet of graph paper. Now set up two rectangular coordinate axes:
X OX Y OY and X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 , where X OX k X1 O1 X1 . Locate
a point P with coordinates (10, 5) with respect to the system X1 O1 X1
Y1 O1 Y1 . What are the coordinates of P with respect to the system X OX
Y OY ? Find the coordinates of O1 with respect to the system X OX Y OY .
Now can you find the relation among the coordinates of P in the system
202 Unit 5
X OX Y OY , the coordinates of O1 in the system X OX Y OY and

the coordinates of P in the system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 ?
Y Y1
7
17
6 P
16
5
15
4
14
3
13
2
12
1
d
X 1 11 O1 X1
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
10 1
9 2
he
8 3
7 4
6 5
5 6
4 7
is
3 8
re S
2 9
1 10
X O X
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
B
bl 1
2
3
12
13
14
be T
4 15
pu
5 16
K
Y Y 1
In the above figure, you see that O1 has coordinates (11, 11) in the sys-

tem X OX Y OY . The point P has the coordinates (21, 16) in the sys-
tem X OX Y OY and (10, 5) in the system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 . Observe
that
21 = 11 + 10, 16 = 11 + 5.
We write this in the form (21, 16) = (11, 11) + (10, 5). Repeat this with various
positions of P and different systems X OX Y OY , X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 .
to
What is the conclusion you draw from these activities?

t
Observe!
No
Suppose X OX Y OY and X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 are two system

of coordinates such that X OX k X1 O1 X1 . Let a point P have
coordinates (x, y) in the system X OX Y OY and (x , y ) in the
second system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 . If O1 has coordinates (a, b)
with respect to the system X OX Y OY , then x = a + x and
y = b + y .
Graphs 203
Activity 3:
Take a sheet of graph paper and set up your coordinate system X OX
Y OY . Locate a point P with coordinates (5, 8). Trace the point with
coordinates (8, 5). Do you get the same point P ?
Example 1.
Consider the number 3. Let us tabulate the multiples of 3, some positive
and some negative.
d
he
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (1) 30 31 32 33
y 9 6 3 0 3 6 9
is
re S
(x, y) (3, 9) (2, 6) (1, 3) (0, 0) (1, 3) (2, 6) (3, 9)
B
bl 12
Y
(4,12)
be T
11
pu
10
(3,9)
9
K
8
7
(2,6)
6
5

4
(1,3)
3
2
1
(0,0)
X 0
X
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 O1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1
2
(1,3)
3
4
5
(2,6)
6
7
8
(3,9)
9
to
10
11
(4,12) 12
Y
t
Take a sheet of graph paper, and set up your own coordinate system,
No
X OX Y OY . Locate the points (x, y) tabulated in the last row. Can

you see that all these lie on a straight-line?
Example 2. (Area versus perimeter of a square)
Consider a square of side length 1 unit. What is its area? You know that
the area of a square is l2 , where l is the length of the square. And its
perimeter is l + l + l + l = 4l. Hence the area of a square of side length 1 unit
is 1 square unit and its perimeter is 4 units. What are these for a square
of length 2 units? You see that they are respectively 4 square units and 8
204 Unit 5
units. Let us tabulate the perimeter and area of squares of different side
lengths.
l 1 2 3 4 5 6
x = 4l 4 8 12 16 20 24
y = l2 1 4 9 16 25 36
d
(x, y) (4,1) (8,4) (12,9) (16,16) (20,25) (24,36)
he
Y
is
re S
40
B
35 bl (24,36)
be T
pu
30
K
25 (20,25)

20
(16,16)
15
10
(12,9)
5
(8,4)
to
1 (4,1)
X
X O 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Y
t
No
Again set up your own coordinate system on a graph paper and plot
these points (x, y) on the graph paper. Do you think that these points lie
on a straight-line?
Example 3. (Simple interest versus number of years)

Suppose Shiva deposits 1,000 in a bank for 5 years for simple interest
at the rate of 8% per annum. You can easily calculate what he earns as
interest over the years and tabulate it.
Graphs 205
Year=x 1 2 3 4 5
Interest=y 80 160 240 320 400
(x, y) (1, 80) (2, 160) (3, 240) (4, 320) (5, 400)
Y
Again you are required
to plot these points on
(5,400)
400
360 a graph paper. Here
d
320 (4,320)
280 you face a practical prob-

240 (3,240)
he
200 lem. The interest Shiva
160 (2,160)
120 obtains are big numbers

80 (1,80)
and it is difficult to lo-
is
40
re S
O
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3cate numbers like 240,
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X X
320, 400 on a graph pa-
B
bl per, unless the graph pa-
be T
per you take is very huge.

pu
Y
However, this difficulty may be avoided using different scaling. For exam-
K
ple, you may use 1 unit=40 along y-axis. Here again you notice that all
the points lie on a straight-line.

Activity 4:
Suppose a car moves with a constant speed of 40 km per hour. Make a
table of the distance covered by the car at the end of 1-st, 2-nd, 3-rd, 4-th,
5-th, 6-th ,7-th and 8-th hour. Trace the points on a graph paper where
x-axis represents the time and y-axis represents the distance traveled by
to
the car.
Exercise 2.5.4
t
1. Fix up your own coordinate system on a graph paper and locate the
No
following points on the sheet:

(i) P (3, 5); (ii) Q(0, 8); (iii) R(4, 0); (iv) S(4, 9).
2. Suppose you are given a coordinate system. Determine the quadrant
in which the following points lie:
(i) A(4, 5); (ii)B(4, 5); (iii)C(4, 5).
3. Suppose P is a point with coordinates (8, 3) with respect to a coor-
dinate system X OX Y OY . Let X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 be another
system with X OX k X1 O1 X1 and suppose O1 has coordinates (9, 5)
206 Unit 5
with respect to X OX Y OY . What are the coordinates of P in the

system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 ?
4. Suppose P has coordinates (10, 2) in a coordinate system X OX Y OY
and (3, 6) in another coordinate system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 with
X OX k X1 O1 X1 . Determine the coordinates of O with respect to the
system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 .
d
2.5.5 Linear graphs
he
Take a re-look at Example 1, where you have plotted integral multiples
of 3. Instead of taking integer multiples of 3, suppose you take real multi-
ples of 3: for each real number x, consider y = 3x(obtained by multiplying
is
re S
x by 3).
B
bl x 0 1 2 3 1 2
1
2
1
2
1
3
be T
3 3
pu
y 0 3 6 9 3 6 1
2 2
K
As you assign different real values for x, you get back different real

numbers y = 3x. Thus for each real number x, you get a point whose
coordinates are (x, 3x). Using a coordinate system, we can trace these
points on a graph sheet.
Y
12
11
10 (3,9)
9
to
8
7 (2,6)
6
5
4 (1,3)
3
(1/2,3/2)
t
1 (1/3, 1)
No
X 0 O1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
X
1
(1/2, 3/2)
2
(1,3) 3
4
5
(2,6) 6
7
8
9
10
11
12
If you take more and more values of x, you get more and more points
(x, 3x). As you go on tracing them on graph paper, you see that these points
Graphs 207
get more and more clustered. Of course, you have to get finer and finer
graph paper to trace these points. However, you see that all these points
lie on a straight-line. Now it is clear that as x exhaust all real numbers,
the points (x, y), where y = 3x, trace a straight-line in the plane. We say
the equation y = 3x represents a straight-line on the coordinate plane.
Activity 5:
1
Use the scaling 1 unit = on the x-axis. Calculate more values of y = 3x
d
3
as x varies over real numbers and trace the points (x, y) on a graph sheet
he
using the suggested scaling.
The relation y = 3x is of the first degree. Such a relation always repre-
is
sents a straight-line. The general form of the equation for a straight-line
re S
is y = ax + b.(Here a and b are real numbers.) If a = 0, then y = b is a
B
straight-line parallel to y-axis.
bl
be T
Example 4. Suppose a person deposits 10,000 in a bank for simple

pu
interest at the rate of 7% per annum. Obtain a relation for accrued interest
K
in terms of years. Draw the graph of this relation. Use this to read the

interest at the end of 10 years.

Solution: Let y be the interest obtained in x years. The interest for x years
7
is 10000 x = 700x. Thus you get y = 700x as the required relation.
100
Now use the scaling: 1 unit= 700 along y-axis. Note that
for x = 1, you get y = 700 : (x, y) = (1, 700),

to
for x = 2, you get y = 1400 : (x, y) = (2, 1400).

Y
t
Take a sheet of graph pa-

No
7700
S
7000
6300
R
per and set up coordinate
axes X OX Y OY . Lo-
5600
4900
4200
3500
2800
cate points P (1, 700) and
2100
1400 Q(2,1400)
Q(2, 1400). Remember you are
700 P(1,700)
T X using the scale 1 unit =700
X O 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Y
along y-axis. Now the equation is a straight-line and hence P , Q determine
this straight-line.
208 Unit 5
Observe!
To draw a straight-line, it is enough to know only two points on
that line; given any two distinct points in the plane, you can
use the scale to draw the unique line passing through those two
points.
Use a straight-edge to join P Q and extend it to possible extent. This
d
straight-line represents the curve of the interest versus years for this
problem. Now look at the point 10 on x-axis, say T . Draw a perpen-
he
dicular to x-axis at T to meet the straight-line y = 700x at R. From R draw
a perpendicular to y-axis. Record the point where it cuts y-axis. That gives
is
re S
the interest at the end of 10 years, which you read as 7,000.
B
bl
Example 5. Draw the graph of y = 3x + 5.
Solution: Give different values for x and get values for y. Tabulate them.
be T
pu
x 0 1 2 3 1 2
K
y 5 8 11 14 2 1

20
15
(3,14)
to
(2,11)
10
(1,8)
t
5 (0,5)
No
(1,2)
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(2, 1)
Let us trace these on a graph paper. Fix x and y axes and locate the
points
(x, y) = (0, 5), (1, 8), (2, 11), (3, 14), (1, 2), (2, 1).
Graphs 209
Do you see that all these points lie on a straight line? Use a straight-
edge and join all these points by a straight line segment.
Activity 6: Draw the graphs of y = x + 4, y = 2x 3, y = 3, x = 2y + 1, x = 2.
All these are straight lines. Do you see that y = ax + b is always a straight
line?
Example 6. Determine the equation of the line in the following given
d
graph.
he
Y
Solution: Recall that
the general equation of a
is
10
re S
9
8
straight-line is y = ax + b,
B
where a, b are real constants.
Q
6
5
bl
7
The given graph shows that

be T
a 6= 0. (If a = 0, then y = b
pu
3
2
K
O P
1
represents a straight-line
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X 1 X
parallel to y-axis.) If x = 0,

2
3 then y = b. Thus (0, b) is a
point on the straight-line.
Y

b b
Similarly, taking y = 0, you get ax + b = 0 or x = . Thus , 0 is also
a a
a point on the line. Looking at the graph, we see that it cuts y-axis at (0, 4)
to
and the x-axis at (3, 0). We conclude that

t
b
No
(0, b) = (0, 4), , 0 = (3, 0).

a
b 4
Thus b = 4 and = 3, which gives a = . Hence the equation of the
a 3
4
given graph is y = x + 4. This may also be written as 3y + 4x = 12(why?)
3
Example 7. Determine the equation of the line in the following given

graph.
210 Unit 5
Y
Solution: We may take

10
the equation in the form
9
8
y = ax + b. Observe that
6
7
the straight-line passes
5
4
through (0, 0). This
Q
3
means that y = 0 when
2
d
1
O x = 0. But the substitu-
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X X tion x = 0 in the equa-
he
1
2
3
P
tion gives 0 = y = b. Thus
b = 0 and so that y = ax.
is
Y
re S
We also observe that the line passes through (1, 3); that is y = 3, when-
B
bl
ever x = 1. This gives 3 = a 1 or a = 3. The equation of the line is
therefore y = 3x.
be T
pu
Exercise 2.5.5
K
1. Draw the graphs of the following straight-lines:

(i) y=3-x; (ii) y=x-3; (iii) y=3x-2; (iv) y=5-3x ;

(v) 4y = x + 3; (vi) 3y = 4x + 1; (vii) x = 4; (viii) 3y = 1.
y y+1
2. Draw the graph of = .
x x+2
3. Determine the equation of the line in each of the following graphs:
Y Y
to
10 10
9 9
8 8
t
7 7
6 6
No
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
O O
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X 1 X X 1 X
2 2
3 3
Y Y
4. A boat is moving in a river, down stream, whose stream has speed 8

km per hour. The speed of the motor of the boat is 22 km per hour.
Draw the graph of the distance covered by the boat versus hour.
Graphs 211
5. Find the point of intersection of the straight-lines 3y + 4x = 7 and

4y + 3x = 7, by drawing their graphs and looking for the point where
they meet.
Additional problems on Introduction to graphs
d
(a) The point (4, 0) lie on the line
he
A. y x = 0 B. y = 0 C. x = 0 D. y + x = 0
(b) The point (5, 4) lie in
is
re S
A. the first quadrant B. the second quadrant C. the third
B
bl
quadrant D. the fourth quadrant
(c) If a straight-line pass through (0, 0) and (1, 5), then its equation is
be T
pu

K
A. y = x B. y = 5x C. 5y = x D. y = x + 5
(d) If a point P has coordinates (3, 4) in a coordinate system X OX

Y OY , and if O has coordinates (4, 3) in another system X1 O1 X1

Y1 O1 Y1 with X OX k X1 O1 X1 , then the coordinates of P in the new
system X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 is
A. (3, 4) B. (1, 1) C. (7, 7) D. (1, 1)
(e) The coordinates of a point P in a system X OX Y OY are (5, 8).
to
The coordinates of the same point in the system Y OY XOX

are
t
A. (8, 5) B. (8, 5) C. (8, 5) D. (8, 5)

No
(f) The signs of the coordinates of a point in the third quadrant are

A. (+, ) B. (, +) C. (+, +) D. (, )
(g) If a person moves either 1 unit in the direction of positive x-axis or
1 unit in the direction of positive y-axis per step, then the number
of steps he requires to reach (10, 12) starting from the origin (0, 0)
is
A. 10 B. 12 C. 22 D. 120
212 Unit 5
(h) The y-coordinate of the point of intersection of the line y = 3x + 4

with x = 3 is
A. 4 B. 7 C. 10 D. 13
(i) The equation of the line which passes through (0, 0) and (1, 1) is

A. y = x B. y = x C. y = 1 D. x = 1
d
2. Find the quadrant in which the following points lie:
he
(i) (5, 10); (ii) (8, 9); (iii) (800, 3000); (iv) (8, 100).
3. Match the following:
is
re S
(A) On the x-axis (i) x coordinate is negative
B
(B) In the second quadrant (ii) cuts the y-axis at (0, 4)
bl
(C) The line y = 3x + 4 (iii) coordinates of a point are of
be T
the form (a, 0).

pu
K
4. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The y-coordinate of a point on the x-axis is .

(b) The x- coordinate is called as .
(c) The x-axis and y-axis intersect at .
(d) If a point (x, y) 6= (0, 0) is in the third quadrant, then x + y has
sign.
to
(e) If a point (x, y) lies above horizontal axis, then y is always

.
(f) The point of intersection of x = y and x = y is .
t
No
(g) The line y = 4x + 5 intersects y-axis at the point .
5. True or false?
(a) The equation of the x-axis is x = 0.

(b) The line x = 4 is parallel to y-axis.
(c) The line y = 8 is perpendicular to x-axis.
(d) The lines x = y and x = y are perpendicular to each other.
(e) The lines x = 9 and y = 9 are perpendicular to each other.
Graphs 213
(f) The graph of y = x2 is a straight line.

(g) The line y = 3x + 4 does not intersect x-axis.
(h) In a rectangular coordinate system, the coordinate axes are cho-
sen such that they form a pair of perpendicular lines.
6. Determine the equation of the line which passes through the points
(0, 8) and (7, 0).
d
7. Determine the equation of the line in each of the following graph:
he
(i) (ii)
Y Y
is
re S
10
10
9
9
B
bl 8
6
5
7
8
6
7
be T
5
4 4
pu
3 3
2 2
K
1 1
O O
X 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 X 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X 1 X
1
2
2

3
3
Y Y
8. A point P has coordinates (7, 10) in a coordinate system X OX

Y OY . Suppose it has coordinates (10, 7) in another coordinate system
X1 O1 X1 Y1 O1 Y1 with X OX k X1 O1 X1 . Find the coordinates of O1
in the system X OX Y OY .
to
9. Sketch the region {(x, y) : x 0, y 0, x + 2y 4} in a coordinate

system set up by you.
t
No
10. Draw the graphs of lines 3y = 4x 4 and 2x = 3y + 4 and determine the

point at which these lines meet.
11. If a b = ab + a + b, draw the graph of y = 3 x + 1 2.
Glossary
Graph: a visual representation of numerical data.
Bar graph: graphs in which data is represented by rectangular bars.
Pie chart: a graph in which data is represented by sectors of a circle.
214 Unit 5
Rectangular frame: two perpendicular lines in a plane which helps to lo-

cate points on the plane.
Rectangular coordinate system: a system which making use of rectan-
gular frames locates points as an ordered pair of real numbers.
x-axis: the horizontal line in a rectangular coordinate system.
y-axis: the vertical line in a rectangular coordinate system.
Quadrant: the four parts that a plane gets divided by a rectangular coor-
d
dinate system.
he
Abscissa: the x-coordinate of a point.
Ordinate: the y-coordinate of a point.
Cartesian coordinate system: a coordinate system in which every point
is
re S
in the plane is determined by a pair of real numbers called the coordinates
B
of the point.
bl
Analytic geometry: the geometry in which all the geometrical concepts
be T
pu
are studied using the coordinate system.
K
Points to remember

You can set up your own coordinate system; there is no sacred coor-
dinate system.
The coordinates of a point depends on the coordinate system you
choose.
A rectangular coordinate system is only a convenient coordinate sys-
tem; it is not necessary that one should always use a rectangular
to
system.
A graph is visual representation of the numerical data.
t
No

Exercise 2.1.1
3 x 2 5xy
1. Constants: 15, , 3, 7; Variables: 12 + z, , x, xy; , 7 x,
7 5 3 2
8yz y 2x
6x + 4y, 7z, , y + 4, , .
4x 4 8yz
8x 8 2 2
2. Monomials: 7xyz, , x y ; Binomials: 9 4y, 4y 2 xz, 7x + z 2 ;
y 5
Trinomials: x 2y + 3z, 4 + 5y 6z.
Answers 215
Exercise 2.1.3

1
1. {4x2 , 3x2 }, {xy, 8xy}, {8x3 , 6x3 , 74x3 }, x , {7xyz}.
3
2. (i) 4x 14y + 11; (ii) 4x2 3xy 9y 2 . 3. (i) 9a + 6b; (ii) 2x2 y + 5xy 2 + 2y 3.
4. (i) 10x2 y 3xy 2 ; (ii) 3a + 7b.
Exercise 2.1.4
1.
d
he
First 3x 6y 4x2 8xy 9x2 y 11x3 y 2
Second
9x2 12x3 24x2 y 27x3 y 33x4 y 2
is
3x 18xy
re S
6y 18xy 36y 2 24x2 y 48xy 2 54x2 y 2 66x3 y 3
B
4x
8xy
2 12x3
24x2 ybl 24x2 y
48xy 2
16x4
32x3 y
32x3 y 36x4 y 44x6 y 2
64x2 y 2 72x3 y 2 88x4 y 3
be T
pu
9x2 y 27x3 y 54x2 y 2 36x4 y 72x3 y 2 8x4 y 2 99x5 y 3
K
11x3 y 2 33x4 y 2 66x3 y 344x5 y 2 88x4 y 3 99x5 y 3 121x6 y 4

6 6
2. (i) 15x2 + 24x; (ii) 45p4 q 3 + 3pq 4 ; (iii) a3 x b3 x; (iv) x3 + 15x.

5 5
3. (i) 6x3 y 2 10x2 y 3x2 y 2 + 5xy; (ii) 12x3 y 3 18x3 y 4 + 4xy 6xy 2 ;
(iii) 6x4 + 4x3 + 9x2 + 6x; (iv) 10m3 + 12m2 3m.
Exercise 2.1.5
1. (i) a2 +8a+15; (ii) 9t2 +15t+4; (iii) a2 6a16; (iv) a2 8a+12. 2. (i) 2915;
to
(ii) 10812; (iii) 1224; (iv) 9888. 3. x3 + (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc.
4. (i) a2 + 12a + 36; (ii) 9x2 + 12xy + 4y 2; (iii) 4p2 + 12pq + 9q 2; (iv) x4 + 10x2 + 25.
5. (i) 1156; (ii) 104.04; (iii) 2809; (iv) 1681. 6. x2 12x + 36;
t
(ii) 9x2 30xy + 25y 2; (iii) 25a2 40ab + 16b2 ; (iv) p4 2p2 q 2 + q 4 .
No
2 2
7. (i) 2401; (ii) 96.04; 2 (iii)3481; (iv) 39204. 8. x 36; (ii) 9x 25;
4x
(iii) 4a2 16b2 ; (iv) 1 . 9. (i) 2475; (ii) 851; (iii) 80.75;
9
4 4 4 1 4 1
(iv) 9996. 10. (i) x 81; (ii) 16a 81; (iii) p 16; (iv) m ;
16 81
(v) 16x4 y 4 ; (vi) 16x4 81y 4.
Additional problems on Algebraic expressions
1. (a) B. (b) B. (c) C. (d) A. (e) A. (f) C. (g) C. (h) B. (i) C.
216 Answers
2. 2x+ 17y + p q. 3. (i) 16x2 + 24x+ 9; (ii) x2 + 4xy + 4y 2; (iii) x2 + (1/x2 ) + 2;

(iv) x2 + (1/x2 ) 2. 4. (i) 4t2 25; (ii) x2 y 2 25; (iii) 4x2 9y 2 .
5. (i) n4 1; (ii) n4 (1/n4 ); (iii) x8 1; (iv) 16x4 y 4 . 6. (i) 10609; (ii)
9216; (iii) 9951; (iv) 999936; (v) 21000. 7. 25. 8. 80. 9. 8.
10. 29 11. 7 and 18. 12. 34 and 1154. 13. (i) 2(x + y ); 2 2

4 2 2 4 3(x + z) 2 (z x) 2
(ii) x 2x y + y . 14. (i) ; (ii) (x + 2y)2 (2x + y)2 ;
2 2
d
(iii) (x + 100)2 12 ; (iv) 5002 52 .
he
15. (i) 13x 4y; (ii) 28x 11y. 16. 4x2 22x + 6. 17. 2x2 2xy + 4z 2 .
18. (18x2 9xy 20y 2)/2. 19. 5x2 + 11xy + 5y 2.
is
re S
Exercise 2.2.2
B
bl
1. (i) x(x + y); (ii) 3x(x 2); (iii) (0.8)a(2a 1); (iv) 5(1 2m 4n).
2. (i) (a+x)(a+b); (ii) (3a+7b)(cd); (iii) (x2z)(3y3t); (iv) (y3)(y 2 +2x).
be T

pu
3 3
3. (i) (2a + 5)(2a 5); (ii) x + x ; (iii) (x2 + y 2 )(x + y)(x y);
K
4 4
1222
(iv) ; (v) 0.4; (vi) (7a 3b)(3a b).

25
Exercise 2.2.3
1. (i) p = 9, q = 2; (ii) p = 8, q = 4; (iii) p = 6, q = 4; (iv) p = 12, q = 1;
(v) p = 6, q = 1; (vi) p = 11 q = 4. 2. (i) (x + 4)(x + 2); (ii) x + 3)(x + 1);
(iii) (a + 3)(a + 2); (iv) (a 3)(a 2); (v) (a 8)(a + 5); (vi) (x 9)(x + 8).
to
3. (i) (x + 7)(x + 7); (ii) (2x + 1)(2x + 1); (iii) (a 5)(a 5); (iv) 2(x 6)(x 6);
(v) (p 12)(p 12); (vi) x(x 6)(x 6).
t
Additional problems on Factorisation

No
1. (a) C. (b) B. (c) D. (d) B. (e) D. (f) A.

2. (i) (x + 3)2 ; (ii) (1 4x)2 ; (iii) (2x + 9y)(2x 9y); (iv) (2a + b)2 ;
(v) (a2 d2 )(b2 c2 ).
3. (i) (x + 3)(x + 4); (ii) (x + 4)(x 3); (iii) (x 6)(x + 3); (iv) (x + 7)(x 3);
(v) (x 16)(x + 12); (vi) (x 1)(x + 1)(x 2)(x + 2);
(vii) (x 2y)(x + 2y)(x 3y)(x + 3y).
4. (i) (2x3)(x+2); (ii) (x4)(3x5); (iii) (x2)(6x+7); (iv) (2x+y)(2x+5y);
(v) (2x 1)(2x + 1)(x 1)(x + 1). 5. (i) (x 4)(x + 4)(x2 + y 2 )(x4 + y 4 );
Answers 217
(ii) a4 x4 (a x)(a + x)(a2 + x2 )(a4 + x4 ); (iii) (x2 + x + 1)(x2 x + 1);

(iv) (x2 + x + 3)(x2 x + 3). 6. (x2 + 2xy + 2y 2)(x2 2xy + 2y 2).
Exercise 2.3.2
6
1. (i) x = 8; (ii) y = 30; (iii) z = 7; (iv) x = ; (v) x = 3; (vi) s = 28;
11
8
(vii) x = 20; (viii) x = 2.4; (ix) x = 7; (x) x = ; (xi) x = 60; (xii) x = 25;
5
(xiii) x = 2; (xiv) x = 36; (xv) x = 1. 2. (i) x = 12; (ii) t = 6; (iii) x = 7;
d
3
(iv) z = ; (v) x = 5; (vi) x = 1; (vii) x = 25; (viii) x = 13; (ix) x = 5;
he
2
(x) x = 10; (xi) x = 3; (xii) x = 8; (xiii) x = 54; (xiv) x = 9.
Exercise 2.3.3
is
re S
1 6. 2. 71, 73, 75. 3. 25 cm and 15 cm. 4. 11. 5. 3,000 and
B
bl
750. 6. 60 and 10. 7. x = 40. 8. 7. 9. 45 and 36. 10. 96 m and
48 m. 11. Ahmeds age 12 and his fathers age 36 years. 12. Nishus
be T
pu
age 11 and Sanjus age 17 years. 13. Deepus age 11 and Vijis age 22
K
years. 14. Bindus age 19 and Mrs. Josephs age 46 years. 15. 8 years.
Additional problems on Linear equations in one variable

1 (a) B. (b) A. (c) B. (d) B. (e) B. (f) B. (g) A. (h) B.

47
2. (i) 10; (ii) . 3. 21 and 24. 4. 10 and 40. 5. 110, 112, 114.
57
6. A share 40,000 and Bs share 20,000. 7. 60. 8. 72. 9. garden
35,000 and house 49,000. 10. 800. 11. 15 years. 12. 33.
13. 12.50 14. 57. 15. 90 km and 95 km. 16. 2.25 km. 17. 1/4.
to
18. 62. 19. altitude 20 cm and base 12 cm. 20. 40 , 50 and 90 .

Exercise 2.4.1
t
1. (i) 123 ; (ii) 29 ; (iii) (0.013)2. 2. (i) 104 + 2 103 + 3 102 + 4 10 + 5;

No
1 1 1 2 3 4
(ii) 103 + 101 + 2 + 4 ; (iii) + 2 + 5 + 7 . 3. 3 54 + 1 53 + 2 5.
10 10 10 10 10 10
4. 194. 5. 625.
Exercise 2.4.2
1. (i) 321 ; (ii) 26 314 . 2. 10 zeros. 3. 53 54 55 56 > 57 58 .
Exercise 2.4.3
25
1. (i) 103 ; (ii) . 2. 34 23 > 25 32 . 4 b = 1, 2 or 4.
6
218 Answers
Exercise 2.4.4
1
1. (i) 1; (ii) . 2. m = 2, n = 2. 3. m = 3.
9
Exercise 2.4.5
2000 (1.11)3 (1.1)2
1. (i) 2592; (ii) ; (iii) . 2. No. 3. 1004 > 1253 .
27 (1.01)2
Exercise 2.4.6
d
32 19683 313
he
1. (i) ; (ii) ; (iii) 39 . 2. n = 49. 3. can happen for
243 42875 2 544
m = 2.
4. (m, n) = (2, 2).
is
re S
Additional problems on Exponents
B
bl
1. (i) B. (ii) D. (iii) D. (iv) C. (v) B.
be T
2. (i) 1152; (ii) 25/2; (iii) 8.

pu
3. 109.65. 4. 1. 5. b12 . 6. (a) 642; (b) 0; (c) 29 ; (d) 944/27; (e) 1/2.
K
7. 11. 8. 81. 9. a + m = 8. 10. k + 2 = 8 or 14. 11. 1. 12. 625.

Exercise 2.5.4
2. (i) first quadrant; (ii) third quadrant; (iii) fourth quadrant.
3. (17, 2). 4. (13, 8).
Exercise 2.5.5
3. (i) 3x 2y = 6; (ii) x + y = 5. 5. (1, 1).
to
Additional problems on Introduction to graphs

1. (a) B. (b) B. (c) C. (d) C. (e) C. (f) D. (g) C. (h) B. (i) A.
t
No
2. (a) First; (b) second; (c) third; (d) fourth.

3. (A) (iii); (B) (i); (C) (ii).
4. (a) zero; (b) abscissa; (c) (0, 0); (d) negative; (e) positive; (f) (0, 0);
(g) (0, 5).
5. (a) false; (b) true; (c) false; (d) true; (e) true; (f) false; (g) false;
(h) true.
6. 7y = 8(x 7); 7y = 8x. 7. (i) 6y = 11x + 15; (ii) 16y = 5x + 12.
8. (3, 3).
CHAPTER 3 UNIT 1
AXIOMS, POSTULATES AND THEOREMS

the meaning of undefined objects, axioms, postulates and hypothesis;
d
that the lines, points, plane, space are undefined objects in Euclidean
he
geometry;
various types of angles and relation among these angles;
is
the properties of parallel lines and about Euclids fifth postulate.
re S
3.1.1 Introduction
B
bl
In earlier classes, you have studied many geometrical objects: straight
be T
pu
lines, triangles, quadrilaterals and circles. You have also studied some
K
geometrical properties of these objects: angles and different types of an-

gles; triangle inequality(the sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than

the third side); medians; altitudes; area of a triangle and a circle. Most of
these are taught to you through observations. You may wonder that these
were developed by our ancestors more than 2000 years ago.
Indeed, the concept of geometry is very old. Egyptian civilisation devel-
oped the early geometrical methods and measurements. In fact, geometry
is derived from two Greek words: Geo to mean Earth and metron meaning
to
measurement. When the Nile river flooded the whole region, the cultivated
land used to submerge in water erasing all the boundaries. Hence Egyp-
t
tians developed certain geometrical methods to demarcate the boundaries

No
afresh. They also introduced area of plane figures and volume of some
three dimensional objects which were used as granaries. Perhaps Pyra-
mids, which still occupy a place among seven wonders of the world and
whose construction is certainly one of the greatest human achievements,
will give you an idea how much Egyptians were advanced in the use of
geometry.
Thus the ancient geometry developed through the practical requirement

of measuring land. However, a systematic treatment of geometry started
220 Unit 1
with ancient Greek around 2500 years ago. They are the first one to realise
the need to conceptualise the geometrical ideas.
The practical geometry used point, line and plane without bothering
much what they mean. But, the Greek Philosophers and Mathematicians
were more interested in proving statements by deductive reasoning. It
was, perhaps, Thales(640 BC- 546 BC) who first introduced the concept of
proof. He realised the need for proving a statement by logical reasoning.
d
Many more Greeks, like Appolonius, Plato, Pythagoras, Diophantus and
he
Ptolemy made enormous contributions to the systematic development of
Geometry and other areas of Mathematics and laid the firm foundation to
make Mathematics a science of logical reasoning.
is
re S
However, it was Euclid who collected all these contributions to Geome-
B
bl
try and other branches of mathematics in to thirteen volumes of a book
called the Elements along with his own original ideas.
be T
pu
K
Euclid(around 300 BC) was a Greek

mathematician often called the Father

of Geometry. He was a contemporary

of Ptolemy(323 BC-283 BC), another fa-
mous Greek mathematician of antiq-
uity. Euclids work Elements is one of
the most influential work in the whole
history of mathematics which changed
the face of Mathematics laying the foun-
to
dation for the future development.
Euclid deduced his results, what is now known as Euclidean Geometry,

t
from a small number of principles called Axioms and Geometrical postu-

No
lates. Euclid has also contributed to other branches of Mathematics. His

proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers is a classic example of
the deductive reasoning that Euclid employed in his works. Nothing much
is known about Euclids life. The date and place of his birth are unknown.
Like-wise, the date and circumstances of his death are also unknown. All
we know about him is through the references made by other people in their
work. The picture of Euclid we have today is also through the imagination of
an artist.
In ancient India, Sulva Sutras are perhaps the first record of Math-
Axioms 221
ematical lore, especially geometry(600 BC to 300 BC). These are records

of the mathematical principles developed during Vedic period and subse-
quent time. The Sulva Sutras contain several geometrical principles.
The Indian geometry developed out of religious needs of constructing
sacrificial altars to propitiate Gods and later for the study of Eclipses.
The Baudhayana Sutra, the most ancient among the Sulva Sutras says
the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other. This also contained the idea
d
of the celebrated Pythagorass theorem, but unfortunately no proof was
he
given.
The Sulva Sutras also gave methods of constructing a square whose
is
area equals the area of a given circle. The construction involved approx-
re S
imating and the approximation used was 3.088, which is quite close to
B
bl
the present day approximations to .
With the passage of time, others also made significant contributions:
be T
pu
Aryabhata I, Bhaskara I, Varahamihara, Brahmagupta, Mahaviracharya,
K
Bhaskaracarya II, Madhava, Nilakantha Somayaji, and many others made

innumerable contribution to the advancement of Mathematics.

3.1.2 Axioms and Postulates

You have seen that a straight angle is defined as the angle measuring
180 degrees. You use a protractor to measure angle. However, the cali-
bration of protractor is such that when you place it on a straight line, you
to
read 180 degrees. Thus the protractor is designed to measure 180 degrees
when a straight angle is given. Can you see that you have to go around
from protractor to straight angle to protractor?
t
No
This was the major difficulty faced by Greek mathematicians while de-
veloping Geometry as a pure deductive science. They had to depend on
certain primitive notions like points, straight lines and planes and space.
But this was not enough to deduce every thing. They had to set up cer-
tain statements, whose validity was accepted unquestionably, applicable
to geometry alone. They had to depend some more statements applicable
to all of Mathematics and science in general and Geometry in particular.
The general statements which are accepted without question and which
are applicable to all branches of science are commonly referred as Axioms.
222 Unit 1
The statements which are particular to Geometry and accepted without

question are called Geometrical Postulates. Any result you further prove
depends on these axioms and postulates.
Another problem with the deductive method is how to define some ge-
ometrical terms. For example, you all have an intuitive idea what a point
is. But can you define a point? When you define some thing, you must
do it so using what you know already. Hence you have to depend on some
d
undefined terms.
he
In Euclids geometry, the undefined terms are point, line, plane. They
are only certain abstract ideas. Thus you cannot see a point. If you take
is
a sharp pencil and make a dot on a paper, that approximately resembles
re S
a point. Similarly, you cannot see a line. When a point moves in both the
B
bl
directions, it produces a straight line. A line is endless.

If A and B are points on a line, we denote the straight line by AB. If a
be T
pu
straight line is cut, you get two pieces: each piece is called a ray. Thus a
K
ray has an initial point and extends indefinitely in one direction. If A is the
initial point of a ray and B is any other point on a ray, we denote the ray

by AB. Take a line and choose any two points A and B on it. The part of
the line between A and B is called a line segment and is denoted by AB.
A B
Straight Line
to
A Ray B
t
No
A B
Segment
Likewise, you cannot define a plane. Intuitively, a plane is flat infinite

surface without any thickness. A black board or the surface of still water in
a big tank resemble finite part of a plane. Thus, there are undefined terms
in Euclids geometry. With suitable axioms and geometrical postulates,
Euclids geometry tells you what edifice can be built. Let us study these
axioms and postulates.
Axioms 223
I. Axioms
There are certain elementary statements, which are self evident and
which are accepted without any questions. These are called axioms.
These statements are also applicable to other areas of mathematics and
science. Euclid used the following statements which he called Common
d
Notions.
he
Take a sheet of paper. Draw a
Axiom 1: Things which are line segment AB of length 10 cm.
is
equal to the same thing are Draw a second line CD having
re S
equal to one another. length equal to that of AB, using
B
A B bl a compass. Measure the length
be T
of CD. Do you observe that CD

pu
AB = 10 cm
implies CD= 10 cm has length equal to 10 cm? You
K
C D
CD = AB
may write this as: CD = AB and

AB = 10 cm implies CD = 10 cm.
Suppose you have three baskets A, B and C having mangoes, oranges

and bananas. Suppose A, B have equal number of fruits and B, C also
have equal number of fruits. Can you conclude that A and C have equal
number of fruits?
to
Suppose you have two line seg-

t
ments AB and DE of equal length.

No
Axiom 2: If equals are added to

Add BC to AB and add EF to DE.
equals, the wholes are equal.
If BC = EF , then AC = DF .
A B C
Take a basket A of 10 mangoes
and a basket B of 10 oranges.
D E F Add 5 apples to both of these bas-
kets. Do you see that the number
AB=DE and BC=EF implies AC=DF
of fruits in both the baskets are
equal?(equal to 15)
224 Unit 1
Suppose you have two line seg-

Axiom 3: If equals are sub- ments AC and DF of equal length.
tracted from equals, then the Remove BC from AC and EF from
remainders are equal. DF respectively. If BC = EF , then
A B C AB = DE.
Take a basket A of 10 mangoes
and B of 10 oranges. Remove 2
d
D E F
fruits from each basket. Then A
he
AC=DF and BC=EF implies AB=DE and B again have equal number
of fruits.
is
re S
Axiom 4: Things which coincide with one another must be equal to
B
one another.
bl
be T
This means that if two geometric figures can fit completely one in to other,
pu
then they are essentially the same.
K

Axiom 5: The whole is greater than the part.
Take a container of water. Remove some water from it. Will the remaining
volume of water the same as the original volume?
to
Euclids common notions are these first five axioms. The first three
concern equals or equal things; the fourth is interpreted now to
mean that if two figures, such as linesegments, angles, triangles, or
t
circles, are such that one can be moved to coincide with the other,
No
the figures are equal. In modern language they are called congruent.
Two ideas run through these common notions: (1) that geometrical
figures can be treated as magnitudes, and (2) that, if one figure is
visibly part of another (perhaps after a motion), then the magnitude
of the part is less than the magnitude of the whole. For adding
and comparing, you should have magnitudes of the same kind. For
example, you cannot add area to length. Or you cannot compare a
triangle with a point. Axiom 5 can be used to define greater than.
Axioms 225
If b is a part of a, then a is greater than b. Again this comparison

is between magnitudes of the same kind. (For example, you cannot
take out a point from a line and say line is greater than a point which
is clearly meaningless.) Since point has no magnitude of any kind,
you cannot compare two points. But you can say some line segment
is larger than some other line segment as you can compare their
lengths.
d
he
II. Geometrical postulates
Apart from these common notions, Euclid also made the following
is
re S
geometrical postulates to deduce new propositions.
B
bl
Postulate 1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two
be T
points.
pu
K
Postulate 2. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely

in a straight line.

Postulate 3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be drawn

having the segment as radius and one endpoint as center.
Postulate 4. All right angles are congruent.
Postulate 5. If a straight line meets two other lines, so as to make

to
the two interior angles on one side of it together less than two right
angles, the other straight lines will meet if produced on that side on
t
which the angles are less than two right angles.

No
The Postulate 5 is the famous Euclids parallel postulate. What it

asserts is that two distinct straight lines in a plane are either parallel
or meet exactly in one point. This postulate cannot be proved as
a theorem, although this was attempted by many people. Euclid
himself used only the first four postulates (absolute geometry) for
the first 28 propositions of the Elements, but was forced to invoke
the parallel postulate on the 29-th.
226 Unit 1
In 1823, Janos Bolyai and Nicolai Lobachevsky independently re-

alized that entirely self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries could
be created in which the parallel postulate did not hold. The paral-
lel postulate is actually equivalent to: any two straight lines in the
plane either do not meet at all or meet in one point.
d
While proving his propositions, Euclid made several tacit assumptions.
For example, Postulate 1 says that there is a line passing through any two
he
given points. But what Euclid had in his mind seems to be: given any two
distinct point in the plane, there is a unique line passing through these two
is
points. On the other hand, you can draw infinitely many lines through a
re S
given point in the plane.
B
bl
Postulate 2 says that given a line segment in the plane, this can be
be T
extended to a unique straight line. Postulate 4 is concerned about right

pu
angles. But this is not defined any where by Euclid. What he seems to
K
have thought was that angle by a straight line is made up of two right
angles.

By present day standards, there are several inconsistencies in Euclids

Elements. Nevertheless, it is definitely the first book, based on rigorous
mathematical principles. In recent years, many attempts have been made
to introduce new set of undefined objects, axioms and postulates, so that
the terms hitherto undefined could be defined using these new objects,
to
axioms and postulates. The advancement of set theory and axioms on

number systems make it possible to define a point, a line or a plane using
coordinate systems.
t
Exercise 3.1.2
No
1. What are undefined objects in Euclids geometry?

2. What is the difference between an axiom and a postulate?
3. Give an example for the following axioms from your experience:
(a) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(b) The whole is greater than the part.
4. What is the need of introducing axioms?

Axioms 227
5. You have seen earlier that the set of all natural numbers is closed
under addition(closure property). Is this an axiom or some thing you
can prove?
3.1.3 Lines and Angles

Suppose you have a ray OA on a plane with
end point O. With the same end point O,
d

consider another ray OB in the same plane.
B
he
You observe that OB is obtained from OA
through suitable rotation around the point

O.We say OB subtends an angle with OA.
is
AOB
re S
The amount of rotation is the measure of
B
O
bl A this angle.
be T
We use a numerical measurement called degree to measure angles. We

pu

use the notation a to denote a degrees. The rays OA and OB are called
K
the sides of the angle and O is called the vertex of the angle. The angle
b
subtended by the rays OA and OB is denoted by AOB or AOB.

Note: Consider two rays OA and OB. If X is any point on OA, then

the rays OA and OX are the same. Similarly, for any point Y on the

ray OB, the rays OY and OB are the same. Thus AOB = XOY .
There is a geometrical instrument called protractor which is used for

to
measuring angles.
Activity 1:
Construct an angle which measures 40 degrees using protractor.
t
No
Activity 2:

Take two rays OA and OB and measure the angle between them using a
protractor.
Warning! Even with the best protractor, scale and pencil, you may
not be able to produce an angle which measures exactly 40 . Your
eyes also play an important role, as parallax error normally creep
in. Nevertheless your construction is good enough for all practical
purposes.
228 Unit 1
Recall what you have studied about different types of angles: straight
angle, right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle, reflex angle, complete
angle, adjacent angles, complimentary angles and supplementary an-
gles.
Consider a straight line and let O be point on the straight line. Then O
divides the straight line in to two rays. If B is to the left of O on the line

and A to the right of O, then there are two rays OA and OB. The angle
d
between these two rays is called a straight angle.
he
If you set your protractor such that its centre coincides with O, then you

see that the angle between OA and OB is 180 . However, your protractor
is
is so calibrated that it measures any straight angle exactly 180 . Thus you
re S
cannot define a straight angle using a measuring device.
B
bl
We will see that in Euclids geometry, this is taken as one of the postu-
be T
lates. But once you know a straight angle, you can define all other types
pu
of angles. For example, a right angle is that angle which measures 90
K
or you need half of a protractor. Similarly, an acute angle is one having

measure less than 90 and an obtuse angle is that angle which measures

more than 90 but less than a straight angle. A reflex angle is an angle
measuring more than 180 but less than 360 . Finally, a complete angle
is an angle measuring 360 . This corresponds to a complete revolution of

a ray OA around the initial point O.
to
B
t
No
Straight angle Right angle
A O B O A
B
B
Acute angle Obtuse angle
O A O A
Axioms 229
Reflex angle
O B
Complete angle
B
A
O
A
d
is he
re S

B We say two rays OA and OB are per-
B
bl pendicular to each other if the an-
gle between them is 90 and we write
be T
Right angle
pu
OA OB. We say two rays OA and
O A
K
OB are supplementary rays if the an-

gle between them is 180 . Observe that

B O A
Straight angle
in this case OA and OB are in opposite
directions.
Suppose you have a straight line and O is a point on this line. Then O
divides the straight line in to two rays: if B is to the left of O and A to the

right of O, then the straight line is made up of two rays OA and OB, the
angle between them being one straight angle or 180 .
to
Two angles are said to be supplementary angles if their sum is 180 .

Similarly, two angles are said to be complementary if they add up to 90 .
t
No
Two angles are said to be adjacent angles, if both the angles have

a common vertex and a common side. If two straight lines AB and CD
intersect at a point O, then you see that four angles are formed at O: if

the first line is divided by O in to two rays OA and OB and if the second

line is divided in to two rays OC and OD, then you get four angles AOC,
COB, BOD and DOA. The pair of angles AOC and BOD are called
vertically opposite angles. Observe the other pair COB and DOA is
also a pair of vertically opposite angles.
230 Unit 1
B B
X C
O
D
A Vertically opposite angles
A
O
Adjacent angles
d
he
While measuring lengths of line segments and angles, we observe the
following rules. These were not stated separately by Euclid, but tacitly
is
re S
assumed by him in the derivation of new propositions. We take them as
additional postulates.
B
bl
Rule 1. Every line segment has a positive length. (The length of the
be T
pu
line segment AB is denoted by AB or |AB|.)
K
Rule 2. If a point C lies on a line segment AB, then the length of AB

is equal to the sum of the lengths of AC and CB; that is AB = AC + CB.
Rule 3. Every angle has a certain magnitude. A straight angle mea-

sures 180 .

Rule 4. If OA, OB and OC are such that OC lies between OA and OB,
to
then AOB = AOC + COB.
Rule 5. If the angle between two rays is zero then they coincide.
t
Conversely, if two rays coincide, the angle between them is either

No
zero or an integral multiple of 360 .
Note: While measuring angles, we use the following convention: if

the angle is measured anti-clock-wise, it is positive. If it is measured
clock-wise, then it is negative.
Axioms 231
Note: What is the minimum number of axioms needed to develop a

self-consistent geometry is a question in Mathematical Philosophy.
However, here we do not bother about the minimum number re-
quired nor about retaining original axioms and postulates made by
Euclid. In fact there were several gaps in the set of axioms used by
Euclid and later mathematicians added some more to those used by
Euclid.
d
he
Activity 3:

On a sheet of paper draw a straight line AB. Choose a point O on it.

is
Draw a ray OC on it. Measure angles BOC and COA using a protractor.
re S
What is the sum BOC + COA? Repeat this with different positions of
B

bl
OC. What do you find?
be T
You will always find that the sum of these two angles is 180 . Can you
pu
prove this using axioms and postulates.?
K

Note: Perhaps, you may realise here the need for a logical proof. No
matter which configuration you take with a line and a ray standing
on it, you see that the sum of the two adjacent angles always add
up to 180 . However, this does not deny that there is a case of a line
and a ray on it such that the sum of the two adjacent angles is dif-
ferent from 180 . This is inherent in the structure itself as there are
to
infinitely many possibilities of a line and a ray on it, and you cannot
verify your finding with all of them. This is the reason why Mathe-
t
maticians look for logical proofs based on axioms and postulates or

No
on the propositions which have already been proved.
Let us see what is the statement we need to prove. We have to take

an arbitrary line and an arbitrary ray standing on it. Then there are two
adjacent angles formed by the line and the ray. We have to show that the
sum of these adjacent angles is 180 . We put this as a proposition. A
Proposition is a statement which is to be proved using the axioms and
postulates. It also depends on certain assumptions called hypotheses
which are used in the proof of the statement.
232 Unit 1

Proposition 1. Let AB be a straight line and OC be a ray standing

on the line AB. Then BOC + COA = 180 .
Before getting on to the proof, let us
see what are given and what we need
to prove.

Given (or hypothesis): A ray OC

d
C stands on a straight-line AB forming
two adjacent angles BOC and COA.
he
To prove: BOC + COA = 180 .
Proof: We have BOC + COA = BOA
is
re S
A O B by rule 4. But BOA is a straight an-

Fig . 1
gle determined by the line AB. By rule
B
bl 3, BOA = 180 . Now we can invoke
be T
Axiom 1: BOC + COA and 180 are

pu
both equal to the same thing, BOA.
K
We conclude that BOC + COA = 180 .

Look at the proposition once again. It says: if a ray stands on a straight

line, then the sum of two adjacent angles formed is 180. That is, the two
adjacent angles are supplementary. This is the general nature of all our
new propositions: given that a certain statement S is true, some other
statement R is true. We say S is the hypothesis and R is the conclu-
sion.(Here a ray stands on a straight line is the statement S which is the
to
hypothesis and the sum of adjacent angles is 180 is the statement R, which
is the conclusion.) Hence if R is not true, then S cannot be true. Formally
we say S implies R is equivalent to not R implies not S.
t
No
This was one of the methods frequently employed by Euclid and also
by later mathematicians to prove new propositions. If you want to prove
that S implies R, it is enough to prove not R implies not F . This is
called method of reductio ad absurdum. This is a latin word with meaning
reduction to the absurdity.
What is the converse of a proposition? Naturally, hypothesis and con-
clusion must change their places. If our original proposition has S as
hypothesis and R as conclusion, the converse proposition must have R
as hypothesis and S as conclusion. In the present context the converse is:
Axioms 233

If there are three rays OA, OB and OC such that BOC and COA are adja-

cent angles(that is OC is between OA and OB) and if BOC + COA = 180 ,
then A, O, B all lie on the same straight line. We say A, O, B are collinear
if all of them lie on the same straight line. We put forth this as another
proposition.

Proposition 2. Let OA, OB and OC be three rays such that OC is

between OA and OB. Suppose BOC + COA = 180 . Then A, O, B are
d
collinear,that is, they lie on the same straight-line.
he
C C
is
re S
B
D
B
A bl
O D
A O
be T
B
pu
Fig . 2 Fig . 3

K
Given: Three rays OA, OB and OC are such that BOC and COA are
adjacent angles which add up to 180 .

To prove: A, O, B all lie on the same line..

Proof: Here we do some construction. Extend AO to D such that A, O, D

all lie on the same line, AD. Using proposition 1, we have DOC + COA =
180 . But we are given that BOC +COA = 180 . Using Axiom 1, it follows
that
DOC + COA = BOC + COA.
to

Now use Axiom 3 to get DOC = BOC. There are two possibilities: OB

lies between OD and OC(see Fig.2) or OD lies between OB and OC(see Fig.
t
3). In the first case, using rule 4, we get

No
BOC = DOC = DOB + BOC,
and Axiom 3 implies that DOB = 0. In the second case, rule 4 gives
DOC = BOC = BOD + DOC,
and Axiom 3 implies that BOD = 0. Thus the angle between the rays

OB and OD is zero. Using rule 5, we conclude that the rays OB and

OD coincide. This means B and O are on the line AD. Thus A, O, B are
collinear.
234 Unit 1
Note: Proposition 1 and proposition 2 are two geometrical state-

ments which are converses of each other. In geometry, if some
statement is true, then many times its converse is also true. How-
ever, this is not universally valid. There may be statements which
are true, but whose converses may fail. Later you will see that an
equilateral triangle is isosceles, but an isosceles triangle need not be
equilateral.
d
Example 1. In the adjoining figure, if
he
C COA BOC = 50 , find these angles.
Solution: We know by proposition 1,
is
re S
BOC + COA = 180 .
B
A bl
O B Adding, two relations, we get
be T
pu
Fig . 4
2COA = 230 .
K
(Which axiom is used here?) This implies that COA = 115 . (Which axiom

is needed here?) Now
BOC = 180 COA = 180 115 = 65 .
Example 2. In the adjoining figure, if the angles AOB, BOC, COD are

in the ratio 1:2:3 and AD is a straight line, find the measures of all the
angles.
to
Solution: Using the proposition

1, we see that
C
AOB + BOC + COD = 180 .
t
No
But the given hypothesis is

2 B
3 BOC = 2AOB and COD =
1
3AOB. Thus we get 6AOB =
D O A
180 . It follows that AOB = 30 .
Fig. 5
This gives BOC = 2 30 = 60
and COD = 3 30 = 90 .

Definition: Suppose AOB is an angle formed by two rays OA and OB. If

OP is another ray between OA and OB such that AOP = P OB, we say
Axioms 235

OP bisects AOB or OP is the angle bisector of AOB. We observe that
in this case AOP = P OB = 21 AOB.
Activity 4:

Draw a straight line AB and a ray OC on AB. Measure BOC and COA.

Construct ray OP such that it bisects BOC. Similarly, construct ray OQ
such that, it bisects COA. Measure P OQ. Do you see that P OQ = 90 ?.

d
Repeat this taking different rays OC on AB. Do you always find that
P OQ = 90 ? Can you formulate this as a proposition?
he

Proposition 3. Let AB be a straight line and let OC be a ray standing

on it. Let OP be the bisector of BOC, and let OQ be the bisector of
is
re S
COA. Then P OQ = 90 .
Q
B
bl C
be T
Given: OP bisects BOC and OQ bi-

pu
P
sects COA.
K
To prove: P OQ = 90 .
A O B

Fig. 6
Proof:

Since OP bisects BOC, we have
1
P OC = BOC. (1)
2

Since OQ bisects COA, we also have
to
1
COQ = COA. (2).
2
t
Adding these two and using rule 4, we obtain

No
1
P OQ = (BOC + COA).
2
By proposition 1, BOC + COA = 180 . Thus we obtain
1
P OQ = 180 = 90 .
2

Activity 5: Take two lines AB and CD intersecting at a point O. Measure
BOD, DOA, AOC, COB. Compare BOD and AOC. Similarly com-
pare DOA and COB. Do you observe some thing pertinent? Repeat this
236 Unit 1

with different positions of CD with respect to AB. Can you formulate a
new geometrical proposition?
Proposition 4. If two straight lines intersect at a point, then the

vertically opposite angles are equal.

Given: AB and CD intersecting at a
d
point O.
D To prove: BOD = AOC and DOA =
he
COB.

Proof: Consider the straight line AB
is
A O B
re S
and the ray OD standing on it. Then
BOD and DOA are adjacent angles.
B
C bl
Fig. 7 By proposition 1, we have
be T
pu
BOD + DOA = 180 . (1)
K

Similarly, considering the straight line CD and the ray OA, we see that

DOA and AOC are adjacent angles. Thus proposition 1 again gives
DOA + AOC = 180 . (2)
Using Axiom 1, we can compare (1) and (2) and get

to
BOD + DOA = DOA + AOC. (3)

t
Since we can remove DOA using Axiom 3, we obtain

No
BOD = AOC.
A similar argument gives DOA = COB.

Example 3. Let AB and CD be straight lines intersecting at O. Let OP be

the bisector of BOD and OQ be the bisector of AOC. Prove that Q, O, P
are collinear.
Axioms 237
Solution: We have to show that

P OQ = 180 . Since OP bisects BOD,
D we have
P
1
P OD = BOD. (1)
2
A O B
Similarly, using the given hypothesis
Q
that OQ bisects AOC, we also obtain
d
C Fig. 8
1
he
AOQ = AOC. (2)
2
However, we have
is
re S
P OQ = P OD + DOA + AOQ (using rule 4)
1
B
2
1 bl
= DOA + (BOD + AOC) (from (1) and (2))
be T
= DOA + 2AOC (BOD = AOC as vertical opposite angles)

pu
2
= DOA + AOC
K
= 180 (using proposition 1).

It follows that P, O, Q are collinear.

Exercise 3.1.3
1. Draw diagrams illustrating each of the following situation:
(a) Three straight lines which do not pass through a fixed point.
(b) A point and rays emanating from that point such that the angle
to
between any two adjacent rays is an acute angle.

(c) Two angles which are not adjacent angles, but still supplemen-
tary.
t
(d) Three points in the plane which are equidistant from each other.
No
2. Recognise the type of angles in the following figures:
(i)
(ii) (iii)
X Y
Q P B
O
R
O
B A
B O A A
X
238 Unit 1
3. Find the value of x in each of the following diagrams:
(i) (ii)
C C
2x 90
x 4x D
x
d
A O B A O B
(iii)
he
(iv)
C
C
is
re S
90 x
B
A
bl x B
xy x+y
be T
pu
A O B
K
D
(v) (vi)

C F
D x
3x F
y
E
x x + 30 y
A O B
A B
65
E
D C
to
4. Which pair of angles are supplementary in the following diagram? Are

there supplementary rays?
t
B
No
C 120
50
A
O
130
D
Axioms 239
5. Suppose two adjacent angles are supplementary. Show that if one of

them is an obtuse angle, then the other angle must be acute.
3.1.4 Parallel lines and Euclids fifth postulate

Take any two distinct straight lines AB and CD. We first show that
there is at most one point common to them. Suppose the contrary and
d
assume that P and Q are two distinct points which lie on both the lines.

he
But we know that by postulate 1 that there is a unique line P Q passing

through P and Q. Since P and Q are on AB, we must have AB=P Q. A

is
similar argument shows that CD=P Q. Using Axiom 1, we obtain AB=CD,
re S

which contradicts the assumption that AB and CD are distinct. Thus
B
bl
given two distinct lines, either they do not have any point in common or
there is one point common to them. In the latter case, the two straight
be T
pu
line intersect at this common point.
K
We say two straight lines are parallel to each other, if either they are

identical or they do not intersect. Thus two distinct lines AB and CD are

parallel to each other if and only if they do not share any common point.
Let us get back to Euclids Postulate 5:
Postulate 5. If a straight line meets two other lines, so as to make
the two interior angles on one side of it together less than two right
angles, the other straight lines will meet if produced on that side on
to
which the angles are less than two right angles.

This is one of the most complicated postulate made by Euclid. In later
years, many attempts have been made to arrive at a simpler equivalent
t
No
versions of Euclids fifth postulate.

Suppose AB and CD are two straight lines and let P Q be a line which

meets AB in L and CD in M.(see Fig. 9) If a line intersects two or more

lines, it is called a transversal to those set of lines. Here P Q is a transversal

to AB and CD. There are eight angles formed by these three lines: 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 as shown in figure. In this 1, 4, 7 and 6 are
called exterior angles; 3, 2, 5 and 8 are called interior angles. The
angles 3 and 5 are called a pair interior alternate angles. Observe that
240 Unit 1
2 and 8 are also a pair of interior alternate angles. Similarly, the pairs
1, 7 and 4, 6 are called pairs of exterior alternate angles. Angles
1 and 5 are called a pair corresponding angles. There are three more
pairs of corresponding angles: 2, 6; 3, 7; and 4, 8.
d
4 1 B
he
3 2 L
A
8 5
is
re S
C 7 M D
6
B
bl P
Fig. 9
be T
pu
Look at 3 and 8. They are the interior angles on the same side of

K
the line P Q. According Postulate 5, if 3 + 8 < 180 , then AB and CD

meet on the left side of P Q. (If it happens that 2 + 5 < 180 , then they

must meet on the right side of P Q.) Let us explore more on the condition
3 + 8 6= 180 . We have the following proposition.
Proposition 5. If a transversal cuts two parallel lines, then the sum

of two internal angles on the same side of the transversal is equal to
180 .
to
Given: a transversal intersecting two parallel lines.

To prove: the sum of internal angles on the same side of trnasversal is
t
equal to 180 .
No
Proof: Suppose the result is not true. (see fig 9.) If 3 + 8 6= 180 , then

either you must have 3 + 8 < 180 or 3 + 8 > 180 . In the first case AB

and CD meet on the left side of P Q. Suppose 3 + 8 > 180 . We observe
that
3 + 8 + 2 + 5 = (3 + 2) + (8 + 5)
= ALB + CMD
= 180 + 180 = 360 .
Axioms 241
Thus
2 + 5 = 360 (3 + 8) < 360 180 = 180 .

= 2 + 5 < 180 . Hence Postulate 5 tells us that AB and CD meet on the

right side of P Q.
We conclude that: if the sum of the interior angles on the same side of

P Q is not equal to 180 , then AB and CD meet at some point(either to the

d
left or to the right of P Q). Thus if AB and CD are parallel, then the sum of

he
the interior angles on the same side of any transversal P Q is equal to 180 .
This completes the proof of the proposition.
Thus Postulate 5 implies that given a pair of parallel lines and a transver-
is
re S
sal, the sum of the internal angles on the same side of the transversal is
equal to 180 .
B
bl
Is the converse true? Given two straight lines and a transversal such
be T
pu
that the sum of two internal angles on the same side of the transversal is
equal to 180 , does it follow that the two lines are parallel?. Here we make
K
use of a fairly simple equivalent version of parallel postulate of Euclid.

This was first given by a Scottish mathematician called Playfair.

Playfairs postulate: Given a line in a plane and a point outside the
line in the same plane, there is a unique line passing through the
given point and parallel to the given line.
We have the following statement.
to
Proposition 6. If a transversal cuts two distinct straight lines in such

a way that the sum of two internal angles on the same side of the
transversal is equal to 180 , then the two lines are parallel to each
t
other.
No
Q
Y
L B
A
S
C M D
X P
Fig. 10
242 Unit 1

Given: two straight lines AB and CD and a transversal P Q intersecting

AB in L and CD in M respectively; and ALM + LMC = 180 .

To prove: ABkCD.

Proof: Assume that AB and CD are not parallel. Then they must meet at
some point, say S. (see Fig.10) By Playfairs postulate, there is a unique

line XY passing through S and parallel to P Q.
d

Since XY k P Q, we have QLS + LSY = 180 (they are internal angles
he

on the same side of the transversal SB to the parallel lines XY and P Q).

But QLS + ALM = 180 ( they are adjacent angles formed by the ray LA

is
re S
standing on the line P Q). Hence it follows that LSY = ALM. (Which
axioms are needed here?) But ALM + LMC = 180 (given data). We also
B
bl
have LMC + MSY = 180 (since they are the sum of the internal angles

be T
on the same side of the transversal SD cutting the parallel lines XY and
pu

K
P Q). Thus we get ALM = MSY . It now follows that LSY = MSY . But

MSY = MSL+LSY . We obtain MSL = 0. Hence SB and SD coincide.

This forces that the straight lines AB and CD are the same, contradicting

that they are distinct lines. We conclude that AB k CD.
Activity 6:
Draw two parallel lines. Draw a transversal and measure different angles
formed by intersections. You will see that:
1. Any pair of alternate angles are equal.
to
2. Any pair of corresponding angles are equal.
Repeat the same with different positions of the transversal. You will see
t
No
that the same results repeat. We formulate this as a theorem.

Theorem 1. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
(i) each pair of alternate angles are equal;
(ii) each pair of corresponding angles are equal.

Given: AB and CD two distinct parallel lines and P Q a transversal inter-

secting AB in L and CD in M. (see Fig. 11)
To prove: 3 = 5 and 1 = 5.
Axioms 243
Q
Proof: Since 3 and 8 are two
internal angles on the same side
4 1

A
3
B
of the transversal P Q cutting the
2 L
parallel lines AB and CD, we
8
7
5 know that
C 6 M D
P
Fig. 11 3 + 8 = 180 .
d

But 8 and 5 are the adjacent angles formed by the ray MP standing

he
on the line CD. Hence we also know that
8 + 5 = 180 .
is
re S
Comparing, we see that 3 = 5.
B
bl
Again observe that 2 + 3 = 180 = 8 + 5. Using 3 = 5, we get
2 = 8.
be T
pu
We also observe that 1 = 3, since they are vertically opposite angles.
K
Using this with 3 = 5, we conclude that 1 = 5.

Thus the pair 1, 5 of corresponding angles are equal.

Similarly we can prove 2 = 6, 4 = 8 and 3 = 7, 1 = 7, 4 = 6.
Think it over!
There are two statements about parallel lines and a transversal:
(i) if a transversal cuts two distinct parallel lines, then any pair
of alternate angles are equal; (ii) if a transversal cuts two dis-
to
tinct parallel lines, then any pair of corresponding angles are

equal. But these two are not independent statements. You can
t
easily prove any of them assuming the other and using proposi-
No
tions 1 and 4.
What is the converse of theorem 1. If there are two distinct straight

lines and a transversal such that any pair of alternate angles are equal,
can we prove that the two lines are parallel to each other. Note that if we
are able to prove this result, you can also prove that: given two distinct
lines and a transversal such that any pair of corresponding angles are
equal, then the lines are parallel(use the previous observation). Thus we
have the following theorem.
244 Unit 1
Theorem 2. Suppose a transversal cuts two distinct straight lines

such that a pair of alternate angles are equal. Then the two lines are
parallel to each other.

Given: two straight lines AB and CD and a transversal P Q (see Fig. 11)
and 3 = 5.

To prove: AB k CD.
d
Proof: We know that 8 + 5 = 180 (since they are supplementary angles).
By the given hypothesis, we know that 3 = 5. We thus obtain 3 + 8 =
he
180 . However, 3 and 8 are the internal angles on the same side of the

transversal to the lines AB and CD. By proposition 6, we conclude that
is

re S
AB k CD.
B
bl
Corollary: If a transversal cuts a pair of straight lines in such a way
that a pair of corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are
be T
pu
parallel to each other.
K
Proof: Referring to Fig. 11, we are given, say, 1 = 5. But 1 = 3, since

they are vertically opposite angles. We obtain 3 = 5. Hence by theorem

2, AB k CD.
Activity 7:

Draw two parallel lines AB and CD. Draw a line XY parallel to CD. Draw

a transversal P Q. Let it cut AB in L, CD in M and XY in N. Measure
BLQ and Y NQ. Do you see that they measure the same. Repeat this
to

with different positions of P Q.
Example 4. Two lines which are parallel to a common line are parallel to
t
each other.
No

Q Solution: Suppose AB and XY
L are two lines which are parallel
A B
to a common line CD. We show

that AB k XY . Draw a transversal
C M D
P Q, cutting AB at L, CD at M and
N
XY at N, respectively. We observe
X Y
that
P
Fig. 12 BLP = DMP,
Axioms 245

as they are corresponding angles made by transversal P Q with the parallel

lines AB and CD. Similarly,
DMP = Y NP (Why?).
Using Axiom 1, we obtain BLP = Y NP . Now we can use corollary to

theorem 2 and conclude that AB k XY .
d

Example 5. Let AB be a straight line. Let CD and EF be two straight lines

he
such that each of them is perpendicular to AB. Prove that CD k EF .

D F Solution: Let AB intersect CD

is
re S
and EF at L and M respectively.

Since CDAB, we have DLA =
B
A L
bl M B
90 . Using EF AB, we also get
be T
F MA = 90 . Thus DLA =
pu
C E
F MA. But these are corre-
K
Fig. 13
sponding angles made by the

transversal AB with the lines CD and EF . Hence by corollary to theorem

2, we conclude that CD k EF .
Example 6. Show that the angle bisectors of a pair of alternate angles
made by the transversal with two parallel lines are parallel to each other.
Solution: We are given two

to
parallel lines AB and CD, and

Q
transversal P Q. Consider the pair
of alternate angles ALM and
t

LMD. Let LX be the bisector of
No
L R

ALM; let MY be the bisector of
A B
LMD. Extend the ray LX to the
X Y
straight line XR and the ray MY

C
M D to the straight line SY as shown
S
in the figure(see Fig. 14). We
P Fig. 14
have to show that XRkSY . Con-

sider the lines XR and SY with

transversal P Q.
246 Unit 1
We have
1 1
XLM = ALM, LMY = LMD.
2 2
However, ALM = LMD(why?). We hence obtain XLM = LMY . But
XLM and LMY are a pair of alternate angles made by the transversal

P Q with the lines XR and SY . It follows, by theorem 2, that XR k SY .
Exercise 3.1.4
d
1. Find all the angles in the follow-
he
ing figure. 2. Find the value of x in the diagram
below.
Q
is
re S
130
L
B
A
bl B
x
be T
M
pu
C D
K
135 90
3. Show that if a straight line is perpendicular to one of the two or more

parallel lines, then it is also perpendicular to the remaining lines.

4. Let AB and CD be two parallel lines and P Q be a transversal. Show
that the angle bisectors of a pair of two internal angles on the same
side of the transversal are perpendicular to each other.
to
Additional problems on Axioms, postulates and theorems

t
(i) If a = 60 and b = a, then b = 60 by

No
A. Axiom 1 B. Axiom 2 C. Axiom 3 D. Axiom 4

(ii) Given a point on the plane, one can draw
A. unique B. two C. finite number of D. infinitely many
lines through that point.
(iii) Given two points in a plane, the number of lines which can be
drawn to pass through these two points is
A. zero B. exactly one C. at most one D. more than one
(iv) If two angles are supplementary, then their sum is
A. 90 B. 180 C. 270 D. 360
Axioms 247
(v) The measure of an angle which is 5 times its supplement is

A. 30 B. 60 C. 120 D. 150
2. What is the difference between a pair of supplementary angles and a

pair of complimentary angles?
3. What is the least number of non-collinear points required to deter-
d
mine a plane?
he
4. When do you say two angles are adjacent?
5. Let AB be a segment with C and D between them such that the order
is
of points on the segment is A, C, D, B. Suppose AD = BC. Prove that
re S
AC = DB.
B

bl
6. Let AB and CD be two straight lines intersecting at O. Let OX be the

be T
bisector of BOD. Draw OY between OD and OA such that OY OX.

pu

Prove that OY bisects DOA.
K

7. Let AB and CD be two parallel lines and P Q be a transversal. Let P Q

intersect AB in L. Suppose the bisector of ALP intersect CD in R

and the bisector of P LB intersect CD in S. Prove that
LRS + RSL = 90 .
S Q
8. In the adjoining figure, AB and CD
to
x
are parallel lines. The transversals U

P Q and RS intersect at U on the line A B

t
110
AB. Given that DW U = 110 and
No
C V W D
70
CV P = 70 , find the measure of
QUS. P
R
9. What is the angle between the hours hand and minutes hand of a
clock at (i) 1.40 hours, (ii) 2.15 hours? (Use 1 = 60 minutes.)
10. How much would hours hand have moved from its position at 12
noon when the time is 4.24 p.m.?
11. Let AB be a line segment and let C be the midpoint of AB. Extend AB
to D such that B lies between A and D. Prove that AD + BD = 2CD.
248 Unit 1

12. Let AB and CD be two lines intersecting at a point O. Let OX be a

ray bisecting BOD. Prove that the extension of OX to the left of O
bisects AOC.

13. Let OX be a ray and let OA and OB be two rays on the same side of

OX, with OA between OX and OB. Let OC be the bisector of AOB.
Prove that
d
XOA + XOB = 2XOC.

he
14. Let OA and OB be two rays and let OX be a ray between OA and OB

such that AOX > XOB. Let OC be the bisector of AOB. Prove
that
is
re S
AOX XOB = 2COX.
B

bl
15. Let OA, OB, OC be three rays such that OC lies between OA and OB.
Suppose the bisectors of AOC and COB are perpendicular to each
be T
pu
other. Prove that B, O, A are collinear.
K
A B
16. In the adjoining figure, AB k DE. D E

Prove that
ABC DCB + CDE = 180 . C

17. Consider two parallel lines and a transversal. Among the measures of
8 angles formed, how many distinct numbers are there?
to
Glossary
Undefined objects: those objects in mathematics which cannot be de-
fined using the terms already known.
t
No
Axioms: certain statements which are valid in all branches of mathe-

matics whose validity is taken for granted without seeking mathematical
proofs.
Postulates: some statements which are taken for granted in a particular
branch of mathematics.
Hypothesis: certain conditions assumed while proving a proposition.
Adjacent angles: a pair of angles made by a ray standing on a line.
Complementary angles: a pair of angles which add up to 90 .
Supplementary angles: a pair of angles which add up to 180.
Axioms 249
Straight angle: an angle formed by a straight line; equal to 180 .

Complete angle: an angle which measures 360 .
Reflex angle: an angle which measures more than 180 , but less than
360 .
Linear pair: a pair of angles which make a starlight line.
Vertically opposite angles: when two straight lines intersect each other,
a pair of angles which do not form a linear pair are vertically opposite an-
d
gles.
he
Collinear: points all lying on the same straight line.
Parallel lines: a collection of lines which do not intersect pairwise.
Alternate angles: when a transversal cuts a pair of lines, the angles
is
re S
formed by the transversal which is not a linear pair and lying on both
B
bl
sides of the transversal.
Corresponding angles: when a transversal cuts a pair of lines, the angles
be T
pu
formed by the transversal which lie on the same side of the transversal
K
and also on the similar side of the two lines.

Points to remember

Mathematics is a game in which certain objects are given and you

have to play the game according to certain pre-laid rules.
In geometry, the objects are points, lines plane; the rules are axioms
and postulates of geometry.
Euclids fifth postulate equivalent formulation is that given any line
to
and a point out side that line, there is a unique line passing through
the given point and parallel to the given line is the one which gives
Euclidean geometry. Changing this postulate will lead to different
t
No
geometry.
Purity, patience, and perseverance are three essentials to sucess and

above all, love. Swamy Vivekananda
CHAPTER 3 UNIT 2
THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES
identify a triangle in a collection of figures;
classify different types of triangles based on sides and angles;
recognise the angle sum property of a triangle;
d
identify the interior and exterior angles of a triangle;
he
establish the relationship between the exterior angle and interior op-
posite angles;
prove logically angle sum property of the triangle;
is
re S
solve problems based on the angles of a triangle.
B
3.2.1 Introduction
bl
In the previous chapter you have studied th properties lines and angles.
be T
pu
You have seen how the axioms of Euclidean geometry helps you to build
K
some nice relations between angles and lines. In this chapter, you shall
study about a closed plane figure formed by three non parallel lines, a

triangle.
A plane figure bound by three non concurrent line segments in plane
is called a triangle.
This needs an explanation. When we say a plane figure, we actually
mean the linear figure, not the two-dimensional figure. Let A,B,C be three
points such that they are not on the same line; we say A, B, C are non-
to
collinear. Join AB, BC and CA. You get a linear figure which consists
of three line segments which meet only at their end points. Such a linear
t
figure is called a triangle. We say A, B and C are the vertices of the

No
triangle ABC. The segments AB, BC, and CA are called the sides of the
triangle; and the angles BAC, ABC and ACB are called the angles of
the triangle ABC (or the interior angles of ABC).
A triangle consists 9 elements: A
Vertices Sides Angles

A AB BAC or A
B BC ABC or B
C AC ACB or C B C
Triangles 251
Note: When there is no confusion, the sides of a triangle ABC are

also denoted by AB, BC and AC. These symbols are also used to
denote their respective lengths. The context tells whether the side or
the length to be taken.
Points to ponder:
(i) A triangle cut in a plane sheet of paper is a triangular sheet,
d
but not a triangle. Only the three line segments constitute a
he
triangle. (ii) Triangular sheet as a plane figure has only area,
but has no thickness.
is
re S
Triangles are classified based on the measure of sides and angles.
B
bl
be T
classification based on sides:

pu
(i) Equilateral triangle; (ii) Isosceles triangle; (iii) Scalene triangle.
K
A A A

B C B C B C
Equilateral triangle: Isosceles triangle: Scalene triangle:

to
A triangle in which A triangle in which A triangle in which

all sides are of equal two sides are of equal all sides are of differ-
t
length is called an length is called an ent lengths is called

No
equilateral triangle. isosceles triangle. In a scalene triangle In

In triangle ABC, the above triangle the above triangle
AB = BC = CA. ABC, ABC,
AB = BC. AB 6= BC 6= CA 6= AB.
Do you see that an equilateral triangle is also isosceles? But an
isosceles triangle need not be equilateral.
252 Unit 2
classification based on angles :

(i) Acute angled triangle; (ii) Right angled triangle; (iii) Obtuse angled
triangle.
A
A A
d
he
B C
is
B C B C
re S
Acute angled triangle: Right angled trian- Obtuse angled tri-
B
bl
A triangle in which all gle: A triangle hav- angle: If a triangle
be T
the angles are smaller ing an angle equal has an angle greater
pu
than 90 is called an to 90 is called a than 90 , it is called
K
acute angled triangle. In right angled triangle. an obtuse angled tri-

the above triangle ABC, In the above triangle angle. In the above
ABC < 90 , BCA < 90 , ABC, triangle ABC,
CAB < 90 . ABC = 90 . ABC > 90 .
Activity 1:
Name the types of triangles given below :
to
100
(ii) (iii)
(i)
t
No
(iv) (vi)
(v)
(vii) (ix)
(viii)
130
Triangles 253
(x) (xi) (xii)
Exercise 3.2.1
d
he
1. Match the following:
(1)
is
(a) Equilateral triangle
re S B
(2) bl
be T
pu
(b) Acute angled triangle
K

(3)
(c) Right angled triangle
(4)
(d) Obtuse angled triangle
to
2. Based on the sides, classify the following triangles (figures not drawn
t
to the scales):
No
5 cm
5 cm 7 cm
3 cm 3.5cm
4.5 cm
4 cm 4 cm 6 cm
(i) (ii) (iii)

254 Unit 2
6.5 cm 6.5 cm
5.6 cm
2.5 cm 4.1 cm
3 cm
d
4 cm 4.3 cm 3.2 cm
he
(iv) (v) (vi)
3 cm
is
re S
9 cm 5 cm 5 cm
B
bl 5 cm
3 cm 3 cm 6 cm 6 cm
be T
6 cm 3.5 cm 8 cm
pu
K
(vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

3.2.2 Sum of interior angles

Let us do some paper activity before guessing a geometrical result.
Activity 2:
Take a sheet of paper, fold it into four folds. On one of its folds, draw a
triangle using a scale and a pencil. Then cut the triangle from a pair of
to
scissors. Now you have four identical triangular sheets. Select three of
them and mark identical angles as 1, 2, and 3 on each sheet of the paper
t
as shown below.
No
2 2 2
1 3 1 3 1 3
Draw a straight line on a sheet of your note book. Arrange the triangles
such that angle 1 of the first triangle, 2 of the second and 3 of the third as
shown in the figure.
Triangles 255
3 12
2
2
1 3 1 3
You can find that all the three angles together form a straight angle. But
d
you see that these three angles are precisely the angles of a triangle. Thus
he
you can guess that the sum of three angles of a triangle is 180 .
Activity 3:
is
re S
Draw a triangle ABC on a sheet as shown in the figure. Cut the remaining
part of the paper. Fold the triangular sheet such that the vertex A touches
B
bl
the base line of the paper at M. Now fold the vertex B and C to meet the
be T
point M. You will find that they make a straight angle. (See the figure
pu
below.)
K
A A

A
B C
to
B C B M C
Draw right angled triangle such that angle 2 = 90 . (See the figure below.)
t
No
4
1 1
2 3 2 3
We want to find the sum of the three angles: 1+2+3. Draw the parallel
line to base of the triangle and passing through the vertex at the top.
256 Unit 2
Now we find another angle 4 equal to 3, because they are alternate

interior angles between two parallel lines. Therefore 1+3 = 1+4 = 90 .
This implies that
1 + 2 + 3 = 2 + (1 + 3) = 90 + 90 = 180 .
Thus the sum of interior angles of a right triangle is 180 . Now we make
use of this to show that the sum of three interior angles of a triangle is
d
180 .
he
2 4 Take an arbitrary triangle. This
can be split into two right trian-
is
re S
gles, by drawing a perpendicular
B
1
bl
3 5 6
to the base. We know that,
be T
1 + 2 + 3 = 180 , 4 + 5 + 6 = 180 .
pu
K
Adding these we obtain
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 360 .

But angles 3 and 5 are supplementary angles and they make a straight
line. Therefore 3 + 5 = 180 . Thus we get
1 + 2 + 4 + 6 = 360 (3 + 5) = 360 180 = 180 .

to
But can you see that 2+4 is the angle at one of the vertex of the triangle?
Hence the sum of the three angles of triangle is 180
If you observe the proof given above, it consists of two parts. In the first
t
part you prove that the sum of three interior angles of a right triangle is
No
180 , using a construction; drawing a line parallel to the base line through
the top vertex. A general triangle is split in to two right angled triangles
and we use the result for right triangle for getting on to a general triangle.
Cant we construct a parallel to the base through the top vertex for a
general triangle and proceed with the proof? We take up this approach
below.
Theorem 1. In any triangle, the sum of the three interior angles is
180 . (Interior angle theorem)
Triangles 257
A
E F
Given: ABC is a triangle.
To prove: ABC + BCA +
CAB = 180 .
Construction: Through point A,

draw the line EF k BC.
B C
d
Proof: Below we give several statements and the reason for the truth of
he
each statement. Finally we arrive at the desired conclusion.
is
Statement Reason
re S
ABC = EAB alternate angles by the transversal AB
B
bl
BCA = F AC
with the parallel lines BC and EF
alternate angles by the transversal AC
be T
pu
with the parallel lines
K
EAB + BAC + F AC = 180 sum of the linear angles at A.

By substituting EAB = ABC and BCA = F AC, we finally get

ABC + BAC + BCA = 180 .
This completes the proof.

Example 1 In a triangle ABC, it is given that B = 105 and C = 50 .
Find A.
to
Solution: We have, in triangle

A
ABC, (by Theorem 1),
t
No
A + B + C = 180
= A + 105 + 50 = 180
= A + 155 = 180
= A = 180 155
105
50 = A = 25 .
B C
Thus A measures 25 .
Example 2 In the given figure, find all the angles.
258 Unit 2
Solution: In triangle ABC, if we

make use of theorem 1, we get
A A + B + C = 180 . Hence
5x 5x + 3x + 2x = 180 = 10x = 180

= x = 180 /10 = x = 18 .
d
3x 2x Hence,
B C A = 5x = 90 ;
he
B = 3x = 54 ;
C = 2x = 36 .
is
re S
Example 3 If the bisectors of the angles ABC and ACB of a triangle
1
B
ABC meet at a point O, then Prove that BOC = 90 + BAC.
Solution: bl 2
be T
pu
Given: A triangle ABC and the bisectors of ABC and ACB meeting at
K
point O.
1
To prove: BOC = 90 + BAC.

2
Proof: In triangle BOC we have
A
1 + 2 + BOC = 180 (1)
In triangle ABC, we have A +

B + C = 180 . Since BO and CO
to
O
are bisectors of ABC and ACB
1 2 respectively, we have
t
B C
No
B = 21 and C = 22.
A
We therefore get A + 2(1) + 2(2) = 180 . Dividing by 2, we get + 1 +
2
2 = 90 . This gives
A
1 + 2 = 90 (2)
2
From (1) and (2), we get
A
90 + BOC = 180 .
2
Triangles 259
Hence
1
BOC = 90 + BAC.
2
Exercise 3.2.2
1. In a triangle ABC, if A = 55 and B = 40 , find C.
2. In a right angled triangle, if one of the other two angles is 35 , find the
remaining angle.
d
3. If the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle is 50 , find the other angles.
he
4. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1:2:3. Determine the three
is
angles.
re S
A
B
bl
5. In the adjacent triangle ABC, find x +15
be T
pu
the value of x and calculate the mea-
K
sure of all the angles of the triangle.

x +30

x 15
B C
6. The angles of a triangle are arranged in ascending order of their mag-

nitude. If the difference between two consecutive angles is 10 , find
the three angles.
3.2.3 Exterior angles

to
A
Consider a triangle ABC. If the
side BC is produced externally
t

No
to form a ray BD, then ACD is

called an exterior angle of trian-
gle ABC at C and is denoted by
ExtC.
B C D
Note: If you produce AC to a point E (instead of BC), you get an
angle BCE. But ACD = BCE as they are vertically opposite
angles. Thus ExtC is the same whether you use the side BC
or the side AC; it depends only on C of the triangle ABC.
260 Unit 2
With respect to ExtC of triangle ABC, A and B are called interior

opposite angles.
E
A Now in triangle ABC side CA,

BC, and AB are produced to form

rays CE, BD and AF . Then
d
BAE, ACD and CBF are ex-
B D
terior angles of the triangle ABC.
he
C
Activity 4: Take three sheets of
is
A
re S
paper of size 8 10 cm. Place
3
B
bl one above the other and cut three
right angled triangles such that
be T
pu
one of the corners of each sheet
K
1 2
becomes the right angle of the tri-
B C angle. Now you will have three

identical triangles. Mark the angles of each triangle as 1,2,3 as shown in

the figure.
A
Draw straight line P Q on an-
3 other sheet of paper and place
one of the triangular sheet on the
line as shown in figure such that
to
ACQ forms an exterior angle of

1 2
P
B C
Q the triangle ABC.
t
Now place the remaining two tri-

No
A
angular sheets with angles 3 and
2 1 1 as shown in the adjacent fig-
3 3
ure. Can you see that ACQ =
3 + 1? Thus, the measure of
an exterior angle of a triangle
3 is equal to the sum of the cor-
1 2 1 2 Q
P
B C
responding two interior opposite
angles.
Triangles 261
Theorem 2. If a side of triangle is produced, the exterior angle so

formed is equal to the sum of the corresponding interior opposite
angles. (Exterior angle theorem.)
P Given: In triangle P QR, produce

QR to S. Then P RS is an ex-
terior angle and the correspond-
d
ing interior opposite angles are
he
P QR and QP R.
To prove:P RS = QP R+P QR.
S
Q R Proof:
is
re S
Statement Reason
QP R + P QR + P RQ = 180 ; interior angle theorem;
B
bl
P RQ + P RS = 180 ; linear pair
be T
QP R + P QR + P RQ = P RQ + P RS; Axiom 1(see Chap 3, unit 1);

pu
QP R + P QR = P RS; Axiom 3(see Chap 3, unit 1).
K

Example 4 An exterior angle of a triangle is 100 and one of the interior

opposite angles is 45 . Find the other two angles of the triangle.
Solution: Let ABC be a triangle whose side BC is produced to form an
exterior angle ACD such that ExtC = 100 . Let B = 45 . By exterior
to
angle theorem we have
A ACD = B + A
t
= 100 = 45 + A
No
= A = 100 45
Hence A = 55 . Thus we get
C = 180 (A + B)
100 = 180 (55 + 45 ) = 80 . Hence
D
B C C = 80 .
Example 5 In the given figure, sides QP and RQ of a triangle P QR are

produced to the points S and T respectively. If SP R = 135 and P QT =
110 , find P RQ.
262 Unit 2
Solution: Since Q, P and S all lie

S on the same line,
QP R + SP R = 180 .
P 135
Hence
QP R + 135 = 180
or
110 QP R = 180 135 = 45 .
d
T
Q R Using exterior angle property in
he
triangle P QR, we have
P QT = QP R + P RQ.
This gives 110 = 45 + P RQ.
is
re S
Solving for P RQ, we get P RQ = 110 45 = 65 .
B
bl
Example 6 The side BC of a triangle ABC is produced on both sides. Show
be T
that the sum of the exterior angles so formed is greater than A by two
pu
right angles.
K
Solution: Draw a triangle ABC

A and produce BC on both sides to

1 points D and F . Denote the an-

gles as shown in the figure. We
have to show that
4 + 5 = 1 + 180 .
4 2 3 5 By exterior angle theorem, we
E F
to
B C have
4 = 1 + 3 and 5 = 1 + 2.
Adding these two we get
t
4 + 5 = (1 + 3) + (1 + 2) = 1 + (1 + 2 + 3) = 1 + 180 ,
No
since the sum of all the interior angles of a triangle is 180 .

Exercise 3.2.3
1. The exterior angles obtained on producing the base of a triangle both
ways are 104 and 136 . Find the angles of the triangle.
2. Sides BC, CA and AB of a triangle ABC are produced in an order,
forming exterior angles ACD, BAE and CBF . Show that ACD +
BAE + CBF = 360 .
Triangles 263
3. Compute the value of x in each of the following figures:
(i)
(ii) (iii) 65
130
50 106 100
x x x
d
he
(iv) 120 (v)
20
is
re S
x 112 x
B
bl P
be T
4. In the figure, QT P R, T QR = 40
pu
30 T
and SP R = 30 . Find T RS and

K
P SQ.

40
Q S R
5. An exterior angle of a triangle is 120 and one of the interior opposite
angles is 30 . Find the other angles of the triangle.
6. Find the sum of all the angles at the

to
five vertices of the adjoining star.

t
Additional problems on Theorems on triangles

No
1. Fill up the blanks to make the following statements true:
(a) Sum of the angles of a triangle is

(b) An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
opposite angles.
(c) An exterior angle of a triangle is always than either of
the interior opposite angles.
264 Unit 2
(d) A triangle cannot have more than -right angle.

(e) A triangle cannot have more than obtuse angle.
2. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives:
(a) In a triangle ABC, A = 80 and AB = AC, then B is

A. 50 B. 60 C. 40 D. 70
d
(b) In right angled triangle, A is right angle and B = 35 , then C
he
is
A. 65 B. 55 C. 75 D. 45
(c) In a triangle ABC, B = C = 45 , then the triangle is
is
re S
A. right triangle B. acute angled triangle C. obtuse angle
B
bl
triangle D. equilateral triangle
be T
(d) In an equilateral triangle, each exterior angle is

pu
A. 60 B. 90 C. 120 D. 150
K
(e) Sum of the three exterior angles of a triangle is

A. two right angles B. three right angles C. one right angle

D. four right angles
3. In a triangle ABC, B = 70 . Find A + C.
4. In a triangle ABC, A = 110 and AB = AC. Find B and C.

to
5. If three angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2: 3: 5, determine three

angles.
6. The angles of triangle are arranged in ascending order of magnitude.

t
No
If the difference between two consecutive angles is 15 , find the three

angles.
7. The sum of two angles of a triangle is equal to its third angle. Deter-
mine the measure of the third angle.
8. In a triangle ABC, if 2A = 3B = 6C, determine A, B and C.

1
9. The angles of triangle are x 40 , x 20 and x + 15 . Find the value
2
of x.
Triangles 265
10. In triangle ABC, A B = 15 and B C = 30 , find A, B and

C.
11. The sum of two angles of a triangle is 80 and their difference is 20 .

Find the angles of the triangle.
12. In a triangle ABC, B = 60 and C = 80 . Suppose the bisector of

B and C meet at I. Find BIC.
d
13. In a triangle, each of the smaller angles is half the largest angle. Find
he
the angles.
is
14. In a triangle, each of the bigger angles is twice the third angle. Find
re S
the angles.
B
bl
15. In a triangle ABC, B = 50 and A = 60 . Suppose BC is extended
be T
to D. Find ACD.
pu
K
16. In an isosceles triangle, the vertex angle is twice the sum of the base
angles. Find the angles of the triangle.

Glossary
Exterior angle: the angle subtended externally when a side of a triangle
is extended.
Interior opposite angles: angles opposite to the interior angle which is
supplementary to the exterior angle.
to
Points to remember
Triangles are classified according to their angles and their sides.
t
No
The sum of the three interior angles of a triangle is 180 .

An exterior angle of a triangle is the sum of two interior opposite
angles.
CHAPTER 3 UNIT 3
CONGRUENCY OF TRIANGLES
identify the congruent figures;
d
identify the congruent triangles;
identify the corresponding sides and corresponding angles of congru-
he
ent triangles;
state the postulates for congruency of triangles;
is
re S
understand that particular triples of elements determine the congru-
B
bl
ency of triangles;
deduce logical methods for proving theorems;
be T
pu
solve problems based on different postulates of congruency;
K
appreciate the use of congruency of triangles in solving practical day

to day problems.

3.3.1 Introduction
Suppose you have two equilateral triangles, each of side length, say 1
cm. Can you place one on the other so that all the three sides collace?
That is all the three sides of one triangle sit exactly on three sides of the
other triangle. Take equilateral triangles of side lengths 1 cm and 2 cm.
to
Can you put one on the other so that one exactly fits the other? No matter
how you adjust them, you see that it is impossible to superpose one on
t
the other. The exact geometrical idea which needed to understand these
No
is congruency.
Congruency is one of the fundamental concepts in geometry. This con-
cept is used to classify the geometrical figures on the basis of their shapes.
Two geometrical figures are said to be congruent, if they have same shape
and size. For example:
A 6 cm B
1. Two line segments are congruent
if they have same length.
C 6 cm D
Congruency 267
P X
2. Two angles are congruent if they
have same measure. 28 o 28
o
Q R Y Z
3. Two circles are congruent if they
d
have same radii. 2 cm 2 cm
he
M Q S T
is
re S
4. Two squares are congruent if they
B
bl
have sides of same length.
be T
pu
N 2.2 cm P V 2.2 cm U
K
Note: 1. Two geometrical congruent figures can be made to superimpose

one on the other so that one exactly covers the other.

2. Two congruent geometrical figures have same parameters.

Congruency of triangles
Two triangles are said to be congruent if all the sides and angles of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and angles of the other
triangle.
to
In triangles ABC and DEF , you

A D
observe AB = DE, AC = DF and
BC = EF ; A = D, B = E,
t
and C = F .
No
Therefore, triangles ABC and

B C E F DEF are congruent.
We write this as
ABC
= DEF.
A few words about the use of this notation. When we write
ABC = DEF , the important thing is to observe that the vertices A, B, C
correspond to the vertices D, E, F in that order. If we write ABC
= EF D,
268 Unit 3
this gives a different meaning. This means A = E, B = F and

C = D; and AB = EF , BC = F D and CA = DE. Can you see the
difference? So while using the notation for congruency, keep the order of
the vertices in proper way.
Recall that there are six elements associated with a triangle. Two tri-
angles are congruent if and only if these six elements match in a suitable
sense. This will be made clear by understanding corresponding sides and
d
angles.
he
Corresponding sides and angles
Let us say that, on superposition, triangle ABC covers triangle DEF
is
re S
exactly in such way that
B
bl
1. A = D, B = E and C = F ;
be T
pu
2. AB = DE, BC = EF , AC = DF .
K
Then ABC = DEF . Angles which coincide on superposition are called

corresponding angles. Sides which coincide on superposition are called

corresponding sides. Generally it is not always possible to superimpose
one triangle over other triangle to know which angles are the correspond-
ing angles and which are the corresponding sides. Can you see that if two
triangles are congruent, then there are corresponding vertices as well.
However, vertices are points and do not have any numerical quantities as-
to
sociated with them. Hence we use only sides and angles for determining
congruency.
Geometrically, in two congruent triangles ABC and DEF , angles oppo-
t
No
site to equal sides are corresponding angles and so they are equal. There-
fore, BC = EF implies that angle opposite BC= angle opposite to EF .
Symbolically BC = EF = A = D. Similarly, AC = DF = B = E
and AB = DE = C = F .
Exercise 3.3.1
1. Identify the corresponding sides and corresponding angles in the fol-

lowing congruent triangles:
Congruency 269
(b)
(a)
A B
R
d
Q P
2. Pair of congruent triangles and incomplete statements related to them
he
are given below. Observe the figures carefully and fill up the blanks:
C
D
E
(a) In the adjoining figure
is
re S
if C = F , then AB =
B
bl
and BC = .
F
be T
A B
pu
A D
K
(b) In the adjoining figure

if BC = EF , then C =

and A = .
B C E F
A
D
(c) In the adjoining figure,
if AC = CE and ABC = DEC,
then D = and A =
to
.
B
E
t
No
3.3.2 SAS postulate for the congruency of triangles

Least number of conditions for congruency
Now we know that two triangles are congruent if and only if the cor-
responding sides and corresponding angles of two triangles are equal (six
elements), i.e., three for corresponding angles and three for corresponding
sides. Now the natural question is; what is the least number of conditions
required to ensure the congruency of two triangles? Do we need the corre-
sponding equality of all the six elements or a lesser number of conditions
270 Unit 3
will suffice to ensure the congruency of two triangles? In this and subse-
quent sections, we shall see that if three properly chosen elements out of
six of a triangle are equal to the corresponding there elements of another
triangle, then other three elements of two triangles coincide in order and
we have the congruency of two triangles. Let us discuss those three con-
ditions which will ensure the congruency of two triangles. One has to be
careful in choosing three conditions. For example three angles will not do.
d
(Draw two non-congruent triangles which have same set of angles.)
he
Side-angle-side postulate [SAS postulate]
is
If the two sides and included angle of one triangle are equal to the
re S
corresponding two sides and the included angle of the other triangle,
B
bl
then the two triangles are congruent.
be T
A D In triangles ABC and DEF , you

pu
observe that AB = DE, AC = DF
K
and A = D. Hence SAS postu-

late tells

B C E F ABC
= DEF.
P X Look at the following trian-

gles P QR and XY Z. You
to
60
observe that P Q = XY and
QR = Y Z. Moreover P =
t
60 60 = Y . Still the triangles

No
Q R Y Z P QR and XY Z need not be

congruent because the included angles Q and Y , which are cor-
responding angles, need not be equal.
Example 1. In the figure O is the midpoint of AB and CD. Prove that

(i) AOC
= BOD; (ii) AC = BD.
Congruency 271
Solution: In triangles AOC and BOD, we

D
A have
AO = BO, (O, the midpoint of AB);
AOC = BOD, (vertically opposite angles);
O
CO = OD, (O, the midpoint of CD).
B So by SAS postulate we have
C
AOC = BOD.
d
Hence AC = BD, as they are corresponding parts of congruent triangles.
he
Example 2. In the figure, it is given that AE = AD and BD = CE. Prove
that AEB is congruent ADC.
is
Solution: We have AE = AD
re S
A and CE = BD. Adding, we
B
bl get AE + CE = AD + BD
= AC = AB. In trian-
be T
pu
E D
gles AEB and ADC, we have
K
AE = AD, (given);
C B AB = AC, (proved);

EAB = DAC, (common angle).

By SAS postulate AEB
= ADC.
Example 3. In a quadrilateral ACBD, AC = AD and AB bisect A . Show

that ABC is congruent to ABD.
C Solution: In triangles ABC and
to
ABD, we have
AC = AD, (given);
A B CAB = DAB, (AB bisects A);
t
AB = AB, (common side).

No
Hence
D ABC = ABD.
(Can you see that BA bisects CBD?)
Exercise 3.3.2
P Q
1. In the adjoining figure P QRS is a
rectangle. Identify the congruent tri- O
angles formed by the diagonals.

S R
272 Unit 3
2. In the figure ABCD is a square,

M, N, O and P are the midpoints of
sides AB, BC, CD and DA respec-
tively. Identify the congruent trian-
gles.
d
he
3. In a triangle ABC, AB = AC. Points E on AB and D on AC are such
that AE = AD. Prove that triangles BCD and CBE are congruent.
is
re S
4. In the adjoining figure, the sides BA E D
and CA have been produced such

B
bl
that BA = AD and CA = AE. Prove A
be T
that DE k BC. [ hint:-use the con-

pu
cept of alternate angles.]
K
B C
3.3.3 Consequences of SAS postulate

Now you have learnt how to compare two triangles using SAS condition.
This comparison will lead to some very interesting consequences about the
properties of triangles. We study a few of them here.
Theorem 1. In a triangle, the angles opposite to equal sides are equal.
to
A
Given: a triangle ABC in which
AB = AC.
To prove: C = B.
t
Construction: Draw the angle bi-

No
sector of A. Let it cut BC at D.

Let us compare triangles ABD and
B D C
ACD:
Proof:
Statement Reasons
AB = AC; given;
AD = AD; common side;
BAD = CAD; by construction.
Congruency 273
We can use SAS postulate to conclude that ADB = ADC. Hence

ABC = ACB, since these are corresponding angles of congruent tri-
angles. Thus the theorem is proved.
Corollary 1: In an isosceles triangle, the angle bisector of the apex angle

is the perpendicular bisector of the base.
Given: ABC is a triangle in which AB = AC and apex angle A.
d
Construction: draw the angle bisector AD from A on BC. (Refer to the
he
figure of the previous theorem.)
To prove: AD is the perpendicular bisector of BC. Equivalently, we have
to show that BD = DC and ADB = ADC = 90 .
is
re S
Proof:
B
bl
be T
ADB
= ADC, by (theorem 1)
pu
K
= DB = DC and ADB = ADC.

But ADB + ADC = 180 (linear pair)

= ADB + ADC = 180

= 2ADB = 180
= ADB = 180 /2 = 90 .
= ADC = 180 ADB = 90 .
to
We also observe that ABD

= ACD by SAS postulate. Hence
BD = CD.
t

No
Now you may wonder whether the converse of the theorem is true: in
any triangle, the sides opposite to the equal angles are equal. It is also
true, but its proof needs a different condition of congruency, which you
will study later.
Example 4. In the figure AB = AC and DB = DC. Prove that

ABD = ACD.
274 Unit 3
A
Solution: In ABC, we have
AB = AC = ABC = ACB
D (angles opposite to equal sides).
B C
Again in DBC, we have
d
DB = DC (given) = DBC = DCB (angles opposite to equal sides).
he
Hence we obtain
ABC DBC = ACB DCB.
is
re S
This gives
B
bl ABD = ACD.
be T
Exercise 3.3.3
pu
K
1. In a ABC, AB = AC and A = 50 . Find B and C.

2. In ABC, AB = BC and B = 64 . Find C.

3. In each of the following figure, find the value of x:
A
40
65
to
x x 30
B C D C D
B
AB=AC AC=CD
t
No
A
x
x
55 75 50
B C B D C
AB=AC BD=DC=AD
4. Suppose ABC is an equilateral triangle. Its base BC is produced to D

such that BC = CD. Calculate (i) ACD and (ii) ADC.
Congruency 275
5. Show that the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of the base of
an isosceles triangle to the opposite sides are equal.
6. Prove that a ABC is an isosceles triangle if the altitude AD from A
on BC bisects BC.
7. Suppose a triangle is equilateral. Prove that it is equiangular.
d
3.3.4 ASA postulate for congruency
he
If two angles and the common side of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding two angles and the common side of the other triangle,
then the two triangles are congruent.
is
re S
A Given two triangles ABC
D
B
bl and DEF such that
B = E, C = F and
be T
pu
BC = EF , the ASA postu-
K
lates tells
B C E F ABC = DEF .

Earlier you have seen that the angles opposite to equal sides of a trian-
gle are equal. Now we are ready to prove the converse of this result.
Theorem 2. If in a triangle two angles are equal, then the sides oppo-
site to them are equal. (Converse of Theorem 1.)
A
to
Given: triangle ABC in which

B = C.
To prove: AC = AB.
t
Construction: draw AD BC.

No
B D C
Proof: Then ADB = ADC = 90 . We are given DBA = DCA. Consider
triangles ADB and ADC. We have
ADB + DBA + BAD = 180 = ADC + DCA + CAD.
It follows that BAD = CAD(why?). Consider triangles ADB and ADC.

We have
276 Unit 3
BAD = CAD (proved);

ADB = ADC (both are right angles);
AD = AD (common side.)
= ADB = ADC, by ASA condition. We conclude that AB = AC, by

property of congruency. This completes the proof of the converse of theo-
rem 1.
d
Example 5. In a triangle ABC, AB = AC and the bisectors of angles B
he
and C intersect at O. Prove that BO = CO and AO is the bisector of angle
BAC.
is
re S
A
Solution: Since the angles oppo-
B
bl site to equal sides are equal,
be T
AB = AC
pu
K
= C = B
O B C
= = .

B C
2 2
Since BO and CO are bisectors of B and C, we also have
ABO = B/2 and ACO = C/2.
Hence
B C
ABO = = = ACO.
2 2
Consider BCO:
to
OBC = OCB (Why?)

= BO = CO, (Theorem 2).
t
No
Finally, consider triangles ABO and ACO.
BA = CA (given);
BO = CO (proved);
ABO = ACO (proved).
Hence by SAS postulate

ABO
= ACO
= BAO = CAO = AO bisects A.
Congruency 277
Example 6. Diagonal AC of a quadrilateral ABCD bisects the angles A

and C. Prove that AB = AD and CB = CD.
B
Solution: Since diagonal AC
bisects the angles A and C,
we have BAC = DAC and
BCA = DCA. In triangles ABC
A C and ADC, we have
d
BAC = DAC (given);
he
BCA = DCA (given);
D AC = AC (common side).
is
re S
So, by ASA postulate, we have
BAC
= DAC
B
bl
= BA = AD and CB = CD (Corresponding parts of congruent triangle).
be T
pu
K

Example 7. Two parallel lines l and m are intersected by another pair of

parallel lines p and q as in the figure. Show that triangles ABC and CDA
are congruent.
Solution: Since l and m are par-
p allel lines and AC is a transver-
q
sal, 1 = 4. Similarly transversal
to
A D AC cuts parallel lines p and q, so

l
4
3 that 2 = 3. In triangles ABC
t
and CDA, we have

No
2 1 = 4 (proved);
1
m 2 = 3 (proved);
B C
AC = AC (common side).
By ASA postulate,
ABC = CDA.
Example 8. In the figure, BCD = ADC and ACB = BDA. Prove that
AD = BC and A = B.
278 Unit 3
Solution: We have 1 = 2 and

A B
3 = 4
= 1 + 3 = 2 + 4
= ACD = BDC.
Thus in triangles ACD and BDC,
3
we have,
4
1 2 ADC = BCD (given);
d
C D CD = CD (common);
he
ACD = BDC (proved.)
By ASA condition ACD
= BDC. Therefore
AD = BC and A = B.
is
re S B
Think it over!
bl
be T
We have taken ASA condition as a postulate. But actually, it

pu
can be proved as a theorem based on SAS postulate. Try to con-
K
struct a proof. In deductive geometry, one takes only a mini-

mum number of postulates and try to construct as many results

as possible using these minimum number of postulates. One
can also take ASA as a postulate and obtain SAS condition as a
theorem.
Exercise 3.3.4
to
D C
1. In the given figure, If AB k DC and P

t
P
No
is the midpoint of BD, prove that P

is also the midpoint of AC.
A B
A
2. In the adjacent figure, CD and BE
are altitudes of an isosceles triangle
D
ABC with AC = AB. Prove that AE = E
AD.
B C
Congruency 279
Q
3. In figure, AP and BQ are perpen-
diculars to the line segment AB and
AP = BQ. Prove that O is the mid- A
O B
point of line segment AB as well as
P Q.
P
d
4. Suppose ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC; BD and CE are
he
bisectors of B and C. Prove that BD = CE.
5. Suppose ABC is an equiangular triangle. Prove that it is equilat-
eral. (You have seen earlier that an equilateral triangle is equiangular.
is
re S
Thus for triangles equiangularity is equivalent to equilaterality.)
B
bl
3.3.5 SSS postulate for congruency
be T
pu
We will study one more condition for congruency of two triangles. It
K
depends only on the sides.

If three sides of one triangle are equal to the three corresponding

sides of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Activity 1:
Take three sheets of papers; one in the shape of a square, another rect-
angular and a third-one in the shape of a parallelogram (for this you may
to
have to draw a parallelogram on a sheet of paper and cut it along the

boundary). Draw diagonals as shown in the figure. Cut the sheets along
the diagonals.
t
A B
No
W X
P Q
D C S R Z Y
1 2 3
You will get two triangles from each sheet. Now you place one of the
triangular sheet obtained from each figure on the other triangular sheet
280 Unit 3
of the same figure such that it exactly covers the other triangular sheet.
You will notice that each pair of triangles are congruent and in each case
three sides of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides of the other
triangle.
Now we look for the converse of this. If three sides of one triangle are
equal to the three corresponding sides of another triangle, can we put one
on the other such that each covers the other exactly? SSS congruency
d
condition says that it is indeed the case.
he
Think it over!
Since there is SSS congruence postulate, can we have AAA
is
re S
postulate and SSA postulate?
B
bl
Example 9. In the figure, it is given that AB = CD and AD = BC. Prove
that triangles ADC and CBA are congruent.
be T
pu
D B Solution: In triangles ADC and
K
CBA, we have

AB = CD (given);
AD = BC (given);
C A AC = AC (common side.)

By SSS congruency condition, ADC = CBA.
Example 10. In the figure AD = BC and BD = CA. Prove that
to
ADB = BCA and DAB = CBA.

A B Solution: In triangles ABD and
BAC, we have
t
No
AD = BC given;
AB = AB (common);
D C AC = BD (given.)
We can use SSS condition to conclude that ABD
= BAC. From this we
conclude that
ADB = BCA and DAB = CBA.
Example 11. In the adjoining figure, AB = CD and AD = BC. Show that
1 = 2.
Congruency 281
Solution: In triangles ABD and

A B CDB, we have
AB = CD (given);
2 AD = BC (given);
BD = DB (common side.)
1 Hence ABD = CDB, by SSS
postulate. Comparing the angles,
d
D C we get
1 = 2.
he
(Later you will see that, under the given conditions, ABCD is a parallelo-
gram so that AD k BC, and 1 and 2 are alternate angles formed by the
is
re S
transversal BD.)
B
Think it over! bl
be T
We have taken SSS condition as a postulate. But this is

pu
also a consequence of SAS postulate. You can get SSS as a
K
theorem from SAS postulate.

Exercise 3.3.5
1. In a triangle ABC, AC = AB and the altitude AD bisects BC. Prove

that ADC = ADB.
to
2. In a square P QRS, diagonals bisect each other at O. Prove that

P OQ
= QOR = ROS = SOP .
A
t
3. In the figure, two sides AB, BC and

No
the median AD of ABC are respec-

tively equal to two sides P Q, QR and
median P S of P QR. Prove that
B D C
(i) ADB = P SQ; P
(ii) ADC = P SR.
Does it follow that triangles ABC and
P QR are congruent?
Q S R
282 Unit 3
4. In P QR, P Q = QR; L, M and N

are the midpoints of the sides of P Q, L M
QR and RP respectively. Prove that
LN = MN.
P N R
d
3.3.6 RHS theorem
A
he
Activity 2:
Draw an equilateral triangle ABC
on a sheet of paper. From the ver-
is
re S
tex A, draw the perpendicular AD
B
bl to the base the BC. Cut the sheet
of paper along the triangle. Now
be T
B D C
pu
fold it along the perpendicular line. You will notice that two right angled
K
triangles superpose one on the other. So the two triangles are congruent.
A B
Activity 3:

Take a square sheet of paper. Fold

the sheet of the paper along one of
its diagonal. You will notice that
two triangles so formed by fold-
ing the sheet are right angled tri-
angles and they superpose one on
to
D C
the other.
A B Activity 4:
t
Take a rectangular sheet of paper,

No
such that one of its side length is

equal to the length of the square
you had taken earlier and the
D C other is different from the length
of the square . Draw one of its diagonals. Cut the sheet along the diagonal,
to obtain two right triangles. Can you see that here also you can superpose
one right triangle on the other?
Now place one of the triangular sheets from the square and another
from the rectangular sheet. You will notice that even though the two tri-
Congruency 283
angles are right angled and one set of corresponding sides are equal, they
do not superpose one on the other.
In SAS postulate, You have noticed earlier that you need the equality of
two corresponding sides and the included angle for congruency. However
for a right angled triangle, you can relax this a bit to get what is known as
RHS condition. We have the following theorem on right angled triangles.
d
Theorem 3. Two right-angled triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse
and a side of one triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and the corre-
he
sponding side of the other triangle. (RHS theorem.)
A D
is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
B C G E F

Given: two right-angled triangles ABC and DEF such that

(i) B = E = 90 ;
(ii) Hypotenuse AC = Hypotenuse DF ; and
(iii) AB = DE.
To prove: ABC = DEF .
to
Construction: Produce F E to G so that EG = BC. Join DG.

Proof: In triangles ABC and DEG, observe that
t
AB = DE (given);
No
BC = EG (by construction);
ABC = DEG (each equal to 90 .)
Hence by SAS, ABC = DEG = ACB = DGE and AC = DG. But
AC = DF , by the given hypothesis. We thus get
DG = AC = DF .
In triangle DGF , we have got DG = DF (just proved). This implies that
G = F (angles opposite to equal sides are equal).
In triangles DEF and DEG,
284 Unit 3
G = F (proved);
DEG = DEF (both equal to 90 .)
Hence
GDE = 180 (G + DEG) = 180 (F + DEF ) = F DE.
Consider triangles DEG and DEF . We have
DG = DF (proved);
d
DE = DE (common);
he
GDE = F DE (proved).
Hence by SAS condition,
DEG = DEF .
is
re S
But we have already proved that
ABC = DEG.
B
It follows that bl
be T
ABC = DEF .
pu
K
Note: We have used an important result: If there are three triangles ABC,
DEF and JKL such that ABC is congruent to DEF and DEF is congruent

to JKL, then ABC is congruent to JKL. This is precisely Axiom 3 in the

unit 1 of chapter 3.
Think it over!
If two sides of a right triangle are respectively equal to the corre-
sponding sides of another right triangle, can you conclude that
to
the two triangles are congruent? (We are not demanding that
hypotenuse of two triangles be equal.)
t
Example 12. Suppose ABC is an isosceles triangle such that AB = AC

No
and AD is the altitude from A on BC. Prove that (i) AD bisects A, (ii) AD
bisects BC.
A
Solution: We have to show that
BAD = CAD and BD = DC.
In right triangles ADB and ADC, we
have
AB = AC (given);
AD = AD (common side).
B D C
Congruency 285
So by RHS congruency of triangles, we have ABD

= ACD. Hence
BAD = CAD and BD = DC.
Example 13. Suppose the altitudes AD, BE and CF of triangle ABC are
equal. Prove that ABC is an equilateral triangle.
A Solution: In right triangles BCE
and CBF , we have,
d
BC = BC (common hypotenuse);
F E
BE = CF (given).
he
Hence BCE and CBF are congruent,
by RHS theorem. Comparing the tri-
is
angles, we get B = C.
re S
B D C
This implies that
B
Similarly,
bl
AC = AB (sides opposite to equal angles).
be T
pu
K
AD = BE = B = A

= AC = BC.
Together, we get AB = BC = AC or ABC is equilateral.

Exercise 3.3.6
1. Suppose ABCD is rectangle. Using RHS theorem, prove that triangles

ABC and ADC are congruent.
to
2. Suppose ABC is a triangle and D is the midpoint of BC. Assume that

the perpendiculars from D to AB and AC are of equal length. Prove
t
that ABC is isosceles.

No
3. Suppose ABC is a triangle in which BE and CF are respectively the

perpendiculars to the sides AC and AB. If BE = CF , prove that
triangle ABC is isosceles.
3.3.7 Some consequences

You have seen earlier that in a triangle the angles opposite to equal
sides are equal. And conversely, sides opposite to equal angles are equal.
So the natural question is: if angles are of different measures, can we
286 Unit 3
compare the sides opposite to them? Can we say some thing about angles
if sides are of different lengths?
Proposition 1. Suppose two sides of a triangle are not equal. Then
the angle opposite to a larger side is greater than the angle opposite
to the smaller side.
AC > AB.
d
A
To prove: B > C.
he
Construction: take a point D on
D AC such that AB = AD. (This is
is
possible since AC > AB.)
re S
B C Join BD.
B
bl Proof: In triangle ABD, we have
AB = AD(by construction) = ABD = ADB (angles opposite to equal sides).
be T
pu
Now BDC is an exterior angle for triangle BCD. Hence it is larger than
K
interior opposite angle BCD. We thus get

C < BDA = ABD < ABC = B.

Proposition 2. In a triangle, if two angles are unequal, then the side
opposite to the larger angle is greater than the side opposite to the
smaller angle.
to
A B > C.
To prove: AC > AB.
t
Proof: Observe that

No
B > C = AC 6= AB.
For, AC = AB implies that B =
B C C(angles opposite to equal sides
are equal).
Thus either
AC < AB or AC > AB.
If AC < AB, then by previous proposition B < C; but this contradicts
the given hypothesis. The only possibility left out is
AC > AB.
Congruency 287
Note: Here we are using law of trichotomy. Given any two real numbers a
and b, you have only one of the possibilities: a < b; a = b; or a > b.
Proposition 3. In a triangle, the sum of any two sides is greater than
the third side.
Given: a triangle ABC.
D
To prove: AB + AC > BC.
Construction: Extend BA to D such that
d
AD = AC and join DC.
he
A
Proof: Then
BD = BA + AD = BA + AC.
is
Since AD = AC, we have
re S
B C
ADC = ACD (angle opposite to equal sides).

B
Hence we obtain
bl
BCD > ACD = ADC = BDC.
be T
pu
In triangle BCD, we have
K
BCD > BDC = BD > BC(by proposition 2).

But BD = BA + AC, as we have observed earlier. We thus get

BA + AC > BC.
You can similarly prove CA < AB + BC and AB < BC + CA.
Note: The inequalities BC < CA+AB, CA < AB+BC and AB < BC +CA are
called triangle inequalities. They are necessary conditions for the existence
of a triangle with sides AB, BC and CA. This tells that the straight line
to
is the shortest path between any two point. Given three numbers a, b, c,
necessary conditions for the existence of a triangle with sides a, b, c are that
a < b + c, b < c + a and c < a + b. These conditions are also sufficient which
t
you will see while constructing a triangle with three given sides.
No
Example 14. Show that in a right angled triangle, hypotenuse is larger

than any of the remaining sides.
Solution: Suppose ABC is a right angled triangle with B = 90 . Then
AC is the hypotenuse. Observe that BAC < B and BCA < B. Now
the side opposite to BAC is BC and side opposite BCA is AB. Hence by
proposition 2, BC < AC and AB < AC.
Example 15. In the adjoining figure, B = 70 , C = 50 and AD is the
bisector of A. Prove that AB > AD > CD.
288 Unit 3
A
Solution: Observe that
A = 180 (B + C)
= 180 (70 + 50 ) = 60 .
Hence BAD = DAC = 30 .

70 50
B D C
Consider triangle BAD. We can compute ADB:
d
ADB = 180 (70 + 30 ) = 80 > ABD
he
Hence AB > AD, by proposition 2. In triangle ADC, we have
DAC = 30 < 50 = ACD.
is
Again proposition 2 gives CD < AD.
re S B
bl Exercise 3.3.7
be T
1. In a triangle ABC, B = 28 and C = 56 . Find the largest and the

pu
K
smallest sides.
2. In a triangle ABC, we have AB = 4cm, BC = 5.6cm and CA = 7.6cm.

Write the angles of the triangle in ascending order of measures.

3. Let ABC be a triangle such that B = 70 and C = 40 . Suppose D
is a point on BC such that AB = AD. Prove that AB > CD.
4. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral in which AD is the largest side and BC
is the smallest side. Prove that A < C. (Hint: Join AC)
to
5. Let ABC be a triangle and P be an interior point. Prove that AB +

BC + CA < 2(P A + P B + P C).
t
Additinal problems on Congruency of triangles

No
1. Fill in the blanks to make the statements true .
(a) In right triangle the hypotenuse is the side.

(b) The sum of three altitudes of a triangle is than its
perimeter.
(c) The sum of any two sides of a triangle is - than the
third side.
Congruency 289
(d) If two angles of a triangle are unequal , then the smaller angle
has the side opposite to it.
(e) Difference of any two sides of a triangle is - than the
third side.
(f) If two sides of a triangle are unequal, then the larger side has
- angle opposite to it.
d
2. Justify the following statements with reasons:
he
(a) The sum of three sides of a triangle is more than the sum of its
altitudes.
is
re S
(b) The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than twice the
B
bl
median drawn to the third side.
(c) Difference of any two sides of triangle is less than the third side.
be T
pu
3. Two triangles ABC and DBC have common base BC. Suppose AB =
K
DC and ABC = BCD. Prove that AC = BD.

4. Let AB and CD be two line segments such that AD and BC intersect

at O. Suppose AO = OC and BO = OD. Prove that AB = CD.
5. Let ABC be a triangle. Draw a triangle BDC externally on BC such

that AB = BD and AC = CD. Prove that ABC = DBC.
to
6. Let ABCD be a square and let points P on AB and Q on DC be such

that DP = AQ. Prove that BP = CQ.
t
7. In a triangle ABC, AB = AC. Suppose P is point on AB and Q is a

No
point on AC such that AP = AQ. Prove that AP C

= AQB.
8. In an isosceles triangle, if the vertex angle is twice the sum of the base
angles, calculate the angles of the triangle.
9. If the bisector of the vertical angle of a triangle bisects the base, show
that the triangle is isosceles.
10. Suppose ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Side BA is

produced to D such that BA = AD. Prove that BCD is a right angle.
290 Unit 3
11. Let AB, CD be two line segments such that AB k CD and AD k BC.
Let E be the midpoint of BC and let DE extended meet AB in F . Prove
that AB = BF .
Glossary
Congruency: two geometrical figures are identical in both shape and size.
Superpose: one figure sitting exactly on the other.
d
Corresponding sides: while comparing two triangles, we index the sides
he
of the triangles in an ordered way.
Corresponding angles: indexing of the angles in an ordered way.
SAS postulate: Side-Angle-Side postulate.
is
re S
ASA postulate: Angle-Side-Angle postulate.
B
bl
SSS postulate: Side-Side-Side postulate.
RHS theorem: Right angle-Hypotenuse-Side theorem.
be T
pu
Triangle inequality: any side of a triangle is smaller than the sum of the
K
remaining two.
Points to remember

Two triangles are congruent if we can superpose one on the other.

Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the included angle of
one triangle are respectively equal to the corresponding sides and the
corresponding angle of the other.(SAS)
Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the common side to
to
these angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the correspond-

ing angles and the corresponding side of the other.(ASA)
Two triangles are congruent if three sides of one triangle are respec-
t
tively equal to three corresponding sides of the other. (SSS)

No
Two right angled triangles are congruent if they have equal hypotenuse
and, apart from hypotenuse, a side of one triangle is equal to a side
of of the other.(RHS)
Any side of a triangle is smaller than the sum of the other two.(Triangle
inequality)
CHAPTER 3 UNIT 4
Note: The sections 3.4.5, 3.4.6, 3.4.12 and 3.4.13 are optional in
this unit. This need not be used for examination.
CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES
After studying this unit, you learn:
d
to construct a triangle:
he
when three sides are given;
when two sides and included angle are given;
when two angles and included side are given;
is
when two sides and altitude on third side are given;
re S
one side and hypotenuse of a right angled triangle are given;
B

bl
an isosceles triangle, whose base and height are given;
perimeter and ratio of the sides of a right triangle are given;
be T
whose perimeter and base angles are given;

pu
when the base, sum of the other two sides and one base angle of
K
a right triangle are given;

when the base, difference of the other two sides and one base

angle of a right triangle are given.
3.4.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, you have learnt that given a triangle, there are six
elements associated with it, namely, three sides and three angles. You may
to
be wondering whether you need all these to be known for constructing a

triangle. If all are known, it is well and good. But in a variety of practical
situations, you may not know all these. If only two are known, you cannot
t
hope to construct a triangle. Even if three of these are known, you may not
No
be able to construct. For example, If two sides and an angle ( not included
angle ) are given, then it is not possible to construct such triangle.
We will take up different situations when we will be able to construct
a triangle. Of course along with these basic six elements, you can also
associate many other elements like medians, angle bisectors altitudes. You
get several other combinations. And constructing triangles with minimum
number of data which includes these additional elements is interesting
and challenging. We will not go beyond the traditional constructions.
292 Unit 4
3.4.2 When three sides are given

Example 1 Construct a triangle ABC in which AB = 5 cm, BC= 4.3 cm
and AC= 4 cm.
Solution: We follow several steps in the construction:
1. Draw a line segment which is sufficiently long using ruler.

2. Locate points A and B on it such that AB = 5 cm.
d
3. With A as centre and radius 4 cm, draw an arc(see figure).
he
4. With B as centre and radius 4.3 cm, draw another arc cutting the
previous arc at C.
is
re S
5. Join AC and BC.
B
bl
Then ABC is the required triangle.
be T
pu
C
K

4.3 cm
4 cm
A 5 cm B
Think it over!
The arc with B as centre and radius 4.3 cm always cuts the arc
to
with A as center and radius 4 cm, whenever AB=5 cm. Can you
relate this to triangle inequality?
t
No
Exercise 3.4.2
1. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=5 cm and BC= 4.6 cm and
AC= 3.7 cm.
2. Construct an equilateral triangle of side 4.8 cm.
3. Construct a triangle P QR, given that P Q =5.6 cm, P R=7 cm and
QR=4.5 cm.
4. Construct a triangle XY Z in which XY =7.8 cm, Y Z=4.5 cm and
XZ=9.5 cm.
Constructions 293
5. Construct a triangle whose perimeter is 12 cm and the ratio of their

sides is 3:4:5.
3.4.3 When two sides and their included angle are given
Example 2. Construct a triangle P QR, given that P Q=4 cm, QR=5.2 cm
and Q = 60 .
d
Solution: Steps of construction:
he
2. Locate points Q and R on it such that QR = 5.2 cm.
3. At Q, construct a line segment QM, sufficiently large, such that MQR =
is
re S
60 ; use protractor to measure 60 .
B
bl
4. With Q as center and radius 4 cm., draw an arc cutting QM at P ; join
P R.
be T
pu
Then, P QR is required the triangle.
K
P
m
4c
60
Q 5.2 cm R
to
Think it over!
Without using protractor, can you construct a line segment QM
t
at Q such that MQR = 60 ?

No
Exercise 3.4.3
1. Construct a triangle ABC, in which AB=4.5 cm, AC=5.5 cm and
BAC = 75 .
2. Construct a triangle P QR in which P Q=5.4 cm, QR=5.5 cm and P QR =
55 .
3. Construct a triangle XY Z in which XY =5 cm, Y Z=5.5 cm and XY Z =
100 .
294 Unit 4
4. Construct a triangle LMN in which LM=7.8 cm, MN=6.3 cm and

LMN = 45 .
3.4.4 When two angles and included side are given

Example 3. Construct a triangle XY Z in which XY = 4.5 cm and X = 100
and Y = 50 .
d
Solution: Steps of construction
he
2. Locate points X and Y on it such that XY = 4.5 cm.
is
3. Construct a line segment XP such that P XY = 100 ; construct a
re S
line segment Y Q such that XY Q = 50 .
B
bl
4. Extend XP and Y Q to intersect at Z.
be T
pu
Then XY Z is the required triangle.
K
P
Q

Z
to
100 50
t
X 4.5 cm Y
No
Think it over!
Suppose it is given that XY = 4.5 cm, X = 100 and Y = 80 .
Can you construct a triangle now? Where does the construction
break down and why?
Exercise 3.4.4
1. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=6.5 cm, A = 45 and B =
60 .
Constructions 295
2. Construct a triangle P QR in which QR=4.8 cm, Q = 45 and R =

55 .
3. Construct a triangle ABC in which BC=5.2 cm, B = 35 and C =
80 .
4. Construct a triangle ABC in which BC=6 cm, B = 30 and C = 125 .
3.4.5 To construct an equilateral triangle of given height
d
(Optional)
he
Example 4. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 3.2 cm.
Solution: First observe that the altitudes from any vertex to the opposite
is
re S
sides of an equilateral triangle are all of equal length (prove this state-
ment). Hence we can define the height of an equilateral triangle as this
B
bl
common value of three altitudes.
be T
Steps of construction
pu
K
1. Draw any line segment XY .

2. Take any point M on XY . Draw ZM XY .

3. With M as center and radius 3.2 cm, draw an arc, cutting MZ at A.

4. Construct MAB = 30 and MAC = 30 , with B and C on XY .
Z
to
30
30
A
t
No
3.2 cm
X Y
B M C
Think it over!
Why is that ABC so constructed is equilateral? Can you think
of a proof?
296 Unit 4
Exercise 3.4.5
1. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 4.5 cm. Measure approxi-
mate length of the its side.
2. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 5.2 cm. Measure approxi-
3. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 6. cm. Measure approxi-
d
he
3.4.6 When two sides and altitude on the third side are
given (Optional)
is
re S
Example 5. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB =4.5 cm, AC= 5 cm
B
bl
and length of perpendicular from A on BC is 3.6 cm.
be T
pu
1. Draw a line segment XY .
K
2. Take a point M on XY .
3. Draw ZM XY , with MZ sufficiently large.

4. With M as center and radius 3.6 cm, draw an arc, cutting MZ at A.

Z
5. With A as center and
radii 4.5 cm and 5 cm,
A
draw arcs cutting XY
at B and C respectively;
to
join AB and AC.

cm
4.5
3.6 cm
5
cm
Then ABC is the re-

t
quired triangle. X
No
M Y
C B
Think it over!
(1) Why is that the arcs with centre A and radii 4.4 cm and 5 cm
cut the line segment XY ? Which part of the data ensure it?
(2) There are two more triangles possible other than the one
given. Construct them.
Constructions 297
Exercise 3.4.6
1. Construct a triangle P QR in which P Q =5.5 cm, P R=6.2 cm and
length of the perpendicular from P on QR is 4 cm.
2. Construct a triangle MNP in which MN =4.5 cm, MP = 5.2 cm and
length of perpendicular from M on NP is 3.8 cm.
d
3.4.7 To construct a right triangle whose one side and
hypotenuse are given
he
Example 6. Construct a right triangle LMN in which M = 90 , MN = 4
is
cm and LN=6.2 cm.
re S B
Solution:
bl Steps of construction
be T
pu
1. Draw a line segment
K
P XY .
L 2. Locate M, N on XY such

that MN =4 cm.
3. Construct a line
6.
2
segment MP , suffi-
cm
ciently large, such that

Y
NMP = 90 .
X 4 cm
M N 4. With N as centre and ra-
to
dius 6.2 cm draw an arc,

cutting MP at L; join
t
NL.
No
Then, LMN is the required triangle.
Think it over!
Why is that the arc with centre N and radius 6.2 cm cuts the
line segment MP ? Which part of the data ensures it?
Exercise 3.4.7
1. Construct a right angle triangle ABC in which B = 90 , AB = 5 cm
and AC=7 cm.
298 Unit 4
2. Construct a right angle triangle P QR in which R = 90 , P Q = 4 cm

and QR=3 cm.
3. Construct a right angle triangle ABC in which B = 90 , BC = 4 cm
and AC=5 cm.
3.4.8 To construct an isosceles triangle whose base and

corresponding altitude are given
d
Example 7. Construct an isosceles triangle ABC in which base BC=5.8
he
cm and altitude from A on BC is 4.8 cm.
Solution:
is
P Steps of construction
re S
1. Draw a line segment BC
B
bl A whose length is 5.8 cm.
2. Draw the perpendicular
be T
pu
bisector of BC; call it MP ,
K
with M on BC.
4.8 cm
3. With M as centre and ra-

X Y dius 4.8 cm, draw an arc

B M 5.8 cm C cutting MP at A; join AB
and AC.
Then ABC is the required tri-

angle.
to
Think it over!
Which results on triangle is used to conclude that ABC is the
t
required triangle?
No
Exercise 3.4.8
1. Construct an isosceles triangle ABC in which base BC=6.5 cm and
altitude from A on BC is 4 cm.
2. Construct an isosceles triangle XY Z in which base Y Z=5.8 cm and
altitude from X on Y Z is 3.8 cm.
3. Construct an isosceles triangle P QR in which base P Q=7.2 cm and
altitude from R on P Q is 5 cm.
Constructions 299
3.4.9 To construct an isosceles triangle when its altitude

and vertex angle are given
Example 8. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 4 cm and
vertex angle is 80 .
P
Solution:
d
he
A 1. Draw a line segment XY .
2. Take a point M on XY and
40 40 draw a line MP XY .
is
re S
3. With M as centre and ra-
4 cm
B
X
B M bl Y
dius 4 cm, draw an arc cutting
MP at A.
be T
C
4. Construct B and C on XY such that MAB = 80 /2 = 40 and MAC =
pu
80 /2 = 40 .
to K
Think it over!
Why is triangle ABC isosceles? Which results on triangles are
used to conclude that ABC is the required triangle?
Exercise 3.4.9
1. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 4.5 cm and vertex
angle is 70 .
2. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 6.6 cm and vertex
t
angle is 60 .
No
3. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 5 cm and vertex an-

gle is 90 .
3.4.10 To construct a triangle whose perimeter and ratio

of the sides are given
Example 9. Construct a triangle ABC, whose perimeter is 12 cm and
whose sides are in the ratio 2:3:4.
300 Unit 4
1. Draw a line segment and locate points X, Y such that XY = 12 cm.

2. Draw a ray XZ, making an acute angle with XY and drawn in the
down-ward direction.
3. From X, locate (2+3+4)= 9 points at equal distances along XZ.
4. Mark point L, M, N on XZ such that XL=2 parts, LM=3 parts and
MN= 4 parts.
5. Join NY . Through L and M, draw LB k NY and MC k NY , intersect-
d
ing XY in B and C respectively.
he
6. With B as center and BX as radius, draw an arc; with C as a centre
and CY as radius, draw an arc cutting the previous arc at A.
is
re S
7. Join AB and AC.
B
blA
be T
pu
K
X Y
B C 12 cm

N
to

t
No
Think it over!
Why is that the sides of ABC are in the required ratio? Is it pos-
sible to construct a triangle if the sides are in the ratio 2:3:5?
Exercise 3.4.10
1. Construct a triangle ABC, whose perimeter is 13 cm and whose sides
are in the ratio 3:4:5.
2. Construct a triangle P QR, whose perimeter is 14 cm and whose sides
Constructions 301
3. Construct a triangle MNP , whose perimeter is 15 cm and whose sides

3.4.11 To construct a triangle whose perimeter and base

angles are given
Example 10. Construct a triangle ABC whose perimeter is 12.5 cm and
whose base angles are 60 and 75 .
d
S
he
R
is
re S
L
A
B
bl
be T
pu
K
60 75

P B C Q
12.5 cm

1. Draw a line segment and locate points P, Q such that P Q=12.5 cm.

2. Construct rays P R such that QP R = 60 and QS such that P QS =
to
75 .
3. Draw the bisectors P L and QM of QP R and P QS respectively. Let
t
these intersect at A.
No
4. Draw the perpendicular bisector of AP and AQ and let these intersect

P Q at B and C respectively.
5. Join AB and AC.
Think it over!
What properties of triangles ensure that we get required base
angles? And the perimeter is also as required?
302 Unit 4
Exercise 3.4.11
1. Construct a triangle ABC whose perimeter 12 cm and whose base
angles are 50 and 80 .
2. Construct a triangle XY Z whose perimeter 15 cm and whose base
3. Construct a triangle ABC whose perimeter 12 cm and whose base
d
he
3.4.12 To construct triangle when its base, sum of the
other two sides and one base angle are given (Optional)
is
re S
Example 11. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=5.8 cm, BC + CA=8.4
B
cm and B = 60 .
bl
be T
Solution:
pu
X
K
1. Draw a line segment AB of

D

length 5.8 cm.

2. Draw a line segment BX,
sufficiently large such that
cm
8.4
C ABX = 60 .
3. From the segment BX, cut
60 off line segment BD of length
to
B 5.8 cm A
8.4 cm.
4. Join AD.
5. Draw the perpendicular bisector of AD and let it meet BD at C.
t
6. Join AC.
No
Think it over!
How is that the sum of CA and CB is equal to the given sum?
Exercise 3.4.12
1. Construct a triangle ABC in which BC=3.6 cm, AB + AC=4.8 cm and
B = 60 .
Constructions 303
2. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB + AC=5.6 cm, BC=4.5 cm and

B = 45 .
3. Construct a triangle P QR in which P Q + P R=6.5 cm, QR=5.4 cm and
Q = 40 .
3.4.13 To construct a triangle when its base, difference of

the other two sides and one base angle are given (Optional)
d
he
Example 12. Construct a triangle ABC in which base AB= 5 cm, A = 30
and AC BC=2.5 cm.
Solution:
is
X
re S
1. Draw a line segment AB of
B
C
bl length 5 cm.
be T
2. Draw another line segment

pu
D
AX, sufficiently large, such
K
m
c that BAX = 30 .
2.5
3. From the segment AX, cut

5 cm off line segment AD=2.5 cm,

A B
which is equal to (AC BC).
4. Join BD.
5. Draw the perpendicular bisector of BD and let it cut AX at C.
6. Join BC.
to

t
Think it over!
No
Can you see why AD is equal to the difference AC BC? Can

you take AC BC > AB and still construct a triangle?
Exercise 3.4.13
1. Construct triangle ABC in which BC=3.4 cm, AB AC=1.5 cm and
B = 45 .
2. Construct triangle ABC in which BC=5 cm, AB AC=2.8 cm and
B = 40 .
304 Unit 4
3. Construct triangle ABC in which BC=6 cm, AB AC=3.1 cm and

B = 30 .
Additional problems on Constructions of triangles
1. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=5cm, BC=4.7cm and AC=4.3cm.
d
2. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=5cm, BC=5cm and AC=4.3cm.
he
3. Construct a triangle P QR in which P Q=4cm, QR=4.5cm and Q = 60 .
4. Construct a triangle P QR in which P Q=4cm, P = 60 and Q=60 .
is
re S
5. Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=3.5cm, AC=4cm and length of
B
bl
the perpendicular from A to BC is 3cm.
be T
pu
6. Construct an isosceles triangle ABC in which base BC=4.5cm and
K
altitude from A on BC is 3.8cm.

7. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 5 cm and whose

8. Construct an isosceles triangle whose altitude is 5 cm and whose

9. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 3.5 cm. (Optional)

to
10. Construct an equilateral triangle of height 4.3 cm. (Optional)
11. Construct right angle triangle LMN in which M = 90 , MN=4.5 cm

t
No
and LN=5.6 cm.
12. Construct right angle triangle P QR in which Q = 90 , QR=4.5 cm

and R = 50 .


Constructions 305
15. Construct a triangle ABC, whose perimeter is 13.5 cm and whose

base angles are 60 and 75 .
16. Construct a triangle ABC, whose perimeter is 12.5 cm and whose

base angles are 50 and 80 .
17. Construct a triangle XY Z in which Y Z=4.5 cm, Y = 60 and sum of

other two sides is 7.5 cm. (Optional)
d
18. Construct a triangle ABC whose perimeter is 9 cm and the angles are
he
in the ratio 3:4:5.
is
19. Construct a triangle ABC whose perimeter is 12 cm and the angles
re S
B
bl
20. Construct a triangle ABC in which BC=4.5 cm, B = 35 and differ-
be T
ence between the other two sides is 2.8 cm. (Optional)

pu
K
Glossary

Perpendicular bisector: the line which is perpendicular to the given line

segment and also bisects the line segment.
Angle bisector: the line which bisects the given angle.
Perimeter: the length of the boundary of any plane figure.
Altitude: the perpendicular from a point to a line; this is also used for the
length of such a perpendicular.
to
Arc: part of the circumference of a circle.

Base angle: any of the angles formed by the base of a triangle, with the
other sides.
t
No
Vertex angle: the angle at the top of an isosceles triangle.

Points to remember
At least three parameters are needed to construct a triangle.
Not all combination of three parameters will enable one to construct
a triangle.
CHAPTER 3 UNIT 5
QUADRILATERALS
recognise quadrilaterals from a given list of figures;
d
list out common properties of a quadrilateral;
solve the sums related to quadrilaterals;
he
classify different types of quadrilaterals and recognise their distinct
properties;
is
re S
transform the problems which occur in daily life related to quadrilat-
erals to numerical sums and solve them.
B
bl
be T
3.5.1 Introduction
pu
K
You have learnt earlier that a triangle is a plane figure bounded by three
sides. Triangles are classified based on the measures of sides and angles.

Activity 1: Name the triangles based on their sides. Name the triangles
based on their angles.
Now let us take four points on the plane and see what we obtain on
joining them in pairs in some order.
to
A B A
A B C
A B C D C
t
C D D
No
Fig 1 D Fig 2 B Fig 3 Fig 4
If all the points are collinear, that is they all lie on the same straight line,
we obtain a line segment (Fig 1). If three points out of the four are collinear,
we get a triangle (Fig 2). If no three points out of four points are collinear,
we get a closed figure with four sides (Fig 3 and Fig 4). Such a closed
figure having four sides formed by joining four points, no three of which
are collinear, in an order, is called quadrilateral.
Look at the following figures:-
Quadrilaterals 307
A W X
P M N
Q S
D B
Z Y
R P O
d
he
They are closed figures. Their boundary consists of four line segments.
The common name to all the above plane figures is quadrilateral.
is
re S
A quadrilateral is named by re-
B
bl
ferring to its vertices in a partic-
ular order. In the adjoining fig-
D
be T
ure, we can read it as ABCD or C

pu
ADCB , we cannot read it ADBC
K
and such names. You may keep

A
in mind that the vertices should

be read in such a way that if

you join adjacent letters in the
name, then there should not be B
any crossing of line segments.
For
example in the name ADBC , we see that AC and BD cross each other.
to
Observe the following figures.

A A
B Are these two figures quadri-
t
laterals? No they are not

No
quadrilaterals; in the first,

B
there is crossing of sides; in
D
C the second, the sides are not
D C all line segments.
So we may redefine the quadrilateral as: A quadrilateral is the union of
four line segments that join four coplanar points, no three of which
are collinear and each segment meet exactly two other lines, each at
their end point.
308 Unit 5
Here again we do not distinguish between the closed curve which

is the union of four line segments and the plane figure which is
bounded by these four line segments. The context makes it clear
which form is taken.
Observe that a quadrilateral consists of four sides and four internal

angles. Based on these internal angles, we can classify quadrilaterals in
d
to two types: convex and concave quadrilaterals.
he
A quadrilateral is convex if each of the internal angle of the quadri-
is
lateral is less than 180 . Otherwise it is called a concave quadrilat-
re S
eral.
B
bl
Convex quadrilateral Concave quadrilateral
be T
pu
D N
K

C L
A
B K M
Think it over:
Suppose you are given four sticks of different lengths. Can you
to
put them together and make a quadrilateral?

t
Like triangles, quadrilaterals also enjoy nice properties. We will study

No
some of them in the coming sections.
3.5.2 Properties of quadrilaterals

Let ABCD be a quadrilateral.
1. The points A, B, C and D are called the vertices of the quadrilateral.
2. The segments AB, BC, CD and DA are the four sides of the quadri-
lateral.
Quadrilaterals 309
3. The angles DAB , ABC, BCD D
and CDA are the four angles of

the quadrilateral. C
4. The segments AC and BD are
called as the diagonals of the
quadrilateral.
A B
d
Note: A quadrilateral has four sides, four angles and two diagonals.
he
In all it has ten elements.
Adjacent sides and opposite sides
is
re S
1. Two sides of a quadrilateral are said D
B
bl
to be adjacent sides or consecu-
tive sides if they have a common
be T
C
pu
end point. In the adjoining figure, AB
K
and AD are adjacent or consecutive

sides. Identify the other pair of adja-

cent sides. A B
2. Two sides are said to be opposite sides, if they do not have a common
end point. In the above figure AB and DC are opposite sides. Identify
the other pair of opposite sides.
Adjacent angles and opposite angles.

to
3. Two angles of a quadrilateral are adjacent angles or consecutive

angles, if they have a side common to them. Thus DAB and ABC
are adjacent or consecutive angles. Identify the other pair of adjacent
t
No
angles.
4. Two angles of a quadrilateral are said to be opposite angles, if they
do not contain a common side. Here DAB and BCD are opposite
angles. Identify other pair of opposite angles.
Diagonal property
The diagonal AC divides the quadrilateral in to two triangles, namely, tri-
angle ABC and triangle ADC. Name the two triangles formed when the
diagonal BD is drawn.
310 Unit 5
Angle sum property

Activity 2: Take a cut-out of a quadrilateral drawn on a card board. Cut
it along the arms making each angle of the quadrilateral as in the figure
below. The four pieces so obtained are numbered as 1,2,3 and 4. Arrange
the cut outs as shown in next figure. Are they meeting at a point? What
can you say about the sum of these four angles? The sum of the measures
of the four angles is 360 .
d
he
2
is
3 2
re S
1 1 3
4
B
bl 4
be T
pu
K
Note: Recall the sum of the angles at any point is 360 .

Theorem 1. The sum of the angles of quadrilateral is 360 .

Given: ABCD is a quadrilateral.
To prove: A + B + C + D = 360 .
Construction: Draw the diagonal AC.
Proof: In triangle ADC,
D
1 + 2 + 3 = 180 ;
to
2
(angle sum property.) In triangle
ABC,
4 + 5 + 6 = 180 .
t
1 3
A C
No
4 6 ( again angle sum property.)

5
Adding these,
B
1 + 4 + 2 + 5 + 3 + 6 = 360 .
But 1 + 4 = A and 3 + 6 = C. Therefore A + D + B + C = 360 .
Thus the sum of the angles of the quadrilateral is 360 .
Example 1. The four angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 2:3:4:6.
Find the measures of each angle.
Quadrilaterals 311
Solution:
Given: The ratio of the angles as 2:3:4:6.
To find: The measure of each angle.
Observe that 2+3+4+6 = 15 (sum of the terms of the ratio). Thus 15 parts
accounts for 360 . Hence
15 parts 360 ;
360
d
2 parts 2 = 48 ;
15
he
360
3 parts 3 = 72 ;
15
360
is
4 parts 4 = 96 ;
re S
15
360
B
bl
6 parts
15
6 = 144 .
be T
Thus the angles are 48 , 72 , 96 and 144 . Can you see that their sum is
pu
360 ?
K
Example 2. In a quadrilateral ABCD, A and C are of of equal measure;

B is supplementary to D. Find the measure of A and C.

Solution: We are given B + D = 180 . Using angle-sum property of a
quadrilateral, we get
A + C = 360 180 = 180 .
180
Since A and C are of equal measure, we obtain A = C = = 90 .
2
to
Can you draw a quadrilateral in which A = C = 90 and B, D are

complementary ?
t
Example 3. Find all the angles in the given quadrilateral below.

No
S
Solution: We know that P +Q+R+
S = 360 (angle sum property). Hence 3 x 7
x + 2x + 3 + x + 3x 7 = 360 . x R
P x
This gives 7x 4 = 360 or 7x = 364 .
2x+3
Therefore x = 364/7 = 52 .
Q
312 Unit 5
We obtain, P = 52 ; R = 52 ; Q = 2x + 3 = 2 52 + 3 = (104 + 3) = 107 ;

S = 3 52 7 = 156 7 = 149 . Check that P + Q + R + S = 360 .
Exercise 3.5.2
1. Two angles of a quadrilateral are 70 and 130 and the other two angles
are equal. Find the measure of these two angles.
S
2. In the fig, suppose P and Q
d
are supplementary angles and
he
R = 125 . Find the measures 125 R
of S.
is
P Q
re S
3. Three angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 2:3:5 and the fourth
angle is 90 . Find the measures of the other three angles.
B
bl
4. In the adjoining figure, ABCD C
be T
is a quadrilateral such that D

pu
D + C = 100 . The bisectors P
K
of A and B meet at P . De-

termine AP B. A B
3.5.3 Trapezium
Based on the nature of the sides or angles, a quadrilateral gets special
name.
to
P Q E
F
S R H
t
K L
No
G
A B
X
W
N Y
M Z
D C
Set I Set II
Observe the above figures given in two sets. Discuss with your friends
what is the difference you observe in the first set and the second set of
quadrilaterals. [Note: the arrow mark indicates parallel lines].
Quadrilaterals 313
The first set of quadrilaterals have a pair of opposite sides which are
parallel. Such a quadrilateral is known as trapezium. In the first set
each quadrilateral is a trapezium. In the second set no quadrilateral is a
trapezium.
Activity 3:
Take identical cut-outs of congru-
4 ent triangles of sides 3 cm, 4 cm
d
5 and 5 cm. Arrange them as shown
3
he
3
5 in the figure. Which figure do you
5 3
get? It is a trapezium. Which are
4
is
4 the parallel sides?
re S
Can you get a trapezium in which non parallel sides are equal?
B
D bl C
Activity 4:
be T
3 Cut three identical equilateral

pu
3 3 triangles and place them as
K
3 3 3 3 shown in the figure. Measure AD

and BC. Are they equal? Mea-

3 3
A B sure angles A and B.
Are they equal? Measure angles D and C. Are they equal? Measure AC
and BD. Are they equal?
The special name given to the above trapezium is isosceles trapezium.
You see that in an isosceles trapezium;
to
1. the non parallel sides are equal;

2. the base angles are equal;
3. the adjacent angles corresponding to parallel sides are supplemen-
t
No
tary;
4. the diagonals are equal.
Think it over!
Is there a trapezium whose all angles are
equal?
Example 4. In the figure ABCD, suppose AB k CD; A = 65 and

B = 75 . What is the measure of D and C?
314 Unit 5
Solution: Observe that, A +

D D = 180 (a pair of adjacent an-
C
gles of a trapezium is supplemen-
tary). Thus 65 + D = 180 . This
gives D = 180 65 = 115 . Sim-
65 75 ilarly B + C = 180 , which gives
A B 75 + C = 180 . Hence
d
C = 180 75 = 105 .
he
Example 5. In an isosceles trapezium P QRS, P and S are in the ratio
1:2. Find the measure of all the angles.
Solution: In an isosceles trapezium
is
re S
S R base angles are equal; P = Q.
Let P = x and S = 2x . Since
B
bl P + S = 180 (one pair of adjacent
be T
pu
angles of a trapezium is supplemen-
K
tary), we get
P Q
x + 2x = 180 .

Thus 3x = 180 or x = 180 /3 = 60 . Hence P = 60 and

S = 2 60 = 120 . Since, P = Q, we get Q = 60 . But, Q + R = 180
(one pair of adjacent angles are supplementary). Hence we also get
R = 180 60 = 120 .
to
Exercise 3.5.3
1. In a trapezium P QRS, P Q k RS; and P = 70 and Q = 80 . Calculate

t
the measure of S and R.

No
2. In a trapezium ABCD with AB k CD, it is given that AD is not parallel

to BC. Is ABC = ADC? Give reasons.
S R
3. In the figure, P QRS is an isosce-
30
les trapezium; SRP = 30 , and
P QS = 40 . Calculate the angles
RP Q and RSQ. 40
P Q
4. Prove that the base angles of an isosceles trapezium are equal.
Quadrilaterals 315
5. Suppose in a quadrilateral ABCD, AC = BD and AD = BC. Prove

that ABCD is a trapezium.
3.5.4 Parallelograms
Look at the following sets of quadrilaterals.
d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Set I Set II
K
How many pairs of parallel sides do you see in each of the quadrilater-

als in set I ? How many pairs of parallel sides do you see in each of the
quadrilaterals in set II ? What is your conclusion?
A quadrilateral in which both the pairs of opposite sides are parallel is
called a parallelogram.
The quadrilaterals in set II are not parallelogram, while all the quadri-
laterals in set I are parallelograms. Can you see that a parallelogram is
to
a particular type of trapezium? Hence, whatever properties are true for

trapezium also hold good for parallelograms. You will see that additional
t
properties are also true because the parallelness of one more pair of sides.
No
Activity 5:
D C Take a rectangular card board,
ABCD and mark a point E on AB
(as shown in the fig). Join CE
by dotted line and cut the card
board along CE. Place the trian-
gular part EBC to the left of the
E A E B rectangle such that BC coincides
with AD to get a quadrilateral.
316 Unit 5
Which type of quadrilateral is this? It is a parallelogram.

Trace the above cut-out card board in your book and measure the op-
posite sides, opposite angles, Repeat the same activity with two more par-
allelograms and mark them as P QRS and KLMN and tabulate the results
as follows.
Parallelo- (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)
d
gram
ABCD A = B = C = D = AB = BC = CD = DA =
he
P QRS P = Q = R = S = PQ = QR = RS = SP =
KLMN K = L = M = N = KL = LM = MN = NK =
is
re S
What relations are there among angles? What relations are there among
B
bl
sides? Do you observe that opposite angles are equal and opposite sides
are also equal? These observations can be proved logically.
be T
pu
Proposition 1. In a parallelogram, opposite sides are equal and opposite
K
angles are equal.

D C

Proof: Let ABCD is a parallelogram.

4 2 Join BD. Then 1 = 2, and
3 = 4. (Why ? See figure.) In tri-
angles ABD and CBD, we observe
3
1
A 1 = 2, 4 = 3, BD (common).
B
to
Hence ABD
= CDB (ASA postulate). It follows that
AB = DC, AD = BC and A = C.
t
Similarly join AC, and you can prove that ADC

= CBA. Hence D =
No
B.
Activity 6:
Trace a parallelogram as in the previous case on a card board; draw the di-
agonals and mark the point of intersection. Measure the intercepts formed
by the point of intersection. What is the inference drawn from this activ-
ity?
The diagonals bisect each other. Thus you may describe the properties of
parallelogram as:
Quadrilaterals 317
1. The opposite sides are equal and parallel.

2. The opposite angles are equal.
3. The adjacent angles are supplementary
4. The diagonals bisect each other.
5. Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
Example 6. The ratio of two sides of parallelogram is 3:4 and its perimeter
d
is 42 cm. Find the measures of all sides of the parallelogram.
he
Solution: Let the sides be 3x and 4x. Then the perimeter of the parallelo-
gram is 2(3x + 4x) = 2 7x = 14x. The given data implies that 42 = 14x, so
is
that x = 42/14 = 3. Hence the sides of the parallelogram are 3 3 = 9 cm
re S
and 3 4 = 12 cm.
B
bl
Example 7. In the adjoining figure, P QRS is a parallelogram. Find x and
be T
y in cm.
pu
Solution: In a parallelogram, we know
K
that the diagonals bisect each other. S R

Therefore SO = OQ. This gives 16 =

16
y +7
x + y. Similarly, P O = OR, so that
20 = y + 7. We obtain y = 20 7 = 13cm. 20 O x+y
Substituting the value of y in the first
P Q
relation, we get 16 = x + 13. Hence
x = 3cm.
to
Exercise 3.5.4
1. The adjacent angles of a parallelogram are in the ratio 2:1. Find the
t
measures of all the angles.

No
2. A field is in the form of a parallelogram, whose perimeter is 450 m

and one of its sides is larger than the other by 75 m. Find the lengths
of all sides.
3. In the figure, ABCD is a parallelo- D C
gram. The diagonals AC and BD in- 110
tersect at O; and DAC = 40 , CAB =

35 ; and DOC = 110 . Calculate the 40 O
35
ABO, ADC, ACB, and CBD.
A B
318 Unit 5
4. In a parallelogram ABCD, the side DC is produced to E and BCE =

105 . Calculate A, B, C, and D.
5. Prove logically the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Show conversely that a quadrilateral in which diagonals bisect each
other is a parallelogram.
6. In a parallelogram KLMN, K = 60 . Find the measures of all the
d
angles.
he
7. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral in which A = C, and B = D. Prove
that ABCD is a parallelogram.
is
8. In a quadrilateral ABCD, suppose AB = CD and AD = BC. Prove that
re S
ABCD is a parallelogram.
B
bl
be T
3.5.5 Special kinds of parallelograms

pu
K
There are special kind of parallelograms which enjoy different types of

properties. We study them here.

Rectangle
Activity 7:
Take a sheet from your note book and paste it on a card board; cut the
cardboard along the boundary, measure all the sides, all the angles. Write
to
down the observations in the following chart. Repeat the activity with
sheets of different sizes.
t
No
Parallelogram (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

ABCD A = B = C = D = AB = BC = CD = DA =
P QRS P = Q = R = S = P Q = QR = RS = SP =
From the above activity, you can infer that:

all angles are equal to 90 ;
opposite sides are equal;
opposite sides are parallel;
Quadrilaterals 319
The special name given to such a parallelogram is rectangle. A rectan-

gle is a parallelogram whose all angles are right angles.
Activity 8:
Take a rectangular sheet of paper and name it as ABCD. Fold it along
the diagonals. Mark the point of intersection as O. Answer the following
questions:
d
When you fold along any of the diagonals, are the two triangles formed
congruent? Measure the length of the diagonals. Are they equal? Measure
he
the line segments OA, OC, OB and OD. Do you find any relation among
the length of these segments?
is
re S
Diagonal properties of a rectangle
B
bl
(i) The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
be T
pu
(ii) The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
K
Example 8. In a rectangle XY W Z, suppose O is the point of intersection

of its diagonals. If ZOW = 110 , calculate the measure of OY W .

Solution:- We know ZOW = 110 .
Z W Hence, W OY = 180 110 = 70 (sup-
110
plementary angles). Now OY W is an
isosceles triangle, as OY = OW . Hence
O OY W = OW Y = (180 70 )/2 =
to
X Y
110 /2 = 55 . (Can you suggest an al-
ternate method?)
Example 9. In a rectangle RENT , the diagonals meet at O. If OR = 2x + 4
t
No
and OT = 3x + 1, find x.
T N Solution: Observe that OR = OT (di-
3x+ agonal bisect each other and they are
1
equal in a rectangle). Hence
+4 2x + 4 = 3x + 1.
2x O
This implies that 4 1 = 3x 2x = 3 = x.
R E Hence x = 3.
320 Unit 5
Rhombus
Activity 9:
Construct four identical right an-
D gle triangles with measures 3 cm,
4 cm and 5 cm using card board.
5cm 5cm
Arrange them as shown in the fig-
1 2
A C ure, on a plane sheet. Draw the
d
4 3
boundary of the figure. Measure
5cm
he
5cm the sides and angles of the figure.
B Tabulate them. Repeat this with
is
right triangles of different dimen-
re S
sions. What do you observe?
B
Can you conclude that A = C, B = D; AB = BC = CD = DA?
bl
Such a figure is called a rhombus. A rhombus is a parallelogram in
be T
which all the four sides are equal. Being a parallelogram, a rhombus
pu
K
has all the properties of a parallelogram and more:

(i) all the sides of a rhombus are equal;

(ii) opposite sides are parallel;

(iii) the diagonals bisect each other at right angles;
(iv) the two diagonals divide the rhombus into four congruent right angled
triangles;
(v) angles are also bisected by the diagonals.
Example 10. The diagonals of a rhombus are 24 cm and 10 cm. Calculate

to
the area of the rhombus.

Solution: We are given that AC = 24
cm; BD = 10 cm. We know that the di-
t
No
C agonals of a rhombus bisect each other

at right angles. Let O be the point of in-
12 cm
tersection of these diagonals. Then we

D B
have AO = CO = 12 cm and BO = DO =
5 cm
5 cm. We also know that AOD is a right
angled triangle. Hence the area of AOD
A is
1 1
OA OD = 12 5 = 30cm2 .
2 2
Quadrilaterals 321
Since a rhombus has four congruent right triangles, is area is 4 30 = 120

cm2 .
Example 11. In a rhombus ABCD, BAC = 38 . Find (i) ACD, (ii) DAC
and (iii) ADC.
Solution: We know that BAC = 38 . But in a rhombus ABCD, since
ABC is an isosceles triangle, we see that BAC = ACB = 38 . Moreover
DAC = 38 , since the diagonal AC bisect A. Since ADC is also an
d
isosceles triangle, we get ACD = DAC = 38 . Finally,
he
C
ADC = 180 (DAC + DCA)
is
re S
= 180 (38 + 38 ) D B

B
bl
= 180 76
= 104 .
be T
A
pu
Square
K
There is a type of parallelogram which is simultaneously a rectangle and

a rhombus. All its angles are equal and all its sides are equal. Recall what
you have for triangles: triangle which is at the same time have all angles
equal and all sides equal. These are equilateral triangles. In the case
of triangles, you have seen that whenever all the angles are equal, all the
sides are also equal. Conversely, if all the sides of a triangle are equal, then
all the angles are also equal. But when you move to quadrilaterals, you
to
do not have such a nice property. A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which

all the angles are equal, but the sides need not be equal. On the other
hand a rhombus is a quadrilateral in which all the sides are equal, but all
t
the angles need not be equal. A quadrilateral in which all the angles are
No
equal and all the sides are equal is given a special name; a square. Thus a
square is an a quadrilateral in which all the nice properties come together.
A square is a parallelogram in which
D C ((i) all the sides are equal;
(ii) each angle is a right angle;
(iii) diagonals are equal;
(iv) diagonals bisect at right an-
A B
gles.
322 Unit 5
Think it over!
(iii) and (iv) are consequences of (i) and (ii). Can you prove them?
A square can also be defined as:
(a) a rectangle in which adjacent sides are equal;
(b) a rhombus in which each angle is 90 .
d
he
Think it over!
Suppose the perimeters of a square and a rhombus are equal. Do
is
re S
they have equal area?
B
bl
Example 12. A field is in the shape of a square with side 20 m. A pathway
be T
pu
of 2 m width is surrounding it. Find the outer perimeter of the pathway.
K
D C
Solution: Width of the pathway

is 2 m. Length of the side of the

outer square= (20+2+2)= 24 m.
Hence perimeter = 4 24 = 96 m.. 20 m
2m A B
Example 13. The square field has area 196 m2 . Find the length of the
to
wire required to fence it around 3 times.

Solution: Suppose s is the side-length of a square. Then its area is s2 sq.
units. We are given that s2 = 196m2 . Therefore S = 14m. Thus perimeter =
t
No
4 s = 4 14 = 56 m.
The length of the wire required to fence around it 3 times is 56 3 = 168 m.
Kite
You have seen that in a rhombus, a diagonal divides the rhombus in to
two congruent isosceles triangles. Suppose we take two isosceles triangles
whose bases are of equal length and glue them together to get a quadrilat-
eral. You get a special type of quadrilateral. Such a quadrilateral is called
a kite.
Quadrilaterals 323
A Kite is a quadrilateral in which two isosce-

les triangles are joined along the common
base. In the adjoining figure AB = AD,
D BC = CD, and BD is the common base. It is
B O important to observe that triangles ABC and
ADC are congruent, but the triangles ABD
and CBD need not be congruent. Can you see
d
that if ABD and CBD are also congruent, the
he
C quadrilateral ABCD reduces to a rombhus?
Properties of kite
is
Like rhombus, kite has some properties which we record here:
re S
1. There are two pairs of equal sides; AB = AD and CB = CD in the
B
previous diagram.
bl
2. One of the diagonals bisect the other diagonal perpendicularly; the
be T
pu
diagonal BD is bisected perpendicularly by AC in the previous figure.
K
3. One of the diagonals bisect the apex angles; the diagonal AC bisects

the apex angles A and C.

Example 14. In the figure P QRS is a kite; P Q = 3 cm and QR = 6 cm.
Find the perimeter of P QRS.
S
Solution: We have P Q = P S = 3
cm, QR = SR = 6 cm. Hence the
to
P R
perimeter = P Q+QR+RS +P S = O
3 + 6 + 6 + 3 = 18 cm. Q
t
Exercise 3.5.5
No
1. The sides of the rectangle are in the ratio 2:1. The perimeter is 30 cm.
Calculate the measure of all the sides.
D C
2. In the adjacent rectangle ABCD, 30
OCD = 30 . Calculate BOC. What

O
type of triangle is BOC?
A B
3. All rectangles are parallelograms, but all parallelograms are not rect-
angles. Justify this statements.
324 Unit 5
4. Prove logically that the diagonals of a rectangle are equal.

5. The sides of a rectangular park are in the ratio 4:3. If the area is 1728
m2 , find the cost of fencing it at the rate of Rs. 2.50/m.
6. A rectangular yard contains two
D F E C
flower beds in the shape of con-
gruent isosceles right triangle.
The remaining portion is a yard
d
A B
of trapezoidal
he
shape (see fig). whose parallel sides have lengths 15 m and 25 m.
What fraction of the yard is occupied by the flower bed?
is
7. In a rhombus ABCD, C = 70 . Find the other angles of the rhombus.
re S
8. In a rhombus P QRS, SQR = 40 and P Q = 3 cm. Find SP Q, QSR
B
bl
and the perimeter of the rhombus.
be T
9. In a rhombus P QRS, if P Q = 3x 7 and QR = x + 3, find P S.

pu
10. Let ABCD be a rhombus and ABC = 124 . Calculate A, D and
K
C.

11. Rhombus is a parallelogram: justify.

12. In a given square ABCD, if the area of triangle ABD is 36 cm2 , find
(i) the area of triangle BCD; (ii) the area of the square ABCD.
13. The side of a square ABCD is 5 cm and another square P QRS has
perimeter equal to 40 cm. Find the ratio of the perimeter of ABCD to
to
perimeter of P QRS. Find the ratio of the area ABCD to the area of
P QRS.
14. A square field has side 20 m. Find the length of the wire required to
t
No
fence it four times.

15. List out the differences between square and rhombus.
16. Four congruent rectangles are
placed as shown in the figure. D C
Area of the outer square is 4 S

R
times that of the inner square.
What is the ratio of length to P
Q
breadth of the congruent rect-
A B
angles?
Quadrilaterals 325
Additional problems on Quadrilaterals
1. Complete the following:
(a) A quadrilateral has sides.

(b) A quadrilateral has diagonals.
(c) A quadrilateral in which one pair of sides are parallel to each
d
other is .
he
(d) In an isosceles trapezium, the base angles are .
(e) In a rhombus, the diagonals bisect each other in
is
angles.
re S
(f) In a square, all the sides are .
B
bl
2. Let ABCD be a parallelogram. What special name will you give it:
be T
pu
(a) if AB = BC?
K
(b) if BAD = 90 ?

(c) if AB = AD and BAD = 90 ?
3. A quadrilateral has three acute angles each measuring 70 . What is

the measure of the fourth angle?
4. The difference between the two adjacent angles of a parallelogram is

20 . Find measures of all the angles of the parallelogram.
to
5. The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 1:2:3:4. Find all the
angles of the quadrilateral.
t
No
6. Let P QRS be a parallelogram with P Q= 10 cm and QR= 6 cm. Calcu-

late the measures of the other two sides and the perimeter of P QRS.
7. The perimeter of a square is 60 cm. Find its side-length.
8. Let ABCD be a square and let AC = BD = 10 cm. Let AC and BD

intersect in O. Find OC and OD.
9. Let P QRS be a rhombus, with P R = 15 cm and QS = 8 cm. Find the

area of the rhombus.
326 Unit 5
10. Let ABCD be a parallelogram and suppose the bisectors of A and

B meet at P . Prove that AP B = 90 .
11. Let ABCD be a square. Locate points P , Q, R, S on the sides AB,

BC, CD, DA respectively such that AP = BQ = CR = DS. Prove that
P QRS is a square.
12. Let ABCD be a rectangle and let P, Q, R, S be the mid-points of AB,
d
BC, CD, DA respectively. Prove that P QRS is a rhombus.
he
13. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral in which the diagonals intersect at O
perpendicularly. Prove that AB + BC + CD + DA > AC + BD.
is
re S
14. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with diagonals AC and BD. Prove the
B
bl
following statements ((Compare these with the previous problem);
be T
(a) AB + BC + CD > AD; (b) AB + BC + CD + DA > 2AC;

pu
K
(c) AB + BC + CD + DA > 2BD; (d) AB + BC + CD + DA > AC + BD.

15. Let P QRS be a kite such that P Q > P S. Prove that P QR > P SR.
(Hint: Join QS.)
16. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral in which AB is the smallest side and CD

is the largest side. Prove that A > C and B > D.(Hint: Join AC
and BD.)
to
17. In a triangle ABC, let D be the mid-point of BC. Prove that AB + AC >
2AD.(What property of quadrilateral is needed here?)
t
18. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral and let P, Q, R, S be the mid-points of AB,

No
BC, CD, DA respectively. Prove that P QRS is a parallelogram.(What

extra result you need to prove this ?)
Glossary
Quadrilateral: a linear figure on a plane consisting of four line segments,
which are placed in an ordered way such that the adjacent segments meet
only at their end points.
Convex quadrilaterals: a quadrilateral in which each interior angle is less
Answers 327
than 180 .
Concave quadrilateral: a quadrilateral in which some angle exceeds 180 .
Diagonal: the line segment joining opposite vertices of a quadrilateral.
Trapezium: a quadrilateral in which a pair of sides are parallel.
Parallelogram: a quadrilateral in which two pairs of sides are parallel.
Rhombus: a quadrilateral in which all the sides are equal.
Square: a quadrilateral in which all the sides are equal and all the angles
d
are equal to 90 .
he
Rectangle: a quadrilateral in which all the angles are equal to 90 .
Kite: a quadrilateral formed by a pair of isosceles triangle glued along a
common side.
is
re S
Points to remember
B
bl
The sum of all the four angles of a quadrilateral is 360.
be T
For a quadrilateral, equiangularity is not the same as equilaterality,

pu
unlike for triangles.
K
The diagonals intersect perpendicularly in a rhombus and a kite.

Any quadrilateral in which diagonals bisect each other is a parallelo-

gram.

Exercise 3.1.3
3. (i) 60 ; (ii) 18 ; (iii) 135 ; (iv) 90 ; (v) 30 ; (vi) 65 .
to
Exercise 3.1.4
1. DML = 45 ; BLQ = 45 ; MLB = 135 ; CMP = 45 ; CML = 135 ;
t
MLA = 45 ; QLA = 135 . 2. 40 .

No
Additional problems on Axioms, postulates and theorems

1. (i) A. (ii) D. (iii) B. (iv) B. (e) D.
3. 3. 8. 40 . 9. (i) 190 ; (ii) 22 30 . 10. 144 .
Exercise 3.2.1
1. (i) (C); (ii) (D); (iii) (A); (iv) (B). 2. (i) scalene; (ii) scalene;
(iii) scalene; (iv) isosceles; (v) scalene; (vi) scalene; (vii) scalene; (viii)
equilateral; (ix) isosceles; (x) isosceles.
328 Answers
Exercise 3.2.2
1. 85 . 2. 55 . 3. 65 each. 4 30 , 60 and 90 . 5 x = 50 , A = 65 ,
B = 35 , C = 80 . 6. 50 , 60 and 70 .
Exercise 3.2.3
1. If ExtB = 136 and ExtC = 104 , then A = 60 , B = 44 and
C = 76 . 3. (i) 130 ; (ii) 56 ; (iii) 35 ; (iv) 52 ; (v) 40 . 4. T RS = 50 ,
d
P SQ = 80 . 5. The other interior opposite angle is 90 and the third
he
angle is 60 . 6. 180 .
Additional problems on Theorems on triangles
is
re S
1. (a) 180 ; (b) the interior; (c) larger; (d) one; (e) one.
B
bl
2. (a) A. (b) B. (c) A. (d) C. (e) D.
be T
3. 110 . 4. 35 each. 5. 36 , 54 , 90 . 6. 45 , 60 , 75 . 7. 90 .
pu
8. C = 30 , B = 60 , A = 90 . 9. x = 90 . 10. A = 80 , B = 65 ,
K
C = 35 . 11. 30 , 50 , 100 . 12. 110 . 13. 45 , 45 , 90 . 14. 36 , 72 ,

72 . 15. 110 . 16. 30 , 30 , 120 .

Exercise 3.3.3
1. B = C = 65 . 2. 58 . 3. (i) 110 ; (ii) 55 ; (iii) 20 ; (iv) 40 .
4. ACD = 120 , ADC = 30 .
Exercise 3.3.7
to
1. BC is the largest and CA is the smallest. 2. C < A < B.
Additional problems on Congruency of triangles

t
No
1. (a) largest (b) less (c) larger (d) smaller (e) less (f) larger
9. 30 , 30 , 120 .
Exercise 3.5.2
1. 80 each. 2. 55 . 3. 54 , 81 and 108 . 4. 50 .
Exercise 3.5.3
1. S = 110 and R = 100 . 3. RP Q = 30 and RSQ = 40 .
Exercise 3.5.4
Answers 329
1. 120 , 60 , 120 , 60 . 2. 150 m and 75 m. 3. ABO = 35 , ADC = 105 ,

ACB = 40 , CBD = 70 . 4. A = C = 75 , B = D = 105 .
6. 60 , 120 , 60 , 120 .
Exercise 3.5.5
1. 10 cm, 5 cm, 10 cm, 5 cm. 2. BOC = 60 ; BOC is equilateral.
1
5. . 420. 6. . 7. 110 , 70 , 110 . 8. SP Q = 100 , QSR = 40 and
d
5
perimeter= 12 cm. 9. 8. 10. 56 , 124 , 56 . 12. (i) 36 cm2 ; (ii) 72 cm2 .
he
13. (i) 1:2 (ii) 1:4. 14 320 m. 16. 3:1.
Additional problems on Quadrilaterals
is
re S
1. (a) four; (b) two; (c) a trapezium; (d) equal; (e) right; (f) equal.
B
bl
2. (a) rhombus; (b) rectangle; (c) square.
3. 150 . 4. 80 , 100 , 80 , 100 . 5. 36 , 72 ; 108 , 144 . 6. RS = 10 cm,
be T
pu
SP = 6 cm; perimeter is 32 cm. 7. 15 cm. 8. OC = OD = 5 cm. 9. 120
K
cm2 .
t
to
No
CHAPTER 4 UNIT 1
MENSURATION
After studying this unit you learn to:
recognise the cubes and cuboidal objects used in our day to day life;
d
list out the properties of cubes and cuboids;
relate formulae to given problems;
he
substitute the data in the given formula and solve the problems.
is
re S
4.1.1 Introduction
B
bl
When we look at an empty box, an empty bowl and an empty container,
be T
it has some space and we can keep things in that empty space. A class
pu
room has space for the students to sit in.
K
A solid occupies fixed amount of space. Solids occur in different shapes.

Observe the following diagrams. These shapes (cuboid, cube, cylinder,

sphere, cone, triangular prism etc) are known as three dimensional ob-
jects.
to
Cuboid Cube Cylinder Cone

t
No
Triangular
Prism
Do you see that each solid occupies some space. Each solid also has
some surface and hence has associated surface area. Since each occupies
Mensuration 331
space, it has some volume. We shall study these aspects corresponding to

some simple figures.
Observe the following figures
d
wooden box match box book case Almirah
he
These are in the shape of cuboids.
4.1.2 Surface area of a cuboid
is
re S
Let us understand the cuboids by doing an activity.
B
Activity 1:
bl
be T
Take a box in the shape of cuboid and cut it open along one edge, open
pu
up the lids and spread it over a sheet of paper and fasten it with pins.(See
K
the figure)
D C

6 How many faces has a

A B
cuboid? Find the num-
ber of edges and vertices.
1 2 3 4 A cuboid has 6 faces, 12
H edges and 8 vertices. Do
G
you see that a cuboid has
to
E F
5 rectangular faces?.
Any face of a cuboid may be called its base (can you give the reason?).
t
No
The four faces which meet the base are called the lateral faces of a cuboid.
In the given figure above, the cuboid has 6 faces. They are ABCD,
EF GH, EF BA, HGCD, EHDA and F GCB. Any two adjacent faces of a
cuboid meet in a line segment, called an edge of the cuboid. The 12 edges
are AB, BC, CD, DA, EF , F G, GH, EH, AE, DH, GC and BF . The point of
intersection of three edges of a cuboid is a vertex of the cuboid. The eight
vertices are A, B, C, D, E, F , G and H.
Activity 2:
Take any cuboidal box. Fix a base (observe any face can be taken as
332 Unit 1
base). Place it vertically and wrap a thick sheet of paper such that it just
fits around the surface. Remove the paper and measure the area of the
paper. It is the lateral surface area (L.S.A) of the cuboid. Do this with
different cuboids.
l
Cut open the cuboidal box b V
and lay it flat on a sheet of
d
paper. Let the length of the h
h
he
base be l; breadth of the I II III IV
base be b; and the height

b
of the cuboid correspond- l b l b
is
re S
l
ing to this base be h units. VI b
B
bl
Compute 2(lh + bh) and compare this with the area of the lateral surface
l
be T
you have measured. Do they match? What is 2(lh + hb + bl)?

pu
K
If you change the base, you may observe that the units l, b, h do
not change; only their representation as length, breadth and height may

change.
There are 6 faces in a cuboid. All the faces are rectangular in shape.
The sum of the areas of all the six surfaces is called the total surface
area (T.S.A) of the cuboid. Let us find a formula for total surface area and
lateral surface area of a cuboid. The total surface area of cuboid is
to
Area of I + area of II + area of III + area of IV + area of V + area of VI (see

fig)
t
Hence
No
A = (l h) + (l b) + (b h) + (l h) + (b h) + (l b) sq. units.
Thus
A = 2lh + 2lb + 2bh = 2(lh + lb + bh) sq. units.
The lateral surface area of a cuboid is
area I + area II + area III + area IV.
Hence
L.S.A = (l h) + (b h) + (l h) + b h = 2h(l + b)
Mensuration 333
sq.units.
Here you may observe that the lateral surface area of a cuboid
depends on the base you choose for the cuboid. If you change the
base the lateral surface area changes. However, the total surface area
of the cuboid remains the same.
Cube
d
A cuboid whose length, breadth and height are all equal is called a cube.
he
Ice cubes, sugar cubes, dice are some examples of cubes.
Activity 3:
is
Construct a cube of side 4 cm by
re S
R
using card board. Paint any two
B
4 cm
bl
G
G
G
opposite sides with red paint and
remaining with green. Place the
be T
G
pu
cube on table with one of the red
K
4 cm R faces as base. Identify the num-

4 cm ber of green faces bounding the

red faces.
The green faces are called lateral faces of the cube. What is the area of
the lateral faces? Do you see that: L.S.A of this cube is 4 16 = 64 cm2 ;
T.S.A of this cube is 6 16 = 96 cm2 .
Observe the adjoining figure of a
to
cube of side l units. It has six

l square faces. Area of each face
of the cube is l2 units. Area of 6
t
faces is therefore 6l2 units. And

No
l the area of 4 lateral faces is 4l2

l units.
Think it over!
What should be the maximum length of the ladder which
can be placed from the bottom of the floor to reach the
opposite corner of the roof of a room which is in the shape
of a cube?
334 Unit 1
Example 1. Find the lateral surface area and total surface area of a cuboid
which is 8 m long, 5 m broad and 3.5 m high.
Solution: We are given l = 8 m, b = 6 m, h = 3.5 m. We know that
L.S.A = 2h(l + b) = 2 3.5(8 + 6) = 7 14 = 98 m2 .
Similarly,
d
T.S.A = 2(lb+bh+lh) = 2(86+63.5+83.5) = 2(48+21+28) = 2(97) = 194 m2 .
he
Example 2. How many tiles each of 30 cm 20 cm are required to cover
the floor of hall of dimension 15 m by 12 m?
is
re S
Solution: Since the tiles are in cm2 , we have to convert the dimensions of
the hall to cm first. It will be 1500 cm by 1200 cm. Hence the area of the
B
floor is bl
be T
1500 1200 = 1800000 cm2 .

pu
K
Area of each tile is 30 20 = 600 cm2 . Hence the number of tiles required
to cover the floor is:

1800000
= 3000.
600
Example 3. Find the length of each side of a cube having the total surface
area is 294 cm2 .
Solution: Given T.S.A of a cube as 294 cm2 , we have to find its length l.
We know T.S.A of a cube is equal to 6l2 . Thus 6l2 = 294 or l2 = 294/6 = 49.
to
Hence l = 7 cm.
Example 4. The total surface area of a cube is 600 cm2 . Find the lateral
t
surface area of the cube.

No
Solution: Given T.S.A of a cube as 600 cm2 , we have to find its L.S.A. But
we know T.S.A = 6l2 , where l is the length of the cube. Hence 600 = 6l2 or
l2 = 100 units. Taking square-root, we get l = 10 cm. But we also know
that L.S.A. = 4l2 . Hence
L.S.A. = 4 10 10 = 400 cm2 .
Example 5. Find the area of a metal sheet required to make a cube of

length 2 m. Find the cost of metal sheet required at the rate of 8/ m2 to
Mensuration 335
make the cube.

Solution: We know that l = 2 m. We have to find T.S.A. of the cube. But
T.S.A. = 6l2 = 6 2 2 = 24 m2 .
The cost of the metal sheet required is therefore 24 8 = 192 rupees.
Exercise 4.1.2
d
1. Find the total surface area of the cuboid with l = 4 m, b = 3 m and
he
h = 1.5 m.
2. Find the area of four walls of a room whose length 3.5 m, breadth 2.5
is
m and height 3 m.
re S
3. The dimensions of a room are l = 8 m, b = 5 m, h = 4 m. Find the cost
B
bl
of distempering its four walls at the rate of 40/ m2 .
be T
4. A room is 4.8 m long, 3.6 m broad and 2 m high. Find the cost of
pu
laying tiles on its floor and its four walls at the rate of 100/ m2 .
K
5. A closed box is 40 cm long, 50 cm wide and 60 cm deep. Find the

area of the foil needed for covering it.

6. The total surface area of a cube is 384 cm2 . Calculate the side of the
cube.
7. The L.S.A of a cube is 64 cm2 . Calculate the side of the cube.
8. Find the cost of white washing the four walls of a cubical room of side
4 m at the rate of 20/ m2 .
to
9. A cubical box has edge 10 cm and another cuboidal box is 12.5 cm

long, 10 cm wide and 8 cm high.
t
(i) Which box has smaller total surface area?

No
(ii) If each edge of the cube is doubled, how many times will its T.S.A
increase?
4.1.3 Volume of cubes and cuboids

Amount of space occupied by a three dimensional object is called its
volume. Volume of a room is bigger than the volume of a brick or shoe
box. Remember we use square units to measure the area of a region or a
surface. Similarly, we use cubic units to measure the volume of a solid,
as solids are three dimensional objects.
336 Unit 1
l
h
l b
l l
d
he
The figures above are cube and cuboid which occupy space in three
dimension and hence posses volume. We are interested in finding their
volume.
is
re S
Activity 4:
B
Take four cubes each of
bl length 1 unit and arrange
be T
as shown in figure. Take

pu
another 4 cubes of same
K
size and arrange them on

the top of the cubes ar-

ranged earlier, as shown
in the next figure.
Do you get another cube? You have used 8 cubes, i.e, the volume of the
new cube is 8 cubic units. Here l = b = h = 2 units.
to
Volume of this cube = 2 units 2 units 2 units = 8 cubic units.
In general volume of a cube = side side side. Thus

t
V = l l l = l3
No
cubic units. Cubic units are used to measure volume:

1 cm3 = 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm;
1 m3 =1 m 1 m 1 m = 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm = 106 cm3 .
Volume of a cuboid
Activity 5:
Take 24 cubes of equal size. Arrange them to form a cuboid. You can
arrange them in many ways to get a cuboid. Observe the following table:
Mensuration 337
l b h lbh
12 2 1 24 cubic units
d
4 2 3
1 2 1
he
12 6 4
is
Since we have used 24 cubes in making these cuboids, volume of each
re S
cuboid is 24 cubic units. Thus we may arrive at the conclusion that the
B
bl
volume of each cuboid is equal to the product of its length, breadth and
height: volume of the cuboid = l b h. Since l b = area of the base, we
be T
pu
can also write that
K
volume of the cuboid = area of the base height.

Think it over!
There are 36 cubes having of side-length 1cm. How many
cuboids of different dimensions can be prepared by using
all of them.
to
Example 6 A match box measure 4 cm, 2.5 cm and 1.5 cm. What will be
the volume of the packet containing 12 such boxes.
Solution: The volume of each box is 4 2.5 1.4 = 15 cm3 . Volume of a
t
packet containing 12 such boxes is 15 12 = 180 cm3 .

No
Example 7 How many 3 meter cubes can be cut from a cuboid measuring
18 m 12 m 9 m.
Solution: Volume of the cuboid = 18 12 9 m3 . Volume of each cube to
be cut is = 3 3 3 m3 . Hence number of cubes that can be cut out from
the cuboid is
18 12 9
= 72.
333
338 Unit 1
Exercise 4.1.3
1. Three metal cubes whose edges measure 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm re-
spectively are melted to form a single cube. Find (i) side-length (ii)
total surface area of the new cube. What is the diifernece between the
total surface area of the new cube and the sum of total surface areas
of the original three cubes?
2. Two cubes, each of volume 512 cm3 are joined end to end. Find the
d
lateral and total surface areas of the resulting cuboid.
he
3. The length, breadth and height of a cuboid are in the ratio 6:5:3. If
the total surface area is 504 cm2 , find its dimension. Also find the
is
volume of the cuboid.
re S
4. How many m3 of soil has to be excavated from a rectangular well 28
B
bl
m deep and whose base dimensions are 10 m and 8 m. Also find the
cost of plastering its vertical walls at the rate of 15/m2 .
be T
pu
5. A solid cubical box of fine wood costs 256 at the rate 500/m3.
K
Find its volume and length of each side.

Additional problems on Mensuration

1. Find the total surface area and volume of a cube whose length is 12
cm.
2. Find the volume of a cube whose surface area is 486 cm2 .
3. A tank, which is cuboidal in shape, has volume 6.4 m3 . The length

to
and breadth of the base are 2 m and 1.6 m respectively. Find the
depth of the tank.
t
No
4. Find the area of four walls of a room having length, breadth and
height as 8 m, 5 m and 3 m respectively. Find the cost of white-
washing the walls at the rate of Rs. 15/m2.
5. A room is 6 m long, 4 m broad and 3 m high. Find the cost of laying

tiles on its floor and four walls at the cost of Rs. 80/m2 .
6. The length, breadth and height of a cuboid are in the ratio 5:3:2. If its
volume is 35.937 m3 , find its dimension. Also find the total surface
area of the cuboid.
Mensuration 339
7. Suppose the perimeter of one face of a cube is 24 cm. What is its

volume?
8. A wooden box has inner dimensions l = 6 m, b = 8 m and h = 9 m and

it has uniform thickness of 10 cm. The lateral surface of the outer
side has to be painted at the rate of Rs. 50/ m2 . What is the cost of
painting?
d
9. Each edge of a cube is increased by 20%. What is the percentage
he
increase in the volume of the cube?
10. Suppose the length of a cube is increased by 10% and its breadth is
is
re S
decreased by 10%. Will the volume of the new cuboid be the same as
that of the cube? What about the total surface areas? If they change,
B
bl
what would be the percentage change in both the cases?
be T
pu
Glossary
K
Mensuration: finding the area of a planar objects or volume of a three

dimensional objects.

Solids: objects which occupy space in three dimensions.

cube: a cuboid having equal length, breadth and height.
Lateral surface: the surface of a cuboid which is neither a base nor the
top surface.
Edges: the line along which surfaces meet.
to
Surface area: the area of the faces of a cuboid.

Volume: measure of the space occupied by a solid.
Points to remember
t
No
A solid is three dimensional figure; it occupies space(in three dimen-

sions).
A solid has two quantities associated with it; its surface area and it
volume.
Area is measured in square units whereas volume is measured in
cubic units.
340 Answers

Exercise 4.1.2
1. 45 m2 . 2. 36 m2 . 3. 4160. 4. 5088. 5. 14,800 cm2 . 6. 8
cm. 7. 4 cm. 8. 1280. 9. (i) cube. (ii) 4 times.
Exercise 4.1.3
1. (i) 6 cm; (ii) 216 cm2 ; (iii) 84 cm2 . 2. L.S.A= 384 cm2 and T.S.A=
d
640 cm2 . 3. dimension: length=12 cm, breadth= 10 cm, height=6 cm;
he
volume= 720 cm3 . 4. 2240 m3 and 15,120. 5. volume = 0.512 m3 ;
side-length= 80 cm.
is
re S
Additional problems on Mensuration
1. 864 cm2 , 1728 cm3 . 2. 729 cm3 . 3. 2 m. 4. 78 m2 and 1,170.
B
5. bl
6,720. 6. 1.65 m, 0.99 m, 0.66 m; T.S.A= 6.7918 m2 . 7. 216
be T
3
cm . 8. 8,931.5 9. 1.728 % 10. Volume decreases by 1% and T.S.A
pu
K
decreases by 2%.
t
to
No
OPTIONAL PROBLEMS
These problems are included to pose challenge to those stu-
dents who are looking for it. These are neither for class
room discussion nor for examination.
1. Find a proper fraction greater than 1/3, given that the fraction does
d
not change if the numerator is increased by a positive integer and the
he
denominator is multiplied by the same positive integer.
2. Find all rational numbers p/q such that
is
re S
p p2 + 30
= 2 .
B
bl q q + 30
be T
3. Show that the number of distinct remainders which occur when a

pu
perfect square is divided by an odd prime p is (p + 1)/2.
K
4. Find the number of positive divisors of 22 , 32 , 42 , 52 , 102 . Do you

see that the number of divisors is odd? Prove the proposition that
the number of positive divisors of a perfect square is always an odd
number.
5. Find all odd natural numbers n for which there is a unique perfect
square strictly between n2 and 2n2 .
to
6. A person was born in 19-th century. His age was x years in the year
x2 . If he passed away in 1975, what was his age at the time of his
demise?
t
No
7. There is a unique 4-digit number n = abcd such that n2 also ends in

abcd. Find this number.
14 11 5 A
8. In the adjoining figure, you are given
a skeleton of a 4 4 magic square 8
which uses numbers from 1 to 16.
12 3
Find A and B. Hard: Complete the
magic square. B
342 Optional Problems
9. (Hard) Prove that the magic sum of a 3 3 magic square is three times
the central number.
10. The sum of the squares of three natural numbers is divisible by 9.

Prove that one can select two among these three such that their dif-
ference is divisible by 9.
11. Suppose p and p2 + 2 are prime numbers. Prove that p3 + 2 is also a
d
prime number.
he
12. Find all perfect squares which when divided by 11 give a prime as
quotient and 4 as remainder.
is
re S
13. The number 60 is written on a board. Two players take turn and
B
bl
play the following game: they can subtract any positive divisor of
be T
the number on the board and replace the number by the result of
pu
this subtraction. The player who writes 0 on the board wins. Which
K
player wins, the first or the second?

14. There are three pile of stones: one with 10 stones, another with 15
stones and the third with 20. Two players play the following game: at
each turn, a player can choose one of the pile and divide it in to two
smaller pile. The player who cannot do this is the loser. Who will win,
the first or the second?
to
15. The numbers 1 to 20 are written on a black board in a row. Two

players take turns and put either + sign or sign between these
numbers according to their choice, one at a time. After all the signs
t
are put, the sum is evaluated. The first player wins if the number
No
obtained is even and the second wins if the number is odd. Who
wins?
16. Suppose a natural number n is such that m2 < n < (m + 1)2 for some
natural number m. If n l = m2 and n + k = (m + 1)2 , prove that n kl
is a perfect square.
17. If x, y, z are integers such that x2 + y 2 = z 2 , prove that one of x, y is

divisible by 3.
Optional Problems 343
18. (Hard) Suppose x, y, z are three natural numbers such that they do not
have any common factor and x2 + y 2 = z 2 . Prove that xyz is divisible
by 60.
19. For any x, suppose [x] denotes the largest integer not exceeding x; for
example [2.5] = 2 and [1.6] = 2. Find all positive real numbers a
such that a[a] = 8.
d
20. How many positive integers less than 1000 are 6 times the sum of
he
their digits?
21. How many palindromes between 1000 and 10000 are there which are
is
divisible by 7?
re S
22. (Hard) Suppose there are two mirrors inclined at an angle 8 . A ray of
B
bl
light starts at the point A gets reflected in B and then gets reflected
be T
in C and so on n times in successive mirrors until it hits a mirror at

pu
K
right angle and then traces back the same path. What is the largest
possible value of n?(The following figure is an example of 7 reflections.)

B
8
O C A
to
23. Show that the shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpen-
dicular distance.
t
No
24. (Hard) Let P be any point inside a triangle ABC. Prove that
BC + CA + AB
< P A + P B + P C < BC + CA + AB.
2
25. Let D be the mid-point of the side BC in a triangle ABC. Prove that
AB + AC > 2AD.
26. Suppose AD and BE are respectively the medians drawn from A and
B on to the opposite sides in a triangle ABC. If BC > CA, prove that
BE > AD.
344 Optional Problems
27. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral in which AB is the smallest side and CD

is the largest side. Prove that A > C and B > D.
D R C
28. In the adjoining figure, a corner of
a shaded star is at the mid-point
of each side of the large square. S Q
What fraction of the large square is

shaded?
d
A P B
29. In the adjoining figure, the outer C
he
equilateral triangle ABC has area 1
E
and the points D, E, F are such that
DB = EC = F A and each equal to
is
re S
F
one-fourth the side of the triangle
B
bl
ABC. What is the area of DEF . A D B
30. In the quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 5, BC = 17, CD = 5 and DA = 9. It
be T
is known that BD is an integer. What is BD?

pu
K
31. In a triangle ABC, AB = 2AC. Let D, E be points respectively on the

segments AB, BC such that BAE = ACD. Let F be the point of

intersection of AE and CD. Suppose CF E is an equilateral triangle.

What is ACB?
32. Let ABC be a triangle and let AD be the bisector of A with D on BC.
Prove that AB/AC = BD/DC.
33. Prove that the sum of the interior angles of pentagon is 540 . What
do you expect for a hexagon? What about an octogon? Can you
to
generalise this to a general n-gon? Can you prove your guess? What
tools you need?
t
34. Suppose ABCD is a parallelogram. Equilateral triangles CBX and

No
DCY are constructed externally respectvely on the sides DC and CB.

Prove that AXY is an equilateral triangle.
35. One dimension of a cube is increased by 1, another is decreased by 1
and the third remains as it is. The volume of the resulting cuboid is 5
less than that of the original cube. What is the volume of the original
cube?
36. A solid cube has side length 3 units. A 2 2 square hole is cut into the
centre of each face. The edge of each square is parallel to the sides of
Optional Problems 345
the cube and each cut goes all the way through the cube. What is the
volume of the resulting solid?
37. Let ABCD be a trapezium in which AB k CD and AD DC. Suppose
AB > BC and draw CM AB. Suppose BC = 5 cm, MB = 3 cm and
DC = 8 cm. Find the perimeter of ABCD. What is the area of ABCD?
38. The diagonals of a rhombus are 24 cm and 10 cm respectively. Find
its sides.
d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
t to
No

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TEXT BOOK COMMITTEE

Editorial Committee Members

1. Dr. K. S. Sameera Simha, Joint Secretary, Vijaya Educational Institutions,

Students are receptive to new intellectual challenges. It is the onus of

always in the back seats.

Unit 2. Factorisation 148

Unit 3. Linear equations in one variable 156

Unit 1. Axioms, postulates and theorems 219

Unit 3. Congruency of triangles 266

Indian Mathematics dates back to the Vedic times. The first

which is correct up to 5 decimal places.

The classical Pythagoras theorem is stated in the above su-

ing such a square. This remained unsolved over two thousand

Indian mathematicians are credited with being the first to

give an approximate value for . Aryabhata I (476 AD) gave an

The most remarkable contribution for which the entire world

200 BC. Here again, you see an approximate value for as

Ancient India has vastly contributed in the areas: the meth-

finding cube and cube-root, and also knew about permutation

Karnataka, gave the well known formula

called jya in Sanskrit, for angles from 0 to 90 degrees at inter-

Another important area, where our ancient mathematicians

the form ax + by = c, and x2 N y 2 = 1 in integers, where

a, b, c, N are given integers, and N is generally a square-free pos-

cusses ax + by = c, whereas Brahmagupta made a significant

developed a new method, called Chakravala method, for solv-

ing x2 N y 2 = 1 in integers. Here is an interesting thing about

chakravala method more than 5 centuries before. The smallest

A beautiful maiden asks me which is the number when mul-

divided by 7, diminished by one-third of the quotient, mul-

tiplied by itself, diminished by 52, the square-root found,

shall have three times as much" said the second merchant.

of you if I keep the purse; I shall have five times as much as

the two of you together. How much money is in the purse?

during which the Kerala school by Nilakanta and Madhava made

Mathematics and Astronomy: Some landmarks by Dr S Bal-

PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

Numbers have played an important role in the intellectual development

a number is divisible by 4,5, 9 or 11 without actually dividing it by these?

354 = 300 + 50 + 4 = (3 100) + (5 10) + (4 1).

123456789, a 9-digit number. You may write it as

+50000 + 6000 + 700 + 80 + 9

123456789 = (1 108 ) + (2 107 ) + (3 106 ) + (4 105 ) + (5 104 )

This is called the base 10 representation of the given natural numbers

number system were first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathe-

of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan).

2. Write the following in the normal form:

1.1.3. Some games and puzzles involving digits

Are you not curious how it works?

ab + ba = (a 10) + (b 1) + (b 10) + (a 1) = 11(a + b).

Now you see why the remainder when divided by 11 is zero.

abc cba = (a 100) + (b 10) + (c 1) (c 100) (b 10) (a 1)

Hence you see that the difference is always divisible by 99.

abc + bca + cab = (a 100) + (b 10) + (c 1) + (b 100) + (c 10) + (a 1)

+(c 100) + (a 10) + (b 1)

Find them and the sum.

place of the sum cannot exceed 2. Hence B cannot

carry 1 from units place) A + B + C + 1 = 10 + C + 1

and this must leave remainder A when divided by

4. Is it possible to have the adjacent multiplication A A