Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and

then becomes heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and
is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for
many types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation.

Rain falling on a field, in Southern Estonia

The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of
temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion
is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such
as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas,
heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of
the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of
mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by
downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon
trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.
The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of
cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter
conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics.[citation needed] Antarctica is the
driest continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over
the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in).[1] Climate classification systems such as
the Kppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing
climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated
by weather radar.
Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed
of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water.

Contents
[hide]

1Formation
 o 1.1Water-saturated air
o 1.2Coalescence and fragmentation
o 1.3Droplet size distribution
o 1.4Raindrop impacts
o 1.5Virga
2Causes
o 2.1Frontal activity
o 2.2Convection
o 2.3Orographic effects
o 2.4Within the tropics
o 2.5Human influence
3Characteristics
o 3.1Patterns
o 3.2Acidity
o 3.3Kppen climate classification
4Measurement
o 4.1Gauges
o 4.2Remote sensing
o 4.3Intensity
o 4.4Return period
5Forecasting
6Impact
o 6.1Effect on agriculture
o 6.2In culture
7Global climatology
o 7.1Deserts
o 7.2Polar desert
o 7.3Rainforests
o 7.4Monsoons
o 7.5Impact of the Westerlies
o 7.6Wettest known locations
8Outside of Earth
9See also
10Notes
11References
12External links

Formation
Water-saturated air
Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing
ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg).[2][3] The amount of moisture in air is
also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can
hold at a particular air temperature.[4] How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it
becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water
and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface)[5] depends on its temperature. Warmer air
can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to
saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be
cooled in order to become saturated.[6]
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive
cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and
expands.[7] The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier
such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with
a colder surface,[8] usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid
water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation,
either by the air or by the surface underneath.[9] Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added
to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature,
or until it reaches saturation.[10]
The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward
motion,[11] precipitation or virga falling from above,[12] daytime heating evaporating water from the
surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,[13] transpiration from plants,[14] cool or dry air moving
over warmer water,[15] and lifting air over mountains.[16] Water vapor normally begins to condense
on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Elevated portions of
weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature)[17]force broad areas of upward motion within
the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus.[18] Stratus is a
stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air
mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[19]

Coalescence and fragmentation

The shape of rain drops depending upon their size

Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically
causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water
droplets collide, producing larger droplets.

Black Rain Clouds

As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy
enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in
clouds above freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process.[20] In clouds below freezing,
when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than
coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is
temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In
addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice
crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[21]
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in) mean diameter, above which
they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a
raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the
oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom,
like hamburger buns; very large ones are shaped like parachutes.[22][23] Contrary to popular belief,
their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded
over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in). The
large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by collisions between drops in
small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.[25]
Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.[26]

A raindrop on a leaf

Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to
be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[27][28]

Droplet size distribution

The final droplet size distribution is an exponential distribution. The number of droplets with diameter

between and per unit volume of space is . This is commonly referred to as the
MarshallPalmer law after the researchers who first characterized it.[23][29] The parameters are

somewhat temperature-dependent,[30] and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall (d in
centimeters and R in millimetres per hour).[23]
Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall conditions. The distribution tends
to fit averaged rainfall, while instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled
as gamma distributions.[31] The distribution has an upper limit due to droplet fragmentation.[23]

Raindrop impacts
Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass
to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) drizzle impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or
7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h
(20 mph).[32]
Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can produce dimples that can be
fossilized.[33] The air density dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil
raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air 2.7 billion years ago.[34]
The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating underwater.[35][36]
The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.[37]

Virga
Main article: Virga
In certain conditions precipitation may fall from a cloud but then evaporate or sublime before
reaching the ground. This is termed virga and is more often seen in hot and dry climates.

Causes
Frontal activity
Main article: Weather fronts
Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation
(convective precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short
distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s),
such as in the vicinity of cold fronts and near and poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is
seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns
around mid-latitude cyclones.[38] A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with
thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass.
Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[39] What separates rainfall from
other precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft
which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches
the ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which
freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result.[40] Hail becomes an
increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m
(11,000 ft) above ground level.[41]

Convection

Convective precipitation
Orographic precipitation

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds

(e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus). It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity.
Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds
have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it
has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[38][42] Graupel and hail indicate
convection.[43] In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with
baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[44]

Orographic effects
Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States rainfall
climatology
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air
motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and
condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for
example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain
than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air
(see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is
observed.[16]
In Hawaii, Mount Waialeale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the
second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 mm (460 in).[45] Systems known
as Kona storms affect the state with heavy rains between October and April.[46] Local climates vary
considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koolau) and leeward
(Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east
to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with
less rain and less cloud cover.[47]
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent,
resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[48] The Sierra Nevada range
creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[49][50]

Within the tropics

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairnsshowing the extent of the wet season at that location

See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone

Main article: Wet season
The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the
average annual rainfall in a region falls.[51]The term green season is also sometimes used as
a euphemism by tourist authorities.[52] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of
the tropics and subtropics.[53] Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers
and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is
equally distributed through the year.[54] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break
in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of
their location during the middle of the warm season.[27] When the wet season occurs during the warm
season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet
season is a time when air quality improves,[55] freshwaterquality improves,[56][57] and vegetation grows
significantly.
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles
across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a
clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter clockwise (northern
hemisphere).[58] Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they
may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-
needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[59] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of
rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[60]

Human influence

Image of Atlanta, Georgiashowing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm,
and hot areas appearing white.
Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect to the average temperatures
from 1940 to 1980

See also: Global warming and Urban heat island

The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution
forms cloud condensation nuclei, leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of
rain. As commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week,
the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been
built up. In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' Eastern
Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on
Mondays.[61] The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 C (1.1 to 10.1 F) above
surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can
induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased
between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater
between 32 to 64 km (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[62] Some cities induce
a total precipitation increase of 51%.[63]
Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can lead to more precipitation.
Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined
over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in
precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time.
Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have
become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have
become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many
areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of
droughtsespecially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over
the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more
precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more
evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average
rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate
region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show
a decrease (9.25 percent).[64]
Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records show the lower 48 states have an
increase in heavy downpours since 1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest,
which in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy downpours compared to the
1950s. Rhode Island is the state with the largest increase, 104%. McAllen, Texas is the city with the
largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days where total precipitation
exceeded the top 1 percent of all rain and snow days during the years 1950-2014[65][66]
The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding, which include
techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains and suppress hail.[67]

Characteristics
Patterns

Band of thunderstorms seen on a weather radar display

Main article: Rainband

Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can
be stratiform or convective,[68] and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted
on weather radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded
structure.[69]Rainbands in advance of warm occluded fronts and warm fronts are associated with
weak upward motion,[70] and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature.[71]
Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall lines which are able to
produce tornadoes.[72] Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers
perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet.[73] Bands of
thunderstorms can form with sea breeze and land breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present.
If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location
of the cold front itself.[74]
Once a cyclone occludes, a trough of warm air aloft, or "trowal" for short, will be caused by strong
southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately
northwestern, periphery (also known as the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to
continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The trowal creates the portion
of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the mid-
tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy
precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the trowal is unstable enough for
convection.[75] Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can
yield significant amounts of rain.[76] Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands
can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands,
bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level wind convergence downwind of
the island edges. Offshore California, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.[77]
Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain
showers and thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or
tropical storm. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's
intensity.[78]

Acidity
Sources of acid rain

See also: Acid rain

The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852.[79] The pH of
rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic
Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0-5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH
of 3.8-4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0.[80] Rain becomes acidic primarily
due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is
derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and
anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where H2S is present.
Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while
also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past
20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which
may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock
production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.[81]

Kppen climate classification

Updated Kppen-Geiger climate map[82]

Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET

Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
Aw BSh Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd
Main article: Kppen climate classification
The Kppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The
most commonly used form of the Kppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E.
Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E,
polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such
as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic
climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual
rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).[83] A tropical savanna is
a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions
of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year.
They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South
America, Malaysia, and Australia.[84] The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall is
associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs
during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[85] Humid subtropical climates lie on the
east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20 and 40 degrees away from the equator.[86]
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all
the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is
accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round.[87] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles
the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts
of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The
climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[88] A steppe is a
dry grassland.[89] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[90]

Measurement
Gauges

Standard rain gauge

See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour,[91] or in countries
where imperial units are more common, inches per hour.[92] The "length", or more accurately, "depth"
being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and
impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour.[93] One millimeter of rainfall is
the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.[94]
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in
100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[95] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm
(0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the
inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick
designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the
amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the
fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.[96] Other
types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the
tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[97] For those looking to measure rainfall the
most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the
open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above
rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[98]
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and
elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such
as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[99][100] If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest
local weather or met office will likely be interested in the measurement.[101]

Remote sensing
See also: Weather radar

Twenty-four-hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irne radar in Eastern Canada. Zones without data in the
east and southwest are caused by beam blocking from mountains. (Source: Environment Canada)

One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen
over large basins for hydrological purposes.[102]For instance, river flood control, sewer management
and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived
rainfall estimates compliment surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce
radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at
individual grid points. A radar equation is then used, which is,

,
where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are
constants.[103] Satellite derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments
aboard polar orbiting as well as geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure rainfall
rates.[104] If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the
accumulations from each grid box within the images during that time.

1988 rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows.
1993 rain in the U.S.

Intensity
Heavy rain in Glenshaw,
Pennsylvania

MENU

0:00
The sound of a heavy
rain fall in suburban
neighborhood

Problems playing this file? See media

help.

Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation:

Light rain when the precipitation rate is < 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per hour
Moderate rain when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 mm (0.098 in) - 7.6 mm (0.30 in)
or 10 mm (0.39 in) per hour[105][106]
Heavy rain when the precipitation rate is > 7.6 mm (0.30 in) per hour,[105] or between
10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour[106]
Violent rain when the precipitation rate is > 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour[106]
Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-
strangler.[107] The intensity can also be expressed by rainfall erosivity. R-factor[108]

Return period
See also: 100-year flood
The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called
the return period or frequency.[109] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period
and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.[110] The term 1 in 10 year
storm describes a rainfall event which is unusual and has a 50% chance of occurring in any 10-
year period. The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and which will
occur with a 50% probability in any 100-year period. As with all probability events, it is possible,
though improbable, to have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.[111]
Forecasting
Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast

Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid
precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[112] A QPF will be
specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any
hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such
as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or
based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail.[113] Starting in
the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to
rivers throughout the United States.[114] Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity
levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which
decreases with height.[115] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a
qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[116] Radar imagery forecasting
techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar
image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar
estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the
value of the rainfall forecast.[117]

Impact
Effect on agriculture

Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from July 2027, 2009.

Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some
water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to
agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little
rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase
erosion,[118] while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth.[119] Plants need varying
amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[120]while
tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet
season.[27] Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous
dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to
mature.[121] Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight
fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet
season.[122] Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated to potable use or
for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation.[123] Excessive rain during short periods of time can
cause flash floods.[124]

In culture
See also: List of rain deities
Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be
more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than
women.[125] Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic
appeal of it. In dry places, such as India,[126] or during periods of drought,[127] rain lifts people's
moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, pula, is used as the name of the national
currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert
climate.[128] Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed
numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such
as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers.[129] Many people find the scent during and
immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil
produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during
rainfall.[130]

Global climatology
See also: Earth rainfall climatology
Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the
globe with 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[131] Given the Earth's surface area,
that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as
areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year,[132][133] or as
areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.[134]

Deserts
Main article: Desert

Largest deserts

The northern half of Africa is occupied by the world's most extensive hot, dry region, the Sahara
Desert. Some deserts are also occupying much of southern Africa : the Namib and the Kalahari.
Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from
the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through western Pakistan (Balochistan) and Iran
into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert,[135] making it the
world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the Andes mountain range
blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just
downwind across western Argentina.[48] The drier areas of the United States are regions where
the Sonoran Desert overspreads the Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central
Wyoming.[136]
Isolated towering vertical desert shower

Polar desert