What is special about academic English?

A Everyday words and academic uses

Many words in academic English are the sarne as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialised.
everyday ot academic use meaning aeademic use meaning
Standards of discipline in ablity to control Nanotechnology ls a relatively area of study
schools have declined. oneself or other new disc.ipline.
people
._ ..-
Underline your famly drawa line The research underlines the gives emphasis to
name on che formo under it mporta nce of intern atio nal trade
agreements.
_ oo
The lake was frozen solid. not liquid or gas We have no salid evidence that certain or safe; of a
radiation has caused che problem. good standard

B Vocabulary and academic style

In writng, academics use many expre ssions which are neutral, but rhey also use rarher
formal cxpressions which are nor common in everyday language. Knowing whether an
expre ssion is formal or just neutral is imporranr.
neutral more (ormal neutral more (ormal
in short, briefly. basically in sumo to sum up try attempt
only sole(ly) mainly/mostly primarily
1---,.. _........
almost I more or less virtually typicalof characteristlc of

However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic sryles in classcs and
lecrures. Learn ro undersrand such language when you hear it but be careful not ro use ir in
essays and wrirten assignrnenrs, Here are some examples of reachers using informallanguage.
'OK. Have a shot at doing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt ro do ... J
'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more
formal: Schools cannot in any way be held ...]
Academic language tries to be c1ear and precise, so ir is irnportanr ro kcep a vocabulary
notebook (see page 8) and learn the differenees berween similar words, as well as typical
word cornbinarions (underlincd here).
The building is a prime example of 19205 archirecrure. [excellenr in quality or value]
The group's primary concern is ro prorect human rights. [rnain / rnosr imporranr]

e Noun phrases
Academic languagc puts a lot of inforrnation inro noun phrases rather than spreading it out
over a whole sentence. For exarnple, instead of saying Radiation was accidentaLly released
over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area [or a long time, an acadernic might say The
accidental release o( radiation ouer a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage.
It is therefore irnportanr ro learn the different forms of a word, for exarnple:
noun verb adjeetive(s) adverb(s)
accldent accidental accidentally
quantiry/quantflcation quantify quantitative/quantifiable quantitatively/quantifiably

Finally, be aware of 'ehunks' or phrases which occur frequenrly, and learn them as whole
units. Exarnples: in terms 0(, in addition, [or the most part, in the case 0(, etc. (See Unir 16.)

IO AcademieVocabulary in Use
 Exercises

1.1 Each word in the box can be used in two ways, one an everyday way, the orher a typically
academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for borh sentences and
making any necessary grarnrnatical changes.

generare turn solid confirm identify underline character pose nature focus

1 A She loves to for photographs in front of her fabulous house.

B The events a rhreat ro srability in the region.
2 A It was diffi cult ro ... .. the camera on the flower as it was so small.
B We should . . our arrention on the most irnportant issues.
'3 A 1 called the airline and my reservarion.
B The data ... ...... . my hyporhesis that animal -lovers enjoy better health.
4 A The power planr electricity for the whole region.
B This issuc always a great deal of debate among acadernics.
5 A The murderer was . from fingerprints discovered ar rhe scene.
B In this theory of hisrory, progress is closely with technology.
6 A She became interested in .... conservarion.
B The first lecture in th e series was on rhe of human communiearion.
7 A jim's a very interesting . .,.. . 1 hope you meet him.
B The book attemprs te explain the fundamental .. . .. . . ...... o f sociallife.
8 A 1 saw her ro her husband and whisper something in his ear.
B Let us now . _ to the subject of town planning.
9 A He always every new word when he's reading.
B The study . . rhe facr thar very lirrle research exists.
10 A The liquid became as the ternperature was lowered.
B The srudy laeks . evidence and therefore irs conclusions are doubtfuJ.
1.2 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical
changes.
1 The book is mainly concerned wirh the problem of polieing the internet.

2 Almost every school in the county had reponed problems wirh the new sysrem.

3 The work of the Institute is nor only devored te cancer research.

4 Basically, we believe we have dernonsrrated a significant link berween the rwo events.

5 We tried to find a new way of undersranding the data.

6 The study is a really good example of rhe way sociologists collect their data.

7 The reaction is typical of thc way large corporations kcep control of their rnarkers.

8 There's no way London can be compared ro Sydney as a place ro live and work .

I .3 Read the texr and then answer the questions.

The produdion of plastics depends heavily on petroleum, but a novel way of making
plastics out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil. The discovery that a chemical
in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar in strudure to the
material obtained from petroleum has led to the c1aim that plastics could soon be
produced cheaply using the new method.

1 Underline two verbs wirh adverbs afrer them which it would be useful ro learn as pairs.
2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together.
3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, re/y, discover and claim?

Academic Vocabulary in Use II

 2 Key nouns
This unir focuses on sorne frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Unirs
10, 11 and 15.

General nouns referring to ideas

exomple (with prepositions underlined) commenr
She wrote an article on the subject of c1ass. thing which is being discussed, considered or studied
The theme of the poem is ernlgration, main subject of a talk, book, etc.
_..The students were given a list of essay topies. used to refer to what one is studyng or writing about
There was a Iively debate on the issue of subjectlproblem which people are thnking/talking about
globalsation in the seminar yesterday.
Political theory is a popular undergraduate subject statement of the rules on which a subject of study is
Einstein's theory of gravitation has been based or, more generally, an opinion or explanatian
questaned recently.
The model of c1imate change presented in the a representaton of something as a simple description
Stern Review seems to be becoming a realty. which mght be used in calculations
The book is called "The Nature of Intelligence'. main characteristic of something
Human behaviour is based on the principie of basic idea or rule that explains how someehing happens
least effort. or works

B More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena

--
exomple (with prepositions underlined) comment
Repetition ls an important aspect of speech one individual par! of a sltuation, problem, subect,
development in children. etc.
Automatic backup is a feature of the new software. a typical quality of something
The political motives for the government's actons are range of a subject covered by a book, discussion,
beyond the scope of this essay. c1ass, etc.
The study revealed a pattern of results which showed a regularly repeated arrangement
could be interpreted in either of two ways.
During 2005, the number of violent attacks amount or level
increased to an alarming degree.

e Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities

Read these titles of academic books and articles. Nore rhe key nouns and rheir prepositions.
Micro-organsms in water: their sgnfcance' and Idenflcatlorr'
Renewable energy: a critcal assessment' of recent research
The Case" lar Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a New Approach s
Perspectives'' on Ecological Management: A study of public awareness/ of river pollution
Citizens' Views on Healthcare 5ystems in the European Union
Epidemiological research intoS asthrna and allergic disease: establishing a standardised rnethodology"
I imporrance 2 ability to esrablish the identiry of something 3 judgemenr of the arnount, valu,
quality or importance of " arguments, faces and reasons in support of or against something
5 way of considering sornething 6 diffcrent particular or individual ways of considering
somerhing 7 having special interest in or experience of somerhing, and so being weH informcd
B research is ofren also used with the preposirion on 9 a systern of ways of studying something

Research ls uncountable. Don't say They carried out sorne interesting researches. To make it
plural you can just say 'st udles', or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'.

12 Academic Vocabu/ory in Use

 Exercises

2. I Look at A. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence.

1 Environmental tapies / issues / principies should be at the top of today's political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three frorn a choice of ten essay subjeets / theories /
topics.
3 There are still people who are reluctant to accept Oarwin's model / tapie / theory of
evolution.
4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue / theme / model for his
inaugural lecture,
5 The London underground map is best understood as a model / principle / tapie showing
how the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of
their distances from each other,
6 The Peter Issue / Principie / Theme sta tes thar members of a hierarchical group will
usually end up being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent.
2.2 There are six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph. Can you correct them?

The study showed that local police can play an important role in
crime prevention. It makes a strong case of boosting the numbers of
community police officers although it warns against increasing police
presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodological was
based on a range of interviews asking mernbers of the public for their
views in how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implernent
this recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least it
serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.

2.3 Look at these titles of academic books (A-H). Then match them to their subject areas (1-8).
A The Nature of Oemocracy 1 econormcs

B The Significance of Oreams 2 education

C The Features of Glaciated Landscapes 3 literature

O The Assessment of Language SkiIJs 4 hisrory

E An Approach to Free Verse 5 geography

F The Jdentification of Bees 6 psychology

G Perspcctives on Modero Taxation 7 politics

H New Perspectives on Cleopatra 8 zoology

2.4 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate cnding.
1 The study revealed a regular scope of your research.

2 The research focuses on one particular awareness of the problern,

3 The writer makes a powerful issues facing the world today.

4 The writers take an original into the environmental cffects of nanoparticles.

5 Until recently there was little approach to their theme.

6 J think you should broaden the aspect of modero sociery,

7 To date, there has been lttle research pattern of changes in temperature.

8 There are many important case for restructuring parliarnent.

Academic Vocabu/ary in Use 13

 Key verbs
In this unit we look at sorne imporrant verbs in acadernic English .

Verbs for structuring academic assignments

Look ar these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs .

Discuss some of the problems lnvolved' in investigating attitudes to diet and health.Write a critical r
review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigaton you you rself could conduct/,
Consider me advanrages and disadvantages of different methods. I
Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s-I in a distance of 900 metres.
lIIustrate3 this with a velocity-tlme graph. Assuming" constant acceleration, find s how long me take-off
run lasts, Hence calculat the acceleration.
'The fact that nat ions agree to follow international law demonstrates/ that we can identify8 ideals that
are trans-national and trans-cultural.' How far is this staternent true? Critically analyse any recent event
which supports or challenges 9 the statement.
Examine IO how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide 1I statistcal
evidence where necessary and include a dscussion of likely future trends.

I which are pan oflincluded in 2 organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain
sornething "accepcing something to be true s dscover by calculating (see 6) 6 judge che
number or amount of somerhing and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers
7 show, make c1ear 8 recognise someone or sornething and say or prove who or whar they are
9 questions whether ir is true 10 look ar or consider carefully and in detail 1I give

8 More key verbs

These extracts from acadernic books contain other key verbs,
In developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify' ways of
estabtishlng! oualty of Jife nto two main types.
The length of time spent on the tasks rnay account for 3 the decrease in motivation which was
seen" in rnany of the participants.
The data presentetf in Chapter 3 showed" that the age of the subjects was not the rnain factor.
Political theory attempts 7 to build brdges between different schools of politlcat thought.

I divide rhings into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of 3 explain "sce is
often used in che passive in academic sryle 5 given 6 proved 7 (formal) tries

e Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs

Often in academic sryle, a verb + the noun form of che key verb is used.
verb verb + noun example
explain give/prov ide/offer an explanation The model provides an explanation for the differences
(of/for) between the two sets of data.
explore carry out an exploraton (01) Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius.
emphasise place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe give/provide a description (01) The book gives a deseription of modero Europe.

The verbs affect and effect are different. To affect means to inf1uence, to effect means to
make something happen I to bring about, The buming of fossil fuels has negative/y affeeted
me global c/imate. The procedure has been success(ul and has effected o return to normal
(unetioning of me engine. See Unit 30 for more on offect and effect.

14 Academic Vocobulary ;n Use

 Exercises

J.I Match eaeh verb from A in the box on the left with its synonym from the box on the right.

affect attempt calculare challenge demonstrate compute distinguish give influence

identify include investigate provide involve question show study try

J.2 Choose the best verb from B or C to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correet
formo
1 As can . ...." from Table II, participation figures have been steadily faIling since 1970.
2 Differem authors have ". ..... ' ..... ".... ... for the President's actions in different ways.
3 Mendel atrernpred to devise a syst em for , ".. the many different types of pea
plant that he grew.

4 It is often most effective .. .. .. .. .",.... "..... your data in a chart or table.

5 The data we have collected .. ,... . that there has been a downward trend with

regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years.

6 The aim of the research is a new software application which wll help

aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft.

7 The archaeologists should be a blc to use carbon dating techniques ,, ' ... ,,, ... . ". exactly

how old the bones are.

8 Charles Darwin atternpted " the exi stence of different species in terrns of

evolution .

3.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair,

1 Greig's article supports Park's theory, Greig's article chalJenges Park's theory.

2 Describe the new tax regulations. Discuss the new tax regularions .

3 Lodhi provides new data. Lodh considers new data.

4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments. Titova examned four sets of experiments.

5 Lee established why such changes occur. Lee investigated why such changes occur.

6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable. Okaz proved that the data were reliable.

7 Illustrate the magnrude of the deceleration . Find the magnrude of the deceleration.

8 The events effected econornic developrnenr. The events afEected economc development.

3.4 Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets and make any necessary changes to other

words.

1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuarions in rhe figures for rhis periodo (PROVIDES)
2 Bevan explored the relationship between family background and political ambtion.
(EXPLORATION)
3 The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln. (DESCRIPTION)
4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of exrensive reading in language acquisition.
(PlITs)
3.5 In academic style, noun phrases can often be used instead of sorne of the key verbs.

I
Complete eaeh phrase with the appropriate noun, Use a dictionary if necessary,
investigare = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an on
.. ... ..... . into/of 5 atternpt = make an .... . ro/at

2 ilIustrate =provide an .... . . of 6 classify = make, provide a of

3 ana lyse = provide, carry out an . of

. Using the tasks in A as a model, prepare some assignment topies for students studying any

subject that you are familiar with.

Academic Vocabulary in Use 15

 Key adjectives

For any adjective ir is useful ro know whether it is typieally followed by a specific preposition
and whether it has any synonyms (adjcctives with a similar meaning) or anronyms (adjectives
of opposite meaning).

Adjectives and prepositions

Here are so me extracts from acadernic texts, with adjectivcs followed by to or 0(.

Lang uage developmen t is concetved as Some of the responses to the questionnaire

relatlve ' lo one's own past performance, were specific" to young male respondents.
or relativ e to that of others . Others were comrnon" to al! the respondents.

How can we make science relevant/ to

environmental policy? Poor communication
f We need lO plan technologies which are
appropriate'' to the needs of small farmers. \
I
between scientists and politicians is lt was typical of the fanners in the study that
characterstlc' of the situation today. they hall a negative attitude to technology.

I true to a particular degree when it IS being compared with other rhings 2 connected with whar
is happening or being discussed ) (rather formal) typical of 4 only found in 5 belonging ro or
shared by two or more people or things 6 suitable or righr for a particular situation or occasion

B Adjectives and their opposites

Look at this abstraet from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out rhe
meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the definitions.

We cannot discu ss drug abuse as an abst raer ' problem without considering concrete examples
of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple2 issue; it usually results from a
complex set of circumstances. Both quanttatlve' and qualita tive research is necessary to gajn
a full picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain an aceurate picture
of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often
result frorn purely quantitative studies. A siqnificant" amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the
notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such tears.
The dissertation concludes that rough S estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made
more precise by properly defining addiction.

I existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposire: existing in a form thar can be seen or felt
2 having or rnade of only one or a few parts ) based on numbers and statisrics, opposite: usually
research using non-number-based merhods such as inrerviews, focus groups, etc. 4 important or
noticeable s fairly correet bur not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and aecurate

Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns

There was an apparent l discrepancy between the two sers of results.

We noted a potentiaP problem with the experimental design which we had te deal with first.

The principal) cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.

The research used a rigorous o4 methodology which had been tested on many occas ions.

I seeming to exist or be true 1 possible when the necessary conditions exisr ) first in order of

importance 4 careful te look ar or consider every part of sornething ro make certain it is correet

,
V
~
Remember to say typical 0(. NOT typical (&. Learn adjectives with the prepositions that
often follow thern, as in A.

16 Academie Vocabulary in Use

 Exercises

4. I Look at A. Correet the preposition errors in these senrences,

1 A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar power is not relevant with an essay that
required you ro focus on wind turbines.
2 It is typical ro the disease for ir to start with an irchy rash.
3 This methodology is not appropriate about the kind of research you are planning.
4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic from the writer's sry!e.
S Relarive wirh previous attempts to explain rhe phenomenon, this interpretation is quite
persuasrve.

6 The dark hair and eyes are common for all people from the region.

4.2 Rcwrite each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in italies.
1 Karlsson eheeked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate.

2 The solution ro the problem is a simple one.

3 Make rough calculations befare you begin ro write up your results.

4 The army played a significant role in events.

S Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms,

4.3 Match the adjective on the left with the noun ir often combines with on thc right.
1 apparent methodology

2 ngorous problern

3 principal discrepancy

4 potential cause

4.4 Now use one of the combinations from 4.3 lO complete these sentences.
1 There is an in your figures.

2 Managernent's refusal to listen ro the workers' demands was rhe of the riots.

3 Lamaque devised a . . ... ... ... .. .... which has since been used successfully by many other

rescarchers in the field .

4 We spotted a ..... .... . . ..... wirh our procedure ano so we changed ir in two arcas.
4.5 Choose the best adjective from thc box to complete these sentences.

qualitative complex potential rigorous specifk

1 The plant is difficult ro grow and needs very ,..... ' . conditions to survive.

2 His tutor was critica! of his work for not being enough.

3 In the past the northern tri bes Iooked on che tribes of the south as . '" enemies.

4 We chose a approach ro our research and interviewed individuals personally.

S A ser of circumstances led ro a civil war in 1897.

ti
When you come across any of the key adjectives from this unit in your reading, note it down in a
phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective.

AcademicVacabu/ary in Use 17
 Keyadverbs
This unir deals with just sorne of rhe adverbs that are parricularly frequenr in an acadernic
contextoYou will find more in other units throughout this book.

Adverbs that compare

adverb meaning example
comparativelyl in eomparison with something else Our sample was relativelyl
relat ively eomparatively smal/.
especially/partieularly more than usual The proeess was not especiallyl
particularly difficult.
speeially more than usual (spoken English only) The exam was specially hard this year.
for a specific purpose We used specially designed equipment.
somewhat (opposite: (slightly formal) a lttle, slightly When we tested younger boys, we
eonsiderably) obtained somewhatlconsiderably
different results,
primarily mainly ....
Amir is primarily lnterested in bio-physics.
mostly/largely almost eompletely (but not totally so) The research was largelylmostly
_. suceessfu/.
direetly (opposite: without anything else be ing involved The illness is (in)direetly Iinked to poor
indireetly) housing.
-.

B Adverbs that relate to numbers or time

There are approximately 20 varieties of bird in this species. [roughly, about]

There are precisely 48 differenr manageri al posts in the company. [exacrly]

Interviewees frequently misundersrood one of rhe questions. [often]

We eventually obrained the resulrs we were hoping foro[in the end, after sorne time]

Ulrimately we plan ro repeat the experimento[finally, after other th ings have been completed]

e Adverbs that relate to how things are stated

Hall's latest article essentially' differs from his earlier work in that it ls expllcltly! critical of the
governrnent, Generally', his disapproval of their palicies was only conveved implicitly" in his
prevlous writing, but here he specifically candemns their handlingof a number of issues.

I referring ca irs main characteristics; also basically 2 openly 3 usually, also 00 the whole
" not directly, suggesred or implied rather rhan stated

D Adverbs that restrict or limit

mere1y = exacrly and norhing more: The m edication u/ill merely make the symptoms
bearable; it toill not cure the disease.
simply Note that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the rishs of tbis
approach u/ould seem to outu/eigh its aduantages. [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas
simply, in a way appropriate for the layman . [easily; someone who isn'r a specalst in the
field] The exam results were simply dreadful. [absolurely, withour doubt]
hardly ever = alrnost never: The tribe has hardly euer had contact ioitb the outside world.

Eventually means 'in the end'. It does not mean 'perhaps/possibly'.

We will perhapslpossibly (NOT e't'el'ltually) discover Jife on other planets ;n me [utut.

Eventually [in the end], we were able to interview all 20 children involved in me test

18 Academc Vacabulary in Use

 Exercises

5. I Look ar A and B. Explain [he difference between [he sentences in each pairo
1 Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful.
Heinrich's experirnenrs were most successful.
2 The results were somewhat surprising given rhe circumstances.
Th e results were especially surprising given the circumstances.
3 First-year studenrs are directly affected by the new rules relaring to tuition fees.
First-year studenrs are particularly affected by rhe new rules relaring ro tuirion Iees.
4 The study is primarily concerned with urban alienation .
The study is ultimately concerned with urban alienation.
5 The tearn evenrually obrained unpredicred resulrs.
The tearn frequently obtained unpredicted results .
5.2 Choosc the more appropriate adverb from the options.
What you are saying is essentially / merely true. 1'0 put it basically / simply, there is
specially / basically no significant difference between the two writers' theories. However,
one of thern writes in a simply / precisely dreadful style while rhe other has euentually /
possib/ya more impressive srylc than any other conternporary scientist.

5.3 Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the underlined ones.
1 There were roughly 350 people living in the village in 1958.

2 Parents seldom camplained thar the school authoriries faled to inform them of changes.

3 We investigated the problem and initially found sorne small errors in thc calculations.

4 The rernperarure was exactly half a degree lower than the average.

5 Singh (1998) is explictly critical of existing theories of econornic growth .

6 Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or wind.

7 Senior citizens almost a lways use the internet ro communicate with one another.

8 The disease is directly linked to environmental facrors.

5.4 Underline rhe advcrbs in these texts. Then answer rhe questions.

Marine conservationists are currently attempting Scientists have recently discovered that ants
to save the world's coral reefs. One plan is to can remember how many steps they have
Iiterally glue the damaged reefs back together, taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening
using coral artificially raised in underwater the /egs of ants, the team observed that
labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from short-legged ants apparently became /ost and
human activity as well as from events occurring could not easily find their way home to the
naturally, sueh as hurricanes and tsunamis . nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically
A recent UN report warns that 30% of the travelled 50% further than they needed to and
world's coral reefs have been completely were also temporarily unable to find the nest.
It seems ants can definitely count their steps.
destroyed or are severely damaged.

1 Which adverb means 'in the same way'?

2 Find two pairs of adverbs thar mean the opposite of each orher,

3 Which adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'?

4 Which adverb means 'm ore and more'?

,.
5 Which adverb could be substitured by serioustyt

6 Which adverb means ' for a limited time'?

1
Find an article of interese to you in your discipline and underline all the key adverbs.Then check

. !
,
that you understand their meaning.

Academic Vocabulary in Use 19

 Phrasal verbs in academic English

Alrhough phrasal verbs occur rno sr frequenrly in more informal spoken and written English,
they are also not uncornmon in an academic contexto You will hcar them used in lectures and
will read them in serious journals. From this unit only go/look back over and work out are
not appropriate for a formal wrirten assignmenr.

A Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms

Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound
more formal than their phrasal verb equivalenr bur both are appropriate when writing or
talking abour acadernic subjecrs, Vary your language by using both,

phrasa/ verb synonym example

put forward (an idea/view/opinionl present In her latest artlcle Kaufmann puts forward a
theory/plan) theory which is likely tO prove controversia!.
carry out (an experiment / research) conduct I intend to carry out a series of experiments.
make up constitute Children under the age of 15 make up nearly
half of the country's population.
be made up of consist of Parliament is made up of two houses.
point out observe Grenne points out that the increase in Iife
expectancy has led to some economic problems.
point up highlight The study points up the weaknesses in the
current school system. i
set out (to do something) aim In his artlcle Losanov sets out to prove that ...
I set out describe The document sets out the terms of the treaty.
go into dscuss In this book Sergeant goes into the causes of the
Civil War in some depth.
go/look back over revise, review * Please go/look back over this terrn's notes.
go through check Go through your calculations carefully.

.. Revise is the BrE synonym and reuieu/ the AmE synonym. (Revise in AmE only means to edit
or change sornething to make it better; reuieui is not used in BrE in the context of preparing for
a test as focused on here.)

B Carrying out research

- _ ... '-- '-'--'---~-- --'--------

After completing her first degree in zoology Meena went on

to I apply to graduate school. She wanted to work on 2 animal
behaviour at a well-known institute in New Zealand. She set up3 a
series of experiments investigating how be es communicate. She has
noticed sorne curious behaviour pattems but has not yet worked
out" why her bees behave as they do. What she has observed
seems to go against S current theories of bee behaviour. When she
has completed all her research she will have to write it all up".

I do something after doing somerhing else 2 srudy, work in the field of 3 prepared, arranged
4 come ro a conclusion about s no! be in agreement with 6 (of an irnporranr docurnenr) write in
a final form

I
Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. For exarnple, a good
. dictionary tells you when the object can be used before the particle (e.g. write your resu/rs uP) and
when it cannot (e.g. this goes against curren[ rheories).

20 Academic Vocobulary in Use

 Exercises

6.1 Rewrire the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence with a phrasal verb
from A. Note that both versions of each sentence are equally appropriate.
1 We eonducred a series of experirnents ro test out our hypothesis.

2 Before rhe test you should revise Chaprers 7 and 8 of your textbooks.

3 In his article on the American Civil War Kingsron discusses the rcasons why the situation

developed in the way ir did .

4 Cole presenrs sorne fascinaring theories on the developmenr of language in his latest book .
5 The psychologisr observed that ir was very unusual for a young child ro behave in this way.
6 Please check your work again carefulIy before handing it in.
7 In this article Sirnpson aims ro prove rhat rhe Chinese reached America long before rhe
Vikings.
8 Women now consritute over half rhe student population in most universities in this
country,

6.2 Fill in the missing words in this paragraph.

As part of my MA l've been doing sorne research on language acquisition. I've been
working C1) .. . how young children learn thor mother tongue. I've becn
carrying (2) . . . sorne experments to see how rnuch readng to young
children affects their language developrnent. I've had a grcat supervisor who has
helped me set (3) my experiments and she's also pointed (4)
lots of nteresting thngs in my data that ) hadn't noticed myseJf. I'rn busy wrting my
work (5) ... . now and 1 think J should be able to put (6) sorne
useful ideas. lt 's been really fascinating and 1 hope 1 may be able 10 go (7)
to do a dnctorate in the same field aJthough 1 certainly never set (8) .. to do
a PIll).

6.3 Match the beginning of eaeh sentence with the rnost appropriate ending.
1 Feudal sociery was made forward a convincing rheory wirh regard ro rhis quesrioo.

2 Carlson was the first ro pur up rhe flaws in the school's testing methods.

3 Her results appear ro go out the solurion to the algebra problem.

4 The invesrigation pointed out a lor of basic informarion about al! the world's

5 Ir rook him a long time to work counrries.

6 The geography book sets againsr what she had found in her earlier srudies.

up of c1early defined classes of people,

6.4 Answer these questions.

1 Whar sort of things might a scientist carry out?
2 If you want ro study somerhing in more deprh, what might you go on ro do afrer getting
a first degree?
3 What do posrgraduate students typically have ro wrire up at rhe end of rheir srudies?
4 What sort of rhings do good srudents regularly look back over?
5 What sorts of th ings do scholars typically put forward in their lectures or articles?
6 Why is it sensible ro go through any maths calcularions thar you had ro make as part of a
research study before you draw any conclusions?

Academic Vocabu/ary in Use 21

 Key quantifying expressions

Quantifying expressions a re important in academic English as ir is often necessary to

comment on figures or trends. You will find more usefuJ language for talking about numbers
in Units 25and 26 and in Reference 2, which focuses on measurement.

A Number and amount

Learners of English often choose the wrong no un relaring ro quantity. For example, you
saya great (not ffirge) deal (inform al) or a large/grcat arnounr of an uncountable noun
sueh as money, interest or influenc e. However, you saya large number of a plural noun
such as articles, books or words. Both a number and an arnount can be described as smaU,
considerable, substantial, significant, enorrnous, total, surprising, excessive [too much/many],
fair [quite a lor] and reasonable [acceprable] .

B Other nouns relating to quantity

The size of our survey was relatively small-scale. We sent out 2,500 questionnaires
in total Although a couple- of people did not respond, the bulk! of those sent
'.
questionnaires have eompleted them. The survey showsthat, as a whole", the
population is becoming more aware ofthe importance of reeyeling. Only one of s our
respondents said that he recycled less than he used to.

I in all 2 rwo or three, a few 3 che maor ity '" considered as a group rather than individually
s notice how respondents is in the plural; it is a common error ro write a singular noun after one
of .. (respondents/surveyslcondusions, etc)

e Comparing numbers and quantities

expression exampfe comment
exceeding Results exceeding 5 cm were eliminated from the (formal) means higher than
survey.
in excess of People who drive in excess of the speed limit will be means over, used mainly in
fined. official or legal writing
fewer and Fewer and fewer people are staying in che same job a steadily decliningfdecreasing
fewer / less throughout their lives.Young people are becoming less number of, decreasingly
_ and
...__...

more and
less and less interested in polities.
There is more and more interest in the top ic. a steadily increasing amount of,
more People are becoming more and more aware of the increasingly
environment,
more or less The experiment was more or less a success. (slightly informal) means
mostly or approximately
,._- -_._
no fewer than No fewer than 200 people responded. used to suggest the number
was unexpectedly large
.__.....
~ --

Note the significant difference between few and a few and between little and a Iittle.
Few [Not many] people enjoy Xs music. A few [Some] people enjoy ie. We hod Uttle [not
much] response ro our survey. We hod a litt/e [some] response to oursurvey. In other words,
few/little has a more negative tone than a few / a little.

22 Acodemc Vocobulory in Use

 Exercises

7.1 Complete the sentences usng the correct forms of the words in italies.
1
In a ". . . ... number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug. surprtse
2
The analysis demanded an ". arnount of computer time. exceed
."3 " numbers of birds inha bt the lake during the winrer. consider
4
The course requires a " . . amount of prior knowledge of computers. reason
5
The survey took a . amount of research time and costs were high. substance
6
The rwo dams can hold in . . of two cubic kilometres of water. exceed
7
In. , 12 areas of the Southern Indian Occan are now closed ro deep-sea
fishing. totality
8 Groups ..... .. ... Iour people were considered too large for the experimento exceed
9 No.. . '. than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year, few
10 In a number of cases, surface damage was noticed. signfy

7.2 The sentcnces below are typical of spoken English. Replace the underlned words to make
them sound more appropriate for a written assignment.
1 The buIk of our work is concerned with carbon emissions.

2 We have noticed that fewer and fewer students are joining the course,

3 Our team spent a fair amount of time getting funding for the research.

4 In a coupte of cases, we couId not find any reason for the outbreak.

5 We spent a great dcal of time on the project.

6 As you repeat the experirnent, use less and Iess water each time.

7.3 Read the text and answer the questions.

For some years now, scientists have been using a powerful new machine to recreate the
conditions that existed at the birth of the universe. The machine generates a massive number
of hot, dense, bursts of matter and energy, simulating what happened in the first few
microseconds of the beginning of the universe. After no more than ten m icroseconds, the
particles of matter joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or
less everyth ing we see in the universe today.

1 Which expression explains how long scienrisrs have been using this machine?

2 Which expression tells us how many bursts of matter and energy the machine generates?

3 Which time period does the machine simulate?

4 Which expression states how long it was before the particles of matter joined rogether?

5 Which express ion in the Iast semence means approximatelyi

7.4 Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.

There have been a small nurnber of studies investigating the impact of emaiJ on interpersonal
communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting
trends in patterns of emai l use. From one of the older studies it seems that more and more
people send in excess of 50 emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior
citizens use email a lot more frequently than younger people do.

111

Find five quantifying expressions from one of your textbooks and write your own sentences
using them.

Academic Vocabu/ary in Use 23

 8 Words with several meanings
A Set
Many words in English have more than one me aning. The word ser, for exarnple, is one

word with a particularly large number of distinctly different meanings. As our focus is

academic English, sorne key uses of ser are illustrared by these examples.

a) Ser the insrrurnenrs ro zero . [get something ready so it can be opera red]

b) 1 would like ro set sorne ground rules for the course. [establish]

e) The decision ser a number of changes in motion. [caused to be in a stated condition]

d) We must set a time for our next meeting. [arrange]

el Concrete sets as it cools, [becomes sol id]

fl The students entered the room and irnrnediately set to work. [srarred work]

g) The condition is associared with a particular ser of symptorns. [group]

h) We have a number of ser books ro srudy in our literature class, [thar musr be studied]

B More academic meanings for familiar words

Here are sorne more words which in an academic context may have a different meaning from
those you are familiar wirh from your knowledge of general English.

word academic meaning(s) example

accommodate (verb) change to allow something to fit in He had to adapt his theory to
accommodate new information .
contraer (verb) shorten, become smaller As the metal cools it contracts.
d

occur (verb) exist Some valuable minerals occur

naturally in these rocks.
reference (noun) author or book mentioned in a piece of You must provide a list of
writing to show where informaton was found references at the end of your
assignment.
revolution (noun] complete turn (e.g. of a wheel] Time is measured by the revolution
of the earth around the sun.
structure (noun) way in which parts of a system or objeet are The structure of mis element is
organised or arranged particularly complex.

e Words with several different academic meanings

Many academic words have specific meanings according to their discipline. Channel, for

exarnple, has specific meanings in electronics, linguisrics, biology, physics and geography.

So you wiJl, of course, need a specialisr dicrionary for your own subjecr.

Orher words, e.g. issue and point have severa! generally imporrant academic meanings.

The writer takes issue wirh Kwarne's interpretarion. [raises argurnents againsr]

In YOLlr essay you should address a number of key issues. [topics]

Have you seen the latest issue of the Malaysian Medical [ournal? [edition]

jackson raises some interesring points in his anide. [opinions, ideas, inforrnation]

The writer takes a long time ro get ro the point. [mase significant pan]

I
lf you come across a word that you think you know bu! it does not seem to make sen se in that
. contexto check to see whether it has another distlnct meaning.lf so, write it down with both (or all)
its meanings in your vocabulary notebook.

24 Academic Vocabulary in Use

 Exercises

8.1 Which meaning given in A does set havc in these examplcs?

1 If you don't set to work immediately you won't finish the task by the end of termo

2 Befare we start I'd like everyone to set their watches to precisely the same time.

3 Professors will set a date for the submission of assignments relating to rheir own courses.

4 We expected the mixture to set quickly but it had not hardened by the morning.

5 Before leaving the area, the retreating army set the farm buildings on fire.

6 The engine's performance has set a new fuel consumption record.

7 During the first semester, music students have to study a number of set pieces.

8 There are a whole ser of issues that need to be discussed.

8.2 Choose a word from B to complete each sentence. Change the forrn if necessary,
1 When you are doing research it is sensible to keep good record s of al! your; .
as it can be difficult to locate sources latero
2 This medical condition is most likely to ... ~. . .. ..... ',. in air-skinned people.
3 In first gear the engine makes ten for every of the wheels.
4 Wealth, the theme of the anthology, is general enough to .. . a wide variety of
approaches.
5 The .. . .. ..... ...... of society in Ancient Rorne can be said to resemble thar of the modern USA.
6 They carried out an experiment to check whcther the gold or expanded
under a range of different conditions.
8.3 Which word could fit in each of these sets of phrases?
1 discuss the following 3 take with
underline the key .. the latest of the New Scientist
make sorne thoughtful .. a controversial _..
2 to a precedent 4 a .. .. .. of communication
a. .. .. .. . of exercises the English .
a. . book to one's energies into
8.4 Read this text about sorne new medical software. For each underlined word give the
meaning in the text and one other meaning. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.

A smulator showing how outbreaks of infection might spread around the world would be
of great assistance in the struggle to contain such diseases. Researchers at the World Health
Organization maintain that to effectively contront emerging infectious dseases. they need
a significant amount of computing power. A global epidemic simulator would mmc climate
simulators which monitor the movement 01. weather systems. It would record where disease
outbreaks occur. where they are heading ando crucally, would allow scientists to test out
virtual mitigation measures to see which might work best on the ground.

8.5 Jokes are ofren based on words having several meanings. Explain this joke.
A neutron goes into a bar, orders a drink and asks hOLV much it will be.
The barman replies: 'For you, sir, no charge.'

I
Look at a textbook on an academic subject of special interest to you. Look for some of the
words in thls unit and decide wh ich meaning they have in your texto

Academic Vacabu!ary ;n Use 25

 9 Metaphors and idioms

A metaphor is a way of using language which describes something by indirectly comparing

it to something else with similar characteristics. For example, you might say an academc
'attacks' or 'dernolishes' someone's theory or argument, jusr as an army can attaek an enemy
or workers can demolish a building. If a meraphor is uscd so often that the original force
of the comparison is lost then it may be called an idiom. For example, people often use rhe
idiom 'I'm snowed under with work at the mornenr'. Originally this was a metaphor bascd
on rhe idea of a great deal of work having rhe characteristics of 'snow' (deep, overwhelming
cverything else and making movement difficult}. However, this expression has been used so
frequendy that it no longer gives people a mental picture of snow,

A Metaphors and idioms referring to Iight and darkness

The present experimental data may shed (new) light 00 I che formation of the planers.

Views on deprcssion have changed in (the) lighr ofl recen e srudies of the brain.

Novelists, poets and essayisrs afeen use hisrory to illurninate' rheir understanding

of human behaviour, The book provides an illurninaring discussion of how languages change.

Animal models can be used to elucidare'! basic principIes of the developrnental origins of

adult diseases.

Thc report revealed the glaring" discrepancy berween patients' needs and whar the health

service can offer them, and highlighted" the need for a new approach.

The report shines a light on 7 che questions surrounding child care and provides crucial data.

Substancc abuse continues to destroy individuals and communities, and researchers remain in

the dark" about what can ensure successful recovery from addiction.

The book dealr wirh eeonomic poliey in che shadow of 9 the Civil War of 1994-1999.

I provide an explanation for it which makes it easer to undersrand. We can also say cast or
throio light on 2 because of 3 show more clearly somerhing thar is difficult to understand
4 explain 01' make clear (from the Latin lucidus meaning 'clear') s something bad thar is very
obvious (to giare means to shine too brightly) 6 ernphasised something important 7 focuses
on 8 continue in a state of not knowing something 9 in a situation where sornething bad has
happened or is happening

B Metaphors and idioms referring to war and conflict

Look at these extracts from lecturcs whcrc the speakers use such metaphors and idiorns.

'Critics opposed to D. H. Lawrence 'In the last two poems 'Parents and teachers
attacked his novels on various we see the poet becoming need to maintain a
grounds, both trivial and important. increasingly dctached united fronf on the
But despite the apparent dlverslty from the material world.
of opinin, Lawrence's critics were retreatlng' more into his question of bad conduct
united an what they saw as severa! own mind than befare: at school'
serious prablems.'

'Lawsuits can certainly 'In (he last (en years or

' Ir's useful ar rh e pl'csenr rime
affect the value of a so, children llave becn
ro Iook ar japan's experience company. and firms need bombardcd with 4
in the battle against air strategies to combat the increasing amounrs of
pollurion, and ir's a battle no onslaught2 of lawsuits.' violence in the media.'
nation can afford ro lose.'

I going back 2 a very powerful attack 3 remain united in their opinions and agree on how ro act
4 foreed ro experience, subjected to

26 Academic Vocabulary in Use

 Exercises

9.1 Choose a word from the box to complete each sentence,

elucidate glaring highlights iIluminate light

remained shadow shed shine

1 The results of rhe investigarion ... a light on the pressures of the global
economy on farrners in developing counrries,
2 Unril recenrly, scientists have " in the dark as ro the causes of the disease, but
a recent breakrhrough promises ro new light on rhe prohlem.
3 Our whole notion of time and space h as changed in the of recent
developmenrs in physics.
4 These communities have lived for decades in rhe ..... ..... of poverry and social
deprivation .
5 The collapse of the bridge __the need for a more rigorous analysis of rhe
effects of constant traffic movements.
6 The team carried out a series of experiments in an atrernpt to. ......... the mysterious
processes ar wo rk in rhe organismo
7 The arcicle helps ro . : for the ordinary reader sorne of the more difficult
references in Shakespeare's plays.
8 The professor found sorne errors in one srudent's calcularions.
9.2 Rewrite these sentences using metaphors of conflict instead of the underlined words.
1 Scientisrs who don't agree with this theory have recently attacked its basic assumptions.
2 Governmems need ro rcmain in complete agreement on the issue of economic migrants.
3 Nowadays, we get a huge number of advertisemenrs every rime we watch TV oc open a
magazine.
4 G . J. Frankin has recently moved aWa,J from the view rhar economic processes cannot be
alrered, a nd is now moving towards a different approach.
5 The dforrs against crime will fal wirhout police and cornmuniry cooperation .
6 The protests were a response ro the devastaring sudd~n Jarge number of trade rcsrrictions
on small producers.
9.3 Look at this text and underline key words and phrases which construct the rnain metaphor:
'the human brain is a computer'.

,- Shutting down Rlzheimer's

-.." ' - - - ----

I The human brain is a remarkably complexorganic computer,taking in a wide variety of sensoru ex

periences, processing and storing this information, and recalling and integrating selected bits at the
I right moments. The destruction caused by Alzheimer's disease has been likened to the erasure of a
hard drive, beginning with the most recent files and working backward. As the illness progresses,
old as well as new memories gradually disappearuntil even loved ones are no longer recognized.
llnfortunatelu, the computer analogy breaks down: one cannot simply reboot the human brain and
reload the files and programs. The problem is that Alzheimer's does not only erase information, it
destrays the very hardware of the brain, which is composed of more than 100 billion nerve cells

(neurons], with 100 trillion connections among them.

l
Look at so me of the textbooks you use . Can you find any examples of metaphors or idioms

. there relating to Iight and darkness or war and conflict!

Academic Vocabulary in Use 27